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Reflex AI 4

View Sample Pages Provides a detailed curricular calendar that's tied to a developmental continuum and the standards so you'll know not only what you should be teaching, but what your students are ready to embrace and what you can reasonably expect of them as successful readers and writers. Additionally, you'll find monthly units of study that integrate reading and writing so both work together to provide maximum support for your students. The units are organized around four essential components, process, genre, strategy, and conventions, so you're reassured you're addressing everything your students need to know about reading and writing. What's more you'll find ready-to-use lessons that offer exemplary teaching and continuous assessment, and a flexible framework that shows you how to frame a year of teaching, a unit, and a lesson—and you can easily adapt all to fit the unique needs and interests of your own students. 240 pages + DVD (17 minutes) & fold-out color year-long planner .

Groundhogs, as a species, have a large range in size. There are the medium-sized rodents I grew up with, averaging around 4 kg, and groundhogs—like a certain Phil—that are probably more like 14 kg. This is the likely source of my earlier confusion, as that's a huge discrepancy in size. Evidently, it's all in the diet, much like humans. Where I grew up, in rural Northern Minnesota, we called the groundhog a woodchuck; I thought that the groundhog was some fat cat, East Coast, liberal rodent. As it would turn out, they are actually one in the same creature—Marmota monax, a member of the squirrel family. Woodchucks spend a lot of their time in burrows. It is their safe haven from their many predators, and they are quick to flee to it at the first sign of danger. They will sometimes emit a loud whistle on their way to alert others in the area that something is awry. Groundhogs enjoy raiding our gardens and digging up sod, thereby destroying what we've spent countless hours toiling upon. Look for groundhog signs. You might not even know there is a groundhog around until your garden has been devoured or your tractor damaged by a collapsed groundhog den. Things to look for are large nibble marks on your prized veggies, gnaw marks on the bark of young fruit trees, root vegetables pulled up (or their tops trimmed off), groundhog-sized holes (25–30 cm) anywhere near your garden, or mounds of dirt near said holes. If you see these signs, take action. Don't wait or it will be too late! If you know it will be a problem and do nothing, you can't blame the animal. Set groundhog traps. This technique takes some skill as you need to be able to pick a spot in the path of the animal, camouflage it, and mask your strong human scent. Setting a spring trap, whether coil or long-spring, is usually just a matter of compressing the springs and setting a pin that keeps the jaws open into the pan or trigger. Make sure your trap is anchored securely with a stake. Check your traps often, and dispatch the animal quickly and humanely. Shooting them in the head or a hearty whack to the head with club will do the trick. If you can't deal with this, you have no business setting traps. Call a professional. Guns kill groundhogs. I have never shot a groundhog. I rarely have had problems with them, and they move so damned fast it is difficult to get a shot off. If I had to, I know how I would do it. First, be sure it is legal in your area, and be sure to follow gun safety protocols. After that, it's just a matter of learning where your target is going to be comfortable and let their guard down. I would follow their tracks back to their den, find a spot downwind to sit with a clear shooting lane, and make sure nothing you shouldn't hit with a bullet is down range. Then, I would wait, my sights set on the den, until the groundhog stuck its head up—quick and easy. Demolish the groundhog burrows. If you find a couple holes around your yard, they are likely the entrances to an elaborate tunnel maze carved into the earth beneath you. About all you can do, short of digging the whole mess up, is to try and fill it in from the top side. First, fill it with a bunch of rocks and then soil—make sure to really pack it in. This will make it difficult for the groundhog to reclaim its hole without a lot of work. You probably want to do this in tandem with other control methods such as trapping, shooting, or fumigating to prevent the groundhog from just digging a new hole. Do some landscaping and build barriers. As with the control of many pests, it is advisable to keep a yard free of brush, undercover, and dead trees. These types of features are attractive to groundhogs as cover, and without it, they are less likely to want to spend time there. If you want to keep a groundhog out of an area, consider a partially buried fence. This will require a lot of work, but it is going to help a lot. Make sure it extends up at least a meter, and that it is buried somewhere around 30 cm deep. Angle the fencing outward 90 degrees when you bury it, and it will make digging under it a very daunting task for your furry friend. Try using fumigants to kill groundhogs. What is nice about this product is that you can kill the animal and bury it all in one stroke. The best time to do this is in the spring when the mother will be in the den with her still helpless young. Also, the soil will likely be damp, which helps a lot. You should definitely follow the directions on the package, but the way they usually work is that you cover all but one exit, set off the smoke bomb, shove it down the hole, and quickly cover it up. Check back in a day or two to see if there is any sign of activity, and if so, do it again or consider a different control method. It is important that you don't do this if the hole is next to your house or if there is any risk of a fire. Poisons are a last resort. I am not a fan of poisons because it is difficult to target what will eat said poison in the wild. Also, you are left with the issue of where the groundhog will die and how bad it will smell if it is somewhere under your house. Or, if it is outside somewhere, who will be affected by eating the dead animal? Where does it end? If you want to use poison, you're on your own. Use live traps. This is a good option for those of you not too keen on killing things. Try jamming the door open and leaving bait inside for the taking a couple of times so they get used to it. Then, set it normally and you've got your groundhog (or a neighborhood cat). Now what? The relocation is just as important; you need to choose a place that is far away from other humans and can likely support a groundhog. Good luck. Predator urine. The idea is simple: form a perimeter around an area you want to protect. If the groundhog doesn't recognize the smell as a natural predator, it is probably not going to work too well. Look for brands that have wolf and bobcat urine. Apply regularly, or as the manufacturer recommends. Remember, if it rains, the urine has probably washed away. Repellents. Another popular method involves pepper-based repellents. These deter groundhogs by tasting horrible and burning their mucous membranes. You can do a perimeter with powdered cayenne pepper or just apply it to the things you want spared in your garden. Be sure to wash your vegetables off before using them (which you should be doing anyway).

In my next few blogs, I will provide an overview of Voltage Source Converter (VSC) HVDC technology and its suitability for Smart Grids operation and control discussed. VSC HVDC is based upon transistor technology and was developed in the 1990′s. The switching element is the Insulated Gate Bipolar Thyristor (IGBT), which can be switched on and off by applying a suitable voltage to the gate (steering electrode). Because of the more switching operations, and the nature of the semiconductor devices itself, the converter losses are generally higher than those of HVDC classic converters. VSC HVDC is commonly used with underground or submarine cables with a transfer capacity in the range of 10 – 1000 MW, and is suitable to serve as a connection to a wind farm or supply a remote load. VSC HVDC technology has very fast steer and control functionality and is suitable for meshed networks. It is characterised by compactness of the converter stations, due to the reduced need for AC harmonic filters and reactive power compensation. Power flow reversal in VSC systems is achieved by reversal of the current, whereas in HVDC classic systems the voltage polarity has to change. An important consequence of this voltage source behavior is the ability to use cheaper and easier to install XLPE cables, instead of the mass-impregnated cables that are needed for HVDC classic. Currently, only twelve VSC HVDC projects are in service. A few examples include: Estlink, which connects Estonia to Finland (350 MW), and BorWin1, connecting an offshore wind farm to Northern Germany (400 MW). Both are equipped with ±150 kV submarine cables, and the Trans Bay project in California (400 MW) that consists of 90 km ±200 kV submarine cable. Most projects have submarine cable, but some projects include long lengths of underground cable, such as Murraylink (220 MW, 177 km underground cable), and Nord E.On 1 (400 MW, 75km underground cable). The 500 MW East-West interconnector between Ireland and Great Britain, operating at ±200 kV, is scheduled to go into service in 2012. A 2000 MW 65 km cable interconnector ±320kV as part of the Trans European Network—between Spain and France—is scheduled for commissioning in 2013, and will represent the highest power rating for a VSC HVDC system installed at this time. Make sure to check back next Tuesday for my next blog on the comparison between HVDC classic and VSC HVDC. By: Peter Vaessen

How We Found the Missing Memristor The memristor--the functional equivalent of a synapse--could revolutionize circuit design Image: Bryan Christie Design THINKING MACHINE This artist's conception of a memristor shows a stack of multiple crossbar arrays, the fundamental structure of R. Stanley Williams's device. Because memristors behave functionally like synapses, replacing a few transistors in a circuit with memristors could lead to analog circuits that can think like a human brain. It’s time to stop shrinking. Moore’s Law, the semiconductor industry’s obsession with the shrinking of transistors and their commensurate steady doubling on a chip about every two years, has been the source of a 50-year technical and economic revolution. Whether this scaling paradigm lasts for five more years or 15, it will eventually come to an end. The emphasis in electronics design will have to shift to devices that are not just increasingly infinitesimal but increasingly capable. Earlier this year, I and my colleagues at Hewlett-Packard Labs, in Palo Alto, Calif., surprised the electronics community with a fascinating candidate for such a device: the memristor. It had been theorized nearly 40 years ago, but because no one had managed to build one, it had long since become an esoteric curiosity. That all changed on 1 May, when my group published the details of the memristor in Nature. Combined with transistors in a hybrid chip, memristors could radically improve the performance of digital circuits without shrinking transistors. Using transistors more efficiently could in turn give us another decade, at least, of Moore’s Law performance improvement, without requiring the costly and increasingly difficult doublings of transistor density on chips. In the end, memristors might even become the cornerstone of new analog circuits that compute using an architecture much like that of the brain. For nearly 150 years, the known fundamental passive circuit elements were limited to the capacitor (discovered in 1745), the resistor (1827), and the inductor (1831). Then, in a brilliant but underappreciated 1971 paper, Leon Chua, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, predicted the existence of a fourth fundamental device, which he called a memristor. He proved that memristor behavior could not be duplicated by any circuit built using only the other three elements, which is why the memristor is truly fundamental. Memristor is a contraction of ”memory resistor,” because that is exactly its function: to remember its history. A memristor is a two-terminal device whose resistance depends on the magnitude and polarity of the voltage applied to it and the length of time that voltage has been applied. When you turn off the voltage, the memristor remembers its most recent resistance until the next time you turn it on, whether that happens a day later or a year later. Think of a resistor as a pipe through which water flows. The water is electric charge. The resistor’s obstruction of the flow of charge is comparable to the diameter of the pipe: the narrower the pipe, the greater the resistance. For the history of circuit design, resistors have had a fixed pipe diameter. But a memristor is a pipe that changes diameter with the amount and direction of water that flows through it. If water flows through this pipe in one direction, it expands (becoming less resistive). But send the water in the opposite direction and the pipe shrinks (becoming more resistive). Further, the memristor remembers its diameter when water last went through. Turn off the flow and the diameter of the pipe ”freezes” until the water is turned back on. That freezing property suits memristors brilliantly for computer memory. The ability to indefinitely store resistance values means that a memristor can be used as a nonvolatile memory. That might not sound like very much, but go ahead and pop the battery out of your laptop, right now—no saving, no quitting, nothing. You’d lose your work, of course. But if your laptop were built using a memory based on memristors, when you popped the battery back in, your screen would return to life with everything exactly as you left it: no lengthy reboot, no half-dozen auto-recovered files. But the memristor’s potential goes far beyond instant-on computers to embrace one of the grandest technology challenges: mimicking the functions of a brain. Within a decade, memristors could let us emulate, instead of merely simulate, networks of neurons and synapses. Many research groups have been working toward a brain in silico: IBM’s Blue Brain project, Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Janelia Farm, and Harvard’s Center for Brain Science are just three. However, even a mouse brain simulation in real time involves solving an astronomical number of coupled partial differential equations. A digital computer capable of coping with this staggering workload would need to be the size of a small city, and powering it would require several dedicated nuclear power plants. Memristors can be made extremely small, and they function like synapses. Using them, we will be able to build analog electronic circuits that could fit in a shoebox and function according to the same physical principles as a brain. A hybrid circuit—containing many connected memristors and transistors—could help us research actual brain function and disorders. Such a circuit might even lead to machines that can recognize patterns the way humans can, in those critical ways computers can’t—for example, picking a particular face out of a crowd even if it has changed significantly since our last memory of it. The story of the memristor is truly one for the history books. When Leon Chua, now an IEEE Fellow, wrote his seminal paper predicting the memristor, he was a newly minted and rapidly rising professor at UC Berkeley. Chua had been fighting for years against what he considered the arbitrary restriction of electronic circuit theory to linear systems. He was convinced that nonlinear electronics had much more potential than the linear circuits that dominate electronics technology to this day. Chua discovered a missing link in the pairwise mathematical equations that relate the four circuit quantities—charge, current, voltage, and magnetic flux—to one another. These can be related in six ways. Two are connected through the basic physical laws of electricity and magnetism, and three are related by the known circuit elements: resistors connect voltage and current, inductors connect flux and current, and capacitors connect voltage and charge. But one equation is missing from this group: the relationship between charge moving through a circuit and the magnetic flux surrounded by that circuit—or more subtly, a mathematical doppelgänger defined by Faraday’s Law as the time integral of the voltage across the circuit. This distinction is the crux of a raging Internet debate about the legitimacy of our memristor [see sidebar, ”Resistance to Memristance ”]. Chua’s memristor was a purely mathematical construct that had more than one physical realization. What does that mean? Consider a battery and a transformer. Both provide identical voltages—for example, 12 volts of direct current—but they do so by entirely different mechanisms: the battery by a chemical reaction going on inside the cell and the transformer by taking a 110â¿¿V ac input, stepping that down to 12 V ac, and then transforming that into 12 V dc. The end result is mathematically identical—both will run an electric shaver or a cellphone, but the physical source of that 12 V is completely different. Conceptually, it was easy to grasp how electric charge could couple to magnetic flux, but there was no obvious physical interaction between charge and the integral over the voltage. Chua demonstrated mathematically that his hypothetical device would provide a relationship between flux and charge similar to what a nonlinear resistor provides between voltage and current. In practice, that would mean the device’s resistance would vary according to the amount of charge that passed through it. And it would remember that resistance value even after the current was turned off. He also noticed something else—that this behavior reminded him of the way synapses function in a brain. Even before Chua had his eureka moment, however, many researchers were reporting what they called ”anomalous” current-voltage behavior in the micrometer-scale devices they had built out of unconventional materials, like polymers and metal oxides. But the idiosyncrasies were usually ascribed to some mystery electrochemical reaction, electrical breakdown, or other spurious phenomenon attributed to the high voltages that researchers were applying to their devices. As it turns out, a great many of these reports were unrecognized examples of memristance. After Chua theorized the memristor out of the mathematical ether, it took another 35 years for us to intentionally build the device at HP Labs, and we only really understood the device about two years ago. So what took us so long? It’s all about scale. We now know that memristance is an intrinsic property of any electronic circuit. Its existence could have been deduced by Gustav Kirchhoff or by James Clerk Maxwell, if either had considered nonlinear circuits in the 1800s. But the scales at which electronic devices have been built for most of the past two centuries have prevented experimental observation of the effect. It turns out that the influence of memristance obeys an inverse square law: memristance is a million times as important at the nanometer scale as it is at the micrometer scale, and it’s essentially unobservable at the millimeter scale and larger. As we build smaller and smaller devices, memristance is becoming more noticeable and in some cases dominant. That’s what accounts for all those strange results researchers have described. Memristance has been hidden in plain sight all along. But in spite of all the clues, our finding the memristor was completely serendipitous. In 1995, I was recruited to HP Labs to start up a fundamental research group that had been proposed by David Packard. He decided that the company had become large enough to dedicate a research group to long-term projects that would be protected from the immediate needs of the business units. Packard had an altruistic vision that HP should ”return knowledge to the well of fundamental science from which HP had been withdrawing for so long.” At the same time, he understood that long-term research could be the strategic basis for technologies and inventions that would directly benefit HP in the future. HP gave me a budget and four researchers. But beyond the comment that ”molecular-scale electronics” would be interesting and that we should try to have something useful in about 10 years, I was given carte blanche to pursue any topic we wanted. We decided to take on Moore’s Law. At the time, the dot-com bubble was still rapidly inflating its way toward a resounding pop, and the existing semiconductor road map didn’t extend past 2010. The critical feature size for the transistors on an integrated circuit was 350 nanometers; we had a long way to go before atomic sizes would become a limitation. And yet, the eventual end of Moore’s Law was obvious. Someday semiconductor researchers would have to confront physics-based limits to their relentless descent into the infinitesimal, if for no other reason than that a transistor cannot be smaller than an atom. (Today the smallest components of transistors on integrated circuits are roughly 45 nm wide, or about 220 silicon atoms.) That’s when we started to hang out with Phil Kuekes, the creative force behind the Teramac (tera-operation-per-second multiarchitecture computer)—an experimental supercomputer built at HP Labs primarily from defective parts, just to show it could be done. He gave us the idea to build an architecture that would work even if a substantial number of the individual devices in the circuit were dead on arrival. We didn’t know what those devices would be, but our goal was electronics that would keep improving even after the devices got so small that defective ones would become common. We ate a lot of pizza washed down with appropriate amounts of beer and speculated about what this mystery nanodevice would be. We were designing something that wouldn’t even be relevant for another 10 to 15 years. It was possible that by then devices would have shrunk down to the molecular scale envisioned by David Packard or perhaps even be molecules. We could think of no better way to anticipate this than by mimicking the Teramac at the nanoscale. We decided that the simplest abstraction of the Teramac architecture was the crossbar, which has since become the de facto standard for nanoscale circuits because of its simplicity, adaptability, and redundancy. The crossbar is an array of perpendicular wires. Anywhere two wires cross, they are connected by a switch. To connect a horizontal wire to a vertical wire at any point on the grid, you must close the switch between them. Our idea was to open and close these switches by applying voltages to the ends of the wires. Note that a crossbar array is basically a storage system, with an open switch representing a zero and a closed switch representing a one. You read the data by probing the switch with a small voltage. Like everything else at the nanoscale, the switches and wires of a crossbar are bound to be plagued by at least some nonfunctional components. These components will be only a few atoms wide, and the second law of thermodynamics ensures that we will not be able to completely specify the position of every atom. However, a crossbar architecture builds in redundancy by allowing you to route around any parts of the circuit that don’t work. Because of their simplicity, crossbar arrays have a much higher density of switches than a comparable integrated circuit based on transistors. But implementing such a storage system was easier said than done. Many research groups were working on such a cross-point memory—and had been since the 1950s. Even after 40 years of research, they had no product on the market. Still, that didn’t stop them from trying. That’s because the potential for a truly nanoscale crossbar memory is staggering; picture carrying around the entire Library of Congress on a thumb drive. One of the major impediments for prior crossbar memory research was the small off-to-on resistance ratio of the switches (40 years of research had never produced anything surpassing a factor of 2 or 3). By comparison, modern transistors have an off-to-on resistance ratio of 10 000 to 1. We calculated that to get a high-performance memory, we had to make switches with a resistance ratio of at least 1000 to 1. In other words, in its off state, a switch had to be 1000 times as resistive to the flow of current as it was in its on state. What mechanism could possibly give a nanometer-scale device a three-orders-of-magnitude resistance ratio? We found the answer in scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), an area of research I had been pursuing for a decade. A tunneling microscope generates atomic-resolution images by scanning a very sharp needle across a surface and measuring the electric current that flows between the atoms at the tip of the needle and the surface the needle is probing. The general rule of thumb in STM is that moving that tip 0.1 nm closer to a surface increases the tunneling current by one order of magnitude. We needed some similar mechanism by which we could change the effective spacing between two wires in our crossbar by 0.3 nm. If we could do that, we would have the 1000:1 electrical switching ratio we needed. Our constraints were getting ridiculous. Where would we find a material that could change its physical dimensions like that? That is how we found ourselves in the realm of molecular electronics. Conceptually, our device was like a tiny sandwich. Two platinum electrodes (the intersecting wires of the crossbar junction) functioned as the ”bread” on either end of the device. We oxidized the surface of the bottom platinum wire to make an extremely thin layer of platinum dioxide, which is highly conducting. Next, we assembled a dense film, only one molecule thick, of specially designed switching molecules. Over this ”monolayer” we deposited a 2- to 3-nm layer of titanium metal, which bonds strongly to the molecules and was intended to glue them together. The final layer was the top platinum electrode. The molecules were supposed to be the actual switches. We built an enormous number of these devices, experimenting with a wide variety of exotic molecules and configurations, including rotaxanes, special switching molecules designed by James Heath and Fraser Stoddart at the University of California, Los Angeles. The rotaxane is like a bead on a string, and with the right voltage, the bead slides from one end of the string to the other, causing the electrical resistance of the molecule to rise or fall, depending on the direction it moves. Heath and Stoddart’s devices used silicon electrodes, and they worked, but not well enough for technological applications: the off-to-on resistance ratio was only a factor of 10, the switching was slow, and the devices tended to switch themselves off after 15 minutes. Our platinum devices yielded results that were nothing less than frustrating. When a switch worked, it was spectacular: our off-to-on resistance ratios shot past the 1000 mark, the devices switched too fast for us to even measure, and having switched, the device’s resistance state remained stable for years (we still have some early devices we test every now and then, and we have never seen a significant change in resistance). But our fantastic results were inconsistent. Worse yet, the success or failure of a device never seemed to depend on the same thing. We had no physical model for how these devices worked. Instead of rational engineering, we were reduced to performing huge numbers of Edisonian experiments, varying one parameter at a time and attempting to hold all the rest constant. Even our switching molecules were betraying us; it seemed like we could use anything at all. In our desperation, we even turned to long-chain fatty acids—essentially soap—as the molecules in our devices. There’s nothing in soap that should switch, and yet some of the soap devices switched phenomenally. We also made control devices with no molecule monolayers at all. None of them switched. We were frustrated and burned out. Here we were, in late 2002, six years into our research. We had something that worked, but we couldn’t figure out why, we couldn’t model it, and we sure couldn’t engineer it. That’s when Greg Snider, who had worked with Kuekes on the Teramac, brought me the Chua memristor paper from the September 1971 IEEE Transactions on Circuits Theory. ”I don’t know what you guys are building,” he told me, ”but this is what I want.” To this day, I have no idea how Greg happened to come across that paper. Few people had read it, fewer had understood it, and fewer still had cited it. At that point, the paper was 31 years old and apparently headed for the proverbial dustbin of history. I wish I could say I took one look and yelled, ”Eureka!” But in fact, the paper sat on my desk for months before I even tried to read it. When I did study it, I found the concepts and the equations unfamiliar and hard to follow. But I kept at it because something had caught my eye, as it had Greg’s: Chua had included a graph that looked suspiciously similar to the experimental data we were collecting. The graph described the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics that Chua had plotted for his memristor. Chua had called them ”pinched-hysteresis loops”; we called our I-V characteristics ”bow ties.” A pinched hysteresis loop looks like a diagonal infinity symbol with the center at the zero axis, when plotted on a graph of current against voltage. The voltage is first increased from zero to a positive maximum value, then decreased to a minimum negative value and finally returned to zero. The bow ties on our graphs were nearly identical [see graphic, ”Bow Ties”]. That’s not all. The total change in the resistance we had measured in our devices also depended on how long we applied the voltage: the longer we applied a positive voltage, the lower the resistance until it reached a minimum value. And the longer we applied a negative voltage, the higher the resistance became until it reached a maximum limiting value. When we stopped applying the voltage, whatever resistance characterized the device was frozen in place, until we reset it by once again applying a voltage. The loop in the I-V curve is called hysteresis, and this behavior is startlingly similar to how synapses operate: synaptic connections between neurons can be made stronger or weaker depending on the polarity, strength, and length of a chemical or electrical signal. That’s not the kind of behavior you find in today’s circuits. Looking at Chua’s graphs was maddening. We now had a big clue that memristance had something to do with our switches. But how? Why should our molecular junctions have anything to do with the relationship between charge and magnetic flux? I couldn’t make the connection. Two years went by. Every once in a while I would idly pick up Chua’s paper, read it, and each time I understood the concepts a little more. But our experiments were still pretty much trial and error. The best we could do was to make a lot of devices and find the ones that worked. But our frustration wasn’t for nothing: by 2004, we had figured out how to do a little surgery on our little sandwiches. We built a gadget that ripped the tiny devices open so that we could peer inside them and do some forensics. When we pried them apart, the little sandwiches separated at their weakest point: the molecule layer. For the first time, we could get a good look at what was going on inside. We were in for a shock. What we had was not what we had built. Recall that we had built a sandwich with two platinum electrodes as the bread and filled with three layers: the platinum dioxide, the monolayer film of switching molecules, and the film of titanium. But that’s not what we found. Under the molecular layer, instead of platinum dioxide, there was only pure platinum. Above the molecular layer, instead of titanium, we found an unexpected and unusual layer of titanium dioxide. The titanium had sucked the oxygen right out of the platinum dioxide! The oxygen atoms had somehow migrated through the molecules and been consumed by the titanium. This was especially surprising because the switching molecules had not been significantly perturbed by this event—they were intact and well ordered, which convinced us that they must be doing something important in the device. The chemical structure of our devices was not at all what we had thought it was. The titanium dioxide—a stable compound found in sunscreen and white paint—was not just regular titanium dioxide. It had split itself up into two chemically different layers. Adjacent to the molecules, the oxide was stoichiometric TiO 2 , meaning the ratio of oxygen to titanium was perfect, exactly 2 to 1. But closer to the top platinum electrode, the titanium dioxide was missing a tiny amount of its oxygen, between 2 and 3 percent. We called this oxygen-deficient titanium dioxide TiO 2-x , where x is about 0.05. Because of this misunderstanding, we had been performing the experiment backward. Every time I had tried to create a switching model, I had reversed the switching polarity. In other words, I had predicted that a positive voltage would switch the device off and a negative voltage would switch it on. In fact, exactly the opposite was true. It was time to get to know titanium dioxide a lot better. They say three weeks in the lab will save you a day in the library every time. In August of 2006 I did a literature search and found about 300 relevant papers on titanium dioxide. I saw that each of the many different communities researching titanium dioxide had its own way of describing the compound. By the end of the month, the pieces had fallen into place. I finally knew how our device worked. I knew why we had a memristor. The exotic molecule monolayer in the middle of our sandwich had nothing to do with the actual switching. Instead, what it did was control the flow of oxygen from the platinum dioxide into the titanium to produce the fairly uniform layers of TiO 2 and TiO 2-x . The key to the switching was this bilayer of the two different titanium dioxide species [see diagram, ”How Memristance Works”]. The TiO 2 is electrically insulating (actually a semiconductor), but the TiO 2-x is conductive, because its oxygen vacancies are donors of electrons, which makes the vacancies themselves positively charged. The vacancies can be thought of like bubbles in a glass of beer, except that they don’t pop—they can be pushed up and down at will in the titanium dioxide material because they are electrically charged. Now I was able to predict the switching polarity of the device. If a positive voltage is applied to the top electrode of the device, it will repel the (also positive) oxygen vacancies in the TiO 2-x layer down into the pure TiO 2 layer. That turns the TiO 2 layer into TiO 2-x and makes it conductive, thus turning the device on. A negative voltage has the opposite effect: the vacancies are attracted upward and back out of the TiO 2 , and thus the thickness of the TiO 2 layer increases and the device turns off. This switching polarity is what we had been seeing for years but had been unable to explain. On 20 August 2006, I solved the two most important equations of my career—one equation detailing the relationship between current and voltage for this equivalent circuit, and another equation describing how the application of the voltage causes the vacancies to move—thereby writing down, for the first time, an equation for memristance in terms of the physical properties of a material. This provided a unique insight. Memristance arises in a semiconductor when both electrons and charged dopants are forced to move simultaneously by applying a voltage to the system. The memristance did not actually involve magnetism in this case; the integral over the voltage reflected how far the dopants had moved and thus how much the resistance of the device had changed. We finally had a model we could use to engineer our switches, which we had by now positively identified as memristors. Now we could use all the theoretical machinery Chua had created to help us design new circuits with our devices. Triumphantly, I showed the group my results and immediately declared that we had to take the molecule monolayers out of our devices. Skeptical after years of false starts and failed hypotheses, my team reminded me that we had run control samples without molecule layers for every device we had ever made and that those devices had never switched. And getting the recipe right turned out to be tricky indeed. We needed to find the exact amounts of titanium and oxygen to get the two layers to do their respective jobs. By that point we were all getting impatient. In fact, it took so long to get the first working device that in my discouragement I nearly decided to put the molecule layers back in. A month later, it worked. We not only had working devices, but we were also able to improve and change their characteristics at will. But here is the real triumph. The resistance of these devices stayed constant whether we turned off the voltage or just read their states (interrogating them with a voltage so small it left the resistance unchanged). The oxygen vacancies didn’t roam around; they remained absolutely immobile until we again applied a positive or negative voltage. That’s memristance: the devices remembered their current history. We had coaxed Chua’s mythical memristor off the page and into being. Emulating the behavior of a single memristor, Chua showed, requires a circuit with at least 15 transistors and other passive elements. The implications are extraordinary: just imagine how many kinds of circuits could be supercharged by replacing a handful of transistors with one single memristor. The most obvious benefit is to memories. In its initial state, a crossbar memory has only open switches, and no information is stored. But once you start closing switches, you can store vast amounts of information compactly and efficiently. Because memristors remember their state, they can store data indefinitely, using energy only when you toggle or read the state of a switch, unlike the capacitors in conventional DRAM, which will lose their stored charge if the power to the chip is turned off. Furthermore, the wires and switches can be made very small: we should eventually get down to a width of around 4 nm, and then multiple crossbars could be stacked on top of each other to create a ridiculously high density of stored bits. Greg Snider and I published a paper last year showing that memristors could vastly improve one type of processing circuit, called a field-programmable gate array, or FPGA. By replacing several specific transistors with a crossbar of memristors, we showed that the circuit could be shrunk by nearly a factor of 10 in area and improved in terms of its speed relative to power-consumption performance. Right now, we are testing a prototype of this circuit in our lab. And memristors are by no means hard to fabricate. The titanium dioxide structure can be made in any semiconductor fab currently in existence. (In fact, our hybrid circuit was built in an HP fab used for making inkjet cartridges.) The primary limitation to manufacturing hybrid chips with memristors is that today only a small number of people on Earth have any idea of how to design circuits containing memristors. I must emphasize here that memristors will never eliminate the need for transistors: passive devices and circuits require active devices like transistors to supply energy. The potential of the memristor goes far beyond juicing a few FPGAs. I have referred several times to the similarity of memristor behavior to that of synapses. Right now, Greg is designing new circuits that mimic aspects of the brain. The neurons are implemented with transistors, the axons are the nanowires in the crossbar, and the synapses are the memristors at the cross points. A circuit like this could perform real-time data analysis for multiple sensors. Think about it: an intelligent physical infrastructure that could provide structural assessment monitoring for bridges. How much money—and how many lives—could be saved? I’m convinced that eventually the memristor will change circuit design in the 21st century as radically as the transistor changed it in the 20th. Don’t forget that the transistor was lounging around as a mainly academic curiosity for a decade until 1956, when a killer app—the hearing aid—brought it into the marketplace. My guess is that the real killer app for memristors will be invented by a curious student who is now just deciding what EE courses to take next year. About the Author R. STANLEY WILLIAMS, a senior fellow at Hewlett-Packard Labs, wrote this month’s cover story, ”How We Found the Missing Memristor.” Earlier this year, he and his colleagues shook up the electrical engineering community by introducing a fourth fundamental circuit design element. The existence of this element, the memristor, was first predicted in 1971 by IEEE Fellow Leon Chua, of the University of California, Berkeley, but it took Williams 12 years to build an actual device.

Mercury in the Morning The planet Mercury -- the planet closest to the Sun -- is just peeking into view in the east at dawn the next few days. It looks like a fairly bright star. It's so low in the sky, though, that you need a clear horizon to spot it, and binoculars wouldn't hurt. Mercury is a bit of a puzzle. It has a big core that's made mainly of iron, so it's quite dense. Because Mercury is so small, the core long ago should've cooled enough to form a solid ball. Yet the planet generates a weak magnetic field, hinting that the core is still at least partially molten. The solution to this puzzle may involve an iron "snow" deep within the core. The iron in the core is probably mixed with sulfur, which has a lower melting temperature than iron. Recent models suggest that the sulfur may have kept the outer part of the core from solidifying -- it's still a hot, thick liquid. As this mixture cools, though, the iron "freezes" before the sulfur does. Small bits of solid iron fall toward the center of the planet. This creates convection currents -- like a pot of boiling water. The motion is enough to create a "dynamo" effect. Like a generator, it produces electrical currents, which in turn create a magnetic field around the planet. Observations earlier this year by the Messenger spacecraft seem to support that idea. But Messenger will provide much better readings of what's going on inside Mercury when it enters orbit around the planet in 2011. Script by Damond Benningfield, Copyright 2008 For more skywatching tips, astronomy news, and much more, read StarDate magazine.

The Neighbor Squirrel These busy fluffballs have lost their fear of most predators - and they help plant pecan trees. By Sheryl Smith-Rodgers Have you ever watched an eastern fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) bury an acorn or pecan? A nuzzle here, another there, then he hurriedly pushes the leaves and grass over the site before scampering up the closest tree. Minutes later, he's back with another nut. Over the course of three months, that industrious squirrel can bury several thousand pecans. Come winter, when food's scarce, he'll find them again with his excellent sense of smell. Some will escape his appetite, though, and sprout into saplings, which is how many native nut trees get planted. Eastern fox squirrels - the state's most common and wide-ranging squirrel and a popular game animal, too - occur in forests and riparian habitats. They also easily adapt to cities and neighborhoods, where they've lost most of their fear of natural predators. "Playing the call of a red-tailed hawk didn't phase squirrels on campus," reports Bob McCleery, a wildlife lecturer at Texas A&M University, who has studied urban squirrels in College Station. "When we played a coyote call in the Navasota river bottom, a squirrel immediately flattened itself in the crotch of a tree for a good five minutes." When agitated, fox squirrels - whose fur closely resembles that of a gray fox - bark and jerk their long, bushy tails, which they use for balance when scampering on utility lines and other high places. Tails provide warmth and protection, too. "In the summer, I've seen them lying down with their tails over their heads to block the sun," McCleery says.

Forecast Texas Fire Danger (TFD) The Texas Fire Danger(TFD) map is produced by the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS). Weather information is provided by remote, automated weather stations and then used as an input to the Weather Information Management System (WIMS). The NFDRS processor in WIMS produces a fire danger rating based on fuels, weather, and topography. Fire danger maps are produced daily. In addition, the Texas A&M Forest Service, along with the SSL, has developed a five day running average fire danger rating map. Daily RAWS information is derived from an experimental project - DO NOT DISTRIBUTE

Welcome to Jane Addams Hull-House museum The Jane Addams Hull-House Museum serves as a dynamic memorial to social reformer Jane Addams, the first American woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize, and her colleagues whose work changed the lives of their immigrant neighbors as well as national and international public policy. The Museum preserves and develops the original Hull-House site for the interpretation and continuation of the historic settlement house vision, linking research, education, and social engagement The Museum is located in two of the original settlement house buildings- the Hull Home, a National Historic Landmark, and the Residents' Dining Hall, a beautiful Arts and Crafts building that has welcomed some of the world's most important thinkers, artists and activists. The Museum and its many vibrant programs make connections between the work of Hull-House residents and important contemporary social issues. Founded in 1889 as a social settlement, Hull-House played a vital role in redefining American democracy in the modern age. Addams and the residents of Hull-House helped pass critical legislation and influenced public policy on public health and education, free speech, fair labor practices, immigrants’ rights, recreation and public space, arts, and philanthropy. Hull-House has long been a center of Chicago’s political and cultural life, establishing Chicago’s first public playground and public art gallery, helping to desegregate the Chicago Public Schools, and influencing philanthropy and culture.

The Gram-Schmidt Process Now that we have a real or complex inner product, we have notions of length and angle. This lets us define what it means for a collection of vectors to be “orthonormal”: each pair of distinct vectors is perpendicular, and each vector has unit length. In formulas, we say that the collection is orthonormal if . These can be useful things to have, but how do we get our hands on them? It turns out that if we have a linearly independent collection of vectors then we can come up with an orthonormal collection spanning the same subspace of . Even better, we can pick it so that the first vectors span the same subspace as . The method goes back to Laplace and Cauchy, but gets its name from Jørgen Gram and Erhard Schmidt. We proceed by induction on the number of vectors in the collection. If , then we simply set This “normalizes” the vector to have unit length, but doesn’t change its direction. It spans the same one-dimensional subspace, and since it’s alone it forms an orthonormal collection. Now, lets assume the procedure works for collections of size and start out with a linearly independent collection of vectors. First, we can orthonormalize the first vectors using our inductive hypothesis. This gives a collection which spans the same subspace as (and so on down, as noted above). But isn’t in the subspace spanned by the first vectors (or else the original collection wouldn’t have been linearly independent). So it points at least somewhat in a new direction. To find this new direction, we define This vector will be orthogonal to all the vectors from to , since for any such we can check where we use the orthonormality of the collection to show that most of these inner products come out to be zero. So we’ve got a vector orthogonal to all the ones we collected so far, but it might not have unit length. So we normalize it: and we’re done.

Sarin was developed in 1938 in Germany as a pesticide. Its name is derived from the names of the chemists involved in its creation: Schrader, Ambros, Rudriger and van der Linde. Sarin is a colorless non-persistent liquid. The vapor is slightly heavier than air, so it hovers close to the ground. Under wet and humid weather conditions, Sarin degrades swiftly, but as the temperature rises up to a certain point, Sarin’s lethal duration increases, despite the humidity. Sarin is a lethal cholinesterase inhibitor. Doses which are potentially life threatening may be only slightly larger than those producing least effects. Signs and Symptoms overexposure may occur within minutes or hours, depending upon the dose. They include: miosis (constriction of pupils) and visual effects, headaches and pressure sensation, runny nose and nasal congestion, salivation, tightness in the chest, nausea, vomiting, giddiness, anxiety, difficulty in thinking, difficulty sleeping, nightmares, muscle twitches, tremors, weakness, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, involuntary urination and defecation, with severe exposure symptoms progressing to convulsions and respiratory failure. breath until respiratory protective mask is donned. If severe signs of agent exposure appear (chest tightens, pupil constriction, in coordination, etc.), immediately administer, in rapid succession, all three Nerve Agent Antidote Kit(s), Mark I injectors (or atropine if directed by a physician). Injections using the Mark I kit injectors may be repeated at 5 to 20 minute intervals if signs and symptoms are progressing until three series of injections have been administered. No more injections will be given unless directed by medical personnel. In addition, a record will be maintained of all injections given. If breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration. Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation should be used when mask-bag or oxygen delivery systems are not available. Do not use mouth-to-mouth resuscitation when facial contamination exists. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. Seek medical attention Immediately. Contact: Immediately flush eyes with water for 10-15 minutes, then don respiratory protective mask. Although miosis (pinpointing of the pupils) may be an early sign of agent exposure, an injection will not be administered when miosis is the only sign present. Instead, the individual will be taken Immediately to a medical treatment facility for observation. Contact: Don respiratory protective mask and remove contaminated clothing. Immediately wash contaminated skin with copious amounts of soap and water, 10% sodium carbonate solution, or 5% liquid household bleach. Rinse well with water to remove excess decontaminant. Administer nerve agent antidote kit, Mark I, only if local sweating and muscular twitching symptoms are observed. Seek medical attention Immediately. not induce vomiting. First symptoms are likely to be gastrointestinal. Immediately administer Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark I. Seek medical Above Information Courtesy of United States Army

By JOHN CARTER When Abraham Lincoln died from an assassin’s bullet on April 15, 1865, Edwin Stanton remarked to those gathered around his bedside, “Now he belongs to the ages.” One of the meanings implied in Stanton’s famous statement is that Lincoln would not only be remembered as an iconic figure of the past, but that his spirit would also play a significant role in ages to come. The Oscar-nominated movie “Lincoln,” which chronicles the struggle to pass the 13th amendment abolishing slavery, has turned our attention again to Lincoln’s legacy and his relevance amid our nation’s present divisions and growing pains. Here is some of the wit and wisdom of Abraham Lincoln worth pondering: “As for being president, I feel like the man who was tarred and feathered and ridden out of town on a rail. To the man who asked him how he liked it, he said, ‘If it wasn’t for the honor of the thing, I’d rather walk.’” “I desire so to conduct the affairs of this administration that if at the end, when I come to lay down the reins of power, I have lost every other friend on earth, I shall at least have one friend left, and that friend shall be down inside of me.” “Should my administration prove to be a very wicked one, or what is more probable, a very foolish one, if you the people are true to yourselves and the Constitution, there is but little harm I can do, thank God.” “Bad promises are better broken than kept.” “I am not at all concerned that the Lord is on our side in this great struggle, for I know that the Lord is always on the side of the right; but it is my constant anxiety and prayer that I and this nation may be on the Lord’s side.” “I have never had a feeling, politically, that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence.” “Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves; and, under a just God, cannot long retain it.” “As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This expresses my idea of democracy.” “The probability that we may fail in the struggle ought not to deter us from the support of a cause we believe to be just.” “The true rule, in determining to embrace or reject anything, is not whether it have any evil in it, but whether it have more evil than good. There are few things wholly evil or wholly good.” “Some of our generals complain that I impair discipline and subordination in the army by my pardons and respites, but it makes me rested, after a hard day’s work, if I can find some good excuse for saving a man’s life, and I go to bed happy as I think how joyful the signing of my name will make him (a deserter) and his family.” “I have been driven many times to my knees by the overwhelming conviction that I had nowhere else to go.” In addition, Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address and his second inaugural speech are ever relevant. And you may wish to add your own favorites to these. Paul’s advice to us in Philippians 4:8 is to “fill your minds with those things that are good and deserve praise: things that are true, noble, right, pure, lovely, and honorable.” As we celebrate his birthday on the 12th, Lincoln’s words more than meet this standard! John Carter is a Weatherford resident whose column, “Notes From the Journey,” is published weekly in the Weatherford Democrat.

Protecting your skin and checking it for changes are keys to preventing another melanoma or catching one in an early, treatable stage. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays produced by the sun increases your risk of melanoma. Here’s how to protect your skin from the sun’s UV rays: - Cover your skin with clothing, including a shirt and a hat with a broad brim. - When outside, try to sit in shady areas. - Avoid exposing your skin to the sun between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. standard time or 11:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. daylight saving time. - Use sunscreens with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 15 or more on skin that will be exposed to the sun. - Wear sunglasses with 99% or 100% UV absorption to protect your eyes. - Don't use sun lamps or tanning booths. Check your skin regularly and have someone help you check areas you can’t see, such as your back and buttocks, scalp, underneath the breasts of women, and the backs of the legs. If you notice a new, changing or an irregular-looking mole, show it to a doctor experienced in recognizing skin cancers, such as a dermatologist. This may include large, irregular shape with a border that is not smooth and even, more than one color, or irregular texture. Your doctor may monitor the mole or recommend removing it Contact your doctor if you discover a mole that is new has changed or looks suspicious: large or of irregular shape, color, or texture. - Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD - Review Date: 04/2013 - - Update Date: 04/09/2013 -

- weak drug regulatory control and enforcement; - scarcity and/or erratic supply of basic medicines; - unregulated markets and distribution chains; - high drug prices and/or - significant price differentials. At national level, governments, law enforcement agencies, heath professionals, the pharmaceutical industry, importers, distributors, and consumer organizations should adopt a shared responsibility in the fight against counterfeit drugs. Cooperation between countries, especially trading partners is very useful for combating counterfeiting. Cooperation should include the timely and appropriate exchange of information and the harmonization of measures to prevent the spread of counterfeit medicines. The World Health Organization has developed and published guidelines, Guidelines for the development of measures to combat counterfeit medicines. These guidelines provide advice on measures that should be taken by the various stakeholders and interested parties to combat counterfeiting of medicines. Governments and all stakeholders are encouraged to adapt or adopt these guidelines in their fight against counterfeiting of medicines. - Guidelines for the development of measures to combat counterfeit medicines - Rapid Alert System for counterfeit medicines Communication and advocacy - creating public awareness Patients and consumers are the primary victims of counterfeit medicines. In order to protect them from the harmful effects of counterfeit medicines it is necessary to provide them with appropriate information and education on the consequences of counterfeit medicines. Patients and consumers expect to get advice from national authorities, health-care providers, health professionals and others from where they should buy or get their medicines; what measures they should take in case they come across such medicines or are affected by the use of such medicines. Ministries of health, national medicines regulators, health professional associations, nongovernmental organizations and other stakeholders have the responsibility to participate in campaign activities targeting patients and consumers to promote awareness of the problem of counterfeit medicines. Posters, brochures, radio and television programmes are useful means for disseminating messages and advice.

The machete blades turned red with heat in the fire that the rubber workers built on a Liberia plantation, Thomas Unnasch remembers from a visit in the 1980s. This was how the men tried to quell the intense itchiness that comes with river blindness, a rare tropical disease. "You can imagine how bad the itching must be, that running a red-hot machete up and down your back would be a relief, but it was," said Unnasch, whose laboratory works on diagnostic tests for the disease. About 18 million people have river blindness worldwide, according to the World Health Organization, but more than 99% of cases of this disease are found in Africa. It goes by the technical name "onchocerciasis," and it spreads through small black flies that breed in fast-flowing, highly oxygenated waters. When an infected fly bites a person, it drops worm larvae in the skin, which can then grow and reproduce in the body. Unlike malaria, river blindness is not fatal, but it causes a "miserable life," said Moses Katabarwa, senior epidemiologist for the Atlanta-based Carter Center's River Blindness Program, which has been leading an effort to eliminate the disease in the Americas and several African countries. Some strains cause blindness, while others come with more severe skin disease. With time, generally all strains of the disease can lead to rough "lizard" skin, depigmented "leopard skin" and hanging groins. Another big problem among patients is itching, which happens when the worms die inside a person. In southwest Uganda, the locals call the disease "Obukamba," referring to the symptoms of distorted skin appearance and itchiness, Katabarwa said. In western Uganda, he said, "the fly is called 'Embwa fly' or dog fly, for it bites like a dog!" There is no vaccine for river blindness, but there is a drug, called ivermectin that paralyzes and kills the offspring of adult worms, according to the Mayo Clinic. It may also slow the reproduction of adult female worms, so there are fewer of them in the skin, blood and eyes. The pharmaceutical company Merck has been donating the treatment, under the brand name Mectizan, since 1985. Great strides have been made against this disease. In the Americas, it was eliminated in Colombia in 2007 and in Ecuador in 2009.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or ADHD is a common childhood illness. People who are affected can have trouble with paying attention, sitting still and controlling their impulses. There are three types of ADHD. The most common type of ADHD is when people have difficulties with both attention and hyperactivity. This is called ADHD combined type. Some people only have difficulty with attention and organization. This is ADHD inattentive subtype or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Other people have only the hyperactive and impulsive symptoms. This is ADHD hyperactive subtype. It is a health condition involving biologically active substances in the brain. Studies show that ADHD may affect certain areas of the brain that allow us to solve problems, plan ahead, understand others' actions, and control our impulses. Many children and adults are easily distracted at times or have trouble finishing tasks. If you suspect that your child has ADHD, it is important to have your child evaluated by his or her doctor. In order for your child’s doctor to diagnose your child with ADHD, the behaviors must appear before age 7 and continue for at least six months. The symptoms must also create impairment in at least two areas of the child's life-in the classroom, on the playground, at home, in the community, or in social settings. Many children have difficulties with their attention but attention problems are not always cue to ADHD. For example, stressful life events and other childhood conditions such as problems with schoolwork caused by a learning disability or anxiety and depression can interfere with attention. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, ADHD occurs in an estimated 3 to 5 percent of preschool and school-age children. Therefore, in a class of 25 to 30 children, it is likely that at least one student will have this condition. ADHD begins in childhood, but it often lasts into adulthood. Several studies done in recent years estimate that 30 to 65 percent of children with ADHD continue to have symptoms into adolescence and adulthood. No one knows exactly what causes ADHD. There appears to be a combination of causes, including genetics and environmental influences Several different factors could increase a child's likelihood of having the disorder, such as gender, family history, prenatal risks, environmental toxins and physical differences in the brain seem to be involved. A child with ADHD often shows some of the following: Difficulties with attention: - trouble paying attention - inattention to details and makes careless mistakes - easily distracted - losing things such as school supplies - forgetting to turn in homework - trouble finishing class work and homework - trouble listening - trouble following multiple adult commands - difficulty playing quietly - inability to stay seated - running or climbing excessively - always "on the go" - talks too much and interrupts or intrudes on others - blurts out answers The good news is that effective treatment is available. The first step is to have a careful and thorough evaluation with your child’s primary care doctor or with a qualified mental health professional. With the right treatment, children with ADHD can improve their ability to pay attention and control their behavior. The right care can help them grow, learn, and feel better about themselves. Medications: Most children with ADHD benefit from taking medication. Medications do not cure ADHD. Medications can help a child control his or her symptoms on the day that the pills are taken. Medications for ADHD are well established and effective. There are two main types: stimulant and non-stimulant medications. Stimulants include methylphenidate, and amphetamine salts. Non-stimulant medications include atomoxetine. For more information about the medications used to treat ADHD, please see the Parent Med Guide. Before medication treatment begins, your child's doctor should discuss the benefits and the possible side effects of these medications. Your child’s doctor should continue to monitor your child for improvement and side effects. A majority of children who benefit from medication for ADHD will continue to benefit from it as teenagers. In fact, many adults with ADHD also find that medication can be helpful. Therapy and Other Support: A psychiatrist or other qualified mental health professional can help a child with ADHD. The psychotherapy should focus on helping parents provide structure and positive reinforcement for good behavior. In addition, individual therapy can help children gain a better self-image. The therapist can help the child identify his or her strengths and build on them. Therapy can also help a child with ADHD cope with daily problems, pay better attention, and learn to control aggression. A therapist may use one or more of the following approaches: Behavior therapy, Talk therapy, Social skills training, Family support groups. Sometimes children and parents wonder when children can stop taking ADHD medication. If you have questions about stopping ADHD medication, consult your doctor. Many children diagnosed with ADHD will continue to have problems with one or more symptoms of this condition later in life. In these cases, ADHD medication can be taken into adulthood to help control their symptoms. For others, the symptoms of ADHD lessen over time as they begin to "outgrow" ADHD or learn to compensate for their behavioral symptoms. The symptom most apt to lessen over time is hyperactivity. Some signs that your child may be ready to reduce or stop ADHD medication are: - Your child has been symptom-free for more than a year while on medication, - Your child is doing better and better, but the dosage has stayed the same, - Your child's behavior is appropriate despite missing a dose or two, - Or your child has developed a newfound ability to concentrate. The choice to stop taking ADHD medication should be discussed with the prescribing doctor, teachers, family members, and your child. You may find that your child needs extra support from teachers and family members to reinforce good behavior once the medication is stopped. Without treatment, a child with ADHD may fall behind in school and have trouble with friendships. Family life may also suffer. Untreated ADHD can increase strain between parents and children. Parents often blame themselves when they can't communicate with their child. The sense of losing control can be very frustrating. Teenagers with ADHD are at increased risk for driving accidents. Adults with untreated ADHD have higher rates of divorce and job loss, compared with the general population. Luckily, safe and effective treatments are available which can help children and adults help control the symptoms of ADHD and prevent the unwanted consequences.

Arctic meltdown not caused by nature Rapid loss of Arctic sea ice - 80 per cent has disappeared since 1980 - is not caused by natural cycles such as changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun, says Dr Karl. The situation is getting rather messy with regard to the ice melting in the Arctic. Now the volume of the ice varies throughout the year, rising to its peak after midwinter, and falling to its minimum after midsummer, usually in the month of September. Over most of the last 1,400 years, the volume of ice remaining each September has stayed pretty constant. But since 1980, we have lost 80 per cent of that ice. Now one thing to appreciate is that over the last 4.7 billion years, there have been many natural cycles in the climate — both heating and cooling. What's happening today in the Arctic is not a cycle caused by nature, but something that we humans did by burning fossil fuels and dumping slightly over one trillion tonnes of carbon into the atmosphere over the last century. So what are these natural cycles? There are many many of them, but let's just look at the Milankovitch cycles. These cycles relate to the Earth and its orbit around the Sun. There are three main Milankovitch cycles. They each affect how much solar radiation lands on the Earth, and whether it lands on ice, land or water, and when it lands. The first Milankovitch cycle is that the orbit of the Earth changes from mostly circular to slightly elliptical. It does this on a predominantly 100,000-year cycle. When the Earth is close to the Sun it receives more heat energy, and when it is further away it gets less. At the moment the orbit of the Earth is about halfway between "nearly circular" and "slightly elliptical". So the change in the distance to the Sun in each calendar year is currently about 5.1 million kilometres, which translates to about 6.8 per cent difference in incoming solar radiation. But when the orbit of the Earth is at its most elliptical, there will be a 23 per cent difference in how much solar radiation lands on the Earth. The second Milankovitch cycle affecting the solar radiation landing on our planet is the tilt of the north-south spin axis compared to the plane of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. This tilt rocks gently between 22.1 degrees and 24.5 degrees from the vertical. This cycle has a period of about 41,000 years. At the moment we are roughly halfway in the middle — we're about 23.44 degrees from the vertical and heading down to 22.1 degrees. As we head to the minimum around the year 11,800, the trend is that the summers in each hemisphere will get less solar radiation, while the winters will get more, and there will be a slight overall cooling. The third Milankovitch cycle that affects how much solar radiation lands on our planet is a little more tricky to understand. It's called 'precession'. As our Earth orbits the Sun, the north-south spin axis does more than just rock gently between 22.1 degrees and 24.5 degrees. It also — very slowly, just like a giant spinning top — sweeps out a complete 360 degrees circle, and it takes about 26,000 years to do this. So on January 4, when the Earth is at its closest to the Sun, it's the South Pole (yep, the Antarctic) that points towards the Sun. So at the moment, everything else being equal, it's the southern hemisphere that has a warmer summer because it's getting more solar radiation, but six months later it will have a colder winter. And correspondingly, the northern hemisphere will have a warmer winter and a cooler summer. But of course, "everything else" is not equal. There's more land in the northern hemisphere but more ocean in a southern hemisphere. The Arctic is ice that is floating on water and surrounded by land. The Antarctic is the opposite — ice that is sitting on land and surrounded by water. You begin to see how complicated it all is. We have had, in this current cycle, repeated ice ages on Earth over the last three-million years. During an ice age, the ice can be three kilometres thick and cover practically all of Canada. It can spread through most of Siberia and Europe and reach almost to where London is today. Of course, the water to make this ice comes out of the ocean, and so in the past, the ocean level has dropped by some 125 metres. From three million years ago to one million years ago, the ice advanced and retreated on a 41,000-year cycle. But from one million years ago until the present, the ice has advanced and retreated on a 100,000-year cycle. What we are seeing in the Arctic today — the 80 per cent loss in the volume of the ice since 1980 — is an amazingly huge change in an amazingly short period of time. But it seems as though the rate of climate change is accelerating, and I'll talk more about that, next time … Published 27 November 2012 © 2013 Karl S. Kruszelnicki Pty Ltd

Black holes growing faster than expected Black hole find Existing theories on the relationship between the size of a galaxy and its central black hole are wrong according to a new Australian study. The discovery by Dr Nicholas Scott and Professor Alister Graham, from Melbourne's Swinburne University of Technology, found smaller galaxies have far smaller black holes than previously estimated. Central black holes, millions to billions of times more massive than the Sun, reside in the core of most galaxies, and are thought to be integral to galactic formation and evolution. However astronomers are still trying to understand this relationship. Scott and Graham combined data from observatories in Chile, Hawaii and the Hubble Space Telescope, to develop a data base listing the masses of 77 galaxies and their central supermassive black holes. The astronomers determined the mass of each central black hole by measuring how fast stars are orbiting it. Existing theories suggest a direct ratio between the mass of a galaxy and that of its central black hole. "This ratio worked for larger galaxies, but with improved technology we're now able to examine far smaller galaxies and the current theories don't hold up," says Scott. In a paper to be published in the Astrophysical Journal, they found that for each ten-fold decrease in a galaxy's mass, there was a one hundred-fold decrease in its central black hole mass. "That was a surprising result which we hadn't been anticipating," says Scott. The study also found that smaller galaxies have far denser stellar populations near their centres than larger galaxies. According to Scott, this also means the central black holes in smaller galaxies grow much faster than their larger counterparts. Black holes grow by merging with other black holes when their galaxies collide. "When large galaxies merge they double in size and so do their central black holes," says Scott. "But when small galaxies merge their central black holes quadruple in size because of the greater densities of nearby stars to feed on." Somewhere in between The findings also solve the long standing problem of missing intermediate mass black holes. For decades, scientists have been searching for something in between stellar mass black holes formed when the largest stars die, and supermassive black holes at the centre of galaxies. "If the central black holes in smaller galaxies have lower mass than originally thought, they may represent the intermediate mass black hole population astronomers have been hunting for," says Graham. "Intermediate sized black holes are between ten thousand and a few hundred thousand times the mass of the Sun, and we think we've found several good candidates." "These may be big enough to be seen directly by the new generation of extremely large telescopes now being built," says Graham.

Hoodoos may be seismic gurus Hoodoo prediction Towering chimney-like sedimentary rock spires known as hoodoos may provide an indication of an area's past earthquake activity. The research by scientists including Dr Rasool Anooshehpoor, from the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, may provide scientists with a new tool to test the accuracy of current hazard models. Hoodoo formations are often found in desert regions, and are common in North America, the Middle East and northern Africa. They are caused by the uneven weathering of different layers of sedimentary rocks, that leave boulders or thin caps of hard rock perched on softer rock. By knowing the strengths of different types of sedimentary layers, scientists can determine the amount of stress needed to cause those rocks to fracture. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) use seismic hazard models to predict the type of ground motion likely to occur in an area during a seismic event. But, according to Anooshehpoor, these models lack long term data. "Existing hazard maps use models based on scant data going back a hundred years or so," says Anooshehpoor. "But earthquakes have return periods lasting hundreds or thousands of years, so there is nothing to test these hazard models against." The researchers examined two unfractured hoodoos within a few kilometres of the Garlock fault, which is an active strike-slip fault zone in California's Red Rock Canyon. Their findings are reported in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. "Although we can't put a precise age on hoodoos because of their erosion characteristics, we can use them to provide physical limits on the level of ground shaking that could potentially have occurred in the area," says Anooshehpoor. The researchers developed a three-dimensional model of each hoodoo and determined the most likely place where each spire would fail in an earthquake. They then tested rock samples similar to the hoodoo pillars to measure their tensile strength and compared their results with previously published data. USGS records suggest at least one large magnitude earthquake occurred along the fault in the last 550 years, resulting in seven metres of slip, yet the hoodoos are still standing. This finding is consistent with a median level of ground motion associated with the large quakes in this region, says Anooshehpoor. "If an earthquake occurred with a higher level of ground motion, the hoodoos would have collapsed," he says. "Nobody can predict earthquakes, but this will help predict what ground motions are associated with these earthquakes when they happen." Dr Juan Carlos Afonso from the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Sydney's Macquarie University says it's an exciting development. "In seismic hazard studies, it's not just difficult to cover the entire planet, it's hard to cover even small active regions near populated areas," says Afonso. "You need lots of instruments, so it's great if you can rely on nature and natural objects to help you." He says while the work is still very new and needs to be proven, the physics seems sound.

What exactly does "desecration" mean? Is it just flag burning — or does it also include smearing the flag with dirt? How about dropping it on the ground? And why should law enforcement get to decide who to arrest for such desecration? Free expression and the right to dissent are among the core principles which the American flag represents. The First Amendment must be protected most when it comes to unpopular speech. Failure to do so fails the very notion of freedom of expression. Our democracy is strong because we tolerate all peaceful forms of expression, no matter how uncomfortable they make us feel, or how much we disagree. If we take away the right to dissent - no matter how unpopular - what freedom will be sacrificed next? Make a Difference Your support helps the ACLU defend free speech and a broad range of civil liberties. Burn the Flag or Burn the Constitution? (2011 blog): Sadly, Congress is once again considering an amendment to the U. S. Constitution banning desecration of the American flag and, in doing so, testing our political leaders' willingness to defend what is arguably one of America's most sacred principles — protecting political speech. Flag Amendment Defeated, First Amendment Stands Unscathed (2003): On June 27, 2006, the Senate voted down the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment by the slimmest margin ever. The vote was 66-34, just one vote short of the two-thirds needed to approve a constitutional amendment. Reasons to Oppose the Flag Desecration Amendment (2004 resource): Talking Points on Opposing the Flag Desecration Amendment Background on the Flag Desecration Amendment (2004 resource) Fight for the Flag - Resources (2006 resource)

First, an object is placed on the platform of the printer upon – a petrie dish for example. Then the printer must check the height of the object to make sure everything is calibrated correctly. Mr. Carvalho placed a paper card on the platform of the 3D-Bioplotter to demonstrate how the machine works. Mr. Carvalho then talked us through the printing process. To begin, a liquefied material – in this case a silicone paste – is pressed through a needle-like tip by applying air pressure. The needle moves in all three dimensions which means it is able to create a three dimensional object. The printer is called ‘Bioplotter’ because the unique aspect of this machine is its use of biomaterials to make implants or other objects for biomedical application. Some of the implants which are made using the 3D Bioplotter are intended to dissolve in the body. The materials which are used in this application include PLLA, PLGA, and silicone. Implants made with thermoplastics – as they are mostly water and CO2 – are removed by the body naturally in around a week or two. Other materials, such as ceramic paste, may also be used to print implants. The implants printed using ceramic paste do not dissolve. Instead, the body uses this material to create new bone. This actually speeds up the process of the body’s regeneration. The 3DBioplotter also prints hydrogels – such as collagen or alginate. These materials can have human cells actually added to them. Thus human cells may be printed directly with this machine. Every Thursday is #3dthursday here at Adafruit! The DIY 3D printing community has thrilled us at Adafruit with its passion and dedication to making solid objects from digital models. Recently, we have noticed that our community integrating electronics projects into 3D printed enclosures, brackets, and sculptures, so each Thursday we celebrate and highlight these bold pioneers! Have you take considered building a 3D project around an Arduino or other microcontroller? How about printing a bracket to mount your Raspberry Pi to the back of your HD monitor? And don’t forget the countless EL Wire and LED projects that are possible when you are modeling your projects! The Adafruit Learning System has dozens of great tools to get you well on your way to creating incredible works of engineering, interactive art, and design with your 3D printer! If you have a cool project you’ve made that joins the traditions of 3D printing and electronics, be sure to send it in to be featured here!

Elderly people are at increased risk of food-borne illness because as they age, their immune systems become weaker. In fact, the website for the Centers for Disease Control estimates that each year about 48 million people get sick, 128,000 are hospitalized and 3,000 die from food-borne diseases. The most severe cases tend to occur in the very old. The good news is that food poisoning can be prevented if you follow proper home food safety practices. Ruth Frechman, a registered dietitian and spokesperson for the American Dietetic Association, spoke with AgingCare.com about home food safety for elderly people. "Since older adults are at particular risk for food-borne illness, good food safety habits are extremely crucial." Ms. Frechman says three common cooking and food preparation mistakes can result in unsafe food and potential food poisoning. Bacteria in raw meat and poultry juices can be spread to other foods, utensils and surfaces. . "To prevent cross-contamination, keep raw foods separate from ready-to-eat foods and fresh vegetables," she says. "For example, use two cuttings boards: one strictly for raw meat, poultry and seafood; the other for ready-to-eat foods like breads and vegetables." She recommends washing cutting boards thoroughly in hot soapy water after each use or placing them in the dishwasher. Use a bleach solution or other sanitizing solution and rinse with clean water. Always wash your hands after handling raw meat. Leaving food out too long Leaving food out too long at room temperature can cause bacteria to grow to dangerous levels that can cause illness. "Many people think it's okay to leave food sitting out for a few hours," Ms. Frechman says. "But that's a dangerous habit. Food should not be left out for more than two hours. And if it's over 90 degrees, like at an outdoor summer barbecue, food should not be out for more than one hour." Its common knowledge that meat should be cooked to proper temperatures. However, most people don't know that even leftovers that were previously cooked should be re-heated to a certain temperature. Ms. Frechman says re-heating foods to the proper temperature can kill many harmful bacteria. Leftovers should be re-heated to at least 165 degrees Fahrenheit. "Harmful bacteria are destroyed when food is cooked to proper temperatures," she says. "That's why a food thermometer comes in handy not only for preparing food, but also for re-heating." How long it is safe to eat leftovers? Not as long as you would think, Ms. Frechman says. Chicken, fish and beef expire after three to four days in the refrigerator. To help seniors track if leftovers are still good, she recommends writing the date on the package of leftovers. Seniors and their caregivers should take these preventive measures to avoid germs in food and contracting food poisoning. Pay attention to the foods that are eaten, how food is prepared, and properly maintain the food in the refrigerator, and you may avoid an illness that could cause great discomfort, weakening of the body or even death.

Science Fair Project Encyclopedia The chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine picks up one electron to form the anion (negatively charged ion) Cl−. The salts of hydrochloric acid HCl contain chloride ions and are also called chlorides. An example is table salt, which is sodium chloride with the chemical formula NaCl. In water, it dissolves into Na+ and Cl− ions. The word chloride can also refer to a chemical compound in which one or more chlorine atoms are covalently bonded in the molecule. This means that chlorides can be either inorganic or organic compounds. The simplest example of an inorganic covalently bonded chloride is hydrogen chloride, HCl. A simple example of an organic covalently bonded chloride is chloromethane (CH3Cl), often called methyl chloride. Other examples of inorganic covalently bonded chlorides which are used as reactants are: - phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, and thionyl chloride - all three are reactive chlorinating reagents which have been used in a laboratory. - Disulfur dichloride (SCl2) - used for vulcanization of rubber. Chloride ions have important physiological roles. For instance, in the central nervous system the inhibitory action of glycine and some of the action of GABA relies on the entry of Cl− into specific neurons. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Industrial Design is an applied art whereby the aesthetics and usability of products may be improved. Design aspects specified by the industrial designer may include the overall shape of the object, the location of details with respect to one another, colors, texture, sounds, and aspects concerning the use of the product ergonomics. Additionally the industrial designer may specify aspects concerning the production process, choice of materials and the way the product is presented to the consumer at the point of sale. The use of industrial designers in a product development process may lead to added values by improved usability, lowered production costs and more appealing products. Product Design is focused on products only, while industrial design has a broader focus on concepts, products and processes. In addition to considering aesthetics, usability, and ergonomics, it can also encompass the engineering of objects, usefulness as well as usability, market placement, and other concerns. Product Design and Industrial Design can overlap into the fields of user interface design , information design and interaction design. Various schools of Industrial Design and/or Product Design may specialize in one of these aspects, ranging from pure art colleges (product styling) to mixed programs of engineering and design, to related disciplines like exhibit design and interior design. In the US, the field of industrial design hit a high-water mark of popularity in the late 30's and early 40's, with several industrial designers becoming minor celebrities. Raymond Loewy, Norman bel Geddes, and Henry Dreyfuss remain the best known. In the UK, the term "Industrial Design" increasingly implies design with considerable engineering and technology awareness alongside human factors - a "Total Design" approach, promoted by the late Stuart Pugh (University of Strathclyde) and others. Famous industrial designers - Egmont Arens (1888-1966) - Norman bel Geddes (1893-1958) - Henry Dreyfuss (1904-1972) - Charles and Ray Eames (1907-1978) and (1912-1988) - Harley J. Earl (1893-1969) - Virgil Exner (1909-1973) - Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983) - Kenneth Grange (1929- ) - Michael Graves (1934- ) - Walter Adolph Gropius (1883-1969) - Jonathan Ive (1967- ) - Arne Jacobsen (1902-1971) - Raymond Loewy (1893-1986) - Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) - László Moholy-Nagy (1895-1946) - Victor Papanek (1927-1999) - Philippe Starck (1949- ) - Brooks Stevens (1911-1995) - Walter Dorwin Teague (1883-1960) - Eva Zeisel (1906- ) - Industrial design rights - Design classics - Interaction Design - Automobile design - Six Sigma - Famous Industrial Designers - Design Council on Product Design Design Council one stop shop information resource on Product Design by Dick Powell. - Industrial Designers Society of America - The Centre for Sustainable Design - International Council of Societies of Industrial Designers - U.S. Occupational Outlook Handbook: Designers - Core77: Industrial Designers' Online Community The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

Help kids practice their counting skills with this printable counting to eight (8) worksheet that has a fun birds theme. This worksheet will be a great addition to any numbers or counting lesson plan as well as any birds themed lesson plan. On this worksheet, kids are asked to count the number of cardinals and circle the correct number (eight) at the bottom of the page. View and Print Your Birds Themed Counting Worksheet All worksheets on this site were done personally by our family. Please do not reproduce any of our content on your own site without direct permission. We welcome you to link directly to any pages on our site without specific permission. We also welcome any feedback, ideas or anything you want to share with us - just email us at [email protected].

Dr. Carl Auer von Welsbach (1858-1929) had a rare double talent of understanding how to pursue fundamental science and, at the same time, of commercializing himself successfully as a inventor and discoverer. He discovered 4 elements (Neodymium, Praseodymium, Ytterbium, and Lutetium). He invented the incandescent mantle, that helped gaslighting at the end of the 19th century to a renaissance. He developed the Ferrocerium - it`s still used as a flint in every disposable lighter. He was an eminent authority, and great expert in the field of rare earths (lanthanoides). He invented the electric metal filament light bulb which is used billions of times today. Additionally, all his life he took active part in different fields, from photography to ornithology. His personal qualities are remembered highly by the people of Althofen, he not only had an excellent mind but also a big heart. These qualities ensured him a prominent and lasting place not only in Austria`s science and industrial history. 9th of Sept. 1858: Born in Vienna, son of Therese and Alois Ritter Auer von Welsbach ( his father was director of the Imperial printing office the "Staatsdruckerei"). 1869-73: went to the secondary school in Mariahilf, (then changed to the secondary school in Josefstadt.) 1873-77: went to secondary school in Josefstadt, graduation. 1877-78: military service, became a second lieutenant. 1878-80: Inscribed into the technical University of Vienna; studies in math, general organic and inorganic chemistry, technical physics and thermodynamics with the Professors Winkler, Bauer, Reitlinger; and Pierre. 1880-82: Changed to the University of Heidelberg; lectures on inorganic experimental chemistry and Lab. experiments with Prof. Bunsen, introduction to spectral analysis and the history of chemistry, mineralogy and physics. 5th of Feb. 1882: Promotion to Doctor of Philosophy at the Ruperta-Carola-University in Heidelberg. 1882: Return to Vienna as unpaid Assistant in Prof. Lieben`s laboratory; work with chemical separation methods for investigations on rare earth elements. 1882-1884: Publications: " Ueber die Erden des Gadolinits von Ytterby", "Ueber die Seltenen Erden". 1885: The first separation of the element "Didymium" with help from a newly developed separation method from himself, based on the fractioned crystalisation of a Didym-ammonium nitrat solution. After the characteristical colouring, Auer gave the green components the name Praseodymium, the pink components the name Neodidymium. In time the latter element was more commonly known as Neodymium. 1885-1892: Work on gas mantle for the incandescent lighting. Development of a method to produce gas mantle ("Auerlicht) based on the impregnation from cottontissue by means, measures, methods of liquids, that rare earth has been absolved in and the ash from the material in a following glow process. Production of the first incandescent mantle out of lanthanum oxide, in which the gas flame is surrounded from a stocking; definite improvement in light emmission, but lack of stability in humidity. Continuous improvements in the chemical composition of the incandescent mantel "Auerlicht", experimentations of Lanthanum oxide-magnesium oxide- variations. 18th of Sept. 1885: The patenting of a gas burner with a "Actinophor" incandescent mantle made up of 60% magnesium oxide, 20% lanthanum oxide and 20% yttrium oxide; in the same year, the magnesium oxide part was replaced with zirconium oxide and the constitution of a second patent with reference to the additional use of the light body in a spirits flame. 9th of April 1886: Introduction the name "Gasgluehlicht" through the Journalist Motiz Szeps after the successful presentation from the Actinophors in the lower Austrian trade union ; regular production of the impregnation liquid, called "Fluid", at the Chemical Institute. 1887: The acquisition of the factory Würth & Co. for chemical-pharmaceutical products in Atzgersdorf and the industrial production of the light bodies. 1889: The beginning of sales problems because of the defaults with the earlier incandescent mantle, ie. it`s fragility, the short length of use, as well as having an unpleasant, cold, green coloured light , and the relatively high price. The factory in Atzgersdorf closes. The development of fractioned cristallisation methods for the preparation of pure Thorium oxide from and therefore cheap Monazitsand. The analysis of the connection between the purity of Thorium oxide and its light emission. The ascertainment of the optimal composition of the incandescent mantle in a long series of tests. 1891: Patenting of the incandescent mantle out of 99% Thorium oxide and 1% Cerium oxide, at that period of time, because of the light emission it was a direct competition for the electric carbon-filament lamp. The resuming of production in Atzgersdorf near Vienna and the quick spreading of the incandescent mantle because of their high duration. The beginning of a competition with the electric lighting. Work with high melting heavy metals to improve and higher the filament temperature, and therefore the light emission as well. The development of the production of thin filaments. The making of incandescent mantle with Platinum threads that were covered with high melting Thorium oxide, whereby it was possible to use the lamps over the melting temperature of Platinum. This variation was discarded because with smelting the platinum threads either the cover would burst or by solidifying it would rip apart. The taking out of a patent for two manufacturing methods for filaments. In the patent specification Carl Auer von Welsbach described the manufacturing of filaments through secretion of the high smelting element Osmium onto the metallic-filament. The development and experimentation of further designing methods such as the pasting method for the manufacturing of suitable high smelting metallic-filaments. With this method Osmium powder and a mixture of rubber or sugar is mixed together and kneaded into a paste. The manufacturing results in that the paste gets stamped through a delicate nozzle discharged cylinder and the filament subsequently dries and sinters. This was the first commercial and industrial process in the powder metallurgy for very high smelting metals. 1898: The acquiring of a industrial property in Treibach and the beginning of the experimentation and discovery work at this location. The taking out of a patent for the metallic-filament lamp with Osmium filament. 1899: Married Marie Nimpfer in Helgoland. 1902: Market introduction of the "Auer-Oslight" the first industrial finished Osmium metallic-filament lamp using the paste method. The advantages of this metallic-filament lamp over the, at that period of time, widely used carbon-filament lamp were: 57% less electricity consumption; less blackening of the glass; because of the higher filament temperature, a "whiter" light; a longer life span and therefore more economic. The beginning of the investigation of spark giving metals with the aim ignition mechanisms for lighters, gas lighters and gas lamps as well as projectile and mine ignition. Carl Auer von Welsbach knew of the possibility to produce sparks by mechanical means from Cerium from his teacher Prof. Bunsen. The ascertainment of the optimal compound from Cerium-Iron alloys for spark production. 1903: The taking out of a patent for his pyrophoric alloys (by scratching with hard and sharp surfaces a splinter which could ignite itself.) In the patent specification 70% Cerium and 30% Iron was given as an optimal compound. Further development of a method to produce the latter alloy cheaply. The optimizing of Bunsen, Hillebrand and Norton´s procedure, used at that time mainly for producing Cerium, was based on the fusion electrolysis from smelted Rare Earth chlorides. The problem at that time was in the leading of the electrolysis to secrete a pore-free and long lasting metal. This was the first industrial process and commercial utilization of the rare earth metals. 30th of March 1905: A report to the "Akademie der Wissenschaften" in Vienna that the results of the spectroscopic analysis show that Ytterbium is made up of two elements. Auer named the elements after the stars Aldebaranium and Cassiopeium. He ommitted the publication of the attained spectras and the ascertained atomic weights. 1907: The founding of the "Treibacher Chemische Werke GesmbH" in Treibach-Althofen for the production of Ferrocerium- lighter flints under the trade name "Original Auermetall". The publication of the spectras and the atomic weights of both new, from Ytterbium separated elements, in the completion of his report to the Academie der Wissenschaften. Priority dispute with the french Chemist Urbain concerning the analysis of Ytterbium. 1908: The solution of the electrolysis of fused salts (cerium chloride) problem, at which the minerals Cerit and Allanite are used as source substances. 1909: The adaption of the procedure, from his collaborator, Dr.Fattinger, to be able to use the Monazitsand residue out of the incandescent mantle production, for the production of cerium metal for the lighter flints. The production of three different pyrophoric alloys: "Cer" or Auermetall I : Alloy out of fairly pure Cerium and Iron. Used for igniting purposes. "Lanthan" or Auermetall II : The Cerium-Iron alloy enriched with the element Lanthan. Used for light signals because of its particularly bright sparking power. Erdmetall or Auermetall III : Alloy out of Iron and "natural" Cermischmetall; a rare earth metal alloy of corresponding natural deposits. Both of the first alloys could not win its way through the market. only the easy to produce Erdmetall, after the renaming it Auermetall I, obtained world wide status as the flint in the lighter industry. 1909: The International Atomic weight Commission decided in favour of Urbain´s publication instead of Auer´s because Urbain handed it in earlier. The Commission of the term from Urbain Neoytterbium- known today as Ytterbium and Lutetium for the new elements. The carrying-out of large scale chemical separations in the field of radioactive substances. The production of different preparations of Uran, Ionium (known today as Th230 isotop), a disintegration product in the Uranium-Radium-line, Polonium and Aktinium, that Auer made available, for research use, to such renowned Institutions and scientists as F.W.Aston and Ernest Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge (1921) and the "Radiuminstitut der Akademie der Wissenschaften" in Vienna. 1922: A report on his spectroscopic discoveries to the "Akademie der Wissenschaften" in Vienna. 1929:World-wide production of ligther flints reached 100,000 kg. 8th of April 1929: Carl Auer von Welsbach died at the age of 70.

Ethics of dementia research What are clinical trials and how are they controlled/governed? A clinical trial is a biomedical/health-related study into the effects on humans of a new medical treatment (medicine/drug, medical device, vaccine or new therapy), sometimes called an investigational medicinal product (IMP). Before a new drug is authorised and can be marketed, it must pass through several phases of development including trial phases in which its safety, efficacy, risks, optimal use and/or benefits are tested on human beings. Existing drugs must also undergo clinical testing before they can be used to treat other conditions than that for which they were originally intended. Organisations conducting clinical trials in the European Union must, if they wish to obtain marketing authorisation, respect the requirements for the conduct of clinical trials. These can be found in the Clinical Trials Directive (“Directive 2001/20/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 April 2001 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States relating to the implementation of good clinical practice in the conduct of clinical trials on medicinal products for human use”). There are also guidelines to ensure that clinical trials are carried out in accordance with good clinical practice. These are contained in the “Commission Directive 2005/28/EC of 8 April 2005 laying down principles and detailed guidelines for good clinical practice as regards investigational medicinal products for human use, as well as the requirements for authorisation of the manufacturing or importation of such products” (also known as the Good Clinical Practice or GCP for short). This document provides more concrete guidelines and lends further support to the Clinical Trials Directive. The London-based European Medicines Agency (EMA) has published additional, more specific guidelines which must also be respected. These include guidelines on inspection procedures and requirements related to quality, safety and efficacy. Copies of the above-mentioned documents in 22 languages can be found at: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/pharmaceuticals/clinicaltrials/clinicaltrials_en.htm The protection of people participating in clinical trials (and in most cases in other types of research) is further promoted by provisions of: - the European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (Oviedo Convention, Act 2619/1998), - the Additional protocol to the Oviedo Convention concerning Biomedical Research - the Nuremberg Code of 1949, - the revised Helsinki Declaration of the World Medical Association regarding Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects, - The Belmont Report of 18 April 1979 on the Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. What are the different phases of trials? Testing an experimental drug or medical procedure is usually an extremely lengthy process, sometimes lasting several years. The overall procedure is divided into a series of stages (known as phases) which are described below. Clinical testing on humans can only begin after a pre-clinical phase, involving laboratory studies (in vitro) and tests on animals, which has shown that the experimental drug is considered safe and effective. Whilst a certain amount of testing can be carried out by means of computer modelling and by isolating cells and tissue, it becomes necessary at some point in time to test the drug on a living creature. Animal testing is an obligatory stage in the process of obtaining regulatory approval for new drugs and medicines, and hence a legal requirement (EU Directive 2001/83/EC relating to Medicinal Products for Human Use). The necessity of carrying out prior testing on animals is also stated in the World Medical Association’s “Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. In order to protect the well-being of research animals, researchers are guided by three principles which are called the 3Rs: Reduce the number of animals used to a minimum Refine the way that experiments are carried out so that the effect on the animal is minimised and animal welfare is improved Replace animal experiments with alternative (non-animal) techniques wherever possible. In addition, most countries will have official regulatory bodies which control animal research. Most animals involved in research are mice. However, no animal is sufficiently similar to humans (even genetically modified ones) to make human testing unnecessary. For this reason, the experimental drug must also be tested on humans. The main phases of clinical trials Clinical trials on humans can be divided into three main phases (literally, phase I, II and III). Each phase has specific objectives (please see below) and the number of people involved increases as the trial progresses from one phase to the next. Phase I trials Phase 1 trials are usually the first step in testing a new drug or treatment on humans after successful laboratory and animal testing. They are usually quite small scale and usually involve healthy subjects or sub-groups of patients who share a particular characteristic. The aims of these trials are: - to assess the safety of experimental drugs, - to evaluate any possible side effects, - to determine a safe dose range, - to see how the body reacts to the drug (how it is absorbed, distributed and eliminated from the body, the effects that it has on the body and the effects it has on biomarkers). Dose ranging, sometimes called dose escalation, studies may be used as a means to determine the most appropriate dosage, but the doses administered to the subjects should only be a fraction of those which were found to cause harm to animals in the pre-clinical studies. The process of determining an optimal dose in phase I involves quite a high degree of risk because this is the first time that the experimental treatment or drug has been administered to humans. Moreover, healthy people’s reactions to drugs may be different to those of the target patient group. For this reason, drugs which are considered to have a potentially high toxicity are usually tested on people from the target patient group. There are a few sequential approaches to phase I trials e.g. single ascending dose studies, multiple ascending dose studies and food effect. In single ascending dose studies (SAD), a small group of subjects receive a very low dose of the experimental drug and are then observed in order to see whether that dose results in side effects. For this reason, trials are usually conducted in hospital settings. If no adverse side effects are observed, a second group of subjects are given a slightly higher dose of the same drug and also monitored for side-effects. This process is repeated until a dose is reached which results in intolerable side effects. This is defined as the maximum tolerated dose (MTD). Multiple ascending dose studies (MAD) are designed to test the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of multiple doses of the experimental drug. A group of subjects receives multiple doses of the drug, starting at the lowest dose and working up to a pre-determined level. At various times during the period of administration of the drug, and particularly whenever the dose is increased, samples of blood and other bodily fluids are taken. These samples are analysed in order to determine how the drug is processed within the body and how well it is tolerated by the body. Food effect studies are investigations into the effect of food intake on the absorption of the drug into the body. This involves two groups of subjects being given the same dose of the experimental drug but for one of the groups when fasting and for the other after a meal. Alternatively, this could be done in a cross-over design whereby both groups receive the experimental drug in both conditions in sequence (e.g. when fasting and on another occasion after a meal). Food effect studies allow researchers to see whether eating before the drug is given has any effect on the absorption of the drug by the body. Phase II trials Having demonstrated the initial safety of the drug (often on a relatively small sample of healthy individuals), phase II clinical trials can begin. Phase II studies are designed to explore the therapeutic efficacy of a treatment or drug in people who have the condition that the drug is intended to treat. They are sometimes called therapeutic exploratory trials and tend to be larger scale than Phase I trials. Phase II trials can be divided into Phase IIA and Phase IIB although sometimes they are combined. Phase IIA is designed to assess dosing requirements i.e. how much of the drug should patients receive and up to what dose is considered safe? The safety assessments carried out in Phase I can be repeated on a larger subject group. As more subjects are involved, some may experience side effects which none of the subjects in the Phase I experienced. The researchers aim to find out more about safety, side effects and how to manage them. Phase IIB studies focus on the efficacy of the drug i.e. how well it works at the prescribed doses. Researchers may also be interested in finding out which types of a specific disease or condition would be most suitable for treatment. Phase II trials can be randomised clinical trials which involve one group of subjects being given the experimental drug and others receiving a placebo and/or standard treatment. Alternatively, they may be case series which means that the drug’s safety and efficacy is tested in a selected group of patients. If the researchers have adequately demonstrated that the experimental drug (or device) is effective against the condition for which it is being tested, they can proceed to Phase III. Phase III trials Phase III trials are the last stage before clinical approval for a new drug or device. By this stage, there will be convincing evidence of the safety of the drug or device and its efficacy in treating people who have the condition for which it was developed. Such studies are carried out on a much larger scale than for the two previous phases and are often multinational. Several years may have passed since the original laboratory and animal testing. The main aims of Phase III trials are: to demonstrate that the treatment or drug is safe and effective for use in patients in the target group (i.e. in people for whom it is intended) to monitor side effects to test different doses or different ways of administering the drug to determine whether the drug could be used at different stages of the disease. to provide sufficient information as a basis for marketing approval Researchers may also be interested in showing that the experimental drug works for additional groups of people with conditions other than that for which the drug was initially developed. For example, they may be interested in testing a drug for inflammation on people with Alzheimer’s disease. The drug would have already have proven safe and obtained marketing approval but for a different condition, hence the need for additional clinical testing. Open label extension trails Open label extension studies are often carried out immediately after a double blind randomised clinical trial of an unlicensed drug. The aim of the extended study is to determine the safety and tolerability of the experimental drug over a longer period of time, which is generally longer than the initial trial and may extend up until the drug is licensed. Participants all receive the experimental drug irrespective of which arm of the previous trial they were in. Consequently, the study is no longer blind in that everybody knows that each participant is receiving the experimental drug but the participants and researchers still do not know which group participants were in during the initial trial. Post-marketing surveillance studies (phase IV) After the three phases of clinical testing and after the treatment has been approved for marketing, there may be a fourth phase to study the long-term effects of drugs or treatment or to study the impact of another factor in combination with the treatment (e.g. whether a particular drug reduces agitation). Usually, such trials are sponsored by pharmaceutical companies and described as pharmacovigilance. They are not as common as the other types of trials (as they are not necessary for marketing permission). However, in some cases, the EMA grants restricted or provisional marketing authorisation, which is dependent on additional phase IV trails being conducted. Expanded access to a trial Sometimes, a person might be likely to benefit from a drug which is at various stages of testing but does not fulfil the conditions necessary for participation in the trial (e.g. s/he may have other health problems). In such cases and if the person has a life-threatening or serious condition for which there is no effective treatment, s/he may benefit from “expanded access” use of the drug. There must, however, be evidence that the drug under investigation has some likelihood of being effective for that patient and that taking it would not constitute an unreasonable risk. The use of placebo and other forms of comparison The main purpose of clinical drug studies is to distinguish the effect of the trial drug from other influences such as spontaneous change in the course of the disease, placebo effect, or biased observation. A valid comparison must be made with a control. The American Food and Drugs Administration recognises different types of control namely, - active treatment with a known effective therapy or - no treatment, - historical treatment (which could be an adequately documented natural history of the disease or condition, or the results of active treatment in comparable patients or populations). The EMA considers three-armed trials (including the experimental medicine, a placebo and an active control) as a scientific gold standard and that there are multiple reasons to support their use in drug development . Participants in clinical trials are usually divided into two or more groups. One group receives the active treatment with the experimental substance and the other group receives a placebo, a different drug or another intervention. The active treatment is expected to have a positive curative effect whereas the placebo is expected to have zero effect. With regard to the aim to develop more effective treatments, there are two possibilities: 1. the experimental substance is more effective than the current treatment or 2. it is more effective than no treatment at all. According to article 11 of the International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research (IEGBR) of 2002, participants allocated to the control group in a trial for a diagnostic, therapeutic or preventive intervention should receive an established effective intervention but it may in some circumstances be considered ethically acceptable to use a placebo (i.e. no treatment). In article 11 of the IEGBR, reasons for the use of placebo are: 1. that there is no established intervention 2. that withholding an established effective intervention would expose subjects to, at most, temporary discomfort or delay in relief of symptoms 3. that use of an established effective intervention as comparator would not yield scientifically reliable results and use of placebo would not add any risk of serious or irreversible harm to the subjects. November 2010, EMA/759784/2010 Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use The use of placebo and the issue of irreversible harm It has been suggested that clinical trials are only acceptable in ethical terms if there is uncertainty within the medical community as to which treatment is most suitable to cure or treat a disease (National Bioethics Commission of Greece, 2005). In the case of dementia, whilst there is no cure, there are a few drugs for the symptomatic treatment of dementia. Consequently, one could ask whether it is ethical to deprive a group of participants of treatment which would have most likely improved their condition for the purpose of testing a potentially better drug (National Bioethics Commission of Greece, 2005). Can they be expected to sacrifice their own best interests for those of other people in the future? It is also important to ask whether not taking an established effective intervention is likely to result in serious or irreversible harm. In the 2008 amended version of the Helsinki Declaration (World Medical Association, 1964), the possible legitimate use of placebo and the need to protect subjects from harm are addressed. “32. The benefits, risks, burdens and effectiveness of a new intervention must be tested against those of the best current proven intervention, except in the following circumstances: The use of placebo, or no treatment, is acceptable in studies where no current proven intervention exists; or Where for compelling and scientifically sound methodological reasons the use of placebo is necessary to determine the efficacy or safety of an intervention and the patients who receive placebo or no treatment will not be subject to any risk of serious or irreversible harm. Extreme care must be taken to avoid abuse of this option.” (WMA, 1964 with amendments up to 2008) The above is also quite similar to the position supported by the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues (PCSBI) (2011). In its recently published report entitled “Moral science: protecting participants in human subjects research ”, the Presidential Commission argues largely in favour of a “middle ground” for ethical research, citing the work of Emanuel and Miller (2001) who state: “A placebo-controlled trial can sometimes be considered ethical if certain methodological and ethical standards are met. It these standards cannot be met, then the use of placebos in a clinical trial is unethical.” (Emanuel and Miller, 2001 cited in PCSBI, 2011, p. 89). One of the standards mentioned is the condition that withholding proven effective treatment will not cause more than minimal harm. The importance of placebo groups for drug development The ethical necessity to include a placebo arm in a clinical trial may differ depending on the type of drug being developed and whether other comparable drugs exist. For example, a placebo arm would be absolutely necessary in the testing of a new compound for which no drug has yet been developed. This would be combined with comparative arms involving other alternative drugs which have already been proven effective. For studies involving the development of a drug based on an existing compound, a comparative trial would be necessary but not necessarily with a placebo arm, or at least with a smaller placebo arm Nevertheless, the EMA emphasises the value of placebo-controlled trials in the development of new medicinal products even in cases where a proven effective drug exists: “forbiddingplacebo-controlled trials in therapeutic areas where there are proven, therapeutic methods would preclude obtaining reliable scientific evidence for the evaluation of new medicinal products, and be contrary to public health interest as there is a need for both new products and alternatives to existing medicinal products.” (EMA, 2001). In 2001, concerns were raised about the interpretation of paragraph 29 of the 2000 version of the Helsinki Declaration in which prudence was called for in the use of placebo in research trials and it was advised that placebo should only be used in cases where there was no proven therapy for the condition under investigation. A document clarifying the position of the WMA regarding the use of placebo was issued by the WMA in 2001 in which it was made clear that the use of placebo might be ethically acceptable even if proven therapy was available. The current version of this statement is article 32 of the 2008 revised Helsinki Declaration (quoted in sub-section 7.2.1). The PCSBI (2011) highlight the importance of ensuring that the design of clinical trials enables the researchers to resolve controversy and uncertainty over the merits of the trial drug and whether the trial drug is better than an existing drug if there is one. They suggest that studies which cannot resolve such questions or uncertainty are likely to be ignored by the scientific community and this would be unethical as it would mean that people had been unnecessarily exposed to risk without there being any social benefit. Reasons for participation People with dementia who take part in clinical trials may do so for a variety of reasons. One possible reason is that they hope to receive some form of treatment that will improve their condition or even result in a cure. This is sometimes called the “therapeutic misconception”. In such cases, clinical trials may seem unethical in that advantage is being taken of the vulnerability of some of the participants. On the other hand, the possibility of participating in such a trial may help foster hope which may even enable a person to maintain their morale. A review of 61 studies on attitudes to trials has shed some light on why people participate in clinical trials (Edwards, Lilford and Hewison, 1998). In this review, it was found that over 60% of participants in seven studies stated that they did or would participate in clinical trials for altruistic reasons. However, in 4 studies, over 70% of people stated that they participated out of self-interest and in two studies over 50% of people stated that they would participate in such a study out of self-interest. As far as informed consent is concerned, in two studies (which were also part of this review) 47% of responding doctors thought that few patients were actually aware that they were taking part in a clinical trial. On the other hand, an audit of four further studies revealed that at least 80% of participants felt that they had made an autonomous decision. There is no proof whether such perceptions were accurate or not. The authors conclude that self-interest was more common than altruism amongst the reasons given for participating in clinical trials but draw attention to the poor quality of some of the studies reviewed thereby suggesting the need for further research. It should not be necessary for people to justify why they are willing to participate in clinical trials. Reasons for participating in research are further discussed in section 3.2.4 insofar as they relate to end-of-life research. In a series of focus groups organised in 8 European countries plus Israel and covering six conditions including dementia, helping others was seen as the main reason why people wanted to take part in clinical trials (Bartlam et al., 2010). In a US trial of anti-inflammatory medication in Alzheimer’s disease in which 402 people were considered eligible, of the 359 who accepted, their main reasons for wanting to participate were altruism, personal benefit and family history of Alzheimer’s disease. Random assignment to study groups As people are randomly assigned to the placebo or the active treatment group, everyone has an equal chance of receiving the active ingredient or whichever other control groups are included in the study. There are possible advantages and drawbacks to being in each group and people are likely to have preferences for being a particular study group but randomization means that allocation is not in any way linked to the best interests of each participant from a medical perspective. This is not an ethical issue provided that each participant fully understands that the purpose of research is not to provide a tailor-made response to an individual’s medical condition and that while some participants benefit from participation, others do not. There are, however, medical issues to consider. In the case in double-blind studies, neither the participant nor the investigator knows to which groups a participant has been allocated. Consequently, if a participant encounters medical problems during the study, it is not immediately known whether this is linked to the trial drug or another unrelated factor, but the problems must be addressed and possible contraindications avoided, which may necessitate “de-blinding” (DuBois, 2008). Although many people would perhaps like to benefit from a new drug which is more effective than existing drugs, people have different ideas about what is an acceptable risk and different reasons for taking part in clinical trials. People who receive the placebo are not exposed to the same potential risks as those given the experimental drug. On the other hand, they have no possibility to benefit from the advantages the drug may offer. Those receiving a drug commonly considered as the standard therapy are not necessarily better off than those receiving a placebo as some participants may already know that they do not respond well to the accepted treatment (DuBois, 2008). If people who participate in a clinical trial are not informed which arm of the trial they were in, valuable information is lost which might have otherwise contributed towards to treatment decisions made after the clinical trial. Taylor and Wainwright (2005) suggest that “unblinding” should occur at the end of all studies and so as not to interfere with the analysis of data, this could be done by a person who is totally independent of the analysis. This would, however, have implications for open label extended trials as in that case participants, whilst better equipped to give informed consent would have more information than the researchers and this might be conveyed to researchers in anad hocmanner. Open label extension trails Open label extension studies (mentioned in sub-section 7.1.8) seem quite fair as they give each participant the opportunity to freely consent to continuing with the study in the full knowledge that s/he will receive the experimental drug. However, Taylor and Wainwright (2005) have highlighted a couple of ethical concerns linked to the consent process, the scientific value of such studies and issues linked to access to drugs at the end of the prior study. With regard to consent, they argue that people may have had a positive or negative experience of the trial but do not know whether this was due to the experimental drug, another drug or a placebo. They may nevertheless base their decision whether to continue on their experience so far. For those who were not taking the experimental drug, their experience in the follow-up trial may turn out to be very different. Also, if they are told about the possibility of the open label extension trial when deciding whether or not to take part in the initial trial (i.e. with the implication that whatever group they are ascribed to, in the follow-up study they will be guaranteed the experimental drug), this might induce them to participate in the initial study which could be considered as a form of subtle coercion. Finally, researchers may be under pressure to recruit as they can only recruit people in an open label extended trial who took part in the initial study. This may lead them in turn to put pressure (even inadvertently) on participants to continue with the study. The scientific validity of open label extension trials is questioned by Taylor and Wainwright (2005) on the grounds that people from the experimental arm of the first study who did not tolerate the drug would be unlikely to participate in the extension trial and this would lead to bias in the results. In addition, open-label trials often lack a precise duration other than “until the drug is licensed” which casts doubt on there being a valid research purpose. The above authors suggest that open label extension studies are dressed up marketing activities which lack the ethical justification for biomedical research which is the prospect of finding new ways of benefiting people’s health. However, it could be argued that the aim of assessing long-term tolerability of a new drug is a worthwhile pursuit and if conducted in a scientific manner could be considered as research. Moreover, not all open label extension trials are open-ended with regard to their duration. The main problem in interpreting open label extension studies is that little is known about the natural course of the disease. Protecting participants’ well-being at the end of the clinical trial Some people who participate in a clinical trial and who receive the experimental drug experience an improvement in their condition. This is to be hoped even if benefit to the health of individuals is not the aim of the study. However, at the end of the study, the drug is not yet licenced and there is no legal right to continue taking it. This could be psychologically disturbing to the participants in the trial and also to their families who may have seen a marked improvement in their condition. Taylor and Wainwright (2005) suggest that the open label trials may serve the purpose of prescribing an unlicensed drug on compassionate grounds, which whilst laudable, should not be camouflaged as scientific research. Rather governments should take responsibility and set up the appropriate legal mechanisms to make it possible for participants whose medical condition merits prolonged treatment with the experimental drug to have access to it. Minimising pain and discomfort Certain procedures to which people with dementia or their representatives consent may by burdensome or painful or simply worrying but in accordance with the principles of autonomy or justice/equity, people with dementia have the right to participate. The fact that they have made an informed decision to participate and are willing to tolerate such pain or burden does not release researchers from the obligation to try to minimise it. For example, if repeated blood samples are going to be necessary, an indwelling catheter could be inserted under local anaesthetic to make it easier or medical staff should provide reassurance about the use of various scanning equipment which might be worrying or enable the person’s carer to be present. In order to minimize fear, trained personnel are needed who have experience dealing with people with dementia. The advice of the carer, if there is one, could also be sought. Drug trials in countries with less developed safeguards Clinical trials are sometimes carried out in countries where safeguards are not well developed and where the participants and even the general population are likely to have less possibility to benefit from the results of successful trials. For example, some countries have not signed the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine (1997) (referred to in section 188.8.131.52). The participants in those countries may be exposed to possible risks but have little chance of future medical benefit if the trial is successful. Yet people in countries with stricter safeguards for participants (which are often richer countries) stand to benefit from their efforts and from the risks they take, as they are more likely to be able to afford the drugs once developed. This raises ethical issues linked to voluntariness because there may be, in addition to the less developed safeguards, factors which make participation in such trials more attractive to potential participants. Such practices also represent a lack of equity in the distribution of risk, burden and possible benefit within society and could be interpreted as using people as a means to an end. Parallels can also be drawn to the situation whereby people in countries where stem cell research is banned profit from the results of studies carried out in countries where it is permitted or to the results of studies carried out in countries where research ethics are slack or inexistent. For a detailed discussion of the ethical issues linked to the involvement in research of people in other countries, particularly lower and middle income countries where standards of protection may by lower, please refer to the afore-mentioned report by the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues. - Researchers should consider including a placebo arm in clinical trials when there are compelling and sound methodological reasons for doing so. - Researchers should ensure that patients are aware that the aim of a randomised controlled trial is to test a hypothesis and provide generalizable knowledge leading to the development of a medical drug or procedure. They should explain how this differs from medical treatment and care which are aimed at enhancing the health and wellbeing of individual patients and where there is a reasonable expectation that this will be successful. - Researchers should ensure that potential participants understand that they may be allocated to the placebo group. - It should not be presumed that the treating doctor or contact person having proposed the participant for a trial has been successful in communicating the above information. - Researchers conducting clinical trials may need training in how to ensure effective communication with people with dementia. - Appropriate measures should be taken by researchers to minimize fear, pain and discomfort of participants. - All participants should, when possible, preferably have the option of receiving the experimental drug (if proven safe) after completion of the study. - Pharmaceutical companies should not be discouraged from carrying out open-label extension studies but this should not be the sole possibility for participants to access the trial drug after the end of the study if it is proving beneficial to them. - In multi-centre clinical trials, where data is transferred to another country in which data protection laws are perhaps less severe, the data should be treated as stated in the consent form signed by the participant. Last Updated: jeudi 29 mars 2012

Dante Alighieri was the greatest Italian poet and one of the most important European writers. Dante live through the years of 1265 – 1321. He has a very unique way of writing and started his works at the age of 35. Dante wrote La Divina Comedia based on the era he live through and all the knowledge of his lifetime was imbedded in his works. In this specific work he writes about a journey which he wishes to better understand the afterlife receive his salvation. Throughout his journey Virgil was his guide and taught him all about the nine circles of hell and the punishments that the sinners received in each circle. Dante was a very powerful writer and his writing has many significant symbols to many different objects. This story is very complex and interesting to read and understand each After Dante exits hell with his guide Virgil, he arrives into Purgatory. Purgatory is the in between where Dante sees sinners being punished. Each sin has a different punishment depending on the sin. Purgatory is a place where sinners temporarily get punished in order to purify themselves and be ready for heaven. There these people learn the mistakes they have made and realize the seriousness of their sins and prepare to enter heaven/paradise. Virgil guides Dante throughout purgatory and leads him to paradise where Beatrice will be there to guide him to A very important character of the Divine Comedy is Virgil. Virgil is Dante’s guide throughout Purgatory. Virgil is a very helpful guide and is a poet whom Dante looked up to. Virgil symbolized human reason and taught Dante everything he knows about the inferno and purgatory. Virgil is in the first realm of hell, limbo. He is in limbo because he is a pagan and was never baptized. Virgil takes Dante through each circle and describes each circle, the reason people are there and describes each punishment. Virgil protects Dante from the leaders of each circle as...

On Friday, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) released a new report identifying interventions that can help increase physical activity in youth aged 3-17 years across a variety of settings. The primary audiences for the report are policymakers, health care providers, and public health professionals. APTA submitted comments in December 2012 on the draft report. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Midcourse Report: Strategies to Increase Physical Activity Among Youth summarizes intervention strategies based on the evidence from literature reviews and is organized into 5 settings where youth live, learn, and play: school, preschool and childcare, community, family and home, and primary health care. Key findings of the report suggest that: Other materials released by HHS include an infographic highlighting opportunities to increase physical activity throughout the day and a youth fact sheet summarizing the report's recommendations for youth aged 6-17 years. More information can be found at www.health.gov/paguidelines/midcourse/. APTA has long supported HHS' efforts to increase awareness about the benefits of physical activity. It provided input on the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americansrelated to the importance of considering physical activity needs and barriers for people with disabilities. It also served on the Physical Activity Guidelines Reaction Group. The association also contributes to the Be Active Your Way Blog. therapists (PTs) and physical therapist assistants (PTAs), especially those who have patients with wounds, are encouraged to take steps to protect their most vulnerable patients from carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), a family of germs that have become difficult to treat because they have high levels of resistance to antibiotics. In addition to patients at high risks, PTs and PTAs should take all necessary precautions to prevent the spread of CRE to According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), CRE are resistant to all, or nearly all, antibiotics—even the most powerful drugs of last-resort. CRE also have high mortality rates, killing 1 in 2 patients who get bloodstream infections from them. Additionally, CRE easily transfer their antibiotic resistance to other bacteria. For example, carbapenem-resistant klebsiella can spread its drug-destroying properties to a normal E. coli bacteria, which makes the E.coli resistant to antibiotics also. "That could create a nightmare scenario since E. coli is the most common cause of urinary tract infections in healthy people," CRE are usually transmitted person-to-person, often on the hands of health care workers. Currently, almost all CRE infections occur in people receiving significant medical care. However, their ability to spread and their resistance raises the concern that potentially untreatable infections could appear in otherwise healthy people, including health care providers. includes resources for patients, providers, and facilities. The agency's CRE prevention toolkit has in-depth recommendations to control CRE transmission in hospitals, long-term acute care facilities, and is in the process of updating its Infectious Disease Control webpage to ensure that PTs and PTAs have the information they need to understand their critical role in helping to halt the spread of CRE. Look for a follow-up article in News Now when the webpage is launched. has selected 9 association members to serve on the PTA Education Feasibility Study Work Group: Wendy Bircher, PT, EdD (NM), Derek Brandes (WA), Barbara Carter, PTA (WI), Martha Hinman, PT, EdD (TX), Mary Lou Romanello, PT, PhD, ATC (MD), Steven Skinner, PT, EdD (NY), Lisa Stejskal, PTA, MAEd (IL), Jennifer Whitney, PT, DPT, KEMG (CA), and Geneva Johnson, PT, PhD, FAPTA (LA). The work group is addressing the motion Feasibility Study for Transitioning to an Entry-Level Baccalaureate Physical Therapist Assistant Degree (RC 20-12) from the 2012 House of Delegates. The work group will address the first phase of the study, finalizing the study plan and identifying relevant data sources for exploring the feasibility of transitioning the entry-level degree for the PTA to a bachelor's degree. APTA supporting staff members are Janet Crosier, PT, DPT, MEd, lead PTA services specialist; Janet Bezner, PT, PhD, vice president of education and governance and administration; Doug Clarke, accreditation PTA programs manager; and Libby Ross, director of than 200 individuals volunteered to serve on the work group by submitting their names to the Volunteer Interest Pool (VIP). APTA expects to engage additional members in the data collection process.

Outmaneuvering Foodborne Pathogens At various locations, ARS scientists are doing research to make leafy greens and other fresh produce safer for consumers. Produce and leafy greens in the photo are (clockwise from top): romaine lettuce, cabbage, cilantro in a bed of broccoli sprouts, spinach and other leafy greens, green onions, tomatoes, and green leaf lettuce. If pathogens like E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella had a motto for survival, it might be: “Find! Bind! Multiply!” That pretty much sums up what these food-poisoning bacteria do in nature, moving through our environment to find a host they can bind to and use as a staging area for multiplying and spreading. But ARS food-safety scientists in California are determined to find out how to stop these and other foodborne pathogenic bacteria in their tracks, before the microbes can make their way to leafy greens and other favorite salad ingredients like tomatoes and sprouts. The research is needed to help prevent the pathogens from turning up in fresh produce that we typically eat uncooked. That’s according to Robert E. Mandrell, who leads the ARS Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit. His team is based at the agency’s Western Regional Research Center in Albany, California. The team is pulling apart the lives of these microbes to uncover the secrets of their success. It’s a complex challenge, in part because the microbes seem to effortlessly switch from one persona to the next. They are perhaps best known as residents of the intestines of warm-blooded animals, including humans. For another role, the pathogens have somehow learned to find, bind, and multiply in the world of green plants. Sometimes the pathogenic microbes need the help of other microbial species to make the jump from animal inhabitant to plant resident. Surprisingly little is known about these powerful partnerships, Mandrell says. That’s why such alliances among microbes are one of several specific aspects of the pathogens’ lifestyles that the Albany scientists are investigating. In all, knowledge gleaned from these and other laboratory, greenhouse, and outdoor studies should lead to new, effective, environmentally friendly ways to thwart the pathogens before they have a chance to make us ill. In a greenhouse, microbiologist Maria Brandl examines cilantro that she uses as a model plant to investigate the behavior of foodborne pathogens on leaf surfaces. A Pathogen Targets Youngest Leaves Knowing pathogens’ preferences is essential to any well-planned counter-attack. So microbiologist Maria T. Brandl is scrutinizing the little-understood ability of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica to contaminate the elongated, slightly sweet leaves of romaine lettuce. With a University of California-Berkeley colleague, Brandl has shown that, if given a choice, E. coli has a strong preference for the young, inner leaves. The researchers exposed romaine lettuce leaves to E. coli and found that the microbe multiplied about 10 times more on the young leaves than on the older, middle ones. One explanation: The young leaves are a better nutrition “buy” for E. coli. “These leaves exude about three times more nitrogen and about one-and-one-half times more carbon than do the middle leaves,” says Brandl. Scientists have known for decades that plants exude compounds from their leaves and roots that bacteria and fungi can use as food. But the romaine lettuce study, published earlier this year in Applied and Environmental Microbiology, is the first to document the different exudate levels among leaves of the two age classes. It’s also the first to show that E. coli can do more than just bind to lettuce leaves: It can multiply and spread on them. Research assistant Danielle Goudeau inoculates a lettuce leaf with E. coli O157:H7 in a biological safety cabinet to study the biology of the human pathogen on leafy greens. Adding nitrogen to the middle leaves boosted E. coli growth, Brandl found. “In view of the key role of nitrogen in helping E. coli multiply on young leaves,” she says, “a strategy that minimizes use of nitrogen fertilizer in romaine lettuce fields may be worth investigating.” In other studies using romaine lettuce and the popular herb cilantro as models, Brandl documented the extent to which E. coli and Salmonella are aided by Erwinia chrysanthemi, an organism that causes fresh produce to rot. “When compared to plant pathogens, E. coli and Salmonella are not as ‘fit’ on plants,” Brandl says. But the presence of the rot-producing microbe helped E. coli and Salmonella grow on lettuce and cilantro leaves. “Soft rot promoted formation of large aggregates, called ‘biofilms,’ of E. coli and Salmonella and increased their numbers by up to 100-fold,” she notes. The study uncovered new details about genes that the food-poisoning pathogens kick into action when teamed up with plant pathogens such as soft rot microbes. Brandl, in collaboration with Albany microbiologist Craig Parker, used a technique known as “microarray analysis” to spy on the genes. “The assays showed that Salmonella cells—living in soft rot lesions on lettuce and cilantro—had turned on some of the exact same genes that Salmonella uses when it infects humans or colonizes the intestines of animals,” she says. Some of these activated genes were ones that Salmonella uses to get energy from several natural compounds common to both green plants and to the animal intestines that Salmonella calls home. Using a confocal laser scanning microscope, microbiologist Maria Brandl examines a mixed biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green) in soft rot lesions on cilantro leaves (blue). A One-Two Punch to Tomatoes Salmonella also benefits from the presence of another plant pathogen, specifically, Xanthomonas campestris, the culprit in a disease known as “bacterial leaf spot of tomato.” But the relationship between Salmonella and X. campestris may be different than the relation of Salmonella to the soft rot pathogen. Notably, Salmonella benefits even if the bacterial spot pathogen is at very low levels—so low that the plant doesn’t have the disease or any visible symptoms of it. That’s among the first-of-a-kind findings that microbiologist Jeri D. Barak found in her tests with tomato seeds exposed to the bacterial spot microbe and then planted in soil that had been irrigated with water contaminated with S. enterica. In a recent article in PLoS ONE, Barak reported that S. enterica populations were significantly higher in tomato plants that had also been colonized by X. campestris. In some cases, Salmonella couldn’t bind to and grow on—or in—tomato plants without the presence of X. campestris, she found. Listeria monocytogenes on this broccoli sprout shows up as green fluorescence. The bacteria are mainly associated with the root hairs. “We think that X. campestris may disable the plant immune response—a feat that allows both it and Salmonella to multiply,” she says. The study was the first to report that even as long as 6 weeks after soil was flooded with Salmonella-contaminated water, the microbe was capable of binding to tomato seeds planted in the tainted soil and, later, of spreading to the plant. “These results suggest that any contamination that introduces Salmonella from any source into the environment—whether that source is irrigation water, improperly composted manure, or even insects—could lead to subsequent crop contamination,” Barak says. “That’s true even if substantial time has passed since the soil was first contaminated.” Crop debris can also serve as a reservoir of viable Salmonella for at least a week, Barak’s study showed. For her investigation, the debris was composed of mulched, Salmonella-contaminated tomato plants mixed with uncontaminated soil. “Replanting fields shortly after harvesting the previous crop is a common practice in farming of lettuce and tomatoes,” she says. The schedule allows only a very short time for crop debris to decompose. “Our results suggest that fields known to have been contaminated with S. enterica could benefit from an extended fallow period, perhaps of at least a few weeks.” Ordinary Microbe Foils E. coli While the bacterial spot and soft rot microbes make life easier for certain foodborne pathogens, other microbes may make the pathogens’ existence more difficult. Geneticist Michael B. Cooley and microbiologist William G. Miller at Albany have shown the remarkable effects of one such microbe, Enterobacter asburiae. This common, farm-and-garden-friendly microorganism lives peaceably on beans, cotton, and cucumbers. In one experiment, E. asburiae significantly reduced levels of E. coli and Salmonella when all three species of microbes were inoculated on seeds of thale cress, a small plant often chosen for laboratory tests. The study, published in Applied and Environmental Microbiology in 2003, led to followup experiments with green leaf lettuce. In that battle of the microbes, another rather ordinary bacterium, Wausteria paucula, turned out to be E. coli’s new best friend, enhancing the pathogen’s survival sixfold on lettuce leaves. “It was the first clear example of a microbe’s supporting a human pathogen on a plant,” notes Cooley, who documented the findings in the Journal of Food Protection in 2006. But E. asburiae more than evened the score, decreasing E. coli survival 20- to 30-fold on lettuce leaves exposed to those two species of microbes. The mechanisms underlying the competition between E. asburiae and E. coli are still a mystery, says Cooley, “especially the competition that takes place on leaves or other plant surfaces.” Nevertheless, E. asburiae shows initial promise of becoming a notable biological control agent to protect fresh salad greens or other crops from pathogen invaders. With further work, the approach could become one of several science-based solutions that will help keep our salads safe.—By Marcia Wood, Agricultural Research Service Information Staff. This research is part of Food Safety, an ARS national program (#108) described on the World Wide Web at www.nps.ars.usda.gov. To reach scientists mentioned in this article, contact Marcia Wood, USDA-ARS Information Staff, 5601 Sunnyside Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705-5129; phone (301) 504-1662, fax (301) 504-1486. Listeria monocytogenes on this radish sprout shows up as green fluorescence. The bacteria are mainly associated with the root hairs. What Genes Help Microbes Invade Leafy Greens? When unwanted microbes form an attachment, the consequences—for us—can be serious. That’s if the microbes happen to be human pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes or Salmonella enterica and if the target of their attentions happens to be fresh vegetables often served raw, such as cabbage or the sprouted seeds of alfalfa. Scientists don’t yet fully understand how the malevolent microbes form colonies that cling stubbornly to and spread across plant surfaces, such as the bumpy leaves of a cabbage or the ultra-fine root hairs of a tender alfalfa sprout. But food safety researchers at the ARS Western Regional Research Center in Albany, California, are putting together pieces of the pathogen puzzle. A 1981 food-poisoning incident in Canada, caused by L. monocytogenes in coleslaw, led microbiologist Lisa A. Gorski to study the microbe’s interactions with cabbage. Gorski, with the center’s Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, used advanced techniques not widely available at the time of the cabbage contamination. “Very little is known about interactions between Listeria and plants,” says Gorski, whose study revealed the genes that Listeria uses during a successful cabbage-patch invasion. The result was the first-ever documentation of Listeria genes in action on cabbage leaves. Gorski, along with coinvestigator Jeffrey D. Palumbo—now with the center’s Plant Mycotoxin Research Unit—and others, documented the investigation in a 2005 article in Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Listeria, Behaving Badly “People had looked at genes that Listeria turns on, or ‘expresses,’ when it’s grown on agar gel in a laboratory,” says Gorski. “But no one had looked at genes that Listeria expresses when it grows on a vegetable. “We were surprised to find that when invading cabbage, Listeria calls into play some of the same genes routinely used by microbes that are conventionally associated with plants. Listeria is usually thought of as a pathogen of humans. We hadn’t really expected to see it behaving like a traditional, benign inhabitant of a green plant. “It’s still a relatively new face for Listeria, and requires a whole new way of thinking about it.” In related work, Gorski is homing in on genetic differences that may explain the widely varying ability of eight different Listeria strains to successfully colonize root hairs of alfalfa sprouts—and to resist being washed off by water. In a 2004 article in the Journal of Food Protection, Gorski, Palumbo, and former Albany associate Kimanh D. Nguyen reported those differences. Poorly attaching strains formed fewer than 10 Listeria cells per sprout during the lab experiment, while the more adept colonizers formed more than 100,000 cells per sprout. Salmonella’s Cling Genes Colleague Jeri D. Barak, a microbiologist at Albany, led another sprout investigation, this time probing the ability of S. enterica to attach to alfalfa sprouts. From a pool of 6,000 genetically different Salmonella samples, Barak, Gorski, and coinvestigators found 20 that were unable to attach strongly to sprouts. Scientists elsewhere had already identified some genes as necessary for Salmonella to successfully invade and attach to the guts of animals such as cows and chickens. In the Albany experiments, some of those same genes were disrupted in the Salmonella specimens that couldn’t cling to alfalfa sprouts. Their 2005 article in Applied and Environmental Microbiology helped set the stage for followup studies to tease out other genes that Salmonella uses when it is living on and in plants. A deeper understanding of those and other genes may lead to sophisticated defense strategies to protect tomorrow’s salad greens—and us.—By Marcia Wood, Agricultural Research Service Information Staff. Geneticist Michael Cooley collects a sediment sample to test for E. coli O157:H7. The pathogen was found near fields implicated in the 2006 outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 on baby spinach. Environmental Surveillance Exposes a Killer It started as a manhunt for a microbe, but it became one of the nation’s most intensive farmscape searches for the rogue pathogen E. coli O157:H7. ARS microbiologist Robert E. Mandrell and geneticist Michael B. Cooley of the Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit in Albany, California, had already been collaborating in their own small-scale study of potential sources of E. coli O157:H7 in the state’s produce-rich Salinas Valley when, in 2005, they were asked to join another one. The new investigation became a 19-month surveillance—by the two scientists and other federal and state experts—of E. coli in Salinas Valley watersheds. “It may seem like an obvious concept today,” says Mandrell, “but at the time, there was little proof that E. coli contamination of produce before harvest could be a major cause of food-poisoning outbreaks.” Mandrell and Cooley aided the California Food Emergency Response Team, as this food-detective squad was named, in tracing movement of E. coli through the fertile valley. This surveillance showed that E. coli O157:H7 can travel long distances in streamwater and floodwater. In 2006, E. coli O157:H7 strains indistinguishable from those causing human illness associated with baby spinach were discovered in environmental samples—including water—taken from a Salinas Valley ranch. Wild pigs were added to the list of animal carriers of the pathogen when one of the so-called “outbreak strains” of E. coli O157:H7 was discovered in their dung. The team documented its work in 2007 in PLoS ONE and Emerging Infectious Diseases. The Albany scientists used a relatively new technique to detect E. coli O157:H7 in water. Developed at the ARS Meat Animal Research Center in Clay Center, Nebraska, for animal hides, the method was adapted by the Albany team for the outdoor reconnaissance. Because of their colleagues’ work, says Cooley, “We had the right method at the right time.”—By Marcia Wood, Agricultural Research Service Information Staff. "Outmaneuvering Foodborne Pathogens" was published in the July 2008 issue of Agricultural Research magazine.

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia The fact-value distinction is a concept used to distinguish between arguments that can be claimed through reason alone and those in which rationality is limited to describing a collective opinion. In another formulation, it is the distinction between what is (can be discovered by science, philosophy or reason) and what ought to be (a judgment which can be agreed upon by consensus). The terms positive and normative represent another manner of expressing this, as do the terms descriptive and prescriptive, respectively. Positive statements make the implicit claim to facts (e.g. water molecules are made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom), whereas normative statements make a claim to values or to norms (e.g. water ought to be protected from environmental pollution).

The Nature Elephant The Karen people have always lived naturally in the forest, and, for many generations have relied on elephants to help them. Because elephants are ideal for carrying heavy loads they are essential for transportation through rural areas, and, more recently, for carrying tourists. The Karen people simply would not survive without them. The Karen people have always used elephants to help carry them through dense parts of the jungle which would be difficult on foot, such as down steep hills to fetch water from the creek, or carrying heavy bags of rice from the fields to the barn. What is little effort for an elephant would be a huge amount of labour for humans. Because they are so important to the Karen people, elephants are their friends, and are treated with respect. To manage an elephant and gain its trust requires knowledge, love and understanding. This is why the Karen people look after their elephants so well, and only certain members of the Karen family are trained enough to do this. Some of them call elephant-care a kind of black magic, and this black magic is passed down through families. Part of the skill of caring for elephants is to ensure the elephant is listened to. Karen legend has it that if a female elephant is ignored, it is likely that her eggs will become infected, and therefore she will not be able to continue the elephant family. This serious consequence acts as a grave warning to those handling elephants. A sense of duty, honor and patience are as important to the elephant as they are to the Karen people as a whole. The legend of Chang Karen This is a story about how elephants became so important in the life of the Karen hill tribe. The legend goes that once upon a time, there were two brothers living in the forest. One day, their mother needed to leave home for a business, so instructed the two boys to look after the house, be good, and by no means split open the bamboo tree, as it contained many flies. Being the mischievous boys they were, as soon as their mother was out of sight, they crept up to the forbidden bamboo and cracked it open, curious to see what would happen. Immediately, the room was filled with flies, two of which flew up into each of the boys' noses. Panicking, the boys didn't know what to do. Soon, they felt their bodies changing. Their legs began to itch, and grow longer and wider. Their heads began to swell, until they felt the size and shape of footballs. Their noses grew longer and their bodies became heavier and more clumsy. When their mother returned home, she was shocked to see what had happened to her sons. She offered them cooked rice, but they turned it down with a slow shake of their large heads, their noses swinging from side to side. They were still growing, and were too ashamed of their bad behaviour to eat. The mother offered them water, but they did not want to drink it. Soon, when the sons had grown too big for the house, and could now only walk on four legs, they left the house to find grass. This was all they felt like eating. Very soon the word spread, and people came from all over the valley to see the mutated boys. Their tongues had become too big for them to speak, so the sons had stopped talking. As if to compensate, their ears grew large so they cold hear very, very well. They had become elephant-boys. One day, some workers came to see if the elephant-boys could help them carry heavy loads. They gave them wood and lead them to their workshops, and the elephant-boys were calm and obedient. The workers realised that what was a huge job for them, was little effort for these giant elephant boys. And life continued this way for many generations. This is the remarkable story of how elephants and humans came to work together in harmony, explaining how they can exist together in the forest. Elephants and the Karen Hill Tribe people Deep in the rich forests of northern Thailand, in the bowl of a green valley, lies the Karen hill tribe community. Making the most of their natural surroundings, this tribe has managed to forge an incredibly simple life in the forest using no modern machinery or medicine. They need only the trees, plants, animals, and are especially reliant on the mighty elephant. The Karen people have a strong bond with elephants: their self-sufficient lifestyles are surprisingly similar, and intertwining. Wild elephants play a very important role in the Karen way of life, as well as the relationships of valley inhabitants, and the magic of the valley.

By Mike Bennighof, Ph.D. During the 1700s, European armies grew enormously in size. The Seven Years’ War of 1756 – 1763 heightened the trend, and by the end of the Napoleonic Wars field armies had become enormous. Forces of 100,000 or even more, unheard of a century before, were not at all unusual by 1815. The French army introduced the concept of a corps d’armee, a body of infantry, cavalry and artillery plus essential services. The corps could fight alone or in cooperation with other corps, and included all necessary combat and administrative elements. By the end of the Napoleonic wears, all participants had organized their troops into corps, usually made up of varying numbers of divisions and During the years after 1815, some nations kept their corps structure in place during peacetime, using them to administer recruiting, training and other non-combat functions. This would speed mobilization and keep the staffs employed. The size and composition of corps also became regularized, with each usually having the same number and types of subordinate By the middle of the 19th century, an army corps had become defined as the number of troops that could be deployed from a single road in less than two hours: roughly 20,000 men. That rule of thumb had been badly exceeded as extra troops were added: cavalry, engineers, artillerymen, light infantry, medical services, supply columns and more. The Prussian corps organization used in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War had been introduced as part of War Minister Albrecht von Roon’s reforms starting in 1860. In 1859, the Prussian Army mobilized its four army corps for war on the side of Austria against France. The mobilization found many troops untrained, officers of poor quality and supply services either insufficient or non-existent. It also showed just how unwieldy the army’s corps organization would prove in action. The German Confederation, which included both Austria and Prussia along with 36 other german states, had adopted a corps of four divisions. Each division consisted in turn of two or three brigades, each brigade with two regiments of two battalions each plus one of light infantry. All told, a German division would go to war with 10 or 15 battalions, a corps with between 40 and 60. Roon rationalized this organization; in battle, he believed, a general was most efficient with fewer maneuver elements to command. A new-model Prussian infantry corps would have two divisions. Each division in turn had two brigades, and each of them had two regiments. The regiments would be larger, with three battalions rather than the former two, as a regimental colonel was expected to control all three by line of sight. A brigade commander only had to control the two regiments under his command. At the division level, things got more complex. The division controlled two brigades, plus an artillery detachment of four six-gun batteries. These would usually be parceled out to the brigades in action. During peacetime the division was responsible for either a pioneer battalion or a light infantry battalion; during wartime these would be held in the corps reserve. The corps controlled the two infantry divisions, plus attachments of artillery and cavalry. This varied from four to seven batteries (six guns each) and two to five cavalry regiments. Austria also reformed its corps organization in 1860, based on the lessons of the 1859 war. An Austrian corps had included two or three divisions, each in turn of two or three five-battalion brigades. Each brigade included the four field battalions of a single regiment plus a light infantry battalion: usually jägers but in a few cases grenzers (Croatian border troops) or volunteer student battalions. Austrian generals performed poorly in the 1859 war, and the reform commission appointed after the war recommended using fewer of them. In particular, it pointed out that the small brigades made regimental colonels superfluous. A peacetime regiment had contained four field battalions and a grenadier battalion; now they would have three field battalions, a fourth reserve battalion and in wartime a fifth training battalion. Two of these three-battalion regiments would be grouped in a brigade along with a light infantry battalion and an eight-gun artillery battery. It was a powerful and flexible organization, led by a major general (Austria did not have a “brigadier general” rank and this was the imperial army’s equivalent). The larger brigades required fewer light infantry battalions, allowing the role to be filled exclusively by jägers. The organization became less flexible at the larger echelons. An Austrian corps included four infantry brigades, a cavalry regiment and a brigade-sized artillery reserve as well as engineer, supply and medical units. The new arrangement required fewer general officers, which had been the goal. But handling six maneuver elements proved beyond the capability of most Austrian corps staffs in 1866, and the intermediate stage of division headquarters gave Austria’s Prussian opponents a decided advantage in flexibility and reaction speed. Though the Prussian staff was undoubtedly better organized and more efficient than their Austrian counterparts, their organization also gave them a lighter workload. of 1866: Frontier Battles the units are infantry brigades, cavalry regiments and artillery batteries, but players maneuver their units by corps. The corps are activated by the army command, or through the initiative of the corps commander. The Prussians generally activate in a much more predictable fashion, and can get all of their units into action thanks to the division commanders. An Austrian corps is much more difficult to handle and often only gets into action piece by piece. here to order Battles of 1866: Frontier Battles now.

Issued from the woods of the Loess Hills a few miles east of NATCHEZ, MISSISSIPPI, USA April 29, 2012 |CATTLE EGRETS AMONG CATTLE As in Mexico, around here if you pass by a pasture you're likely to see Cattle Egrets standing among or on the cows, as shown at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429eg.jpg. Cattle Egrets in their breeding plumage, like the ones in the picture, can be distinguished from other white egrets and herons by the patches of light orange-brown on their crests and chests. Nonbreeding Cattle Egrets can be all white, and then their relatively thick, yellow beaks and thicker, shorter necks separate them from similar-sized, white herons and egrets found here, such as Snowy Egrets and juvenile Little Blue Herons. I remember the first time Cattle Egrets were spotted in the rural part of western Kentucky where I grew up, possibly in 1963. Their appearance was so unusual that a farmer not particularly interested in Nature called my parents and said that a whole flock of big white birds had appeared in his pasture, and we went up to take a look. I was in college before I learned that they were Cattle Egrets, BUBULCUS IBIS. My ornithology teacher told how the birds were undergoing one of the fastest and most widely ranging expansions of distribution ever seen among birds. Originally Cattle Egrets were native to southern Spain and Portugal, tropical and subtropical Africa and humid tropical and subtropical Asia. In the late 1800s they began expanding their range into southern Africa, and were first sighted in the Americas, on the boundary of Guiana and Suriname, in 1877, apparently having flown across the Atlantic Ocean. They didn't get permanently established there until the 1930s, though, but then they began expanding into much of the rest of the Americas, reaching western Kentucky around the early 60s. The species appears still to be expanding northward in western North America, but in the Northeast it seems to be in decline. Though they can turn up as far north as southern Canada, coast to coast, mostly they breed in the US Southeast. The Wikipedia expert says that Cattle Egrets eat ticks and flies from cattle. They do that, but anyone who watches our birds awhile sees that mainly as the cattle move around they stir up creatures in the grass, which the egrets prey on. The cows' fresh manure also attracts flies for them. MATING BOX TURTLES It's interesting to see how turtles manage it, but for many readers familiar with box turtles in other parts of North America the picture may raise the question of why those in our picture bear different colors and patterns than theirs. What's happening is that Box Turtles are represented by six intergrading subspecies. Hillary's Gulf Coast location is supposed to be home to the Gulf Coast subspecies, Terrapene carolina ssp. major. However, that subspecies is described as having a brownish top shell, or carapace, sometimes with a few dull spots or rays, but nothing like these bright, yellow lines. I can't say what's going on. Apparently Box Turtle taxonomy is a bit tricky. RESTING CRANE FLY That looks like a mosquito but you can see from how much of the leaf he covers that he's far too large to be any mosquito species found here. Also, he lacks the hypodermic-like proboscis mosquitoes use to suck blood. No conspicuous mouthparts are visible on our crane fly because adult crane flies generally hardly eat at all, only occasionally lapping up a bit of pollen or sugar-rich flower nectar. Their maggot-like larvae feed on plant roots. Some species can damage crops. Oosterbroek's monumental, 2012 Catalogue of the Craneflies of the World -- free and online at http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/ccw/ --recognizes 15,345 cranefly species, 1630 of them just in our Nearctic ecozone, which embraces the US, Canada, Greenland, and most of northern Mexico. That's why when I shipped the picture to volunteer identifier Bea in Ontario it took more time than usual for her verdict to come in, and she was comfortable only with calling it the genus TIPULA. Whatever our species, it's a pleasure to take the close shown at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429cg.jpg. What are those things below the wings looking like needles with droplets of water at their ends? Those are "halteres," which commonly occur among the Fly Order of Insects, the Diptera. Though their purpose isn't known with certainty, it's assumed that they help control flight, enabling flies to make sudden mid-air changes in direction. From the evolutionary perspective, halteres are modified back wings. Most insects have two pairs, or four, wings, but not the Diptera, as the name implies -- di-ptera, as they say "two-wings" in classical Greek. ADMIRING THE WHITE OAK In that picture I'm holding a leaf so you can see its underside, much paler than other leaves' topsides. The tree's gray bark of narrow, vertical blocks of scaly plates is shown at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429qc.jpg. I'm accustomed to seeing White Oaks on relatively dry upland soils so I was a little surprised when the tree in the picture showed up on a stream bank growing among Sycamores. In fact, White Oaks are fairly rare around here, completely absent in many upland forests where I'd expect them to be. Years ago I mentioned this in a Newsletter and a local reader responded that in this region White Oaks were wiped out many years ago by people cutting them as lumber and, more importantly, using them in the whisky distilling business. The online Flora of North America says that "In the past Quercus alba was considered to be the source of the finest and most durable oak lumber in America for furniture and shipbuilding." There beside the stream, last year's crop of our White Oak's acorns had been washed away, but this season's were there in their first stages of growth, as seen at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429qb.jpg. Traditionally early North Americans regarded the inner bark of White Oaks as highly medicinal. Extracts made from soaking the inner bark in water are astringent (puckery) and were used for gargling, and the old herbals describe the extract as tonic, stimulating and antiseptic. Other listed uses include for "putrid sore throat," diphtheria, hemorrhages, spongy or bleeding gums, and hemorrhoids. Many applications suggest adding a bit of capsicum, or hot pepper, to the extract. Basically the notion seems to be that the bark's tannin -- the puckery element -- does the main medicinal service. Other oaks actually have more tannin than White Oak, but medicines made with them can be too harsh. White Oak extracts seem to have just the right amount. The same tannin situation exists with regard to the edibility of acorns. The acorns of other oaks contain more tannin so they require more time and effort to make them edible. White Oak acorns have much less tannin, but even still there's enough to make them too bitter for humans to eat without treatment, which traditionally has been leaching acorn pulp in running water. By the way, instructions for the kitchen leaching of acorn pulp appear at http://www.ehow.com/how_8427141_leach-acorns.html. AMERICAN HOLLY FLOWERING American Hollies are a different species from the English Holly often planted as ornamentals. American Holly bears larger leaves and produces fewer fruits. Hollies come in male or female trees (they're dioecious), and you can tell from the flowers in the upper, left of the above picture that here we have a male tree. A close-up of a male flower with its four out-thrusting stamens is at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429hp.jpg. On a female flower the stamens would be rudimentary and there'd be an ovary -- the future fruit -- in the blossom's center. Maybe because people are so used to seeing English Hollies planted up north often it's assumed that they're northern trees. In fact, American Holly is mainly native to the US Southeast, though along the Coastal Plain it reaches as far north as southern Connecticut. Around here it's strictly an understory tree. The fruits are mildly toxic but you must eat a lot of them to get sick. Birds, deer, squirrels and other animals eat the fruits, which are drupes bearing several hard "stones." No critter seems to relish them, though, saving them mostly to serve as "emergency food" when other foods run out. That might explain why we see hollies holding their red fruits deep into the winter. "BEGGAR'S LICE" ON MY SOCKS Several kinds of plants produce stickery little fruits like that and they all can be called Beggar's Lice. When I tracked down the plant attaching its fruits to me, it was what's shown at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429my.jpg. Several beggar's-lice-producing plants are similar to that, so before being sure what I really had I had to "do the botany." Here are details I focused on: Leaves and stems were hairy, and leaves were rounded toward the base, sometimes clasping the stem, as shown at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429mw.jpg. A close-up of a "beggar's louse" is shown stuck in my arm hairs at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429mx.jpg. That last picture is sort of tricky. For, you expect the thing stuck to you to be a fruit with hooked spines, but the thing in the picture isn't a fruit. It's actually a baglike calyx surrounding much smaller fruit-like things. I crumbled some calyxes between my fingers and part of what resulted is shown at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429mv.jpg. The four shiny things are not seeds. Maybe you've seen that the ovary of most mint flowers is divided into four more-or-less distinct parts. Each of those parts is called a nutlet, and that's what you're seeing. But other plant families beside the Mint produce nutlets. Our beggar's-louse-producing plant is MYOSOTIS DISCOLOR, a member of the Borage Family, the Boraginaceae, which on the phylogenetic Tree of Life is adjacent to the Mint Family. Myosotis discolor is an invasive from Europe that so far has set up residence here and there in eastern and western North America, but so far seems to be absent in the center. The English name is often given as Changing Forget-me-not, because Myosotis is the Forget-me-not genus, and in Latin dis-color says "two-colored," apparently referring to the fact that the flowers can be white or blue, though all I've seen here are white. But, this rangy little plant you never notice until its calyxes stick to you seems to have nothing to do with Forget-me-nots, unless you look at technical features. I think some editor must have made up the name "Changing Forget-me-not." Our plant very clearly is one of several "Beggar's Lice." OATS ALONG THE ROAD A spikelet plucked from the panicle is shown at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429ov.jpg. The same spikelet opened to show the florets inside the glumes at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/12/120429ou.jpg. This is Oat grass, AVENA SATIVA, the same species producing the oats of oatmeal. Oat spikelets differ from those of the vast majority of other grasses by the very large, boat-shaped glumes subtending the florets. Glumes are analogous to a regular flower's calyx, so in that last picture of a spikelet, the glumes are the two large, green-and-white striped items at the left in the photograph. The vast majority of grass spikelets bear glumes much shorter than the florets above them. Also, notice that the slender, stiff, needlelike item, the awn, arises from a floret inside the spikelet and not from a glum. Remember that you can review grass flower terminology at http://www.backyardnature.net/fl_grass.htm. The spikelets of most Oat plants don't bear needlelike awns. You're likely to see both awned and awnless kinds growing as weeds in our area. When I first saw the awns I thought this might be one of the "Wild Oat" species, for several species reside in the Oat genus Avena, and one of those grows wild in the US Southeast. However, florets of the other species bear long, brownish hairs, and you can see that ours are hairless, or "glabrous." The other species' awns also are twisted, but regular Oat awns, when present, are rigid and straight. Both Oat species are native to Eurasia. How did that Oat plant make its way to the side of our isolated Mississippi backroad? Near where the grass grew there was a large game farm where exotic animals are kept so hunters can pay high fees to kill them. I'm betting that the animals are fed oats. Our plant was in an often-flooded spot downstream from the farm, so maybe an oat grain had washed there. That's a roadcut through a special kind of very fine-grained clay called loess. The word loess derives from the German Löß. A deep mantel of loess was deposited here at the end of the last Ice Age about 10,000 years ago. Deep loess deposits occur in a narrow band of upland immediately east of the Mississippi River over most of its entire course. The loess region sometimes is called the Loess Hills. Loess profoundly affects the area's ecology. For one thing, the farther east you go from the Mississippi River, the thinner the loess is, the poorer and more acidic the soil becomes, and the more pines you get instead of broadleaf deciduous trees. Loess is so important here, and so interesting, that years ago I developed a web portal called "Loess Hills of the Lower Mississippi Valley," at http://www.backyardnature.net/loess/loess.html. I had hoped to engage local folks in an effort to recognize the Loess Hills as a very interesting, scenic and biologically important, distinct region with ecotourism potential, but nothing ever came from it. At that site you can learn how "loess" can be pronounced, how it came to exist here, what's special about it, and much more. One thing special about loess is that it erodes into vertical-sided roadcuts as in the picture. People such as road engineers who try to create gentle slopes are doomed to failure. I wish my farming Maya friends in the Yucatan, who must deal with very thin, rocky soil, could see the thick mantel of rich loess we have here. NO MORE EMAILED NEWSLETTERS From now on, to read the Newsletters you'll just have to remember to check out the most recently issued edition at http://www.backyardnature.net/n/. Today's Newsletter is there now waiting for readers, with stories about Cattle Egrets, mating Box Turtles, craneflies, flowering holly trees, Beggar's Lice and more. If you're on Facebook you can find the Facebook Newsletter page by searching for "Jim Conrad's Naturalist Newsletter." The weekly message left there will link to individual pages with images embedded in text. In today's message, for instance, you can click on "Cattle Egrets" and see a regular web page with text and a photo. I've configured my Facebook page to have a subscribe tab but so far one hasn't appeared. My impression is that if you "like" the Newsletter page, each week you'll receive a message with its link. Maybe not. I'm still figuring it out. So, this is the end of eleven years of weekly delivered emails. At first I was upset and annoyed, and thought of writing the 2,158 subscribers suggesting that complaints be made to FatCow at [email protected]. However, something interesting has happened. Last week about a dozen subscribers accepted my invitation to check out the Newsletter's Facebook page. When they "liked" the page, I got to see their pictures, or at least their avatars. There were all kinds of folks, old and young, skinny and fat, white and brown, serious and joking, one fellow on a boat in Maine, a lady in India with a dot, or Bindi, in the middle of her forehead, someone's baby picture... What an amazing thing that all these people were interested in what I'd written! So, in a way, FatCow.com's treatment has been a gift. It's resensitized me to my readership. Also, it's nudged me into a mental space where now I'm mentally prepared for the whole BackyardNature.net site to be removed permanently, for whatever reason they come up with. That extra sense of independence means a lot to me. Now if need be I'm ready to write Newsletters and just keep them in my computer, or write them in a notebook hidden in my trailer, or write them on leaves that I let float down the Mississippi River. I've already learned how to make ink from oak galls. So, we're evolving here. I'm yielding when it's clear that the forces against us control critical resources, but I'm ready to experiment with new possibilities as they appear, and I continue to think, feel and write about the world around us, and share when I'm allowed to. Good luck in your own evolutions. And thanks for these years of weekly inviting me into your lives. Best wishes to all Newsletter readers, To subscribe OR unsubscribe to this Newsletter, go to www.backyardnature.net/news/natnat.php. Post your own backyard-nature observations and thoughts at http://groups.google.com/group/backyard-nature/ All previous Newsletters are archived at www.backyardnature.net/n/. Visit Jim's backyard nature site at www.backyardnature.net

Next: Radiative heat flux Up: Loading Previous: Distributed heat flux Contents Convective heat flux is a flux depending on the temperature difference between the body and the adjacent fluid (liquid or gas) and is triggered by the *FILM card. It takes the form where is the a flux normal to the surface, is the film coefficient, is the body temperature and is the environment fluid temperature (also called sink temperature). Generally, the sink temperature is known. If it is not, it is an unknown in the system. Physically, the convection along the surface can be forced or free. Forced convection means that the mass flow rate of the adjacent fluid (gas or liquid) is known and its temperature is the result of heat exchange between body and fluid. This case can be simulated by CalculiX by defining network elements and using the *BOUNDARY card for the first degree of freedom in the midside node of the element. Free convection, for which the mass flow rate is a n unknown too and a result of temperature differences, cannot be simulated. Next: Radiative heat flux Up: Loading Previous: Distributed heat flux Contents guido dhondt 2012-10-06

Guest Author - Heather Thomas In most wild species, birds display dominance within the flock to determine their place or roll within that flock. Males display and vocalize to win their choice of female. The term “pecking order” comes from natural bird behavior. Dominant behavior is natural and expected in the wild. We must be cautious, as humans, not to project our sense of right and wrong onto our feathered companions. Similar to birds that still live in the wild, your bird may be only a few generations removed from the wild and will display natural behavior tendencies. Understanding these basic characteristics helps you understand how to interact with your bird and creates a happier flock experience for all. The Lunging or Biting Bird One must be cautious to label “bad” behavior as dominant behavior. Lunging and biting are most often caused by fear. Changing a bird’s environment too drastically such as cage placement, a new cage, rearranging the furniture in a room or even something as simple as changing the drapery on the window next to their cage can cause even a friendly bird to become seemingly aggressive. It is important to consider environmental changes before labeling your bird’s behavior as dominant. Typical dominant behavior that manifests itself as biting or lunging would be a bird that loves to sit only on your shoulder and bites you when you attempt to remove them. Protecting a favorite person or place in your home by lunging or biting at others who happen to come too close would also be correctly labeled as dominant behavior. The Bully Bird You may have a situation where you keep more than one bird in a cage. If you have a flock that works well together you will be able to tell who the dominant male is but it will not adversely affect your flock. If you have a dominant male that is a bully, you may observe him forcing other birds off of their perch or guarding a food dish and not letting anyone else eat from it. In worst-case scenarios, your bully will single out a victim and force that bird to dwell at the bottom of the cage or even injure and possibly kill this weaker bird. If you have a dominant bully, it is best to remove him from the cage and keep him in a cage by himself or with his mate. The Anti-Social Bird As much as you try your bird has no interest in becoming your friend. This bird often flutters around its cage to avoid your hand or takes to flight to escape your reach. I find this behavior often typical of a bird with unclipped wings. There are people who keep birds that believe it is cruel to clip a bird’s wings. I will cover this topic in depth at a later time but here will touch on effects not clipping your bird’s wings has on dominance. By the very act of keeping a bird as a pet, you are choosing to take this wonderful winged creature and transform it into your friend or companion. If you take this action, it changes the purpose of the animal. If you allow your bird to retain the ability of flight, you are permitting your bird to escape your reach and do whatever it wants. This may be fine, if you want a wild bird as a pet. However, if you want a friendly bird, you want a bird dependent on you, a bird that does not fly away just because it wants to. For a well-mannered bird, keep the flock mentality where you are the dominant bird. If you want a bird that respects you, you must maintain dominance. This is not achieved by cruel discipline. Observe your bird and be consistent with your expectations and interaction within your flock. Do not allow unacceptable dominant behavior to take root in your avian friend.

Tuscaloosa, located at the falls of the Black Warrior River in west central Alabama, is the the fifth-largest city in Alabama with a population of 90,468, and the seat of Tuscaloosa County. It is named for the Choctaw chieftain Tuskalusa (meaning Black Warrior), who battled and was defeated by Hernando de Soto in 1540 in the Battle of Mauvila. Best known as the home of the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa is also the center of industry, commerce, healthcare, and education for the region commonly known as West Alabama. The area at the fall line of what would be later known as the Black Warrior River had long been well known to the various Indian tribes whose shifting fortunes brought them to West Alabama. The river shoals at Tuscaloosa represented the southernmost site on the river which could be forded under most conditions. Inevitably, a network of Indian trails converged upon the place, the same network which, in the first years of the 19th Century began to lead a few white frontiersmen to the area. The pace of white settlement increased greatly after the War of 1812, and a small assortment of log cabins soon arose near the large Creek village at the fall line of the river, which the settlers named in honor of the legendary Chief Tuscaloosa. In 1817, Alabama became a territory, and on December 13, 1819, the territorial legislature incorporated the town of Tuscaloosa, exactly one day before the United States Congress admitted Alabama to the Union as a state. From 1826 to 1846 Tuscaloosa was the capital of Alabama. During this period, in 1831, the University of Alabama was established. The town's population and economy grew rapidly until the departure of the capital to Montgomery caused a rapid decline in population. Establishment of the Bryce State Hospital for the Insane in Tuscaloosa in the 1850s helped restore the city's fortunes. During the Civil War following Alabama's secession from the Union, several thousand men from Tuscaloosa fought in the Confederate armies. During the last weeks of the War, a brigade of Union troops raiding the city burned the campus of the University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, too, suffered much damage from the battle and shared fully in the South's economic sufferings which followed the defeat. The construction of a system of locks and dams on the Black Warrior River by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the 1890s opened up an inexpensive link to the Gulf seaport of Mobile, stimulating especially the mining and metallurgical industries of the region. By the advent of the 20th Century, the growth of the University of Alabama and the mental health-care facilities in the city, along with strong national economy fueled a steady growth in Tuscaloosa which continued unabated for 100 years. Manufacturing plants of large firms such as Michelin and JVC located in town during the latter half of the 20th Century. However, it was the announcement of the addition of the Mercedes-Benz US International assembly plant in 1993 that best personified the new era of economic prosperity for Tuscaloosa. Geography and climate According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Tuscaloosa has a total area of 66.7 square miles. 56.2 mi² of it is land and 10.5 mi² of it (15.7%) is water. Most of water within the city limits is in Lake Tuscaloosa, which is entirely in the city limits, and the Black Warrior River. Tuscaloosa lies approximately 60 miles southwest of Birmingham, at the fall line of the Black Warrior River on the boundary between the Appalachian Highland and the Gulf Coastal Plain approximately 120 miles upriver from its confluence with the Tombigbee River in Demopolis. Consequently, the geography of the area around Tuscaloosa is quite diverse, being hilly and forested to the northeast and low-lying and marshy to the southwest. The area experiences a typical Southern subtropical climate with four distinct seasons. The Gulf of Mexico heavily influences the climate by supplying the region with warm, moist air. During the fall, winter and spring seasons, the interaction of this warm, moist air with cooler, drier air from the North along fronts create precipitation. Notable exceptions occur during hurricane season where storms may move from due south to due north or even from east to west during land-falling hurricanes. The interaction between low- and high-pressure air masses is most pronounced during the severe weather seasons in the spring and fall. During the summer, the jet streams flows well to the north of the southeastern U.S., and most precipitation is consequently convectional, that is, caused by the warm surface heating the air above. Winter lasts from mid-December to late-February; temperatures range from the mid-20s to the mid-50s. On average, the low temperature falls at freezing or below about 50 days a year. While rain is abundant (an average 5.09 in. per month from Dec.-Feb.), measurable snowfall is rare; the average annual snowfall is about 0.6 inches. Spring usually lasts from late-February to mid-May; temperatures range from the mid-50s to the low-80s and monthly rainfall amounts average about 5.05 in. (128 mm) per month. Summers last from mid-May to mid-September; temperatures range from the upper-60s to the mid-90s, with temperatures above 100°F not uncommon, and average rainfall dip slightly to 3.97 in. per month. Autumn, which spans from mid-September to early-December, tends to be similar to Spring terms of temperature and precipitation. As of the census of 2000 there were 77,906 people, 31,381 households, and 16,945 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,385.2/mi². There were 34,857 housing units at an average density of 619.8/mi². The racial makeup of the city was 54% White and 43% Black or African American. 1.40% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 31,381 households out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.0% were married couples living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.0% were non-families. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city the population was spread out with 19.8% under the age of 18, 24.5% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 11.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $27,731, and the median income for a family was $41,753. Males had a median income of $31,614 versus $24,507 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,129. About 14.2% of families and 23.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.3% of those under age 18 and 13.4% of those age 65 or over. Government and Politics Tuscaloosa has a strong-mayor variant, mayor-council form of government, led by a mayor and a seven-member city council. The mayor is elected by the city at-large and serves four-year terms. Council members are elected to single-member districts every four years as well. Neither the mayor nor the members of the city council is term-limited. All elected offices are nonpartisan. The mayor administers the day-to-day operations of the city, including overseeing the various city departments, over whom he has hiring and firing power. The mayor also acts as ambassador of the city. The mayor sits in city council meetings and has a tie-breaking vote. The current Mayor of Tuscaloosa is Walter Maddox, who was elected to office is September 2005. Prior to Maddox, Alvin A. DuPont had served as mayor for 24 years. The city council is a legislative body that considers policy and passes law. The council also passes the budget for mayoral approval. Any resolution passed by the council is binding law. The majority of work in the council is done by committee, a usually consisting of a chairman, two other council members, and relevant non-voting city employees. |3||Cynthia Lee Almond||2005| |7||William Tinker, III||2005| Tuscaloosa, as the largest county seat in western Alabama, serves a hub of state and federal government agencies. In addition to the customary offices associated with the county courthouse, namely two District Court Judges, six Circuit Court Judges, the District Attorney and the Public Defender, several Alabama state government agencies have regional offices in Tuscaloosa, such as the Alabama Department of Transportation and the Alabama State Troopers. Also, several federal agencies operate bureaus out of the Federal Courthouse in Tuscaloosa. Tuscaloosa is located partially in both the 6th and 7th Congressional Districts, which are represented by Spencer Bachus and Artur Davis respectively. On the state level, the city is split among the 5th, 21st, and 24th Senate districts and 62nd, 63rd, and 70th House districts in the Alabama State Legislature. Despite its image as a college town, Tuscaloosa boasts a diversified economy based on all sectors of manufacturing and service. 25% of the labor force in the Tuscaloosa Metropolitan Statistical area is employed by the federal, state, and local government agencies. 16.7% is employed in manufacturing; 16.4% in retail trade and transportation; 11.6% in finance, information, and private enterprise; 10.3% in mining and construction; and 9.2% in hospitality. Education and healthcare account for only 7.2% of the area workforce with the remainder employed in other services. The city's industrial base includes Elk Corporation of Alabama, Nucor Steel Tuscaloosa, BF Goodrich Tire Manufacturing, JVC America, Phifer Incorporated, Gulf States Paper Corporation, and the Mercedes-Benz U.S. International, Inc., assembly plant. Health-care and education serve as the cornerstone of Tuscaloosa's service sector, which includes the University of Alabama, DCH Regional Medical Center, Bryce State Mental Hospital, the William D. Partlow Developmental Center, and the Tuscaloosa VA Medical Center. The University of Alabama is the dominant institution of higher learning. Enrolling approximately 24,000 students, UA has been a part of Tuscaloosa's identity since it opened its doors in 1831. Stillman College, which opened in 1875, is a historically Black liberal arts college which enrolls approximately 1,200 students. Additionally, Shelton State Community College, one of the largest in Alabama, is located in the city. The school enrolls 8,000 students from all backgrounds and income levels. The Tuscaloosa City School System serves the city. It is overseen by the Board of Education, which is composed of eight members elected by district and a chairman is elected by a citywide vote. Operating with a $100 million budget, the system enrolls approximately 10,300 students. The system consists of 19 schools: 11 elementary schools, 3 middle schools, 3 high schools (Paul Bryant High School, Central High School, and Northridge High School), and 2 specialty schools (the Tuscaloosa Center for Technology and Oak Hill School for special needs students). In 2002, the system spent $6,313 per pupil, the 19th highest amount of the 120 school systems in the state. Tuscaloosa is home to a variety of cultural sites and events reflective of its historical and modern role in Alabama and the Southeast in general. Many of these cultural events are sponsored by the University of Alabama. Numerous performing arts groups and facilities, historical sites, and museums dedicated to subjects as varying as American art and collegiate football dot the city. During football season the area known as "The Strip" pulsates with students, alumni, locals and visitors. The Tuscaloosa Public Library is a city/county agency with nearly 200,000 items on catalog. 46,857 registered patrons use the library on a regular basis — roughly 28 % of the population of the county. There are currently with three branches: the Main Branch on Jack Warner Parkway, the Weaver-Bolden Branch, and the Brown Branch in Taylorville. Most of the museums in Tuscaloosa are found downtown or on the campus of the University. Downtown is the home of Children’s Hands-On Museum of Tuscaloosa and the Murphy African-American Museum. The Alabama Museum of Natural History and the Paul Bryant Museum are located on the University campus. The Westervelt-Warner Museum of American Art is located in northern Tuscaloosa at Jack Warner's NorthRiver Yacht Club. Moundville Archaeological Park and the Jones Archaeological Museum are located 15 miles south of Tuscaloosa in Moundville. The University Alabama also currently fields championship–caliber teams in football, men's baseball, men's and women's basketball, women's gymnastics, and women's softball. These teams play in athletics facilities on the University campus, including Bryant-Denny Stadium, Coleman Coliseum, Sewell-Thomas Baseball Stadium, Alabama Softball Complex, and the Ol' Colony Golf Complex. Stillman College fields teams in football, basketball, and other sports. In the past decade, Stillman has gone through a renaissance of renovations, including a new football stadium. Shelton State fields men's and women's basketball, baseball, and softball teams, each with on-campus facilities. Tuscaloosa is part of the Birmingham-Tuscaloosa-Anniston television market, which is the 40th largest in the nation. All major networks have a presence in the market. WBMA-LP is the ABC affiliate, WIAT-TV is the CBS affiliate, WBRC 6 is the Fox affiliate, WVTM-TV is the NBC affiliate, WBIQ 10 is the PBS affiliate, WTTO is the CW affiliate, and WABM is the MyNetworkTV affiliate. Additionally, WVUA-CA, an independent station, is operated by the University of Alabama. Health and medicine DCH Regional Medical Center is the main medical facility in Tuscaloosa. Other major medical centers in Tuscaloosa include the 702-bed VA Medical Center and the 422-bed Bryce State Mental Hospital. The city lies at the intersection of U.S. Highway 11, U.S. Highway 43, and U.S. Highway 82, Alabama State Route 69, Alabama State Route 215, and Alabama State Route 216) and the duplexed (conjoined) I-20 and I-59. Interstate 359 spurs off from I-20/I-59 and heads northward, ending just shy of the Black Warrior River in downtown Tuscaloosa. Tuscaloosa is served by the Tuscaloosa Transit Authority which operates the Tuscaloosa Trolley System. The Tuscaloosa Regional Airport, is located on the north side of the Black Warrior River west of downtown Northport. Barge traffic routinely transports goods along the Black Warrior River from Birmingham and Tuscaloosa to the Alabama State Docks at Mobile, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Via the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, the city is connected to the Ohio River valley. "Tuscaloosa, Alabama." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 26 April 2007, 02:03 UTC . Accessed 30 April 2007.

... Structure and function 2.1 Rate of enzyme mediated ... reactions in one direction. Rate of enzyme mediated Main article: Rate of enzyme mediated Enzymes can increase reaction rate ... ... kinetics describe the rate of enzyme mediated reactions for many enzymes. It is named for ... To determine the maximum rate of an enzyme mediated reaction, the substrate concentration ( [S] ) ... , the factors that effect the rate of enzyme mediated reactions (ie. pH, temperature, etc) are at ... ... Active transport is the mediated transport of biochemicals , and other atomic / molecular substances, across membranes . Unlike passive transport , this process requires ... ... that action potentials do propagate back into the dendrites once initiated in the axon in most neurons. This backpropagating action potential is mediated by the activation of voltage-gated ion channels and can interact with synaptic input to alter the synaptic activity. The structure and branching of ... ... ) is a process of passive transport ( diffusion ) via which molecules diffuse across membranes , with the help of transport proteins ( mediated Small uncharged molecules can easily diffuse across cell membranes. However, due to the hydrophobic nature of the lipids that make ... ... thousands of other cells. Types of signalling Neurons communicate with one another across synapses. This communication is usually chemically mediated by rapid secretion of neurotransmitter molecules . Pre-synaptic neurons (i.e.the neurons which release the neurotransmitter) may produce in the ...

Fun Classroom Activities The 20 enjoyable, interactive classroom activities that are included will help your students understand the text in amusing ways. Fun Classroom Activities include group projects, games, critical thinking activities, brainstorming sessions, writing poems, drawing or sketching, and more that will allow your students to interact with each other, be creative, and ultimately grasp key concepts from the text by "doing" rather than simply studying. 1. A Year from Now Where will Bone be and how will she be feeling a year from now? Write a one page description of Bone's life a year after the end of the book from Bone's perspective. 2. The Monster Within When Bone's anger is described, it seems to grow and even take form. Take one of the descriptions for Bone's anger and rage and draw it. 3. Bone's Poetry Write a poem as if you are Bone. The poem can be... This section contains 555 words| (approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page)

Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. female Finn Dorset sheep that lived from 1996 to 2003, the first successfully cloned mammal, produced by Scottish geneticist Ian Wilmut and colleagues of the Roslin Institute, near Edinburgh. The announcement in February 1997 of the world’s first clone of an adult animal was a milestone in science, dispelling decades of presumption that adult mammals could not be cloned and igniting a debate... ...senior scientific officer at the Animal Breeding Research Organisation (ABRO; renamed Edinburgh Research Station of the Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research in 1985 and finally Roslin Institute in 1993), a government-supported research facility located in Roslin, Scot., just south of Edinburgh. At the ABRO facility, Wilmut studied embryo development and became interested in... What made you want to look up "Roslin Institute"? Please share what surprised you most...

The history of the British Isles and its inhabitants, both human and canine, has long been entwined. Breed reveals the enduring and affectionate relationship between the British people and their dogs and explores the very beginnings of pedigree dog breeding in Britain. This is a "self delivery" pack which has been designed specifically for National Science and Engineering Week 2013. The science behind fingeprints is well known! What is not so well known is the link between fingerprints and footprints. Right Angle Events have launched a new education pack called ‘Toes for Turf’ comprising at least 4 hours of fun teaching material linked to Key Stage 1-4 Mathematics. We have designed a fantastic scheme especially for National Science & Engineering Week called "Toes For Turf". The science behind fingerprints is well known. What is not so well known is the science behind footprints or "feet prints". This activity enables students to take, classify and "lift" both fingerprints and foot prints. As the research on footprints is meagre, this scheme will allow students to make some discoveries about the correlation or otherwise between fingerprints and feet prints. We will be running a science club for children from the junior school for 8 weeks before science week. Children will be working on projects designed by local scientists and making posters to show what they've done. A competition will be held and prizes will be given for the best posters and projects. During science week we'll have a science day for the whole school. Local scientists will come to the school and we'll have science themed activities all day. Imagine you are part of the team planning and designing the first manned mission to Mars. Your job is to investigate just one problem of the mission, and come up with an idea that might solve it. You’re asked to create a poster, no bigger than A1-sized, to explain the problem and your idea. The idea can be anything you like, but it must be based on real-science. The competition is for Years 7, 8, or 9. We can accept both individual and team entries. All Posters must be received by us by 4pm 12th March 2013. You can hand your posters in through participating schools and STEM clubs. Primary School competition - teams of four to prepare a 5 minute demo and supporting display on the theme of Inventions and Discoveries. Winning team from each school to compete at Chipping Campden School Primary Science Conference on March 18th. An egg race type activity will also form part of the competition. A demo lecture will finish the proceedings.

Transferable knowledge and a range of intellectual abilities drawn from different modes of inquiry across disciplines are essential components of any liberal education. These courses help students develop important academic capacities for use during their undergraduate career and in the rapidly-changing world they will enter after college. (one writing-intensive W-1 course in the fall of the first year) Students will develop writing, reading, speaking, listening, and information literacy skills necessary for collegiate-level academic work. Students will develop capacities for independent academic work and become self-regulated learners. (one course from the list of designated courses) Students will develop a unified understanding of scientific theory and practice in modern natural science. Students will demonstrate an understanding of the development of science as an intellectual pursuit and of the ways in which scientific ideas are formulated, modified, and come to be accepted. Students will demonstrate skill in the application of scientific techniques and methods, including the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, and communication of results. (one course from the list of designated courses; not required for Class of 2014) Students will study language as a complex multifunctional phenomenon - as a system for communicating thought and information and as an essential element of human thought processes, perceptions, and self-expression - that allows students to understand different peoples and their communities. Students will examine the world, their own culture, and their own language through the lens of a foreign language and culture. Integrated Perspectives Course (one team-taught interdisciplinary course taken during the sophomore year from the list of designated courses; not required for Class of 2014) Students will recognize, construct, and evaluate connections among different intellectual methods, ways of learning, and bodies of knowledge.

What is bone cancer? Bone is the framework that supports the body. Most bones are hollow. Bone marrow is the soft tissue inside hollow bones. The main substance of bone is made up of a network of fibrous tissue onto which calcium salts are laid down. This makes the bone very hard and strong. At each end of the bone is a softer bone-like tissue called cartilage that acts as a cushion between bones. The outside of the bone is covered with a layer of fibrous tissue. The bone itself contains 2 kinds of cells. Osteoblasts are cells that form the bone. Osteoclasts are cells that dissolve bone. Although we think that bone does not change, the truth is that it is very active. New bone is always forming and old bone dissolving. The marrow of some bones is only fatty tissue. In other bones the marrow is a mixture of fat cells and the cells that make blood cells. These blood-forming cells make red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Types of bone tumors Most of the time when someone is told they have cancer in their bones, the doctor is talking about a cancer that started somewhere else and then spread to the bone. This is called metastatic cancer (not bone cancer). This can happen to people with many different types of advanced cancer, such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, and many others. Under a microscope, theses cancer cells in the bone look like the cancer cells that they came from. If someone has lung cancer that has spread to the bone, the cells there will look and act like lung cancer cells and they will be treated the same way. To learn more about cancer that has spread to bone, please see the American Cancer Society document Bone Metastasis, as well as the document on the place where the cancer started (Breast Cancer, Lung Cancer (Non-Small Cell), Prostate Cancer, etc.). Other kinds of cancers that are sometimes called “bone cancers” start in the bone marrow – in the blood-forming cells – not the bone itself. These are not true bone cancers. The most common of these is multiple myeloma. Certain lymphomas (which more often start in lymph nodes) and all leukemias start in bone marrow. To learn more about these cancers, refer to the document for each. A primary bone tumor starts in the bone itself. True (or primary) bone cancers are called sarcomas. A sarcoma is a cancer that starts in bone, muscle, tendons, ligaments, fat tissue, or some other tissues in the body. There are different types of bone tumors. Their names are based on the bone or tissue that is involved and the kind of cells that make up the tumor. Some are cancer (malignant). Others are not cancer (benign). Most bone cancers are called sarcomas. Benign bone tumors do not spread to other tissues and organs. They can usually be cured by surgery. The information here does not cover benign bone tumors. Bone tumors that are cancer (malignant) Osteosarcoma: Osteosarcoma (also called osteogenic sarcoma) is the most common true bone cancer. It is most common in young people between the ages of 10 and 30. But about 10% of cases are people in their 60s and 70s. This cancer is rare during middle age. More males than females get this cancer. These tumors start most often in bones of the arms, legs, or pelvis. This type of bone cancer is not discussed in this document, but is covered in detail in our document, Osteosarcoma. Chondrosarcoma: This is cancer of the cartilage cells. Cartilage is a softer form of bone-like tissue. Chondrosarcoma is the second most common true bone cancer. It is rare in people younger than 20. After age 20, the risk of this cancer keeps on rising until about age 75. Women get this cancer as often as men. Chondrosarcomas can develop in any place where there is cartilage. It most often starts in cartilage of the pelvis, leg, or arm, but it can start in many other places, too. Chondrosarcomas are given a grade, which measures how fast they grow. The lower the grade, the slower the cancer grows. When cancer grows slowly, the chance that it will spread is lower and the outlook is better. There are also some special types of chondrosarcoma that respond differently to treatment and have a different outlook for the patient. These special types look different when seen under a microscope. Ewing tumor: This cancer is also called Ewing sarcoma. It is named after Dr. James Ewing, the doctor who first described it in 1921. It is the third most common bone cancer. Most Ewing tumors start in bones, but they can start in other tissues and organs. This cancer is most common in children and teenagers. It is rare in adults older than 30. This type of bone cancer is not discussed in this document, but is covered in detail in our document, Ewing Family of Tumors. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH): This cancer more often starts in the soft tissues around bones (such as ligaments, tendons, fat, and muscle) rather than in the bone itself. If it starts in the bones, it most often affects the legs or arms. It usually occurs in older and middle-aged adults. MFH mostly tends to grow into nearby tissues, but it can spread to distant sites, like the lungs. (Another name for this cancer is pleomorphic undifferentiated sarcoma.) Fibrosarcoma: This is another type of cancer that starts more often in “soft tissues” than it does in the bones. Fibrosarcoma usually occurs in older and middle-aged adults. Leg, arm, and jaw bones are most often affected. Giant cell tumor of bone: This type of bone tumor has both benign (not cancer) and malignant forms. The benign form is most common. These don’t often spread to distant sites, but after surgery they tend to come back where they started. Each time they come back after surgery they are more likely to spread to other parts of the body. These tumors often affect the arm or leg bones of young and middle-aged adults. Chordoma: This tumor usually occurs in the base of the skull and bones of the spine. It is found most often in adults older than 30. It is about twice as common in men than in women. Chordomas tend to grow slowly and usually do not spread to other parts of the body. But they often come back in the same place if they are not removed completely. When they do spread, they tend to go to the lymph nodes, lungs, and liver. Last Medical Review: 12/05/2012 Last Revised: 01/24/2013

Biomass plants generate electricity by burning what otherwise would be waste: brushy undergrowth that's been cleared from forests. The U.S. Forest Service estimates that on California national forest lands alone, there are easily 500,000 acres per year that should be thinned to reduce the risk of catastrophic wildfire. But to Tom Christoff of the Placer County Air Pollution Control District it's not only about reducing forest fires and producing electricity. He says by burning this waste in controlled emission plant, instead of in smoky piles in the forest: CHRISTOFF: "The benefits are huge, on the order of 95 percent reduction on particulate matter, 60 to 70 percent reduction on nitrous oxides, and considerable percentrage on carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds." Christoff says independent studies showed this would lead to demonstrable health benefits. That's one of the many reasons Placer County is planning to build a 2 megawatt biomass plant on county-owned land just outside Truckee. Transportation cost is a complicating factor. It's much cheaper to burn the biomass in a pile in the forest than to truck it to a facility, says Kerri Timmer, who works for the state's Sierra Nevada Conservancy. TIMMER: "And there's at this point no guarantee for what price will be paid for the power that's generated using the material. So it's hard to get all of these commitments lined up to a point where an investor would feel comfortable in putting a lot of money into this up front." But recent legislation should help. A bill passed this year requires California's three biggest energy producers to purchase 50 megawatts of energy generated from forest biomass power plants. That's about enough electricity to power 50,000 homes.

On May 15, the House Agriculture Committee passed its 2013 farm bill. The bill would cut the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly known as the Food Stamp Program) by almost $21 billion over the next decade, eliminating food assistance to nearly 2 million low-income people, mostly working families with children and senior citizens. The bill’s SNAP cuts would come on top of an across-the-board reduction in benefits that every SNAP recipient will experience starting November 1, 2013. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program’s (SNAP) primary purpose is to increase the food purchasing power of eligible low-income households in order to improve their nutrition and alleviate hunger and malnutrition. The program’s success in meeting this core goal has been well documented. Less well understood is the fact that the program has become quite effective in supporting work and that its performance in this area has improved substantially in recent years. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly known as the Food Stamp Program) is the nation’s most important anti-hunger program. In 2012, it helped almost 47 million low-income Americans to afford a nutritionally adequate diet in a typical month. Nearly 72 percent of SNAP participants are in families with children; more than one-quarter of participants are in households with seniors or people with disabilities. SNAP is the nation’s most important anti-hunger program. This chartbook highlights some of the key characteristics of the almost 47 million people using the program as well as trends and data on program administration and use. Related: SNAP is Effective and Efficient SNAP, the nation’s most important anti-hunger program, helps roughly 35 million low-income Americans to afford a nutritionally adequate diet. WIC — short for the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children — provides nutritious foods, information on healthy eating, and health care referrals to about 8 million low-income pregnant and postpartum women, infants, and children under five. The School Lunch and School Breakfast programs provide free and reduced-price meals that meet federal nutritional standards to over 22 million school children from low-income families. - Introduction to SNAP The Center designs and promotes polices to make the Food Stamp Program more adequate to help recipients afford an adequate diet, more accessible to eligible families and individuals, and easier for states to administer. We also help states design their own food stamp programs for persons ineligible for the federal program. Our work on the WIC program includes ensuring that sufficient federal funds are provided to serve all eligible applicants and on helping states contain WIC costs. Our work on child nutrition programs focuses on helping states and school districts implement recent changes in how they determine a child's eligibility for free or reduced-priced school meals. May 17, 2013 Revised May 16, 2013 Updated May 8, 2013 Revised May 1, 2013 Updated May 1, 2013 - View All By Date

February is National Teen Dating Violence Awareness & Prevention Month Did you know that in a recent national survey, 1 in 10 teens reported being hit or physically hurt on purpose by a boyfriend or girlfriend at least once in the 12 months prior to the survey? And nearly half of all teens in relationships say they know friends who have been verbally abused. Before violence starts, a teen may experience controlling behavior and demands. One partner may tell another what to wear and who to hang out with. Over time, the unhealthy behavior may become violent. That's why adults need to talk to teens now about the importance of developing healthy, respectful relationships. Dating violence can have a negative effect on health throughout life. Victims of teen dating violence are more likely to do poorly in school, and report binge drinking, suicide attempts, physical fighting, and current sexual activity. Teens who perpetrate dating violence may also carry these patterns of violence into future relationships. CDC's Division of Violence Prevention is leading the initiative, Dating Matters™: Strategies to Promote Healthy Teen Relationships. Dating Matters™ aims to promote respectful, nonviolent dating relationships among youth in high-risk, urban communities. The comprehensive approach will build upon current evidence-based practice and experience to reduce the burden of teen dating violence in these communities. The initiative will support communities as they implement prevention strategies in schools, with families, and in neighborhoods. Over the next five years, Dating Matters™ will be implemented in middle schools and neighborhoods across Chicago, Illinois, Baltimore, Maryland, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, and Oakland, California. For more information about each of these communities, view the Dating Matters™ grantee profiles. Learn more about CDC's efforts to prevent dating violence: Get email updates To receive email updates about this page, enter your email address: - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1600 Clifton Rd Atlanta, GA 30333 TTY: (888) 232-6348 - Contact CDC-INFO

Sponsor a Child in Guinea - ChildFund came to Guinea: 2005 - Population below poverty line: 49% - News about Guinea - Children’s Voices: Fatoumata From Guinea - Around the Globe with ChildFund in 31 Days: Protecting Children in Guinea - Amid Violence, Work in Guinea Continues - A Family’s Access to Resources Means Hope Read More Guinea is a significant source of the world’s major minerals including gold, diamonds, iron ore and bauxite but the country’s poor infrastructure and political uncertainty prohibits it from developing its economic potential from these and other resources. Located in western Africa on the North Atlantic Ocean between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone, Guinea is smaller than the state of Oregon and suffers from a lack of safe water, environmentally damaged mining regions and preventable diseases. “We’ve brought important knowledge… to local health workers.” Education and Early Childhood Development Many children in Guinea are not in school, and for younger children, there is often no foundation for later learning. Our Early Childhood Development (ECD) programs include building ECD Centers and supplying them with materials and tools used to train families about child protection and healthy development. More than 3340 children have attended school in our ECD Centers and we have educated families in more than 530 homes about how to protect their children and motivate their development. Healthier Families and Children Working with the Ministry of Health, we’ve brought important knowledge, including information about HIV and AIDS, to local health workers and have hired and trained 128 community volunteers to educate the community about disease prevention, proper hygiene and more. We also work to make health services affordable. To provide access to safe water and sanitation facilities, we have provided 29 water systems. Sponsor a child in Guinea today and make a difference in a child’s life.

How do you get HIV? HIV can be passed on when infected bodily fluid, such as blood or semen, is passed into an uninfected person. Semen is the liquid which is released from a man's penis during sex which carries sperm. It can be infected with HIV or AIDS when someone is HIV positive or is carrying the AIDS virus. This can happen during unprotected sex. For example when two people have sex without using a condom when one partner is already infected, or between drug users who inject and share needles. It can't be transmitted by things like coughing, sneezing, kissing, sharing a toilet seat, swimming pools, sweat and tears.

Why can some people drink heavily and never become alcoholics when other people get addicted so quickly? Contributing Factors to the Development of Alcoholism Why some people can use and even abuse alcohol without ever developing alcoholism, and why some people seem unusually susceptible to alcoholism, remains a poorly understood phenomenon. There is a genetic component to alcoholism, and people who grow up in alcoholic homes are far more likely to become alcoholics themselves. Children born to alcoholic parents, but raised in homes without alcohol abuse or addiction are also predisposed to alcoholism, so we do know that genetics plays an important role. But all people genetically predisposed to alcoholism do not develop dependencies, and some people with no genetic history of alcoholism end up battling the disease for years. It is now accepted that although a genetic predisposition plays an important influence in the development of the disease, that social and environmental factors are in fact the lager influences towards alcohol abuse or alcoholism. In addition to genetic influences, the Mayo Clinic considers that there are three additional primary influences to alcohol abuse or alcoholism. Emotional States or Emotional Stressors can Induce Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism People may use alcohol excessively in response to frequent or significant emotional disturbances or stresses. When alcohol is used with enough frequency as an emotional management or stress coping tool the risk of dependency or alcoholism increases greatly. There is also likely a bio physical link with stress and alcohol abuse, and stress hormones have been casually linked to increased alcohol consumption and a greater risk for alcoholism. People who use alcohol to deal with life's problems or stresses are at a greater risk to develop alcoholism. The Co-Presence of a Corresponding Psychiatric Condition People suffering through psychiatric conditions like depression, bi polar disorder, borderline personality disorder or anxiety disorders are at a greatly elevated risk to develop alcohol abuse problems or alcoholism. Psychiatric patients often use alcohol or other illicit drugs to self medicate the negative symptoms of an experienced disorder. Unfortunately, while intoxication may bring some temporary relief, the long term effects of alcohol abuse almost always worsen experienced psychiatric symptoms. Alcoholic psychiatric patients are at a great risk for an accelerated progression of both diseases, and require immediate interventions and treatment. In addition to clinical psychiatric conditions, non clinical, but still significant factors such as low self esteem can also increase the likelihood to alcohol abuse, and ultimately alcoholism. Alcohol is rarely an effective long term coping strategy. Social Environmental Factors As a society, largely due to billions of dollars invested in alcohol advertising campaigns, there is a perception of alcohol being associated with glamour, attractiveness and success, and these lingering subconscious perceptions may influence people to try alcohol at a young age and continue to drink more than they should throughout life. The immediate environment can also increase the probability of alcoholism. People who socialize, or live romantically with a person who drinks to excess, whether dependent or not, are far more likely to also drink heavily, and put themselves at risk for alcohol abuse and alcoholism. Even the neighborhood around the home seems to influence consumption patterns, and people brought up in or who reside in neighborhoods of heavy abuse are also more likely to use and abuse alcohol themselves. Nothing about alcoholism is completely understood, and all we know is that the variables that can induce alcohol abuse and ultimately alcoholism are many, and that what may cause alcohol dependence in one, seem to have little influence over another. We all present with an individual risk profile for our susceptibility to the disease, although those people with a genetic history of alcoholism are undoubtedly at an increased risk to develop the disease. Regardless of the factors that may induce the occurrence of the disease, the treatments are essentially the same, and alcoholics need intervention, intensive treatment, and long term aftercare therapies. Most alcoholics will never be capable of drinking in moderation, and abstinence is the only recommended philosophy of use for people with alcoholic histories. Page last updated Sep 23, 2012

Reality in everyday usage means "everything that exists". The term reality, in its widest sense, includes everything that is, whether it is observable, comprehensible, or self-contradictory by science, philosophy, or any other system of analysis. Reality in this sense may include both being and nothingness, whereas existence is often restricted to being (compare with nature). In the strict sense of Western philosophy, there are levels or gradation to the nature and conception of reality. These levels include, from the most subjective to the most rigorous: phenomenological reality, truth, fact, and axiom. Other philosophies, particularly those founded in eastern religions like Hinduism and Buddhism have different explications of reality. Conceptions of reality in Buddhism include: dharma, paramattha dhamma, samsara and maya (illusion in Sanskrit). == Phenomenological reality =

Asthma Outreach and Education Clean Air Council is currently working in medically under-served communities of Philadelphia to educate asthma patients of all ages, parents, and health care professionals about indoor and outdoor environmental asthma triggers. Asthma is a chronic condition of the lungs that makes people more sensitive to air pollution. Asthma is caused by genetics and exposure to pollution, allergens, and toxins found in indoor and outdoor air. The Council provides information on basic asthma health, air pollution and health, indoor air quality checklists, and the tools available for reducing pollution in your community. The Council has materials created especially for eduacting children, including an interactive asthma triggers game and coloring books. The Council also works to connect community members with free or low-cost health and asthma management services throughout the city. In addition to offering materials, the Council can also provide your community group or health care organization with a free workshop on indoor and outdoor air pollution, how it affects health, and the many low- to no-cost strategies for reducing exposure. Feel free to contact us should you like to schedule a workshop or have any questions about how we can meet the needs of your organization.

Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD but Follows Normal Pattern A 2007 press release from the National Institute of Mental Health discusses brain development in ADHD youths. In some cases, brain development is delayed as much as three years. The full release and related video are available on the NIMH site: Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD, but Follows Normal Pattern. Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD): How to Help Children with Autism Learn From Dr. Lauer and Dr. Beaulieu's talk Quick facts about Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD)/ Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) - Autism is a 'spectrum disorder' meaning that it affects children in different ways and at different times in their development. - Typically, delays and learning problems can emerge in several areas of functioning including social functioning, communication skills, motor skills, and overall intellectual potential. - Each child has their own learning style that includes specific learning challenges as well as areas of preserved skills and, at times, exceptional abilities. - Both autism and Asperger's disorder are on the same continuum but are distinct in their expression. What are the challenges students with PDD/ASD frequently experience? - Academic difficulties that can often be misinterpreted as learning disabilities. - Problems with executive functioning skills. - Difficulty in forming relationships with peers. - Emotional difficulties due to learning and social problems such as anxiety, depression, low self-esteem. - Fear of new situations and trouble adjusting to changes. - May look like or be misconstrued as attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD), Oppositional-Defiant Disorder or Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Why choose US to help YOU? - Our evaluations are conducted by neuropsychologists who have been extensively trained in the early detection of autistic spectrum disorders and in the identification of specific patterns of learning strengths and weaknesses that are often associated with this condition. - Our evaluations help determine which teaching style is best suited to fit an individuals' specific learning profile; we also offer suggestions regarding compensatory educational approached. - We work as a team with other learning professionals, advocates and health professionals to enhance the child's potential for success in all settings. 'The design of truly individual treatment plans that exploit strengths and compensate for weaknesses begins with a detailed understanding of how learning is different for children with autism than for those without autism and how learning is different among children with autism.' — Bryna Siegel, Ph.D., author of Helping Children with Autism Learn For more information on current research, interventions and programs, follow us on Facebook. Coming to see you for an evaluation was so helpful and Im so happy that I did this. After struggling for years with ADHD but not knowing thats what it was and almost completely ruining our marriage because of it, your diagnosis helped more than you could know. Now I know that its not just me the diagnosis has turned our lives around and helped me feel more accomplished at work. Thanks again for everything. Sandy and Bob M.

1854-89 THREE DOLLARS INDIAN HEAD In 1853 the United States negotiated the "Gadsden Purchase"settlement of a boundary dispute with Mexico that resulted in the U.S. acquiring what would become the southern portions of Arizona and New Mexico for ten million dollars. The following year Commodore Matthew Perry embarked upon his famed expedition to re-open Japan to the Western world and establish trade. Spreading beyond its borders in many ways, a few years earlier the United States had joined the worldwide move to uniform postage rates and printed stamps when the Congressional Act of March 3, 1845 authorized the first U.S. postage stamps, and set the local prepaid letter rate at five cents. This set the stage for a close connection between postal and coinage history. Exactly six years later, the postage rate was reduced to three cents when New York Senator Daniel S. Dickinson fathered legislation that simultaneously initiated coinage of the tiny silver three-cent piece as a public convenience. The large cents then in circulation were cumbersome and unpopular, and the new denomination was designed to facilitate the purchase of stamps without using the hated "coppers." This reasoning was carried a step further when the Mint Act of February 21, 1853 authorized a three-dollar gold coin. Congress and Mint Director Robert Maskell Patterson were convinced that the new coin would speed purchases of three-cent stamps by the sheet and of the silver three-cent coins in roll quantities. Unfortunately, at no time during the 35-year span of this denomination did public demand justify these hopes. Chief Engraver James Barton Longacre chose an "Indian Princess" for his obverse not a Native American profile, but actually a profile modeled after the Greco-Roman Venus Accroupie statue then in a Philadelphia museum. Longacre used this distinctive sharp-nosed profile on his gold dollar of 1849 and would employ it again on the Indian Head cent of 1859. On the three-dollar coin Liberty is wearing a feathered headdress of equal-sized plumes with a band bearing LIBERTY in raised letters. She's surrounded by the inscription UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Such a headdress dates back to the earliest known drawings of American Indians by French artist Jacques le Moyne du Morgue's sketches of the Florida Timucua tribe who lived near the tragic French colony of Fort Caroline in 1562. It was accepted by engravers and medalists of the day as the design shorthand for "America." Longacre's reverse depicted a wreath of tobacco, wheat, corn and cotton with a plant at top bearing two conical seed masses. The original wax models of this wreath still exist on brass discs in a Midwestern collection and show how meticulous Longacre was in preparing his design. Encircled by the wreath is the denomination 3 DOLLARS and the date. There are two boldly different reverse types, the small DOLLARS appearing only in 1854 and the large DOLLARS on coins of 1855-89. Many dates show bold "outlining" of letters and devices, resembling a double strike but probably the result of excessive forcing of the design punches into the die steel, causing a hint of their sloping "shoulders" to appear as part of the coin's design. The high points of the obverse design that first show wear are the cheek and hair above the eye; on the reverse, check the bow knot and leaves. A total of just over 535,000 pieces were issued along with 2058 proofs. The first coins struck were the 15 proofs of 1854. Regular coinage began on May 1, and that first year saw 138,618 pieces struck at Philadelphia (no mintmark), 1,120 at Dahlonega (D), and 24,000 at New Orleans (O). These two branch mints would strike coins only in 1854. San Francisco produced the three-dollar denomination in 1855, 1856, and 1857, again in 1860, and apparently one final piece in 1870. Mintmarks are found below the wreath. Every U.S. denomination boasts a number of major rarities. The three-dollar gold coinage of 1854-1889 is studded with so many low-mintage dates that the entire series may fairly be called rare. In mint state 1878 is the most common date, followed by the 1879, 1888, 1854 and 1889 issues. Every other date is very rare in high grade, particularly 1858, 1865, 1873 Closed 3 and all the San Francisco issues. Minuscule mintages were the rule in the later years. Proof coins prior to 1859 are extremely rare and more difficult to find than the proof-only issues of 1873 Open 3, 1875 and 1876, but many dates are even rarer in the higher Mint State grades. This is because at least some proofs were saved by well- heeled collectors while few lower-budget collectors showed any interest in higher-grade business strikes of later-date gold. Counterfeits are known for many dates; any suspicious piece should be authenticated. The rarest date of all is the unique 1870-S, of which only one example was struck for inclusion in the new Mint's cornerstone. Either the coin escaped, or a second was struck as a pocket piece for San Francisco Mint Coiner J.B. Harmstead. In any event, one coin showing traces of jewelry use surfaced in the numismatic market in 1907. It was sold to prominent collector William H. Woodin, and when Thomas L. Elder sold the Woodin collection in 1911, the coin went to Baltimore's Waldo C. Newcomer. Later owned by Virgil Brand, it was next sold by Ted and Carl Brandts of Ohio's Celina Coin Co. and Stack's of New York to Louis C. Eliasberg in 1946 for $11,500. In Bowers and Merena's October 1982 sale of the U.S. Gold Collection, this famous coin sold for a record $687,500. The three-dollar denomination quietly expired in 1889 along with the gold dollar and nickel three-cent piece. America's coinage was certainly more prosaic without this odd denomination gold piece, but its future popularity with collectors would vastly outstrip the lukewarm public reception it enjoyed during its circulating life.

Creature Feature: American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) By Emma Dean, CG Science Editor Though once believed to have a range that covered what would be the continental United States until the glacial period, American beech currently maintains a slightly lesser native geographic habitat, which is still quite impressive. American beech covers the eastern U.S. and Canada from Florida to Quebec, as well as Utah. Indigenous to North America, European colonists recognized the tree as a relative of the European beech and gathered the beechnuts to extract the oil which is similar to olive oil. The beechnuts, which persist through winter, can become somewhat of a litter problem, but not the leaf litter due to the fact that after turning a lovely bronze color, the leaves stay on the tree throughout winter. As autumn ends and winter begins, the leaves become less bronze and resemble thin, curled parchment paper. Due to a shallow root system, grass does not sprout beneath the tree. This is not entirely noticeable because the short trunk allows the branches to nearly touch the ground. Its roots are unique, also, in that they routinely develop root suckers, which is when the root system is the site of new growth that then grows upward and out of the ground to form new branches and essentially a clone of the original tree. Entire beech groves have been known to grow from the roots of a single tree. American beech is notorious for having incredibly smooth, light grey bark even as it advances in age. Though not necessarily beneficial for the tree, American beech is also notorious for being a favorite for carved initials and dates which are preserved indefinitely. - American beech is a larval host as well as a nectar source for Early Hairstreak. - American beech is at home in the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Mississippi, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Vermont, Wisconsin, West Virginia and also Washington D.C. - This beech is often associated with the extinct Passenger Pigeon, which consumed beechnuts and roosted in its branches. - A few minor pest issues that affect American beech include powdery mildew, aphids, canker and beech bark disease. - Though it has a slow growth rate, American beech will grow to a height between 50-70 feet. - The general lifespan for an American beech is 300-400 years.

In the American electoral system, a primary election is an election that determines the nominee for each political party, who then competes for the office in the general election. A presidential primary is a state election that picks the delegates committed to nominate particular candidates for president of the United States. A presidential caucus, as in Iowa, requires voters to meet together for several hours in face-to-face meetings that select county delegates, who eventually pick the delegates to the national convention. No other country uses primaries; they choose their candidates in party conventions. Primaries were introduced in the Progressive Era in the early 20th century to weaken the power of bosses and make the system more democratic. In presidential elections, they became important starting in 1952, when the first-in-the-nation New Hampshire Primary helped give Dwight D. Eisenhower the Republican nomination, and knocked Harry S. Truman out of the Democratic race because of his poor showing. In 1964, Lyndon B. Johnson ended his reelection campaign after doing poorly in New Hampshire. After 1968, both parties changed their rules to emphasize presidential primaries, although some states still use the caucus system. In recent decades, New Hampshire holds the first primary a few days after Iowa holds the first caucus. That gives these two states enormous leverage, as the candidates and the media focus there. New Hampshire and Iowa receive about half of all the media attention given all primaries. The primary allows voters to choose between different candidates of the some political parties, perhaps representing different wings of the party. For example, a Republican primary may choose between a range of candidates from moderate to conservative. Gallup's 2008 polling data indicated a trend in primary elections towards more conservative candidates, despite the more liberal result in the general election. In recent years the primary seasons has come earlier and earlier, as states move up to earlier dates in the hope it will give them more leverage. For example, Barry Goldwater won the 1964 nomination because he won the last primary in California. The logic is faulty--in highly contested races the later primaries have more leverage. Thus in 2008 California gave up its traditional last-in-the-nation role and joined 20 other states on Super Tuesday. Neither the candidates not the voters paid it much attention. Michigan and Florida moved up their primaries in defiance of national Democratic Party rules and were penalized. The result is the primary season is extended, and is far more expensive, and no state gets an advantage--except for Iowa and New Hampshire, which now have dates in early January. In late 2009 the two national parties are meeting to find a common solution. - Duncan, Dayton. Grass roots: one year in the life of the New Hampshire presidential primary (1991) 436 pages; on 1988 campaign - Johnson, Haynes, and Dan Balz. The Battle for America 2008: The Story of an Extraordinary Election (2009), excellent history of 2008 primaries - Kamarck, Elaine C. Primary Politics: How Presidential Candidates Have Shaped the Modern Nominating System (2009) excerpt and text search

Dinosaur Bones "Buried" By Evolutionists! A recent presentation at the 2012 Western Pacific Geophysics meeting in Singapore showed C-14 dates of soft tissue found in dinosaur bones to be in the range from 22,000 - 39,000 years old. Previously, it has been assumed that dinosaurs died out over 65 million years ago, so these new findings are astonishing and should have made international news. But shortly after the presentation was made at the meeting, the abstract was removed from the meeting’s website! So it appears that instead of making international news, these findings have been buried. First, let’s look at what was actually being presented. The organic matter (collagen) and hard carbonate bone mineral (bioapatite) in the bone samples were analyzed. The samples came from several species of dinosaurs (acrocanthosaur, hadrosaurus, triceratops and apatosaurus) taken from various sites in Texas, Colorado, Arkansas and Montana. The samples were meticulously handled and cleaned to avoid possible contamination. The carbon-14 (C-14) levels in these samples were measured using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS). The resultant C-14 ages obtained from these samples were consistently in the 22,000 - 39,000 years range. The fact that the samples were from a variety of species and sites all giving consistent results greatly reduces the chance that the results are from contamination. The theoretical upper limit for C-14 dating is ten times the half-life, or about 57,000 years. The proposed practical upper limit for C-14 dating is between 40,000 - 50,000 years. While some samples fell close to the 40,000 year upper limit, 16 out of 20 (80%) were aged at 35,000 years or younger, well within the acceptable upper C-14 dating limits. While other researchers have found soft tissue in dinosaur bones and C-14 dates in these ranges, this current study has been the most comprehensive. The fact that there is any collagen at all remaining in these bone samples is amazing, considering that they are supposed to be older than 65 million years. Protein just doesn’t hang around that long! And that there is any C-14 in them also is reason to possibly question conventional wisdom. But why have we not heard about any of this in the news? Shouldn't there have been at least a 15-second blip from one of the media outlets? But the media have been silent and the abstract pulled from the meeting proceedings. The sacred cow of evolution once again remains intact. We truly are living in an age of great deception. “And for this cause God shall send them strong delusion, that they should believe a lie.” (2 Thessalonians 2:11) This article, by Creation Moments board member Dr. Don Clark, is based on an interview broadcast by Broken Road Radio. To hear the interview and many others on biblical creation topics, go to http://brokenroadradio.com/morning-show-september-17-2012/

Indonesia is known for being prone to natural disasters of all kinds, ranging from climatic (floods, drought) to geologic (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanoes, etc.), biological (avian influenza) to man-made (deforestation, mining, conflicts). With an already high level of food insecurity, households' vulnerability to shocks is high as the assets and structures of communities are jeopardized by these complex emergencies and a general lack of disaster risk reduction and management. Over the past five years, more than 1,500,000 people have been directly affected by natural disasters, primarily in West Sumatera, West Java, Central Java, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara and Papua. Following the tsunami of 2004, the government of Indonesia has become more aware of the risks, both real and potential, affecting the provinces, and has taken steps to build the capacity of its staff in disaster risk reduction. Emergency preparedness and response has also become a priority for the Indonesian Church, specifically the national Caritas office—KARINA—and a growing number of dioceses. Various disasters over the past five years offered opportunities for the dioceses in those areas to contribute to the disaster responses and increase their response and management capacities. This has provided Catholic Relief Services Indonesia with greater opportunity to work with and support the local Church and other organizations to improve their capacity in emergency response programming. Latest Stories From Indonesia View all stories »» See all the different ways your support helps people around the world after disasters strike. »» The latest eruption from Indonesia's Mount Merapi volcano killed 70 people and forced thousands to flee from their homes. »» When Sumatran villagers were left homeless after an earthquake, a CRS program helped them build 11,000 houses in just a few months. »» |Population:||248,645,008 (July 2012 est.)| |Size:||735,358 sq. mi.; slightly less than three times the size of Texas| |People Served:||863 (2012 est.)| Since 1957, Catholic Relief Services has been helping rural communities in Indonesia alleviate human suffering, eradicate poverty and become self-reliant. Over the past five years, CRS in Indonesia has responded to various disasters and helped more than 60,000 people rebuild their lives. Our response to the West Sumatera earthquake in 2009 through cash grant for transitional shelter has been widely appreciated by the local government and donor community as the most effective strategy to provide timely, appropriate, accountable and high quality interventions. PartnersKARINA (Caritas Indonesia) CORDAID and Caritas Australia United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

CTComms sends on average 2 million emails monthly on behalf of over 125 different charities and not for profits. Take the complexity of technology and stir in the complexity of the legal system and what do you get? Software licenses! If you've ever attempted to read one you know how true this is, but you have to know a little about software licensing even if you can't parse all of the fine print. By: Chris Peters March 10, 2009 A software license is an agreement between you and the owner of a program which lets you perform certain activities which would otherwise constitute an infringement under copyright law. The software license usually answers questions such as: The price of the software and the licensing fees, if any, are sometimes discussed in the licensing agreement, but usually it's described elsewhere. If you read the definitions below and you're still scratching your head, check out Categories of Free and Non-Free Software which includes a helpful diagram. Free vs Proprietary: When you hear the phrase "free software" or "free software license," "free" is referring to your rights and permissions ("free as in freedom" or "free as in free speech"). In other words, a free software license gives you more rights than a proprietary license. You can usually copy, modify, and redistribute free software without paying a fee or obtaining permission from the developers and distributors. In most cases "free software" won't cost you anything, but that's not always the case – in this instance the word free is making no assertion whatsoever about the price of the software. Proprietary software puts more restrictions and limits on your legal permission to copy, modify, and distribute the program. Free, Open-Source or FOSS? In everyday conversation, there's not much difference between "free software," "open source software," and "FOSS (Free and Open-Source Software)." In other words, you'll hear these terms used interchangeably, and the proponents of free software and the supporters of open-source software agree with one another on most issues. However, the official definition of free software differs somewhat from the official definition of open-source software, and the philosophies underlying those definitions differ as well. For a short description of the difference, read Live and Let License. For a longer discussion from the "free software" side, read Why Open Source Misses the Point of Free Software. For the "open-source" perspective, read Why Free Software is Too Ambiguous. Public domain and copyleft. These terms refer to different categories of free, unrestricted licensing. A copyleft license allows you all the freedoms of a free software license, but adds one restriction. Under a copyleft license, you have to release any modifications under the same terms as the original software. In effect, this blocks companies and developers who want to alter free software and then make their altered version proprietary. In practice, almost all free and open-source software is also copylefted. However, technically you can release "free software" that isn't copylefted. For example, if you developed software and released it under a "public domain" license, it would qualify as free software, but it isn't copyleft. In effect, when you release something into the public domain, you give up all copyrights and rights of ownership. Shareware and freeware. These terms don't really refer to licensing, and they're confusing in light of the discussion of free software above. Freeware refers to software (usually small utilities at sites such as Tucows.com) that you can download and install without paying. However, you don't have the right to view the source code, and you may not have the right to copy and redistribute the software. In other words, freeware is proprietary software. Shareware is even more restrictive. In effect, shareware is trial software. You can use it for a limited amount of time (usually 30 or 60 days) and then you're expected to pay to continue using it. End User Licensing Agreement (EULA). When you acquire software yourself, directly from a vendor or retailer, or directly from the vendor's Web site, you usually have to indicate by clicking a box that you accept the licensing terms. This "click-through" agreement that no one ever reads is commonly known as a EULA. If you negotiate a large purchase of software with a company, and you sign a contract to seal the agreement, that contract usually replaces or supersedes the EULA. Most major vendors of proprietary software offer some type of bulk purchasing and volume licensing mechanism. The terms vary widely, but if you order enough software to qualify, the benefits in terms of cost and convenience are significant. Also, not-for-profits sometimes qualify for it with very small initial purchases. Some of the benefits of volume licensing include: Lower cost. As with most products, software costs less when you buy more of it. Ease of installation. Without volume licenses, you usually have to enter a separate activation code (also known as a product key or license key) for each installed copy of the program. On the other hand, volume licenses provide you with a single, organisation-wide activation code, which makes it much easier to find when you need to reinstall the software. Easier tracking of licenses. Keeping track of how many licenses you own, and how many copies you've actually installed, is a tedious, difficult task. Many volume licensing programs provide an online account which is automatically updated when you obtain or activate a copy of that company's software. These accounts can also coordinate licensing across multiple offices within your organisation. To learn more about volume licensing from a particular vendor, check out some of the resources below: Qualified not-for-profits and libraries can receive donated volume licenses for Microsoft products through TechSoup. For more information, check out our introduction to the Microsoft Software Donation Program, and the Microsoft Software Donation Program FAQ. For general information about the volume licensing of Microsoft software, see Volume Licensing Overview. If you get Microsoft software from TechSoup or other software distributors who work with not-for-profits, you may need to go to the eOpen Web site to locate your Volume license keys. For more information, check out the TechSoup Donation Recipient's Guide to the Microsoft eOpen Web Site. Always check TechSoup Stock first to see if there's a volume licensing donation program for the software you're interested in. If TechSoup doesn't offer that product or if you need more copies than you can find at TechSoup, search for "volume licensing not-for-profits software" or just "not-for-profits software." For example, when we have an inventory of Adobe products, qualifying and eligible not-for-profits can obtain four individual products or one copy of Creative Suite 4 through TechSoup. If we're out of stock, or you've used up your annual Adobe donation, you can also check TechSoup's special Adobe donation program and also Adobe Solutions for Nonprofits for other discounts available to not-for-profits. For more software-hunting tips, see A Quick Guide to Discounted Software Programs. Pay close attention to the options and licensing requirements when you acquire server-based software. You might need two different types of license – one for the server software itself, and a set of licenses for all the "clients" accessing the software. Depending on the vendor and the licensing scenario, "client" can refer either to the end users themselves (for example, employees, contractors, clients, and anyone else who uses the software in question) or their computing devices (for example, laptops, desktop computers, smartphones, PDAs, etc.). We'll focus on Microsoft server products, but similar issues can arise with other server applications. Over the years, Microsoft has released hundreds of server-based applications, and the licensing terms are slightly different for each one. Fortunately, there are common license types and licensing structures across different products. In other words, while a User CAL (Client Access License) for Windows Server is distinct from a User CAL for SharePoint Server, the underlying terms and rights are very similar. The TechSoup product pages for Microsoft software do a good job of describing the differences between products, so we'll focus on the common threads in this article. Moreover, Microsoft often lets you license a single server application in more than one way, depending on the needs of your organisation. This allows you the flexibility to choose the licenses that best reflect your organisation's usage patterns and thereby cost you the least amount of money. For example, for Windows Server and other products you can acquire licenses on a per-user basis (for example, User CALs) or per-device basis (for example, Device CALs). The license required to install and run most server applications usually comes bundled with the software itself. So you can install and run most applications "out of the box," as long as you have the right number of client licenses (see the section below for more on that). However, when you're running certain server products on a computer with multiple processors, you may need to get additional licenses. For example, if you run Windows Server 2008 DataCenter edition on a server with two processors, you need a separate license for each processor. SQL Server 2008 works the same way. This type of license is referred to as a processor license. Generally you don't need client licenses for any application that's licensed this way. Client Licenses for Internal Users Many Microsoft products, including Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008, require client access licenses for all authenticated internal users (for example, employees, contractors, volunteers, etc.). On the other hand, SQL Server 2008 and other products don't require any client licenses. Read the product description at CTXchange if you're looking for the details about licensing a particular application. User CALs: User CALs allow each user access to all the instances of a particular server product in an organisation, no matter which device they use to gain access. In other words, if you run five copies of Windows Server 2008 on five separate servers, you only need one User CAL for each person in your organisation who access those servers (or any software installed on those servers), whether they access a single server, all five servers, or some number in between. Each user with a single CAL assigned to them can access the server software from as many devices as they want (for example, desktop computers, laptops, smartphones, etc.). User CALs are a popular licensing option. Device CALs: Device CALs allow access to all instances of a particular server application from a single device (for example, a desktop computer, a laptop, etc.) in your organisation. Device CALs only make sense when multiple employees use the same computer. For example, in 24-hour call centres different employees on different shifts often use the same machine, so Device CALs make sense in this situation. Choosing a licensing mode for your Windows Server CALs: With Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008, you use a CAL (either a User CAL or a Device CAL) in one of two licensing modes: per seat or per server. You make this decision when you're installing your Windows Server products, not when you acquire the CALs. The CALs themselves don't have any mode designation, so you can use either a User CAL or a Device CAL in either mode. Per seat mode is the default mode, and the one used most frequently. The description of User CALs and Device CALs above describes the typical per seat mode. In "per server" mode, Windows treats each license as a "simultaneous connection." In other words, if you have 40 CALs, Windows will let 40 authenticated users have access. The 41st user will be denied access. However, in per server mode, each CAL is tied to a particular instance of Windows Server, and you have to acquire a new set of licenses for each new server you build that runs Windows. Therefore, per server mode works for some small organisations with one or two servers and limited access requirements. You don't "install" client licenses the way you install software. There are ways to automate the tracking of software licenses indirectly, but the server software can't refuse access to a user or device on licensing grounds. The licenses don't leave any "digital footprint" that the server software can read. An exception to this occurs when you license Windows Server in per server mode. In this case, if you have 50 licenses, the 51st authenticated user will be denied access (though anonymous users can still access services). Some key points to remember about client licensing: The licensing scenarios described in this section arise less frequently, and are too complex to cover completely in this article, so they're described briefly below along with more comprehensive resources. You don't need client licenses for anonymous, unauthenticated external users. In other words, if someone accesses your Web site, and that site runs on Internet Information Server (IIS), Microsoft's Web serving software, you don't need a client license for any of those anonymous users. If you have any authenticated external users who access services on your Windows-based servers, you can obtain CALs to cover their licensing requirements. However, the External Connector License (ECL) is a second option in this scenario. The ECL covers all use by authenticated external users, but it's a lot more expensive than a CAL, so only get one if you'll have a lot of external users. For example, even if you get your licenses through the CTXchange donation program, an ECL for Windows Server 2008 has an £76 administrative fee, while a User CAL for Windows Server 2008 carries a £1 admin fee. If only a handful of external users access your Windows servers, you're better off acquiring User CALs. Also, an ECL only applies to external users and devices. In other words, if you have an ECL, you still have to get a CAL for all employees and contractors. Even though Terminal Services (TS) is built into Windows Server 2003 and 2008, you need to get a separate TS CAL for each client (i.e. each user or each device) that will access Terminal Services in your organisation. This TS license is in addition to your Windows Server CALs. Microsoft's System Centre products (a line of enterprise-level administrative software packages) use a special type of license known as a management license (ML). Applications that use this type of licensing include System Center Configuration Manager 2007 and System Center Operations Manager 2007. Any desktop or workstation managed by one of these applications needs a client management license. Any server managed by one of these applications requires a server management license, and there are two types of server management licenses – standard and enterprise. You need one or the other but not both. There are also special licensing requirements if you're managing virtual instances of Windows operating systems. For more information, see TechSoup's Guide to System Center Products and Licensing and Microsoft's white paper on Systems Center licensing. Some Microsoft server products have two client licensing modes, standard and enterprise. As you might imagine, an Enterprise CAL grants access to more advanced features of a product. Furthermore, with some products, such as Microsoft Exchange, the licenses are additive. In other words, a user needs both a Standard CAL AND an Enterprise CAL in order to access the advanced features. See Exchange Server 2007 Editions and Client Access Licenses for more information. With virtualisation technologies, multiple operating systems can run simultaneously on a single physical server. Every time you install a Microsoft application, whether on a physical hardware system or a virtual hardware system, you create an "instance" of that application. The number of "instances" of particular application that you can run using a single license varies from product to product. For more information see the Volume Licensing Briefs, Microsoft Licensing for Virtualization and the Windows Server Virtualization Calculator. For TechSoup Stock products, see the product description for more information. There are a lot of nuances to Microsoft licensing, and also a lot of excellent resources to help you understand different scenarios. About the Author: Chris is a former technology writer and technology analyst for TechSoup for Libraries, which aims to provide IT management guidance to libraries. His previous experience includes working at Washington State Library as a technology consultant and technology trainer, and at the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation as a technology trainer and tech support analyst. He received his M.L.S. from the University of Michigan in 1997. Originally posted here. Copyright © 2009 CompuMentor. This work is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License. The latest version of Microsoft Office Professional Plus is an integrated collection of programs, servers, and services designed to work together to enable optimised information work.

Aliphatic alcohols occur naturally in free form (component of the cuticular lipids) but more usually in esterified (wax esters) or etherified form (glyceryl ethers). Several alcohols belong to aroma compounds which are found in environmental or food systems (see the website: Flavornet). They are found with normal, branched (mono- or isoprenoid), saturated or unsaturated of various chain length and sometimes with secondary or even tertiary alcoholic function. An unusual phenolic alcohol is found as a component of glycolipids in Mycobacteria. Some cyclic alcohols have been described in plants. A classification according to the carbon-chain structure is given below. 1 - Normal-chain alcohols The carbon chain may be fully saturated or unsaturated (with double and/or triple bonds), it may also be substituted with chlorine, bromine or sulfate groups. Some acetylenic alcohols have been also described. Among the most common, some are listed below 9-methyl-1-hendecanol (anteisolauryl alcohol) 11-methyl-1-tridecanol (anteisomyristyl alcohol) 14-methyl-1-pentadecanol (isopalmityl alcohol) 13-methyl-1-pentadecanol (anteisopalmityl alcohol) 16-methyl-1-heptadecanol (isostearyl alcohol) 15-methyl-1-pentadecanol (anteisostearyl alcohol) Free fatty alcohols are not commonly found in epicuticular lipids of insects, although high molecular weight alcohols have been reported in honeybees (Blomquist GJ et al., Insect Biochem 1980, 10, 313). Long-chain alcohols also have been reported in the defensive secretions of scale insects (Byrne DN et al., Physiol Entomol 1988, 13,267). Typically, insects more commonly produce lower molecular weight alcohols. Honeybees produce alcohols of 17–22 carbons, which induce arrestment in parasitic varroa mites (Donze G et al., Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 1998, 37, 129). Two female-specific fatty alcohols, docosanol (C22) and eicosanol (C20), which have been found in epicuticle of Triatoma infestans (a vector of Chagas disease in South America), are able to trigger copulation in males (Cocchiararo-Bastias L et al., J Chem Ecol 2011, 37, 246). Hexadecyl acetate is found in the web of some spiders (Pholcidae) to attract females (Schulz S, J Chem Ecol 2013, 39, 1). Long-chain alcohols (C18, C24, C28) from the femoral glands in the male lizard Acanthodactylus boskianus play a role in chemical communication as a scent marking pheromone (Khannoon ER et al., Chemoecology 2011, 21, 143). Various fatty alcohols are found in the waxy film that plants have over their leaves and fruits. Among them, octacosanol (C28:0) is the most frequently cited. Policosanol is a natural mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols isolated and purified from sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum, L.) wax, whose main component is octacosanol but contains also hexacosanol (C26:0) and triacontanol or melissyl alcohol (C30:0). Policosanol is also extracted from a diversity of other natural sources such as beeswax, rice bran, and wheat germ (Irmak S et al., Food Chem 2006, 95, 312) but is also present in the fruits, leaves, and surfaces of plants and whole seeds. A complex policosanol mixture has been identified in peanut (Cherif AO et al., J Agric Food Chem 2010, 58, 12143). More than 20 aliphatic alcohols were identified (C14-C30) and four unsaturated alcohols (C20-24). The total policosanol content of the whole peanut samples varied from 11 to 54 mg/100 g of oil. This mixture was shown to have cholesterol-lowering effects in rabbits (Arruzazabala ML et al., Biol Res 1994, 27, 205). Octacosanol was also able to suppress lipid accumulation in rats fed on a high-fat diet (Kato S et al., Br J Nutr 1995, 73, 433) and to inhibit platelet aggregation (Arruzazabala ML et al., Thromb Res 1993, 69, 321). The effectiveness of policosanol is still questionable but it has been approved as a cholesterol-lowering drug in over 25 countries (Carbajal D et al., Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Essent Fatty Acids 1998, 58, 61), and it is sold as a lipid-lowering supplement in more than 40 countries. More recent studies in mice question about any action on improvement of lipoprotein profiles (Dullens SPJ et al., J Lipid Res 2008, 49, 790). The authors conclude that individual policosanols, as well as natural policosanol mixtures, have no potential for reducing coronary heart disease risk through effects on serum lipoprotein concentrations. Furthermore, sugar cane policosanol at doses of 20 mg daily has shown no lipid lowering effects in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia (Francini-Pesenti F et al., Phytother Res 2008, 22, 318). It must be noticed that, for the most part, positive results have been obtained by only one research group in Cuba. Outside Cuba, all groups have failed to validate the cholesterol-lowering efficacy of policosanols (Marinangeli C et al., Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2010, 50, 259). Independent studies are required before evaluating the exact value of the therapeutic benefits of that mixture. An unsaturated analogue of octacosanol, octacosa-10, 19-dien-1-ol was synthesized and was as effective as policosanol in inhibiting the upregulation of HMGCoA reductase (Oliaro-Bosso S et al., Lipids 2009, 44, 907). This work opens promising perspectives for the design of new antiangiogenic compounds (Thippeswamy G et al., Eur J Pharmacol 2008, 588, 141). An unsaturated analogue of octacosanol, octacosa-10, 19-dien-1-ol was synthesized and was as effective as policosanol in inhibiting the upregulation of HMGCoA reductase (Oliaro-Bosso S et al., Lipids 2009, 44, 907). This work opens promising perspectives for the design of new antiangiogenic compounds. 1-Octanol and 3-octanol are components of the mushroom flavor (Maga JA, J Agric Food Chem 1981, 29, 1). Many alcohols in the C10 to C18 range, and their short-chain acid esters are potent sex or aggregation pheromones. They are mainly found as components of specialized defensive glands, pheromone glands or glands of the reproductive system. A series of C22 up to C28 saturated n-alcohols, with even carbon numbers predominating, and a maximum at C26 and C28, has been identified in the cyanobacterium Anabaena cylindrica (Abreu-Grobois FA et al., Phytochemistry 1977, 16, 351). Several authors have reported high contents of the 22:0 alcohol in sediments where an algal origin is plausible. For example, the major alcohol in a sample of the lacustrine Green River Shale of Eocene age is also 22:0 which comprises over 50% of the alcohols present (Sever JR et al., Science 1969, 164, 1052) Long-chain alcohols are known as major surface lipid components (waxes) with chains from C20 up to C34 carbon atoms, odd carbon-chain alcohols being found in only low amounts. Very long-chain methyl-branched alcohols (C38 to C44) and their esters with short-chain acids were shown to be present in insects, mainly during metamorphosis. A series of long-chain alkanols (more than 23 carbon atoms) were identified in settling particles and surface sediments from Japanese lakes and were shown to be produced by planktonic bacteria being thus useful molecular markers (Fukushima K et al., Org Geochem 2005, 36, 311). Cutin and suberin contain as monomer saturated alcohols from C16 to C22 up to 8% of the total polymers. C18:1 alcohol (oleyl alcohol) is also present. Long-chain di-alcohols (1,3-alkanediols) have been described in the waxes which impregnate the matrix covering all organs of plants (Vermeer CP et al., Phytochemistry 2003, 62, 433). These compounds forming about 11% of the leaf cuticular waxes of Ricinus communis were identified as homologous unbranched alcohols ranging from C22 to C28 with hydroxyl group at the carbon atoms 1 and 3. In the leaf cuticular waxes of Myricaria germanica (Tamaricaceae) several alkanediols were identified (Jetter R, Phytochemistry 2000, 55, 169). Hentriacontanediol (C31) with one hydroxyl group in the 12-position and the second one in positions from 2 to 18 is the most abundant diol (9% of the wax). Others were far less abundant : C30-C34 alkanediols with one hydroxyl group on a primary and one on a secondary carbon atom, C25-C43 b-diols and C39-C43 g-diols. Very-long-chain 1,5-alkanediols ranging from C28 to C38, with strong predominance of even carbon numbers, were identified in the cuticular wax of Taxus baccata (Wen M et al., Phytochemistry 2007, 68, 2563). The predominant diol had 32 carbon atoms (29% of the total). Long-chain saturated C30-C32 diols occur in most marine sediments and in a few instances, such as in Black Sea sediments, they can be the major lipids (de Leeuw JW et al., Geochim Cosmochim Acta 1981, 45, 2281). A microalgal source for these compounds was discovered when Volkman JK et al. (Org Geochem 1992, 18, 131) identified C30-C32 diols in marine eustigmatophytes from the genus Nannochloropsis. Two nonacosanetriols (7,8,11-nonacosanetriol and 10,12,15-nonacosanetriol) have been isolated from the outer fleshy layer (sarcotesta) of the Ginkgo biloba "fruit" (Zhou G et al., Chem Phys Lipids 2012, 165, 731). They exhibited slight activity of antithrombin and moderate activities of platelet aggregation in vitro. The chief lipid fraction in the uropygial gland excretion of the domestic hen is a diester wax. The unsaponifiable fraction consists of a series of three homologous compounds, which have been named the uropygiols and identified as 2,3-alkanediols containing 22-24 carbon atoms. These fatty alcohols are esterified by saturated normal C22-C24 fatty acids (Haahti E et al., J Lipid Res 1967, 8, 131). - Unsaturated alcohols Some fatty alcohols have one double bond (monounsaturated). Their general formula is: The unique double bond may be found in different positions: at the C6: i.e. cis-6-octadecen-1-ol (petroselenyl alcohol), C9 i.e cis-9-octadecen-1-ol (oleyl alcohol) and C11 i.e cis-11-octadecen-1-ol (vaccenyl alcohol). Some of these alcohols have insect pheromone activity. As an example, 11-eicosen-1-ol is a major component of the alarm pheromone secreted by the sting apparatus of the worker honeybee. In zooplankton, the cis-11-docosen-1-ol (22:1 (n-11) alcohol) is not only present in high proportion in wax esters (54 to 83%) but may be also predominant in free form (75-94% of free alcohols) in ctenophores (Graeve M et al., Mar Biol 2008, 153, 643). This presence is unexplained because pathways for conversion and catabolism of fatty alcohols in ctenophores are still unknown. Some short-chain unsaturated alcohols are components of mushroom flavor, such as 1-octen-3-ol, t2-octen-1-ol, and c2-octen-1-ol (Maga JA, J Agric Food Chem 1981, 29, 1). An acetoxy derivative of a 16-carbon alcohol with one double bond, gyptol (10-acetoxy cis-7-hexadecen-1-ol), was described to be a strong attractive substance secreted by a female moth (Porthetria dispar, "gypsy moth"). A fatty alcohol with two double bonds, bombykol (tr-10,cis-12-hexadecadien-1-ol), was also shown to be excreted as a very strong attractive substance by the female of silk-worm (Bombyx mori). This first discovery of a pheromone was made by Butenandt A et al. (Z Naturforsch 1959, 14, 283) who was formerly Nobel laureate (in 1939) for his work in sex hormones. Another pheromone, 8,10-dodecadienol (codlemone), is secreted by the codling moth Cydia pomonella, has been used for monitoring and mating in apple and pear orchards in the USA and Europe. This molecule was also used to monitor the population of the pea moth Cydia nigricana. Likewise, 7,9-dodecadienol, the female pheromone of the European grapewine moth Lobesia botrana, was used to control this important pest in vineyards. A fatty triol with one double bond, avocadene (16-heptadecene-1,2,4-triol) is found in avocado fruit (Persea americana) and has been tested for anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. These properties are likely related with the curative effects of avocado described for a number of ailments (diarrhea, dysentery, abdominal pains and high blood pressure). Several others heptadecanols with one primary and two secondary alcohol functions and with one double or triple bond have been identified in the leaves of Persea americana (Lee TH et al., Food Chem 2012, 132, 921). One or two of these alcohol groups may be acetylated. These compounds may be related to the known antifungal activity of Persea leaves. Long-chain alkenols (C37 to C39) with 2 to 4 double bonds, the reduced form of the alkenones, have been described in the benthic haptophyte Chrysotila lamellosa (Rontani JF et al., Phytochemistry 2004, 65, 117). al., 1986). C30 to C32 alcohols having one or two double bonds are significant constituents of the lipids of marine eustigmatophytes of the genus Nannochloropsis (Volkman JK et al., Org Geochem 1992, 18, 131). These microalgae could be partially the source of the alkenols found in some marine sediments. Two chlorinated derivatives of unusual alcohols were described in a red alga Gracilaria verrucosa (Shoeb M et al., J Nat Prod 2003, 66, 1509). Both compounds have a C12 aliphatic chain chlorinated in position 2 and with one double bond at carbon 2 (compound 1 : 2-chlorododec-2-en-1-ol) or two double bonds at carbon 2 and 11 (compound 2 : 2-chlorododec-2,11-dien-1-ol). - Acetylenic alcohols Natural acetylenic alcohols and their derivatives have been isolated from a wide variety of plant species, fungi and invertebrates. Pharmacological studies have revealed that many of them display chemical and medicinal properties. Monoacetylenic alcohols : were isolated from culture of Clitocybe catinus (Basidiomycetes) and the study of their structure revealed the presence of two or three hydroxyl groups (Armone A et al., Phytochemistry 2000, 53, 1087). One of these compounds is shown below. Acetylenic alcohols have been also described in a tropical sponge Reniochaline sp (Lee HS et al., Lipids 2009, 44, 71). One of the two described in that species is shown below, it exhibited a significant growth effect against human tumor cell lines. Polyacetylenic alcohols : Several examples with different chain lengths, unsaturation degrees, and substitution have been reported from terrestrial plants and marine organisms. Food plants of the Apiaceae (Umbellifereae) plant family such as carrots, celery and parsley, are known to contain several bioactive bisacetylenic alcohols. The main plant sources of these compounds are Angelica dahurica, Heracleum sp and Crithmum maritimum (falcarindiol, falcarinol), red ginseng (Panax ginseng) (panaxacol, panaxydol, panaxytriol), Cicuta virosa (virol A), and Clibadium sylvestre (cunaniol). All these compounds display antibiotic or cytotoxic activities. Polyacetylenes have been isolated from the stems of Oplopanax elatus (Araliaceae), plant used in Korean and Chinese traditional medicine for anti-inflammatory and analgesic purposes (Yang MC et al., J Nat Prod 2010, 73, 801). Among the most efficient in inhibiting the formation of nitric oxide in LPS-induced cells is a seventeen-carbon diyne diol with an epoxy cycle, oploxyne A. Other parent compounds without the epoxy group were also described. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2003, 83, 1010). Falcarinl has potent anticancer properties on primary mammary epithelial cells and was compared with that of b-carotene. These results might be important in developing new cancer treatments with simple and common vegetables. At high concentrations, falcarinol is capable to induce contact dermatitis. Falcarinol, a seventeen-carbon diyne fatty alcohol (1,9-heptadecadiene-4,6-diyn-3-ol), was first isolated from Falcaria vulgaris (Bohlmann F et al., Chem Ber 1966, 99, 3552) as well as from Korean ginseng (Takahashi et al., Yakugaku Zasshi 1966, 86, 1053). It was also isolated from carrot (Hansen SL et al. Falcarinol protects the vegetable from fungal diseases, it showed biphasic activity, having stimulatory effects between 0.01 and 0.05 µg per ml and inhibitory effects between 1 and 10 µg per ml, whereas b-carotene showed no effect in the concentration range 0.001–100 µg per ml (Hansen SL et al., J Sci Food Agric 2003, 83, 1010). Experiments with macrophage cells have shown that falcarinol (and its C-8 hydroxylated derivative, falcarindiol) reduced nitric oxide production, suggesting that these polyacetylenes are responsible for anti-inflammatory bioactivity (Metzger BT et al., J Agric Food Chem 2008, 56, 3554). Falcarindiol was first reported as phytochemicals in carrots (Daucus carota) (Bentley RK et al., J Chem Soc 1969, 685). Besides falcarinol, falcarindiol, and falcarindiol 3-acetate, nine additional bisacetylene alcohols were identified in Daucus carota (Schmiech L et al., J Agric Food Chem 2009, 57, 11030). Experiments with human intestinal cells demonstrate that aliphatic C17-polyacetylenes (panaxydol, falcarinol, falcarindiol) are potential anticancer principles of carrots and related vegetables (parsley, celery, parsnip, fennel) and that synergistic interaction between bioactive polyacetylenes may be important for their bioactivity (Purup S et al., J Agric Food Chem 2009, 57, 8290). Compounds very similar to falcarinol and extracted from Panax japonicus are potent a-glucosidase inhibitors (Chan HH et al., Phytochemistry 2010, 71, 1360). These inhibitors may potentially reduce the progression of diabetes by decreasing digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. The water dropwort (Oenanthe crocata), which lives near streams in the Northern Hemisphere, contains a violent toxin, cicutoxin, resulting in convultions and respiratory paralysis (Uwai K et al., J Med Chem 2000, 43, 4508). The biochemistry and bioactivity of polyacetylenes are presented in a review (Christensen LP et al., J Pharm Biomed Anal 2006, 41, 683) as well methods for the isolation and quantification of these compounds. Many other polyacetylenic alcohols were found in primitive marine organisms, such as sponges and ascidians. These invertebrates have no physical defenses and thus they have developed efficient chemical mechanisms such as polyacetylenic metabolites to resist predators and bacteria. A C36 linear diacetylene alcohol named lembehyne was found in an Indonesian marine sponge (Haliclona sp) (Aoki S et al., Tetrahedron 2000, 56, 9945) and was later able to induce neuronal differentiation in neuroblastoma cell (Aoki S et al., Biochem Biophys Res Comm 2001, 289, 558). Several polyacetylenic alcohols with 22 carbon atoms were isolated and identified in lipid extract from a Red Sea sponge, Callyspongia sp (Youssef DT et al., J Nat Prod 2003, 66, 679). Their physical study revealed the presence of 4 triple bonds and one, two or three double bonds. The structure of one of these Callyspongenols is given below. Several di- and tri-acetylenic di-alcohols with a chain of 26 up to 31 carbon atoms, named strongylodiols, have been isolated from a Petrosia Okinawan marine sponge (Watanabe K et al., J Nat Prod 2005, 68, 1001). Some of them have cytotoxic Several polyacetylenic alcohols with 21 carbon atoms were isolated from a marine ascidian (Polyclinidae) and were determined to have two triple bonds combined with a conjugated dienyne group (Gavagnin M et al., Lipids 2004, 39, 681). Some of them have an additional hydroxyl group or only three double bonds. The structure of one of these molecules is given below. Several brominated polyacetylenic diols with cytotoxic properties were isolated from a Philippines sponge Diplastrella sp (Lerch ML et al., J Nat Prod 2003, 66, 667). One of these molecules is shown below. A comprehensive survey of acetylenic alcohols in plant and invertebrates with information on their anticancer activity has been released by Dembitsky VM (Lipids 2006, 41, 883). - Sulfated alcohols Long-chain di-hydroxy alcohols in which both the primary and secondary hydroxyl groups are converted to sulfate esters and one to five chlorine atoms are introduced at various places have been discovered in the alga Ochromonas danica (Chrysophyceae, Chrysophyta) where they constitute 15% of the total lipids (Haines TH, Biochem J 1969, 113, 565). An example of these chlorosulfolipids is given below. There may be several types of chlorine addition : one at R4, two at R3 and R5 or R1 and R2, five at R1 to R5 and six at R1 to R6. Similar molecules with a 24 carbon chain was also described in Ochromonas malhamensis (review in Dembitsky VM et al., Prog Lipid Res 2002, 41, 315 and in Bedke DK et al., Nat Prod Rep 2011, 28, 15). It was suggested that the chlorosulfolipids replace sulfoquinovosyl diglyceride, since when the later is high the former is low and vice versa. They have been associated with the human toxicity of the mussel-derived lipids (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning). Several of these chlorosulfolipids have also been identified from more than 30 species of both freshwater and marine algae belonging to green (Chlorophyceae), brown (Phaeophyceae), red (Rhodophyceae) macrophytic algae (Mercer EI et al., Phytochemistry 1979, 18, 457), and other microalgal species (Mercer EI et al., Phytochemistry 1975, 14, 1545). Some fatty alcohols, such as dodecanol (lauryl or dodecyl alcohol), are used for the manufacture of detergents after sulphonation (by action of SO3 gas). The salt sodium laurylsulfate (or sodium dodecylsulfate) is a detergent and strong anionic surfactant, used in biochemistry and in the composition of cosmetic products (shampoos, toothpastes). 2 - Branched-chain alcohols In 1936, Stodola et al. characterized an optically active substance recovered on saponification of ‘‘purified waxes’’ of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, determined its global formula and proposed to name it phthiocerol (Stodola FH et al., J Biol Chem 1936, 114, 467). In 1959, after several chemical studies, its structure was determined as a mixture of C36 and C34b-glycols. It has been proposed that the term phthiocerol be reserved for the original 3-methoxy congener (phthiocerol A) and that the term phthioglycol be used to refer to the family of compounds (Onwueme KC et al., Prog Lipid Res 2005, 44, 259). Among the most important saturated isopranols found in plants or in geological sediments are those having two (tetrahydrogeraniol), three (farnesanol), or four (phytanol) isoprenoid units. Pristanol (2,6,10,14-tetramethyl-1-pentadecanol) is tetramethylated but with only three complete isoprenoid units. B - Unsaturated polyisoprenoids (prenols or polyprenols) They have the following general structure : These molecules consist of several up to more than 100 isoprene residues linked head-to-tail, with a hydroxy group at one end (a-residue) and a hydrogen atom at the other (w-end). - 1. all trans forms : They have the following structure: Some important members of the series are as follows: Number of isoprene unit Number of carbons Long-chain trans-polyprenol (n>8) have been characterized from Eucommia ulmoides. Geraniol (from rose oil) is a monoterpene (2 isoprene units). It has a rose-like odor and is commonly used in perfumes and as several fruit flavors. Geraniol is also an effective mosquito repellent. Inversely, it can attract bees as it is produced by the scent glands of honey bees to help them mark nectar-bearing flowers and locate the entrances to their hives. Farnesol is a sesquiterpene (3 isoprene units). It is the prenol that corresponds to the carbon skeleton of the simplest juvenile hormone described for the first time in insects in 1961 (Schmialek PZ, Z Naturforsch 1961, 16b, 461; Wigglesworth VB, J Insect Physiol 1961, 7, 73). It is present in many essential oils such as citronella, neroli, cyclamen, lemon grass, rose, and others. It is used in perfumery to emphasize the odors of sweet floral perfumes. It is especially used in lilac perfumes. As a pheromone, farnesol is a natural pesticide for mites. The dimorphic fungus Candida albicans has been shown to use farnesol as quorum-sensing molecule (Hornby JM et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 2001, 67, 2982). Geranylgeraniol is a diterpene (4 isoprene units). Geraniol and geranylgeraniol are important molecules in the synthesis of various terpenes, the acylation of proteins and the synthesis of vitamins (Vitamins E and K). The covalent addition of phosphorylated derivatives of typical isoprenoids, farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, to proteins is a process (prenylation) common to G protein subunits. These isoprenylated proteins have key roles in membrane attachment leading to central functionality in cell biology and pathology. Solanesol, discovered in tobacco leaves in 1956 (Rowland RL et al., J Am Chem Soc 1956, 78, 4680), may be an important precursor of the tumorigenic polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons of smoke but is also a possible side chain for plastoquinone. Solanesol is also present in the leaves of other Solanaceae plants including tomato, potato, eggplant and pepper. It has useful medicinal properties and is known to possess anti-bacterial, anti-inflammation, and anti-ulcer activities (Khidyrova NK et al., Chem Nat Compd 2002, 38, 107). Industrially, solanesol is extracted from Solanaceae leaves (about 450 tons in 2008) and used as an intermediate in the synthesis of coenzyme Q10 and vitamin K analogues. Spadicol was discovered in the spadix (inflorescence) of the Araceae Arum maculatum (Hemming FW et al., Proc R Soc London 1963, 158, 291). Its presence is likely related to its presence in the ubiquinone as the side-chain. Phytol is a partially saturated diterpene, a monounsaturated derivative of geranylgeraniol which is part of the chlorophyll molecule : - 2. ditrans-polycis-prenols, such as the bacteria prenol and betulaprenol types. In general, bacteria, as all prokaryotic cells, possess ditrans-polycis-prenols containing between 10 and 12 units, the most abundant being undecaprenol (trivial name bactoprenol). Betulaprenols with n = 3-6 were isolated from the woody tissue of Betula verrucosa (Wellburn AR et al., Nature 1966, 212, 1364), and bacterial polyprenol with n = 8 were isolated from Lactobacillus plantarum (Gough DP et al., Biochem J 1970, 118, 167). Betulaprenol-like species with 14 to 22 isoprene units have been discovered in leaves of Ginkgo biloba (Ibata K et al., Biochem J 1983, 213, 305). Polyisoprenoid alcohols are accumulated in the cells most often as free alcohols and/or esters with carboxylic acids. A fraction of polyisoprenoid phosphates has also been detected, and this form is sometimes predominant in dividing cells and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Adair WL et al., Arch Biochem Biophys 1987, 259, 589). - 3. tritrans-polycis-prenols, of the ficaprenol type.Some of the earliest samples were obtained from Ficus elastica, giving rise to the trivial names ficaprenol-11 and ficaprenol-12 (Stone KJ et al. Biochem J 1967, 102, 325). In plants, the diversity of polyprenols is much broader, their chain length covers the broad spectrum of compounds ranging from 6 up to 130 carbon atoms (Rezanka T et al., J Chromatogr A 2001, 936, 95). - 4. dolichol types, the a terminal is saturated. Most eukaryotic cells contain one type of polyisoprenoid alcohols with one a-saturated isoprenoid unit (2,3-dihydro polycis-prenols) which have been called dolichol by Pennock JF et al. (Nature 1960, 186, 470), a derivative of prenols. Most of these carry two trans units at the w-end of the chain. Dolichols (fro the Greek dolikos: long) have the general structure : Dolichols isolated from yeast or animal cells consist mainly of seven to eight compounds, those with 16, 18, or 19 isoprenoid units being the most abundant (Ragg SS, Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1998, 243, 1). Dolichol amount was shown to be increased in the brain gray matter of elderly (Pullarkat RK et al., J Biol Chem 1982, 257, 5991). Dolichols with 19, 22 and 23 isoprenoid units were described as early as 1972 in marine invertebrates (Walton MJ et al., Biochem J 1972, 127, 471). Furthermore, the pattern of their distribution may be considered as a chemotaxonomic criterion. It has been reported that a high proportion of dolichols is esterified to fatty acids. As an example, 85-90% of dolichols are esterified in mouse testis (Potter J et al., Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1983, 110, 512). In addition, dolichyl dolichoate has been found in bovine thyroid (Steen L. et al., Biochim Biophys Acta, 1984, 796, 294). They are well known for their important role as glycosyl carrier in a phosphorylated form in the synthesis of polysaccharides and glycoproteins in yeast cells, and animals. Dolichyl phosphate is an obligatory intermediate in the biosynthesis of N-glycosidically linked oligosaccharide chains. Conversely, they have been identified as the predominant isoprenoid form in roots (Skorupinska-Tudek K et al., Lipids 2003, 38, 981) and in mushroom tissue (Wojtas M et al., Chem Phys Lipids 2004, 130, 109). Similar compounds (ficaprenols) have the same metabolic function in plants. The repartition of the various types of polyisoprenoid alcohols between plants and animals and their metabolism have been extensively discussed (Swiezewska E et al., Prog Lipid Res 2005, 44, 235). Biosynthesis of polyisoprenoid alcohols and their biological role have been reviewed in 2005 (Swiezewska E et al., Prog Lipid Res 2005, 44, 235). 3 - Phenolic alcohols Among the simple phenolic alcohols, monolignols are the source materials for biosynthesis of both lignans and lignin. The starting material for production of monolignols (phenylpropanoid) is the amino acid phenylalanine. There are two main monolignols: coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol. Para-coumaryl alcohol is similar to conipheryl alcohol but without the methoxy group. Conipheryl alcohol is found in both gymnosperm and angiosperm plants. Sinapyl alcohol and para-coumaryl alcohol, the other two lignin monomers, are found in angiosperm plants and grasses. Conipheryl esters (conypheryl 8-methylnonanoate) have been described in the fruits of the pepper, Capsicum baccatum (Kobata K et al., Phytochemistry 2008, 69, 1179). These compounds displayed an agonist activity for transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (capsaicin receptor) as the well known capsaicinoids present in these plant species. Complex phenolic alcohols (phenolphthiocerol) were shown to be components of Mycobacterium glycolipids which are termed glycosides of phenolphthiocerol dimycocerosate (Smith DW et al., Nature 1960, 186, 887) belonging to the large family of "mycosides". The chain length differs according to the homologues, 18 and 20 carbon atoms in mycosides A, and B, respectively. One of these phenolphthiocerols is shown below. An analogue component but with a ketone group instead of the methoxy group, a phenolphthiodiolone, has been detected in mycoside A (Fournie JJ et al., J Biol Chem 1987, 262, 3174). An alcohol with a furan group, identified as 3-(4-methylfuran-3-yl)propan-1-ol, has been isolated from a fungal endophyte living in a plant, Setaria viridis (Nakajima H et al., J Agric Food Chem 2010, 58, 2882). That compound was found to have a repellent effect on an insect, Eysarcoris viridis, which is a major pest of rice. Some cyclic alkyl polyols have been reported in plants. Among the various form present in an Anacardiaceae, Tapirira guianensis, from South America, two displayed anti-protozoal (Plasmodium falciparum) and anti-bacterial (Staphylococcus spp) activities (Roumy V et al., Phytochemistry 2009, 70, 305). The structure shown below is that of a trihydroxy-alcohol containing a cyclohexene ring. As emphasized by the authors, external application of the active plant extract or of the purified compounds could represent an accessible therapeutic alternative to classical medicine against leishmaniasis. aldehydes are found in free form, but also in the form of vinyl ether (known as alk-1-enyl ether) integated in glycerides and phospholipids (plasmalogens). The free aldehydes can be as fatty acids saturated or unsaturated. They have a general formula CH3(CH2)nCHO with n=6 to 20 or greater. The most common is palmitaldehyde (hexadecanal) with a 16 carbon chain. Normal monoenoic aldehydes are analogous to the monoenoic fatty acids. It must be noticed that an aldehyde function may be found at a terminal (w) position while an acid function is present at the other end of the carbon chain (oxo fatty acids). These compounds have important signaling properties in plants. Long-chain aldehydes have been described in the waxes which impregnate the matrix covering all organs of plants (Vermeer CP et al., Phytochemistry 2003, 62, 433). These compounds forming about 7% of the leaf cuticular waxes of Ricinus communis were identified as homologous unbranched aldehydes ranging from C22 to C28 with a hydroxyl group at the carbon 3. Long-chain 5-hydroxyaldehydes with chain lengths from C24 to C36, the C28 chain being the most abundant, were identified in the cuticular wax of Taxus baccata needles (Wen M et al., Phytochemistry 2007, 68, 2563). Long-chain aliphatic aldehydes with chain-length from C22 to C30 are also present in virgin olive oils, hexacosanal (C26) being the most abundant aldehyde (Perez-Camino MC et al., Food Chem 2012, 132, 1451). Aldehydes may be produced during decomposition of fatty acid hydroperoxides following a peroxidation attack. Several aldehydes (hexanal, heptanal..) belong to aroma compounds which are found in environmental or food systems (see the website: Flavornet). Aldehydes (mono- or di-unsaturated) with 5 to 9 carbon atoms are produced by mosses (Bryophyta) after mechanical wounding (Croisier E et al., Phytochemistry 2010, 71, 574). It was shown that they were produced by oxidative fragmentation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18, C20). Trans-2-nonenal is an unsaturated aldehyde with an unpleasant odor generated during the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. It participates to body odor and is found mainly covalently bound to protein in vivo (Ishino K et al., J Biol Chem 2010, 285, 15302). Fatty aldehydes may be determined easily by TLC or gas liquid chromatography (follow that link). The most common method for the determination of aldehydes involves derivatization with an acidic solution of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to form corresponding hydrazones followed by HPLC separation and UV–VIS detection. An optimized derivatization procedure for the determination of aliphatic C1-C10 aldehydes has been described (Stafiej A et al., J Biochem Biophys Meth 2006, 69, 15). Other short-chain aldehydes (octadienal, octatrienal, heptadienal) are produced via a lipoxygenase-mediated pathway from polyunsaturated fatty acids esterifying glycolipids in marine diatoms (D'Ippolito G et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 2004, 1686, 100). Heighteen species of diatoms have been shown to release unsaturated aldehydes (C7:2, C8:2, C8:3, C10:2, and C10:3) upon cell disruption (Wichard T et al., J Chem Ecol 2005, 31, 949). Several short-chain aldehydes were shown to induce deleterious effects on zooplankton crustaceans and thus limiting the water secondary production (birth-control aldehydes) (D'Ippolito G et al., Tetrahedron Lett 2002, 43, 6133). In laboratory experiments, three decatrienal isomers produced by various diatoms were shown to arrest embryonic development in copepod and sea urchins and have antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on carcinoma cells (Miralto A et al., Nature 1999, 402, 173). Later, the copepod recruitment in blooms of planktonic diatom was shown to be suppressed by ingestion of dinoflagellate aldehydes (Nature 2004, 429, 403). It was demonstrated that diatoms can accurately sense a potent 2E,4E/Z-decadienal and employ it as a signaling molecule to control diatom population sizes (Vardi A et al., PLoS Biol 2006, 4, e60). This aldehyde triggered a dose-dependent calcium transient that has derived from intracellular store. Subsequently, calcium increase led to nitric oxide (NO) generation by a calcium-dependent NO synthase-like activity, resulting in cell death in diatoms. Myeloperoxidase-derived chlorinated aldehydes with plasmalogens has been reported. Thus, the vinyl-ether bond of plasmalogens is susceptible to attack by HOCl to yield a lysophospholipid and an Both these chloro-fatty aldehydes have been detected in neutrophils activated with PMA (Thukkani AK et al., J Biol Chem 2002, 277, 3842) and in human atherosclerotic AK et al., Circulation 2003, 108, 3128). Furthermore, 2-chlorohexadecanal was shown to induce COX-2 expression in human coronary artery endothelial cells (Messner MC et al., Lipids 2008, 43, 581). These data suggest that 2-chlorohexadecanal and possibly its metabolite 2-chlorohexadecanoic acid, both produced during leukocyte activation, may alter vascular endothelial cell function by upregulation of COX-2 expression. Long after the demonstration of the presence of iodinated lipids in thyroid (besides iodinated aminoacids), it was shown that the major iodinated lipid formed in thyroid when incubated in vitro with iodide was 2-iodohexadecanal (Pereira A et al, J Biol Chem 1990, 265, 17018). In rat and dog thyroid, 2-iodooctadecanal was determined to be more abundant that the 16-carbon aldehyde. These compounds, which are thought to play a role in the regulation of thyroid function, were recently shown to be formed by the attack of reactive iodine on the vinyl ether group of PE plasmalogen. This attack generates an unstable iodinated derivative which breaks into lysophosphatidylethanolamine and 2-iodo aldehydes (Panneels V et al, J Biol Chem 1996, 271, 23006). In some bacteria, aldehyde analogs of cyclopropane fatty acids were described. Several fatty aldehydes are known to have pheromone functions. Studies in African and Asian countries have shown that the use of 10,12-hexadecadienal could be effective for control of the spiny bollworm Earias insulana, a cotton pest. The sex pheromone of the navel orange worm, Amyelois transitella, 11,13-hexadecadienal, is usually used in the control of this citric pest. A branched saturated aldehyde (3,5,9-trimethyldodecenal, stylopsal) has been identified as a female-produced sex pheromone in Stylops (Strepsiptera), an entomophagous endoparasitic insect (Cvacka J et al., J Chem Ecol 2012, 38, 1483). Several isoprenoid aldehydes are important in insect biology as pheromones and in botany as volatile odorous substances. Some examples are given below: These three terpenic aldehydes are produced in large amounts by the mandibular glands of ants and may function as defensive repellents (Regnier FE et al., J Insect Physiol 1968, 14, 955). In contrast, the same molecules have a role of recruiting pheromones in honeybees Citral, a mixture of the tautomers geranial (trans-citral) and neral (cis-citral) is a major component (more than 60%) of the lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) oil. Lemongrass is widely used, particularly in Southeast Asia and Brazil, as a food flavoring, as a perfume, and for its medicinal properties (analgesic and anti-inflammatory). It was found that citral is a major suppressor of COX-2 expression and an activator of PPARa and g (Katsukawa M et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 2010, 1801, 1214). It was demonstrated that damaged leaves released 2-hexenal, among other C6-volatile aldehydes, produced from the catalytic activity of hydroperoxide lyase (Turlings TC et al., Proc Ntl Acad Sci USA 1995, 92, 4169). These compounds, considered as signal molecules, can trigger several responses in neighboring plants and may also act as antimicrobial agents (Farmer EE, Nature 2001, 411, 854). One important constituent of this group of aldehydes is retinal, one active form of vitamin A involved in the light reception of animal eyes but also in bacteria as a component of the proton pump. Retinal exist in two forms, a cis and a trans isomer. On illumination with white light, the visual pigment, rhodopsin is converted to a mixture of a protein (opsin) and trans-retinal. This isomer must be transformed into the cis form by retinal isomerase before it combines again with opsin (dark phase). Both isomers can be reduced to retinol (vitamin A) by a NADH dependent alcohol dehydrogenase. Retinol is stocked in retina mainly in an acylated form. Cinnamic aldehyde (cinnamaldehyde) is the key flavor compound in cinnamon essential oil extracted from Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Cinnamomum cassia bark. Investigations have revealed than that benzyl aldehyde activates the Nrf2-dependent antioxidant response in human epithelial colon cells (Wondrak GT et al., Molecules 2010, 15, 3338). Cinnamic aldehyde may therefore represent a precious chemopreventive dietary factor targeting colorectal carcinogenesis.

The immune system immune; immunity; disease; bacteria; viruses; white; cells; lymph; germs; mucous; mucus; glands; What is immunity? Immunity (say im-yoon-it-i) means that you are protected against something. There are different kinds of immunity. This topic is about how different parts of our bodies work together to keep us from getting sick. Immunity to some diseases is passed on from our mothers before we are born. Immunisation (having your 'shots') helps our body's immune defence system protect us from diseases . body's immune system Every body has an inbuilt immune system which protects it from diseases and germs. This system has a lot of different parts which work together to keep out any harmful germs, and attack and destroy any which manage to get inside your body - Every day your body is exposed to millions of germs, and you do not get sick from them because of your immune system. - Every time you do get sick because of a germ, your immune system works to get rid of it and then it remembers how to fight the infection if the same germ comes again. - Usually the older you get, the more germs you become immune to. So, let's have a look at the immune system, starting from the outside of the body. The skin is the first line of defence in your immune system. You know how you put plastic wrap over leftovers to keep them fresh enough for later? Well, your skin is like a plastic wrap to keep germs from getting into your body. - The epidermis (outside layer of skin) has special cells which warn the body about incoming germs. - Glands in the skin also make substances that can kill some bacteria (anti-bacterial chemicals). This means you don't get infections on your skin unless your skin is damaged, such as by a cut or a graze. Your nose, mouth and eyes are the next point of attack. - The mucous membranes which line the mouth, throat, lungs and bowel, act like a barrier to germs, just as the skin does. - Saliva in the mouth and the tears which wash your eyes have special enzymes (chemicals) in them which break down the cell walls of many bacteria and viruses. - The mucous that is made in your nose, throat and lungs traps bacteria, viruses and dust. - Acid in your stomach kills most germs, and starts to digest your food. - Lymph (limf) is a clear fluid that is very similar to blood plasma, the clear liquid in blood, but it carries only white blood cells, not red blood cells. - The lymph flows through all the parts of the body picking up fluid around cells and carrying it back to large veins near the heart. It also carries white blood cells to the places that they are needed. - Some bacteria or viruses that have entered the body are collected by the lymph and passed on to the lymph nodes where they are filtered out and destroyed. Lymph nodes are sometimes called glands. Your doctor can often tell if you have an infection by checking out the lymph nodes (glands) in your neck and under your arms to see if they're swollen. If they are, it shows that they are working to get rid of bacteria or viruses. In your blood you have red blood cells and white blood cells, and in lymph there are white blood cells. There are several different types of white cells which work together to seek out and destroy bacteria and viruses. All of them start off in the bone marrow, growing from 'stem cells'. The disease-fighting white blood cells are specialists. Some of the white blood cells are: - Neutrophils (say new-tro-fills), which move around the body in the blood and seek out foreign material (things that don't belong in your body). - Macrophages (say mak-row-far-jes) are the biggest blood cells. Some live in different parts of the body and help to keep it clean, eg. in the lungs. Others swim around cleaning up other white blood cells that have been damaged while doing their jobs, eg. cleaning up pus that has been caused by neutrophils when they work to clear out bacteria from a wound. - Lymphocytes (say lim-fo-sites) work on bacterial and viral infections There are two different types: - B cells produce antibodies. Each cell watches out for a particular germ, and when that germ arrives, the cell starts to produce more antibodies which begin the process of killing that germ. Antibodies attach themselves to the germs so that other cells can recognise that these germs need to be destroyed. - T cells look for cells in your body that are hiding invaders (germs) or body cells that are different to normal healthy cells (such as cells that could develop into a cancer) and kill them. does your immune system know which cells to attack? Your body has lots of friendly bacteria around it which help your body work properly - eg. some bacteria inside your bowel help you to digest your food and break it up into the different things that are needed in various parts of the body. - These friendly bacteria live on the surfaces of the body, such as on our skin or inside the bowel. - They do not try to invade the body, so the immune system does not try to get rid of them. - Other germs which cause illness, try to enter the body. - Antibodies, which are made by the lymphocytes, attach to the invaders so that the other white blood cells can destroy them. They 'tag' them so they can be easily noticed. As well as attacking germs, your immune system recognises and destroys other cells which do not belong in your body. - The cells in your own body are marked with a special system called Human Leukocyte Antigen or HLA (say Hew-man lew-ko-site anti-jen). - Your immune system can recognise these markings as 'you'. Any cells which do not have the right markings are 'not you' and are therefore attacked.This happens if, for example, you have a blood transfusion with the wrong types of blood cells. Your body's immune system recognises that these cells do not belong in your body, so it destroys them. How you know your immune system is working You know your immune system is working: - if you get better after you are sick - if cuts heal without getting infected - if you don't catch the same diseases over and over again - when you get swollen glands - when you get swelling and soreness around a cut. Your immune system is in there working to get rid of any infection. When things go wrong with the immune system Sometimes the immune system will make a mistake. - It may attack your own body as if it were the enemy, eg. insulin dependent diabetes (the type that most often starts in children and young people) is caused by the immune system attacking the cells in the pancreas that make insulin. - Allergies are caused by the immune system over-reacting to something that is not really a threat, like when pollen triggers hay fever or asthma. - If tissue is transplanted from one person to another - eg. a skin or organ transplant - then the immune system will attack the new part. The immune system has to be suppressed by drugs to allow the transplant to work. - When the immune system is damaged, such as when people have a serious illness called AIDS, they get lots of infections and are much more likely to get cancers. Their body cannot recognise the infection or abnormal cells very well and the immune system does not destroy them as well as usual. The immune system is absolutely amazing. It deals with millions of bacteria and viruses every day to keep us healthy. Keeping up to date with immunisations can help your body to build immunity to some serious diseases too. We've provided this information to help you to understand important things about staying healthy and happy. However, if you feel sick or unhappy, it is important to tell your mum or dad, a teacher or another grown-up.

The robot can be outfitted with multiple attachments such as a cell-sprayer that can spray pesticides or fertilizers and can even weed areas intertwined with the crops. It’s able to do so with the help of strategically positioned cameras that take pictures of the ground, which are then sent to an onboard computer that analyzes the images and identifies both the crops and weeds (programmed with 20 known species per geographic area). Once the unwanted plants are identified, it can then spray an herbicide through a row of nozzles placed next to the cameras positioned behind the bot. The cameras look for the corresponding image and either open or close the nozzles based on the weeds' location. With a large range of add-on tools, this robot makes a perfect plant-nursing platform that’s able to keep plants healthy, one column at a time. Robots are even being employed to harvest crops, further maximizing the efficiency associated with robotic farmers. One such robot is known as the Robotic Strawberry Harvester from Robotic Harvesting LLC. The mechanical farmhand is autonomous in the true sense of the word and is self-propelled, navigating and harvesting, and as the name suggests, is excellent in picking ripe strawberries. Robot harvesting outfitted the robot with a camera array capable of taking "stereovision" photos both above and below the plants leaves to collect data on fruit (whether it’s ripe or not), flower count, plant pathogens (diseases), and other items of interest. The camera system can be reprogrammed to identify and collect data on a number of crops in 3D space (giving the robot the capability to see like humans) not just strawberries, and uses specialized software to discern whether the fruit is ripe. Once identified, the robot uses a three-pronged outfitted robotic arm to pick the fruit, which is then placed on a convenient tiny conveyor belt that drops the fruit off in a collection basket on top of the robot. This may not seem like much, but the robot is capable of picking the fruit (tested in a controlled environment) in as little as two seconds. While you most likely won't see a fully functional efficient farm being run entirely by robots anytime in the next few years, it’s safe to say it certainly is a possibility in the near future. As more and more people populate the planet, using robotic farmers is certainly a viable option in cultivating, nurturing, and harvesting increased food crops in an efficient manner.

Beginning in October 2006, some beekeepers began reporting losses of 30-90 percent of their hives. While colony losses are not unexpected during winter weather, the magnitude of loss suffered by some beekeepers was highly unusual. This phenomenon, which currently does not have a recognizable underlying cause, has been termed "Colony Collapse Disorder" (CCD). The main symptom of CCD is simply no or a low number of adult honey bees present but with a live queen and no dead honey bees in the hive. Often there is still honey in the hive, and immature bees (brood) are present. ARS scientists and others are in the process of carrying out research to discover the cause(s) of CCD and develop ways for beekeepers to respond to the problem. Why should the public care about honey bees? Bee pollination is responsible for $15 billion in added crop value, particularly for specialty crops such as almonds and other nuts, berries, fruits, and vegetables. About one mouthful in three in the diet directly or indirectly benefits from honey bee pollination. While there are native pollinators (honey bees came from the Old World with European colonists), honey bees are more prolific and the easiest to manage for the large scale pollination that U.S. agriculture requires. In California, the almond crop alone uses 1.3 million colonies of bees, approximately one half of all honey bees in the United States, and this need is projected to grow to 1.5 million colonies by 2010. The number of managed honey bee colonies has dropped from 5 million in the1940s to only 2.5 million today. At the same time, the call for hives to supply pollination service has continued to climb. This means honey bee colonies are trucked farther and more often than ever before. Honey bee colony health has also been declining since the 1980s with the advent of new pathogens and pests. The spread into the United States of varroa and tracheal mites, in particular, created major new stresses on honey bees. Is there currently a crisis in food production because of CCD? While CCD has created a very serious problem for beekeepers and could threaten the pollination industry if it becomes more widespread, fortunately there were enough bees to supply all the needed pollination this past spring. But we cannot wait to see if CCD becomes an agricultural crisis to do the needed research into the cause and treatment for CCD. The cost of hives for pollination has risen this year. But much of that is due to growing demand. Some of the price increase may also be due to higher cost of gas and diesel and other increases related to energy and labor costs. Commercial beekeepers truck hives long distances to provide pollination services, so in particular they must deal with rising expenses. Varroa mites (one is visible on the back of this bee) are a major threat to honey bee health and are becoming resistant to two compounds (coumaphos and fluvalinate) used to control them. Beekeepers now have a simple assay to determine whether mites are resistant and thus ensure use of appropriate control measures. Click the image for more information about it. Are there any theories about what may be causing CCD? Case studies and questionnaires related to management practices and environmental factors have identified a few common factors shared by those beekeepers experiencing CCD, but no common environmental agents or chemicals stand out as causative. There are three major possibilities that are being looked into by researchers. Pesticides may be having unexpected negative effects on honey bees. A new parasite or pathogen may be attacking honey bees. One possible candidate being looked at is a pathogenic gut microbe called Nosema. Viruses are also suspected. A perfect storm of existing stresses may have unexpectedly weakened colonies leading to collapse. Stress, in general, compromises the immune system of bees (and other social insects) and may disrupt their social system, making colonies more susceptible to disease. These stresses could include high levels of infection by the varroa mite (a parasite that feeds on bee blood and transmits bee viruses); poor nutrition due to apiary overcrowding, pollination of crops with low nutritional value, or pollen or nectar scarcity; and exposure to limited or contaminated water supplies. Migratory stress brought about by increased needs for pollination might also be a contributing factor. Has CCD ever happened before? The scientific literature has several mentions of honey bee disappearancesóin the 1880s, the 1920s and the 1960s. While the descriptions sound similar to CCD, there is no way to know for sure if the problems were caused by the same agents as today's CCD. There have also been unusual colony losses before. In 1903, in the Cache Valley in Utah, 2000 colonies were lost to an unknown "disappearing disease" after a "hard winter and a cold spring." More recently, in 1995-96, Pennsylvania beekeepers lost 53 percent of their colonies without a specific identifiable cause. What about cell phonesódo they have anything to do with CCD? The short answer is no. There was a very small study done in Germany that looked at whether a particular type of base station for cordless phones could affect honey bee homing systems. But, despite all the attention that this study has received, it has nothing to do with CCD. Stefan Kimmel, the researcher who conducted the study and wrote the paper, recently e-mailed The Associated Press to say that there is "no link between our tiny little study and the CCD-phenomenon ... anything else said or written is a lie." Newly emerged honey bee, Apis mellifera, the subject of genome sequencing work aimed at improving bee traits and management. Click the image for more information about it. What is ARS doing about CCD? In April 2007, ARS held a Colony Collapse Disorder Research Workshop that brought together over 80 of the major bee scientists, industry representatives, extension agents, and others to discuss a research agenda. They identified areas where more information is needed and the highest-priority needs for additional research projects related to CCD. A CCD Steering Committee, led by ARS and USDA's Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, developed a Research Action Plan to coordinate a comprehensive response for discovering what factors may be causing CCD and what actions need to be taken. One of the tools that will help in this research is the recently sequenced honey bee genome to better understand bees' basic biology and breed better bees, and to better diagnose bee pests and pathogens and their impacts on bee health and colony collapse. The use of this genome information certainly will have great applications in improving honey bee breeding and management. The search for factors that are involved in CCD is focusing on four areas: pathogens, parasites, environmental stresses, and bee management stresses such as poor nutrition. It is unlikely that a single factor is the cause of CCD; it is more likely that there is a complex of different components. In September 2007, a research team that included ARS published the results of an intensive genetic screening of CCD-affected honey bee colonies and non-CCD-affected hives. The only pathogen found in almost all samples from honey bee colonies with CCD, but not in non-CCD colonies, was the Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), a dicistrovirus that can be transmitted by the varroa mite. It was found in 96.1 percent of the CCD-bee samples. This research does not identify IAPV as the cause of CCD. What this research found was strictly a strong correlation of the appearance of IAPV and CCD together. No cause-and-effect connection can be inferred from the genetic screening data. (More information about this study) Honey bees devour a new, nutrient-rich food developed by ARS researchers. Click the image for more information about it. This was the first report of IAPV in the United States. IAPV was initially identified in honey bee colonies in Israel in 2002, where the honey bees exhibited unusual behavior, such as twitching wings outside the hive and a loss of worker bee populations. The study also found IAPV in honey bees from Australia that had been imported into the United States, as well as in royal jelly imported from China. Australian bees began to be imported from Australia into the United States in 2005. Questions were raised about a connection between those imported bees and the appearance of IAPV in the United States. Beekeepers sought out Australian imports of bees as a way to replenish their hive populations. To determine whether IAPV has been present in the United States since before the importation of honey bees from Australia, a follow up detailed genetic screening of several hundred honey bees that had been collected between 2002 and 2007 from colonies in Maryland, Pennsylvania, California and Israel was conducted by ARS researchers. The results of the follow study showed IAPV has been in this country since at least 2002, which challenges the idea that IAPV is a recent introduction from Australia. (More information about this study) This study in no way rules IAPV out as a factor in CCD. Research by several groups will now focus on understanding differences in virulence across strains of IAPV and on interactions with other stress factors. Even if IAPV proves to be a cause of CCD, there still may also be other contributing factors-which researchers are pursuing. What should beekeepers do now about CCD? Since little is known about the cause(s) of CCD right now, mitigation must be based on improving general honey bee health and habitat and countering known mortality factors by using best management practices. What can I as a member of the public do to help honey bees? The best action you can take to benefit honey bees is to not use pesticides indiscriminately, especially not to use pesticides at mid-day when honey bees are most likely to be out foraging for nectar. In addition, you can plant and encourage the planting of good nectar sources such as red clover, foxglove, bee balm, and joe-pye weed. For more information, see www.nappc.org.] ARS Honey Bee Research

|Talking Trash about the Oceans: Creating a Community Service Campaign to Stop Offshore Dumping| In this lesson, students create a community service advertising campaign that raises awareness about the importance of keeping trash out of the marine ecosystem. Students work in teams to create different ad campaigns geared toward particular target audiences and produce posters promoting their messages. Links to additional information and resources are also provided. Intended for grade levels: Type of resource: No specific technical requirements, just a browser required Cost / Copyright: Copyright 2005, The New York Times Company. DLESE Catalog ID: DWEL-000-000-000-461 Resource contact / Creator / Publisher: Publisher: The New York Times Learning Network

Published: Oct. 17, 2006 Updated: Apr. 20, 2010 Two-and-a-half-year-old Nina was bright-eyed and bouncy, full of laughter and hugs -- when you could get her attention. She often seemed to be ignoring her parents when they spoke to her, and when she did respond, many of her words were slurred. Concerned, her parents arranged for a hearing test -- and learned that Nina had moderate hearing loss in both ears. Outfitted with a hearing aid, and provided with speech therapy, she is just beginning to regain some of the ground she lost during the first years of life when important language skills are being learned. "Hearing impairment is the largest congenital disability, affecting about six out of every 1,000 infants," says Duke pediatric audiologist Ann Mabie. "For a very long time, people thought you couldn't test infants' hearing, and would just wait until children were two or three years old. But by the time you wait for children not to talk, a window of opportunity has shut." In fact, those tiny, shell-like ears that parents marvel over when getting to know their new babies are just the most visible parts of a highly sophisticated machine. Human infants spend the first year of life learning about their environment, and by one year of age, already understand far more language than they are yet able to use -- unless an undiagnosed hearing impairment disrupts the process. While hearing impairments are difficult at any age, they’re especially devastating in young children, because their brains rely on auditory stimulation to develop the capacity for oral communication. This makes early diagnosis and treatment of childhood hearing losses essential. Happily, all newborns in North Carolina now have access to the specialized screening needed to diagnose infants with hearing loss, thanks to state legislation passed in October 1999. Even babies born with normal hearing, however, can develop a hearing loss later in infancy or childhood, due to ear infections or head injuries. So parents should be aware of clues that their children might have difficulty hearing and insist on tests if they suspect hearing loss (see below). Mabie urges all parents who suspect that their child might have a hearing problem to get the child tested by an audiologist or physician with expertise in this area as soon as possible: "Every day you wait is a day lost." Hearing impairments caused by problems in the middle and outer ear can sometimes be treated medically. For impairments originating in the inner ear, a hearing aid and speech therapy can help. "Hearing aids help provide access to speech, and with some intensive speech and language therapy, hearing-impaired kids will do fine in a normal classroom." Children with severe to profound hearing impairments typically will require more extensive rehabilitation, and cochlear implantation may be indicated. At Duke, otolaryngologists have begun using sophisticated new technologies to help even tiny children with hearing impairments to interact with the hearing world. When Lauren, a two-month-old infant from western North Carolina, was diagnosed with profound hearing loss due to a malformation in her inner ears, or cochleas, she was immediately fitted with hearing aids. Shortly before her second birthday, she came to Duke for a cochlear implant. Duke specialists in speech pathology and audiology worked to perform a detailed evaluation of Lauren’s hearing loss, using the most precise diagnostic technologies available. Duke neurotologist (ear specialist) Debara Tucci, MD, then selected the cochlear implant that would be most appropriate for Lauren. After Tucci surgically implanted the mechanism -- a marvel of micro-engineering -- into Lauren’s inner ear, the tiny computer chip that controls the implant was carefully adjusted to transmit just the right auditory signals to Lauren’s brain. The result is a girl who is learning how to communicate with those around her right on schedule. Whatever intervention a child with hearing deficiencies may need, time is of the essence. As the mother of one hearing-impaired child puts it, "Once you find out and take action, things only get better, not worse.” If your child exhibits any of the following behaviors, have him or her checked by a professional audiologist or physician with expertise in hearing disorders.

Focus on Economic Data: Consumer Price Index and Inflation, October 19, 2011 Glossary terms from: One of many choices or courses of action that might be taken in a given situation. Any activity or organization that produces or exchanges goods or services for a profit. Consumer Price Index (CPI) A price index that measures the cost of a fixed basket of consumer goods and services and compares the cost of this basket in one time period with its cost in some base period. Changes in the CPI are used to measure inflation. People who use goods and services to satisfy their personal needs and not for resale or in the production of other goods and services. Spending by households on goods and services. The process of buying and using goods and services. A sustained decrease in the average price level of all the goods and services produced in the economy. A severe, prolonged economic contraction. The central bank of the United States. Its main function is controlling the money supply through monetary policy. The Federal Reserve System divides the country into 12 districts, each with its own Federal Reserve bank. Each district bank is directed by its nine-person board of directors. The Board of Governors, which is made up of seven members appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate to 14-year terms, directs the nation's monetary policy and the overall activities of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Open Market Committee is the official policy-making body; it is made up of the members of the Board of Governors and five of the district bank presidents. Something a person or organization plans to achieve in the future; an aim or desired result. Tangible objects that satisfy economic wants. Spending by all levels of government on goods and services; includes categories like military, schools and roads. Individuals and family units that buy goods and services (as consumers) and sell or rent productive resources (as resource owners). Payments earned by households for selling or renting their productive resources. May include salaries, wages, interest and dividends. A rise in the general or average price level of all the goods and services produced in an economy. Can be caused by pressure from the demand side of the market (demand-pull inflation) or pressure from the supply side of the market (cost-push inflation). Money paid regularly, at a particular rate, for the use of borrowed money. The quantity and quality of human effort available to produce goods and services. The amount of money that people pay when they buy a good or service; the amount they receive when they sell a good or service. The weighted average of the prices of all goods and services in an economy; used to calculate inflation. People and firms that use resources to make goods and services. A good or service that can be used to satisfy a want. A process of manufacturing, growing, designing, or otherwise using productive resources to create goods or services used to to satisfy a want. Goods, often supplied by the government, for which use by one person does not reduce the quantity of the good available for others to use, and for which consumption cannot be limited to those who pay for the good. The amount of goods and services that a monetary unit of income can buy. A decline in the rate of national economic activity, usually measured by a decline in real GDP for at least two consecutive quarters (i.e., six months). Money set aside for a future use that is held in easily-accessed accounts, such as savings accounts and certificates of deposit (CDs). Activities performed by people, firms or government agencies to satisfy economic wants. Use money now to buy goods and services. Standard of Living The level of subsistence of a nation, social class or individual with reference to the adequacy of necessities and comforts of daily life. Compulsory payments to governments by households and businesses. An abstract measure of the satisfaction consumers derive from consuming goods and services. Payments for labor services that are directly tied to time worked, or to the number of units of output produced. People employed to do work, producing goods and services.

Rainy Day Painting Create your very own creepy, haunted castle sitting in a turbulent field of flowing grass, eerily surrounded by dark, ominous clouds. Fireworks are such an exciting part of part of summer festivities, but it's sad when the show is over. Keep them alive all year long with watercolor fireworks. Show your high schooler how to celebrate Mary Cassatt, an Impressionist painter, by creating a mother-child painting in her style. Put your individual fingerprint on the 100th Day of School (literally!) with this activity. Show your preschooler how to make a print of a butterfly using her hand as a tool--a great way to stimulate her sense of touch. Use marbles and paint to explore the wild world of shapes and color...and build kindergarten writing strength, too. Introduce your kindergartener to some art history by showing him how to create an everyday object print, Andy Warhol-style. Celebrate the changing seasons with this fun, hands-on art activity that will teach your child about the different colors of the seasons. Help your preschooler begin reading and writing the printed word by connecting simple letter recognition exercises with this easy art project: alphabet trees!

Twenty Ideas for Engaging ProjectsSeptember 12, 2011 | Suzie Boss The start of the school year offers an ideal time to introduce students to project-based learning. By starting with engaging projects, you'll grab their interest while establishing a solid foundation of important skills, such as knowing how to conduct research, engage experts, and collaborate with peers. In honor of Edutopia's 20th anniversary, here are 20 project ideas to get learning off to a good start. 1. Flat Stanley Refresh: Flat Stanley literacy projects are perennial favorites for inspiring students to communicate and connect, often across great distances. Now Flat Stanley has his own apps for iPhone and iPad, along with new online resources. Project founder Dale Hubert is recently retired from the classroom, but he's still generating fresh ideas to bring learning alive in the "flatlands." 2. PBL is No Accident: In West Virginia, project-based learning has been adopted as a statewide strategy for improving teaching and learning. Teachers don't have to look far to find good project ideas. In this CNN story about the state's educational approach, read about a project that grew out of a fender-bender in a school parking lot. When students were asked to come up with a better design for the lot, they applied their understanding of geometry, civics, law, engineering, and public speaking. Find more good ideas in West Virginia's Teach21 project library. 3. Defy Gravity: Give your students a chance to investigate what happens near zero gravity by challenging them to design an experiment for NASA to conduct at its 2.2 second drop tower in Brookpark, Ohio. Separate NASA programs are offered for middle school and high school. Or, propose a project that may land you a seat on the ultimate roller coaster (aka: the "vomit comet"), NASA aircraft that produces periods of micro and hyper gravity ranging from 0 to 2 g's. Proposal deadline is Sept. 21, and flight week takes place in February 2012. 4. Connect Across Disciplines: When students design and build kinetic sculptures, they expand their understanding of art, history, engineering, language arts, and technology. Get some interdisciplinary project insights from the Edutopia video, Kinetic Conundrum. Click on the accompanying links for more tips about how you can do it, too. 5. Honor Home Languages: English language learners can feel pressured to master English fast, with class time spent correcting errors instead of using language in meaningful ways. Digital IS, a site published by the National Writing Project, shares plans for three projects that take time to honor students' home languages and cultures, engaging them in critical thinking, collaboration, and use of digital tools. Anne Herrington and Charlie Moran curate the project collection, "English Language Learners, Digital Tools, and Authentic Audiences." 6. Rethink Lunch: Make lunch into a learning opportunity with a project that gets students thinking more critically about their mid-day meal. Center for Ecoliteracy offers materials to help you start, including informative including informative essays and downloadable planning guides. Get more ideas from this video about a middle-school nutrition project, "A Healthy School Lunch." 7. Take a Learning Expedition: Expeditionary Learning schools take students on authentic learning expeditions, often in neighborhoods close to home. Check out the gallery for project ideas about everything from the tools people use in their work to memories of the Civil Rights Movement. 8. Find a Pal: If PBL is new to you, consider joining an existing project. You'll benefit from a veteran colleague's insights, and your students will get a chance to collaborate with classmates from other communities or even other countries. Get connected at ePals, a global learning community for educators from more than 200 countries. 9. Get Minds Inquiring: What's under foot? What are things made of? Science projects that emphasize inquiry help students make sense of their world and build a solid foundation for future understanding. The Inquiry Project supports teachers in third to fifth grades as they guide students in hands-on investigations about matter. Students develop the habits of scientists as they make observations, offer predictions, and gather evidence. Companion videos show how scientists use the same methods to explore the world. Connect inquiry activities to longer-term projects, such as creating a classroom museum that showcases students' investigations. 10. Learn through Service: When cases of the West Nile virus were reported in their area, Minnesota students sprang into action with a project that focused on preventing the disease through public education. Their project demonstrates what can happen when service-learning principles are built into PBL. Find more ideas for service-learning projects from the National Youth Leadership Council. 11. Locate Experts: When students are learning through authentic projects, they often need to connect with experts from the world outside the classroom. Find the knowledgeable experts you need for STEM projects through the National Lab Network. It's an online network where K-12 educators can locate experts from the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. 12. Build Empathy: Projects that help students see the world from another person's perspective build empathy along with academic outcomes. The Edutopia video, "Give Me Shelter", shows what compassionate learning looks like in action. Click on the companion links for more suggestions about how you can do it, too. 13. Investigate Climate Science: Take students on an investigation of climate science by joining the newest collaborative project hosted by GLOBE, Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment. The Student Climate Research Campaign includes three components: introductory activities to build a foundation of understanding, intensive observing periods when students around the world gather and report data, and research investigations that students design and conduct. Climate project kicks off Sept. 12. 14. Problem-Solvers Unite: Math fairs take mathematics out of the classroom and into the community, where everyone gets a chance to try their hand at problem solving. Galileo Educational Network explains how to host a math fair. In a nutshell, students set up displays of their math problems but not the solutions. Then they entice their parents and invited guests to work on solutions. Make the event even more engaging by inviting mathematicians to respond to students' problems. 15. Harvest Pennies : Can small things really add up to big results? It seems so, based on results of the Penny Harvest. Since the project started in New York in 1991, young philanthropists nationwide have raised and donated more than $8 million to charitable causes, all through penny drives. The project website explains how to organize students in philanthropy roundtables to study community issues and decide which causes they want to support. 16. Gather Stories: Instead of teaching history from textbooks, put students in the role of historian and help them make sense of the past. Learn more about how to plan oral history projects in the Edutopia story, "Living Legends." Teach students about the value of listening by having them gather stories for StoryCorps. 17. Angry Bird Physics: Here's a driving question to kickstart a science project: "What are the laws of physics in Angry Birds world?" Read how physics teachers like Frank Noschese and John Burk are using the web version of the popular mobile game in their classrooms. 18. Place-Based Projects: Make local heritage, landscapes, and culture the jumping-off point for compelling projects. That's the idea behind place-based education, which encourages students to look closely at their communities. Often, they wind up making significant contributions to their communities, as seen in the City of Stories project. 19. News They Can Use: Students don't have to wait until they're grown-ups to start publishing. Student newspapers, radio stations, and other journalism projects give them real-life experiences now. Award-winning journalism teacher Esther Wojcicki outlines the benefits this post on the New York Times Learning Network. Get more ideas about digital-age citizen journalism projects at MediaShift Idea Lab. 20. The Heroes They Know: To get acquainted with students at the start of the year and also introduce students to PBL processes, High Tech High teacher Diana Sanchez asked students to create a visual and textual representation of a hero in their own life. Their black-and-white exhibits were a source of pride to students, as Sanchez explains in her project reflection . Get more ideas from the project gallery at High Tech High, a network of 11 schools in San Diego County that emphasize PBL. To learn more, watch this Edutopia video interview with High Tech High founding principal Larry Rosenstock. Please tell us about the projects you are planning for this school year. Questions about PBL? Draw on the wisdom of your colleagues by starting discussions or asking for help in the PBL community.

U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis Today in Energy The Strait of Hormuz (shown in the oval on the map), which is located between Oman and Iran, connects the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. Hormuz is the world's most important oil chokepoint due to its daily oil flow of almost 17 million barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2011, up from between 15.5-16.0 million bbl/d in 2009-2010. Flows through the Strait in 2011 were roughly 35% of all seaborne traded oil, or almost 20% of oil traded worldwide. On average, 14 crude oil tankers per day passed through the Strait in 2011, with a corresponding amount of empty tankers entering to pick up new cargos. More than 85% of these crude oil exports went to Asian markets, with Japan, India, South Korea, and China representing the largest destinations. At its narrowest point, the Strait is 21 miles wide, but the width of the shipping lane in either direction is only two miles, separated by a two-mile buffer zone. The Strait is deep and wide enough to handle the world's largest crude oil tankers, with about two-thirds of oil shipments carried by tankers in excess of 150,000 deadweight tons. Several alternatives are potentially available to move oil from the Persian Gulf region without transiting Hormuz, but they are limited in capacity, in many cases are not currently operating or operable, and generally engender higher transport costs and logistical challenges. - Alternate routes include the 745-mile Petroline, also known as the East-West Pipeline, across Saudi Arabia from Abqaiq to the Red Sea. The East-West Pipeline has a nameplate capacity of about 5 million bbl/d, with current movements estimated at about 2 million bbl/d. - The Abqaiq-Yanbu natural gas liquids pipeline, which runs parallel to the Petroline to the Red Sea, has a 290,000-bbl/d capacity. - Additional oil could also be pumped north via the Iraq-Turkey pipeline to the port of Ceyhan on the Mediterranean Sea, but volumes have been limited by the closure of the Strategic Pipeline linking north and south Iraq. - The United Arab Emirates is also completing the 1.5 million bbl/d Abu Dhabi Crude Oil Pipeline that will cross the emirate of Abu Dhabi and end at the port of Fujairah just south of the Strait. - Other alternate routes could include the deactivated 1.65-million bbl/d Iraqi Pipeline across Saudi Arabia (IPSA) and the deactivated 0.5 million-bbl/d Tapline to Lebanon. EIA's World Oil Transit Chokepoints analysis brief contains additional information about other chokepoints, and the Middle East & North Africa overview contains additional information about countries in the region.

1. Linguistic Background The languages that are currently spoken in the Pacific region can be divided broadly into three groups: the Australian and New Guinean languages formed by people who participated in the region’s earliest migrations over a period of 20,000-30,000 years starting several tens of thousands of years ago, and the Austronesian languages spoken by Mongoloid people who migrated from the Asian continent around 3,000 B.C. The region has numerous languages, including 250 Aboriginal languages in Australia and 750 Papuan languages on the island of New Guinea (including the Indonesian territory of Irian Jaya) and neighboring areas. There are also 350 Austronesian languages in Melanesia, 20 in Polynesia, 12 in Micronesia and 100 in New Guinea (Comrie, Matthews, and Polinsky 1996). There is wide variation not only among language groups, but also among the families of languages. Few language families have been identified among the languages of Australia and New Guinea using the methods of comparative linguistics. Pacific languages are also characterized by the small size of speaker populations and by the absence of dominant languages. However, there are usually bilingual people who can speak or at least understand the languages of neighboring populations, and it is believed that this situation has existed for a long time. In terms of cultural factors, it appears that the diversification of languages in the Pacific region was accelerated by the emblematic function of language in the creation of a clear distinction between “ingroup” and “outgroup.” The languages of New Guinea and the region around it show diverse linkages and wide variations between languages. The Austronesian languages of the Pacific region are mostly classified as Oceanian languages, while the Chamorro and Palau languages of Micronesia are classified into the languages of Western Malaya and Polynesia (WMP, Indonesian family), and the indigenous languages of Maluku and Irian Jaya in Eastern Indonesia into the Central Malayo-Polynesian (CMP) or the South Halmahera-West New Guinea (SHWNG) subgroups. In particular, there are strong similarities between the linguistic characteristics of the CMP and SHWNG languages and those of the Melanesian branch of the Oceanian languages. These linguistic conditions and characteristics are attributable to ethnic migrations within the region over a long period of time, accompanied by contacts and linguistic merging with indigenous Papuan people. Papuan languages are still found in parts of Indonesia, including Northern Halmahera and the islands of Pantar and Alor and central and eastern Timor in the Province of Nusa Tenggara. In New Guinea, contact with Papuan languages has caused some Austronesian languages to exhibit a word order change from subject-verb-object to subject-object-verb (Austronesian Type 2) (Sakiyama 1994). 2. Linguistic Strata With the start of colonization by the European powers in the nineteenth century, a new set of linguistic circumstances developed in the region. First, pidgin languages based on European and Melanesian languages gradually emerged as common languages. The establishment of plantations in Samoa and in Queensland, Australia, which had concentrations of people who spoke Melanesian languages, was important in providing breeding grounds for pidgin languages. A pidgin language is formed from elements of the grammar of both contributing languages, though the pidgin languages tend to be looked down upon from the perspective of the more dominant of the two parent languages. The region’s newly formed common languages, including Tok Pisin, Bislama, and Solomon Pidgin, flourished after they were taken back to the homelands of the various speakers. This was possible because Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea were all multilingual societies without dominant languages. The number of speakers of pidgin languages increased rapidly in this environment. At the same time, the continuing existence of ethnic minority languages came under threat. Examples of pidgins that were creolized (adopted as mother languages in their own right) include Solomon Pijin, which eventually had over 1,000 speakers aged five and over (1976) in the Solomon Islands. Bislama, a mixture of over 100 indigenous languages grafted upon a base of English and French, is now spoken by almost the entire population of Vanuatu (170,000 in 1996) and is partially creolized. Of particular interest is the fact that a group of more than 1,000 people who emigrated to New Caledonia have adopted Bislama as their primary language. The situation in Papua New Guinea, which has a population of 4,300,000 (1996), is even more dramatic. By 1982 the number of people using Tok Pisin as their primary language had reached 50,000, while another 2,000,000 used it as a second language (Grimes 1996). 3. Minority Languages and Common Languages in the Pacific Region The Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of Disappearing published by UNESCO (Wurm 1996) provides merely a brief overview of the current situation in Papua New Guinea, Australia, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. There is no mention of Micronesia, New Caledonia, or Polynesia, presumably because of a lack of information resulting from the large number of languages in these areas. The following report covers areas and languages that I have researched and endangered languages covered by field studies carried out by Japanese researchers. 3.1 Belau (Palau), Micronesia According to Belau (Palau) government statistics (1990), the total population of 15,122 people includes 61 people living on outlying islands in Sonsorol State, and 33 in Hatohobei (Tochobei) State. Apart from the Sonsorol Islands, Sonsorol State also includes the islands of Fanah, Meril and Pulo An. In addition to the Hatohobei language, the language mix on these outlying islands also includes nuclear Micronesian (Chuukic) languages, which are the core Oceanian languages spoken in the Carolines. They differ from Palauan, which is an Indonesian language. To lump these languages together as the Sonsorol languages with a total of 600 speakers (Wurm and Hattori 1981-83) is as inaccurate as combining the Miyako dialects of Okinawa into a single classification. The number of Chuukic speakers has declined steadily since these figures were compiled. Starting in the German colonial period of the early twentieth century, people have been relocated from these outlying islands to Echang on Arakabesan Island in Belau. Today there are several hundred of these people. Many of those born in the new location only speak Palauan. A study by S. Oda (1975) estimated that there were 50 speakers of Pulo Annian. The language of Meril continued to decline and has now become extinct. From the early part of the twentieth century until the end of World War II, Micronesia was under Japanese rule, administered by the South Seas Mandate. Japanese was used as a common language, and its influence is still evident today. The linguistic data on Micronesia presented by Grimes (1996) is distorted by the fact that, while the number of English speakers is shown, no mention is made of Japanese. A study carried out in 1970 (Wurm, Mühlhäusler, and Tryon 1996) found that people aged 35 and over could speak basic Japanese. This group is equivalent to people aged 63 and over in 1998. An estimate based on Belau government statistics (1990) suggests that more than 1,000 of these people are still alive. In the State of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia, where the percentage of females attending school is said to have been low, we can assume that the number of Japanese speakers has fallen below 500. It has been suggested that if Japan had continued to rule Micronesia, Japanese would certainly have become the sole language in the region, and indigenous languages would have disappeared (Wurm, Mühlhäusler, and Tryon 1996). This seems an overly harsh appraisal of Japan’s language policy. Except in the schools, as a matter of fact no significant steps were taken to promote the use of Japanese. Micronesia previously had no common language for communication between different islands. Even today, old people from different islands use Japanese as a common language (Sakiyama 1995; Toki 1998). However, the role of this Japanese pidgin appears to have ended within a single generation, and in this sense it too is an endangered language. Pidgin Japanese continues to be used as a lingua franca by Taiwanese in their fifties and older (Wurm, Mühlhäusler, and Tryon 1996), and the number of speakers is estimated to have been 10,000 in 1993 (Grimes 1996). 3.2 Yap, Micronesia Ngulu Atoll is situated between the Yap Islands and the Belau Islands. The Nguluwan language is a mixture of Yapese and Ulithian, which belongs to the Chuukic family. It has inherited the Ulithian phonetic system and a partial version of Yap grammar (Sakiyama 1982). Nguluwan appears to have evolved through bilingualism between Yapese and Ulithian, and to describe it as a dialect of Ulithian (Grimes 1996) is inappropriate. In 1980 there were 28 speakers. Even with the inclusion of people who had migrated to Guror on Yap Island, where the parent village is located, the number of speakers was fewer than 50. Speakers are being assimilated rapidly into the Yapese language and culture. 3.3 Maluku, Indonesia The book Atlas Bahasa Tanah Maluku (Taber et al. 1996) covers 117 ethnic languages (Austronesian, Papuan), including numbers of speakers for each language, areas of habitation and migration, access routes, simple cultural information, and basic numbers and expressions. This work is especially valuable since it corrects inaccuracies and errors in the 1977 Classification and Index of the World's Languages by C. Y. L. Voegelin and F. M. Voegelin. It also distinguishes languages and dialects according to their a priori mutual intelligibility. Fifteen languages are listed as having fewer than 1,000 speakers. They include the Nakaela language of Seram, which has only 5 speakers, the Amahai and Paulohi languages, also of Seram, which are spoken by 50 people each, and the South Nuaulu and Yalahatan languages, which have 1,000 speakers each on Seram Island. The data, however, are not complete. For example, the Bajau language is not included, presumably because of the difficulty of accessing the various solitary islands where the Bajau people live. The author researched the Yalahatan language in 1997 and in 1998, and the Bajau language (2,000 speakers) on Sangkuwang Island in 1997. 3.4 Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea Detailed information about the names, numbers of speakers, and research data for over 800 languages spoken in New Guinea and its coastal regions can be found in the works by the Barrs (1978), Voorhoeve (1975), and Wurm (1982). However, not only the minority languages but even the majority languages other than a few have yet to be surveyed and researched adequately. There are many languages for which vocabulary collection has yet to be undertaken. It appears that dictionaries or grammars have been published for less than one-tenth of the region’s languages. However, the gospel has been published in several dozen languages using orthographies established by SIL. Papuan languages range from those with substantial speaker populations, including Enga, Chimbu (Kuman), and Dani, which are spoken by well over 100,000 people, to endangered languages such as Abaga with 5 speakers (150 according to Wurm ), Makolkol with 7 (unknown according to Wurm), and Sene with under 10. There are very many languages for which the number of speakers is unknown and more up-to-date information is needed. Also, despite having substantially more than 1,000 speakers (Wurm 1982; Grimes 1996), Murik is in danger of extinction due to the creolization of Tok Pisin (Foley 1986). Moreover, it is questionable whether the present lists include all of the region’s languages. Information about Irian Jaya is even sparser. A study on popular languages carried out by the author in 1984-85 revealed that Kuot (New Ireland), Taulil (New Britain), and Sko (Irian Jaya) all had several hundred speakers and that, in the case of Taulil in particular, an increasing number of young people were able to understand what their elders were saying but could no longer speak the language themselves. There has been a rapid shift to Kuanua, an indigenous language used in trade with neighboring Rabaul, which is replacing Taulil. 3.5 Solomon Islands, Melanesia The total population of the Solomon Islands is 390,000 (1996). There are 63 Papuan, Melanesian, and Polynesian indigenous languages, of which only 37 are spoken by over 1,000 people (Grimes 1996). The Papuan Kazukuru languages (Guliguli, Doriri) of New Georgia, which were known to be endangered as early as 1931, have become extinct already, leaving behind just some scant linguistic information. The Melanesian Tanema and Vano languages of the Santa Cruz Islands and the Laghu language of the Santa Isabel Islands were extinct by 1990. This does not mean that the groups speaking them died out, but rather that the languages succumbed to the shift to Roviana, a trade language used in neighboring regions, or were replaced by Solomon Pijin (Sakiyama 1996). 3.6 Vanuatu, Melanesia The situation in Vanuatu is very similar to that in the Solomon Islands. The official view, written in Bislama, is as follows: I gat sam ples long 110 lanwis evriwan so i gat bigfala lanwis difrens long Vanuatu. Pipol blong wan velej ol i toktok long olgeta bakegen evridei nomo long lanwis be i no Bislama, Inglis o Franis. (Vanuatu currently has 110 indigenous languages, which are all very different linguistically. On an everyday basis people in villages speak only their local languages, not Bislama, English, or French). (Vanuatu, 1980, Institute of Pacific Studies) Among the Melanesian and Polynesian indigenous languages spoken by 170,000 people, or 93% of the total population (1996), there are many small minority tongues. These include Aore, which has only a single speaker (extinct according to Wurm and Hattori [1981-83]); Maragus and Ura (with 10 speakers each); Nasarian, and Sowa (with 20); and Dixon Reef, Lorediakarkar, Mafea, and Tambotalo (with 50). If languages with around 100 speakers are included, this category accounts for about one-half of the total number of languages (Grimes 1996). The spread of Bislama has had the effect of putting these languages in jeopardy. 3.7 New Caledonia, Melanesia New Caledonia has a total population of 145,000 people, of whom 62,000 are indigenous. As of 1981, there were 28 languages, all Melanesian except for the one Polynesian language Uvean. The only languages with over 2,000 speakers are Cemuhi, Paicî, Ajië, and Xârâcùù, along with Dehu and Nengone, which are spoken on the Loyalty Islands. Dumbea (Paita), which is spoken by several hundred people, has been described by T. Shintani and Y. Paita (1983). And M. Osumi (1995) has described Tinrin, which has an estimated 400 speakers. Speakers of Tinrin are bilingual in Xârâcùù or Ajië. Nerë has 20 speakers and Arhö 10, while Waamwang, which had 3 speakers in 1946, is now reported to be extinct (Grimes 1996). Descendants of Javanese, who began to migrate to New Caledonia in the early part of the twentieth century, now number several thousand. The Javanese language spoken by these people, which has developed in isolation from the Javanese homeland, has attracted attention as a new pidgin language. When Europeans first arrived in Australia in 1788, it is estimated that there were 700 different tribes in a population of 500,000-1,000,000 (Comrie, Matthews, and Polinsky 1996). By the 1830s Tasmanian had become extinct, and today the number of Aboriginal languages has fallen to less than one-half what it once was. However, T. Tsunoda left detailed records of the Warrungu language, the last speaker of which died in 1981, and the Djaru language, which has only 200 speakers (Tsunoda 1974, 1981). Yawuru, which belongs to the Nyulnyulan family, reportedly has fewer than 20 speakers, all aged in their sixties or older. The language is described by K. Hosokawa (1992). The Pacific has been heavily crisscrossed by human migration from ancient to modern times. All Pacific countries except the Kingdom of Tonga were colonized. This historical background is reflected in the existence of multilevel diglossia in all regions of the Pacific. Depending on the generation, the top level of language in Micronesia is either English (the official language) or pidgin Japanese (used as a lingua franca among islands). The next level is made up of the languages of major islands that exist as political units, such as Palauan, Yapese and Ponapean. On the lowest level are the various ethnic languages spoken mainly on solitary islands. In the Maluku Islands of Indonesia, local Malay languages such as Ambonese Malay, North Maluku Malay and Bacanese Malay, form a layer beneath the official language, Indonesian. Under them are the dominant local languages, such as Hitu, which is spoken by 15,000 people on Ambon Island, and Ternate and Tidore, which are spoken in the Halmahera region. These are important as urban languages. On the lowest level are the various vernaculars. In Papua New Guinea, standard English forms the top level, followed by Papua New Guinean English. Tok Pisin and Hiri Motu are used as common languages among the various ethnic groups. Beneath these layers are the regional or occupational common languages. For example, Hiri Motu is used as the law enforcement lingua franca in coastal areas around the Gulf of Papua, Yabem as a missionary language along the coast of the Huon Gulf, and Malay as a trade language in areas along the border with Indonesia. On the next level are the ethnic and tribal languages used on a day-to-day basis. An example of a similar pattern in Polynesia can be found in Hawaii, where English and Hawaiian English rank above Da Kine Talk or Pidgin To Da Max, which are mixtures of English and Oceanic languages and are used as common languages among the various Asian migrants who have settled in Hawaii. Beneath these are ethnic languages, including Hawaiian and the various immigrant languages, such as a common Japanese based on the Hiroshima dialect, as well as Cantonese, Korean, and Tagalog. All of the threatened languages are in danger because of their status as indigenous minority languages positioned at the lowest level of the linguistic hierarchy. Reports to date have included little discussion of the multilevel classification of linguistic strata from a formal linguistic perspective. It will be necessary in the future to examine these phenomena from the perspectives of sociolinguistics or linguistic anthropology. Barr, Donald F., and Sharon G. Barr. 1978. Index of Irian Jaya Languages. Prepublication draft. Abepura, Indonesia: Cenderawashih University and Summer Institute of Linguistics. Comrie, Bernard, Stephan Matthews, and Maria Polinsky. 1996. The Atlas of Languages. New York: Chackmark Books. Foley, William A. 1986. The Papuan Languages of New Guinea. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Grimes, Barbara F., ed. 1996. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: International Academic Bookstore. Hosokawa, Komei. 1992. The Yawuru language of West Kimberley: A meaning-based description. Ph.D. diss., Australian National University. Oda, Sachiko. 1977. The Syntax of Pulo Annian. Ph. D. diss., University of Hawaii. Osumi, Midori. 1995. Tinrin grammar. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication, No. 25. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Sakiyama, Osamu. 1982. The characteristics of Nguluwan from the viewpoint of language contact. In Islanders and Their Outside World.Aoyagi, Machiko, ed. Tokyo: Rikkyo University. ---. 1994. Hirimotu go no ruikei: jijun to gochishi (Affix order and postpositions in Hiri Motu: A cross-linguistic survey). Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology,vol. 19 no. 1: 1-17. ---. 1995. Mikuroneshia Berau no pijin ka nihongo (Pidginized Japanese in Belau, Micronesia). Shiso no kagaku, vol. 95 no. 3: 44-52. ---. 1996. Fukugouteki na gengo jokyo (Multilingual situation of the Solomon Islands). In Soromon shoto no seikatsu shi: bunka, rekishi, shakai (Life History in the Solomons: Culture, history and society). Akimichi, Tomoya et al, eds. Tokyo: Akashi shoten. Shintani, Takahiko and Yvonne Païta. 1990. Grammaire de la Langue de Païta. Nouméa, New Caledonia: Société d'études historiques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Taber, Mark and et al. 1996. Atlas bahasa tanah Maluku (Maluku Languages Atlas). Ambon, Indonesia: Summer Institute of Linguistics and Pusat Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Maluku, Pattimura University. Toki, Satoshi, ed. 1998. The remnants of Japanese in Micronesia. Memoirs of the Faculty of Letters, Osaka University, Vol. 38. Tsunoda, Tasaku. 1974. A grammar of the Warrungu language, North Queensland. Master's thesis, Monash University. ---. 1981. The Djaru Language of Kimberley, Western Australia. Pacific Linguistics, ser. B, No. 78. Canberra: Australian National University. Voorhoeve, C. L. 1975. Languages of Irian Jaya: Checklist, Preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists. Canberra: Australian National University. Wurm, Stephen A. 1982. Papuan Languages of Oceania. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. ---. and Shiro Hattori, eds. 1981-83. Language Atlas of the Pacific Area. Pacific Linguistics, ser. C, No. 66-67. Canberra: Australian National University. ---, Peter Mühlhäusler, and Darrel T. Tryon. 1996. Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas. 3 vols. Trends in Linguistics. Documentation 13. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. *Translation of the author’s essay “Taiheiyo chiiki no kiki gengo”, Gekkan Gengo, Taishukan Publishing Co., 28(2), 102-11, 1999, with the permission of the publisher. Any comments and suggestions to [email protected]

IN THIS ARTICLE Exams and Tests A bone mineral density test measures the mineral density (such as calcium) in your bones using a special X-ray or computed tomography (CT) scan. From this information, your doctor can estimate the strength of your bones. See a picture of a bone mineral density test. Routine urine and blood tests can rule out other medical conditions, such as hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, or Cushing's syndrome, that can cause bone loss. In men, blood tests to measure testosterone levels can see whether low levels are causing bone loss. If you have been diagnosed with osteoporosis, you may need to follow up regularly with your doctor to monitor your condition. If you or your doctor thinks you may be at risk for osteoporosis, you may have a screening test to check your bone thickness. A screening test may be advisable if you have: The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends that all women age 65 and older routinely have a bone mineral density test to screen for osteoporosis. If you are at increased risk for fractures caused by osteoporosis, routine screening should start sooner.4 USPSTF recommends that you and your doctor check your fracture risk using a tool such as FRAX to help decide whether you should be screened for osteoporosis. Talk to your doctor about your risk factors and when to start bone mineral density screening. The FRAX tool was developed by the World Health Organization to help predict your risk of having a fracture related to osteoporosis in the next 10 years. You can use this tool. Go to the website at www.sheffield.ac.uk/FRAX, and click on Calculation Tool. If you have had a bone mineral density test (BMD) on your hip, you can type in your score. If you have not had that test, you can leave the score blank. Most experts recommend that the decision to screen younger women be made on an individual basis, depending on the risk for osteoporosis and whether the test results will help with treatment decisions. For help to decide whether you should be tested for osteoporosis, see: Ultrasound is sometimes offered at events such as health fairs as a quick screening for osteoporosis. Ultrasound by itself is not a reliable test for diagnosing osteoporosis. But if results of an ultrasound screening find low bone density, your doctor can help you decide whether you should have a bone mineral density test. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. Get tips and advances in treatment. Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies

Moderate-Intensity Aerobic Activity Aerobic fitness means increasing how well the body uses oxygen, which depends on the condition of the heart, lungs, and muscles. Experts tend to describe aerobic activity in three ways: light, moderate, and vigorous. When people do moderate-intensity activities, they notice a faster heartbeat. To get the benefits of moderate activity, a person can: The goal of aerobic fitness is to increase the amount of oxygen that goes to the heart and muscles, which allows them to work longer. Any activities, including many kinds of daily activities, that raise the heart rate and keep it up for an extended period of time can improve aerobic fitness. If the activities are done regularly and long enough, they can help improve fitness. Experts recommend that adults try to do moderate activity for at least 2½ hours a week. Or they can do vigorous activity for at least 1¼ hours a week. People can choose to do one or both types of activity. And it's fine to be active in blocks of 10 minutes or more throughout the day and week. Teens and children (starting at age 6) should do moderate to vigorous activity at least 1 hour every day. Moderate activity is safe for most people, but it's always a good idea to talk to your doctor before starting an exercise program. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org Find out what women really need. Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies

Type 1 Diabetes: Living With the Disease (cont.) IN THIS ARTICLE Type 1 diabetes requires daily attention to diet, exercise, and insulin. You may have times when this job feels overwhelming, but taking good care of yourself will help you will feel better, have a better quality of life, and prevent or delay complications from diabetes. Eat well and count carbohydrate grams Follow one of these meal-planning methods to help you eat a healthful diet and spread carbohydrate through the day. This will help prevent high blood sugar levels after meals. For more information, see: Focus on the type of carbohydrate as well as the amount. This might help you stay at your target blood sugar level. Foods with a low glycemic index (GI) may help prevent spikes in blood sugar. It is not yet known if these foods help prevent complications. Low glycemic foods do not raise blood sugar as quickly as high glycemic foods. Foods with a low GI include high-fiber whole grains, lentils, and beans. High GI foods include potatoes and white bread. Using fat replacers—nonfat substances that act like fat in a food—may seem like a good idea, but talk with a registered dietitian before you do. Some people may eat more food, and therefore more calories, if they know a food contains a fat replacer. Make sure you know how to give yourself insulin. Try to do at least 2½ hours a week of moderate activity. One way to do this is to be active 30 minutes a day, at least 5 days a week. Be sure to exercise safely. Drink plenty of water before, during, and after you are active. This is very important when it's hot out and when you do intense exercise. It may help to keep track of your exercise on an activity log(What is a PDF document?). Monitor your blood sugar Checking your blood sugar level is a major part of controlling your blood sugar level and keeping it in a target range you set with your doctor. For more information, see the topic Continuous Glucose Monitoring or see: Handle high and low blood sugar levels Be sure you: Control your blood pressure and cholesterol Limit your alcohol intake to no more than 2 drinks a day for men and 1 drink a day for women (none if you are pregnant). Discuss with your doctor whether you should drink alcohol. Ask if a daily aspirin is right for you Talk to your doctor about whether you should take low-dose aspirin. Daily low-dose aspirin (81 milligrams) may help prevent heart problems if you are at risk for heart attack or stroke. People with diabetes are 2 to 4 times more likely than people who don't have diabetes to die from heart and blood vessel diseases.5 Deal with your feelings A chronic illness creates major change in your life. You may need to grieve the loss of your earlier life from time to time. Also, you may feel resentful, deprived, or angry about having to pay attention to what and how much you eat. For more information, see: Protect your feet Daily foot care can prevent serious problems. Foot problems caused by diabetes are the most common cause of amputations. For more information, see: Learn more about diabetes Diabetes is a complex disease and there is a lot to learn, such as: eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org Find out what women really need. Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies

the energy [r]evolution The climate change imperative demands nothing short of an Energy [R]evolution. The expert consensus is that this fundamental shift must begin immediately and be well underway within the next ten years in order to avert the worst impacts. What is needed is a complete transformation of the way we produce, consume and distribute energy, while at the same time maintaining economic growth. Nothing short of such a revolution will enable us to limit global warming to less than a rise in temperature of 2° Celsius, above which the impacts become devastating. Current electricity generation relies mainly on burning fossil fuels, with their associated CO2 emissions, in very large power stations which waste much of their primary input energy. More energy is lost as the power is moved around the electricity grid network and converted from high transmission voltage down to a supply suitable for domestic or commercial consumers. The system is innately vulnerable to disruption: localised technical, weather-related or even deliberately caused faults can quickly cascade, resulting in widespread blackouts. Whichever technology is used to generate electricity within this old fashioned configuration, it will inevitably be subject to some, or all, of these problems. At the core of the Energy [R]evolution there therefore needs to be a change in the way that energy is both produced and distributed. 4.1 key principles the energy [r]evolution can be achieved by adhering to five key principles: 1.respect natural limits – phase out fossil fuels by the end of this century We must learn to respect natural limits. There is only so much carbon that the atmosphere can absorb. Each year humans emit over 25 billion tonnes of carbon equivalent; we are literally filling up the sky. Geological resources of coal could provide several hundred years of fuel, but we cannot burn them and keep within safe limits. Oil and coal development must be ended. The global Energy [R]evolution scenario has a target to reduce energy related CO2 emissions to a maximum of 10 Gigatonnes (Gt) by 2050 and phase out fossil fuels by 2085. 2.equity and fairness As long as there are natural limits there needs to be a fair distribution of benefits and costs within societies, between nations and between present and future generations. At one extreme, a third of the world’s population has no access to electricity, whilst the most industrialised countries consume much more than their fair share. The effects of climate change on the poorest communities are exacerbated by massive global energy inequality. If we are to address climate change, one of the core principles must be equity and fairness, so that the benefits of energy services – such as light, heat, power and transport – are available for all: north and south, rich and poor. Only in this way can we create true energy security, as well as the conditions for genuine human wellbeing. The Advanced Energy [R]evolution scenario has a target to achieve energy equity as soon as technically possible. By 2050 the average per capita emission should be between 1 and 2 tonnes of CO2. 3.implement clean, renewable solutions and decentralise energy systems. There is no energy shortage. All we need to do is use existing technologies to harness energy effectively and efficiently. Renewable energy and energy efficiency measures are ready, viable and increasingly competitive. Wind, solar and other renewable energy technologies have experienced double digit market growth for the past decade. Just as climate change is real, so is the renewable energy sector. Sustainable decentralised energy systems produce less carbon emissions, are cheaper and involve less dependence on imported fuel. They create more jobs and empower local communities. Decentralised systems are more secure and more efficient. This is what the Energy [R]evolution must aim to create. To stop the earth’s climate spinning out of control, most of the world’s fossil fuel reserves – coal, oil and gas – must remain in the ground. Our goal is for humans to live within the natural limits of our small planet. 4.decouple growth from fossil fuel use Starting in the developed countries, economic growth must be fully decoupled from fossil fuel usage. It is a fallacy to suggest that economic growth must be predicated on their increased combustion. We need to use the energy we produce much more efficiently, and we need to make the transition to renewable energy and away from fossil fuels quickly in order to enable clean and sustainable growth. 5.phase out dirty, unsustainable energyWe need to phase out coal and nuclear power. We cannot continue to build coal plants at a time when emissions pose a real and present danger to both ecosystems and people. And we cannot continue to fuel the myriad nuclear threats by pretending nuclear power can in any way help to combat climate change. There is no role for nuclear power in the Energy [R]evolution.

Located above the surface of our planet is a complex mixture of gases and suspended liquid and solid particles known as the atmosphere. Operating within the atmosphere is a variety of processes we call weather. Some measurable variables associated with weather include air temperature, air pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation. The atmosphere also contains organized phenomena that include things like tornadoes, thunderstorms, mid-latitude cyclones, hurricanes, and monsoons. Climate refers to the general pattern of weather for a region over specific period of time. Scientists have discovered that human activities can influence Earth’s climate and weather producing problems like global warming, ozone depletion, and acid precipitation. Widespread urban development alters weather patterns Research focusing on the Houston area suggests that widespread urban development alters weather patterns in a way that ... Laptev SeaLast Updated on 2013-05-14 at 14:23 The Laptev Sea is a saline water body, lodged between the Kara Sea and East Siberian Sea. The chief land boundary of this marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean is the Siberian... More » East Siberian SeaLast Updated on 2013-05-14 at 14:09 The East Siberian Sea is a saline marine body, which is a southern marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. To the east is found the Chukchi Sea and to the west beyond the New... More » Baffin BayLast Updated on 2013-05-14 at 12:11 Baffin Bay is a margibnal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean located between the Canada's Baffin, Devon and Ellesmere islands and Greenland. To the south the Davis Strait... More » Andaman SeaLast Updated on 2013-05-13 at 23:06 The Andaman Sea is a body of marine water in the northeastern corner of the Indian Ocean that lies to the west of the Malay Peninsula, the north of Sumatra, the east of the... More » Molucca SeaLast Updated on 2013-05-13 at 23:02 The Molucca Sea (also Molukka Sea) is a semi-enclosed sea, surrounded by a variety of islands belonging to Indonesia, most significantly the island of Sulawesi (Celebes)... More » Levantine SeaLast Updated on 2013-05-13 at 22:31 The Levantine Sea is most eastern unit of the Mediterranean Sea, and also the most saline portion of the Mediterranean Basin. The Levantine Sea, also known as the Levant... More »

University of Michigan (U-M) scientists have made an important step toward what could become the first vaccine in the U.S. to prevent urinary tract infections, if the robust immunity achieved in mice can be reproduced in humans. The findings are published September 18 in the open-access journal PLoS Pathogens. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) affect 53 percent of women and 14 percent of men at least once in their lives. These infections lead to lost work time and 6.8 million medical provider's office visits, 1.3 million emergency room visits and 245,000 hospitalizations a year, with an annual cost of $2.4 billion in the United States. To help combat this common health issue, the U-M scientists used a novel systematic approach, combining bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics, to look for key parts of the bacterium, Escherichia coli, that could be used in a vaccine to elicit an effective immune response. The team, led by Dr. Harry L.T. Mobley, Ph.D., screened 5,379 possible bacterial proteins and identified three strong candidates to use in a vaccine to prime the body to fight E. coli, the cause of most uncomplicated urinary tract infections. The vaccine prevented infection and produced key types of immunity when tested in mice. Scientists have attempted to develop a vaccine for UTIs over the past two decades. This latest potential vaccine has features that may better its chances of success. It alerts the immune system to iron receptors on the surface of bacteria that perform a critical function allowing infection to spread. Administered in the nose, it induces an immune response in the body's mucosa, a first line of defense against invading pathogens. The response, also produced in mucosal tissue in the urinary tract, should help the body fight infection where it starts. Mobley's team is currently testing more strains of E. coli obtained from women treated at U-M. Most of the strains produce the same iron-related proteins that cthe vaccine targets, an encouraging sign that the vaccine could work against many urinary tract infections. Mobley is seeking partners in clinical research to move the vaccine forward into a phase 1 trial in humans. If successful, this vaccine would take several more years to reach the market. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE: This work has been funded by Public Health Service Grant AI043363 from the National Institutes of Health. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. COMPETING INTERESTS: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. PLEASE ADD THIS LINK TO THE PUBLISHED ARTICLE IN ONLINE VERSIONS OF YOUR REPORT: http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000586 (link will go live upon embargo lift) CITATION: Alteri CJ, Hagan EC, Sivick KE, Smith SN, Mobley HLT (2009) Mucosal Immunization with Iron Receptor Antigens Protects against Urinary Tract Infection. PLoS Pathog 5(9): e1000586. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000586 Anne Rueter, [email protected] Nicole Fawcett, [email protected] This press release refers to an upcoming article in PLoS Pathogens. The release is provided by the article authors and their institution. Any opinions expressed in these releases or articles are the personal views of the journal staff and/or article contributors, and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of PLoS. PLoS expressly disclaims any and all warranties and liability in connection with the information found in the releases and articles and your use of such information. About PLoS Pathogens PLoS Pathogens (www.plospathogens.org) publishes outstanding original articles that significantly advance the understanding of pathogens and how they interact with their host organisms. All works published in PLoS Pathogens are open access. Everything is immediately available subject only to the condition that the original authorship and source are properly attributed. Copyright is retained by the authors. The Public Library of Science uses the Creative Commons Attribution License. About the Public Library of Science The Public Library of Science (PLoS) is a non-profit organization of scientists and physicians committed to making the world's scientific and medical literature a freely available public resource. For more information, visit http://www.plos.org. AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system.

If farmers are to increase food production and food security, they need better access to agricultural support systems, such as credit, technology, extension services and agricultural education, as well as to the rural organizations that often channel other services. Both men and women smallholders and poor farmers have frequently been cut off from these essential agricultural support systems, which seldom take into account the different responsibilities and needs of men and women farmers. In spite of their enormous potential and their crucial roles in agricultural production, women in particular have insufficient access to production inputs and support services. This trend underlines the need to implement measures aimed at enhancing the access of small farmers, especially women, to production inputs - particularly since the working environment of development organizations has changed as a result of market liberalization and a reduced role for the state worldwide. National agricultural extension systems are no exception to this rule, and must respond by making internal and external adjustments. Great attention is required so that the adjustments do not become detrimental to women and men small farmers. For example, FAO's field experiences over the last decade have pointed to the need for extension programmes that are more strategically planned, needs-based, participatory and problem solving. Women's access to and use of agricultural support systems is also severely limited by the heavy burden on time and energy that results from their triple responsibilities - productive activities (such as work in the fields), reproductive activities (such as child rearing, cooking and household chores) and community management. In order to improve production, farmers need access to financial capital. Buying seeds, fertilizer and other agricultural inputs often requires short-term loans, which are repaid when the crops are harvested. Installing major improvements, such as irrigation pumps, or acquiring new technology that increases future yields is impossible without access to long-term credit. Smallholders, particularly women, often face difficulties in obtaining credit. This is a direct consequence of their lacking access to land, participation in development projects and extension programmes and membership in rural organizations, all of which are important channels for obtaining loans and credit information. In several countries of sub-Saharan Africa, where women and men farmers are roughly equal in number, it is estimated that women farmers receive only 10 percent of the loans granted to smallholders and less than 1 percent of the total credit advanced to the agriculture sector. Credit delivery can be improved by setting up microfinance institutions in rural areas and reorienting the banking system to cater to the needs of small farmers, especially women. The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, which first pioneered the microcredit approach in 1976, currently reaches more than 2 million people. Since it was founded, the bank has lent more than US$2.1 billion, most of it in the form of loans of a few hundred dollars for small agriculture, distribution, crafts and trading enterprises. Numerous studies have shown that women are generally more reliable and punctual in repaying their loans than men are. A programme providing credit and nutrition for women significantly improved both the participating women's incomes and their children's nutritional status. This is the conclusion of a study that examined the impact of a credit and education programme run by the NGO Freedom from Hunger. Men and women smallholders also suffer financially from limited access to the marketing services that would allow them to turn surplus produce into cash income. Women face particular difficulties because marketing infrastructure and organizations are rarely geared towards either small-scale producers or the crops that women grow. Although women all over the world are active as traders, hawkers and street and market vendors, little has been done to improve transport and market facilities to support this vital economic sector. Even where rural women play an important role in wholesale trade, their full membership in marketing service institutions is still difficult because they may be illiterate or lack independent legal status. Planning for action The FAO Gender and Development Plan of Action includes commitments by different Divisions of FAO to increasing the equality of access to a wide range of agricultural support systems, including markets, credit, technology, extension and training. Rural finance and marketing services Rural groups and organizations Agricultural research and technology Agricultural education and extension Microcredit and education boost incomes and nutrition Astudy examined the impact of a microcredit and educational programme implemented by the NGO Freedom from Hunger. In Ghanaian villages, women who participated in the programme used microcredit loans to launch income-generating activities such as preparing and selling palm oil, fish and cooked foods. They increased their non-farm income by $36 per month, twice as much as the women who had not taken part in the programme. Through the programme's educational component, participating women also gained valuable knowledge about their children's nutrition and heath needs. Membership of cooperatives, farmers' organizations, trade unions and other organizations represents one of the best ways for rural men and women to gain access to resources, opportunities and decision-making. Cooperatives and farmers' associations generally make it possible for farmers to share the costs and rewards of services that they could not afford on their own. They can be an invaluable channel for obtaining technology, information, training and credit. They can also give smallholders a much louder voice in local and national decision-making. By instituting common food processing, storage and marketing activities, organizations can increase the exchange of goods and services and the access to national and regional markets. Participation in such organizations can be especially important to smallholders and poor farmers, both men and women. But women are frequently deterred from joining because membership is often restricted to recognized landowners or heads of household. Even when women are responsible for the day-to-day management of both households and holdings, their husbands or other male relatives are often considered the official heads. In many regions, women farmers' membership of these organizations is restricted by custom. Where they are able to belong to rural organizations, women often do not share equally in either the decision-making or the benefits, and are excluded from leadership positions. Furthermore, their many household chores may make it impossible for them to attend meetings and devote the time that is necessary for full participation. Investment in labour-saving technologies to relieve the burden of women's unpaid productive and reproductive tasks is needed in order to given them more free time. In recent years there has been some success in reducing the obstacles to women's participation in rural organizations. At the same time, the use and establishment of traditional and new women's groups to promote women's participation in rural development has grown rapidly. However, experience has shown that women's empowerment often requires a step-by-step process to remove the barriers to their membership in organizations that are traditionally dominated by men. Furthermore, it is necessary to give them support, individually or collectively, to enable them to gain the knowledge and self-confidence needed to make choices and take greater control of their lives. In all regions of the developing world, women typically work far longer hours than men do. Studies in Asia and Africa show that women work as much as 13 extra hours a week. As a result, they may have little available time to seek out support services, and very different priorities for the kind of support required. Overall, the agricultural research agenda has neglected the needs of smallholders, especially women farmers, and failed to take advantage of their invaluable knowledge about traditional farming methods, indigenous plant and animal varieties and coping techniques for local conditions. Such knowledge could hold the key to developing sustainable approaches that combine modern science with the fruits of centuries of experimentation and adaptation by men and women farmers. Most research has focused on increasing the yields of commercial crops and staple grains on high-input farms, where high-yielding varieties can be cultivated under optimal conditions. Smallholders can rarely afford these technology «packages», which are also generally ill suited to the climatic and soil conditions in areas where most of the rural poor live. The crops that farmers in such areas rely on and the conditions that they face have not featured prominently in agricultural research. Sorghum and millet, for example, have received very little research attention and funding, despite their high nutritional value and ability to tolerate difficult conditions. Similarly, relatively little research has been devoted to the secondary crops grown by women, which often provide most of their family's nutritional needs. In addition, agricultural tools and implements are also rarely designed to fit women's physical capabilities or work, so they do not meet women's needs. The impact of new technologies is seldom evaluated from a gender perspective. The introduction of harvesting, threshing and milling machinery, for example, has very little direct effect on yields but eliminates thousands of hours of paid labour. According to one study, if all the farmers in Punjab, India, who cultivate more than 4 ha were to use combine harvesters, they would lose more than 40 million paid working days, without any increase in farm production or cropping intensity. Most of the lost labour and income would be women's. «Schools where men and women farmers learn how to increase yields and reduce their reliance on pesticides by relying on natural predators.» Developing technology to meet women's specific needs can yield major gains in food production and food security. In Ghana, for example, technology was introduced to improve the irrigation of women's off-season crops. Larger and more reliable harvests increased both food and economic security during the periods between major crops. In El Salvador, where women play an extremely important role in agriculture, it is estimated that as many as 60 percent of households are headed by women. One of the major goals of this country's agriculture sector reform was to improve research and extension activities by focusing on the role of women smallholders. To address women farmers' needs, the project promoted women's participation to help guide the research programme at National Agricultural Technology Centre farms. Farmer field schools in Cambodia In fields across Cambodia, men and women farmers gather every week to go to school. They are among the 30 000 Cambodian farmers - more than one-third of them women - who have taken part in FAO-supported farmer field schools (FFS). In the schools, farmers observe how crops develop and monitor pests throughout the growing season. They also learn how natural predators, such as wasps and spiders, can help control pests and how the heavy use of pesticides often kills them off, leaving crops even more vulnerable. These schools emphasize the active participation and empowerment of both men and women farmers. In at least six provinces in Cambodia, farmers have formed integrated pest management (IPM) groups after completing their training, and are carrying out further field studies and experiments. More than 300 farmers have completed additional training and are now organizing farmer field schools in their own areas. «;I always knew pesticides were bad for my health,» one participant said, «but now I know for sure.» After completing the school, farmers rely more on cultural practices and natural enemies to control pests, and experience fewer cases of poisoning. Agricultural extension programmes provide farmers with a lifeline of information about new technologies, plant varieties and market opportunities. In almost all countries, however, the agricultural extension system fails to reach women farmers effectively. Among other reasons, this is because they are excluded from rural organizations. An FAO survey showed that, worldwide, female farmers receive only 5 percent of all agricultural extension services and only 15 percent of agricultural extension agents are women. In Egypt, where women make up more than half of the agricultural labour force, only 1 percent of extension officers are female. «An FAO extension project in Honduras that focused on woman-to-woman training boosted both subsistence production and household food security.» This reflects the lack of information and understanding about the important role played by women. Extension services usually focus on commercial rather than subsistence crops, which are grown mainly by women and which are often the key to household food security. Available data rarely reflect women's responsibility for much of the day-to-day work and decision-making on the family farm. Nor do they recognize the many other important food production and food processing activities that women commonly perform, such as home gardening, tending livestock, gathering fuel or carrying water. Extension programmes can be tailored to address women's priority needs only when men and women farmers are listened to at the village level and when such methods as participatory rural appraisal are employed. In recent years, a number of countries have launched determined efforts to make their extension services more responsive to women's needs. In the Gambia, for example, the proportion of female agricultural extension workers has increased from 5 percent in 1989 to more than 60 percent today. Growth in the number of female extension workers has been matched by increased attention to women's involvement and priorities. A special effort has been made to encourage women's participation in small ruminant and poultry extension services. In Nicaragua, efforts to ensure that extension services match client needs - including giving more attention to the diverse needs of men and women farmers - led to increased use of those services, by 600 percent for women and 400 percent for men. Extension programmes that fail to take women into account also fail to address the improved technology and methods that might yield major gains in productivity and food security. Furthermore, they often schedule training times and locations that make it impossible for women to participate, in addition to existing socio-cultural reasons. Recommended new approaches include the Strategic Extension Campaign (SEC), which was developed by FAO and introduced in Africa, the Near East, Asia and Latin America. This methodology emphasizes how important it is for field extension workers and small farmers to participate in the strategic planning, systematic management and field implementation of agricultural extension and training programmes. Its extension strategies and messages are specifically developed and tailored to the results of a participatory problem identification and needs assessment. Training Programme for Women's Incorporation in Rural Development Several hundred peasant women in Honduras were trained to serve as «food production liaisons». After receiving their training, the liaisons worked with grassroots women's groups. They focused on impoverished rural areas where chronic malnutrition is widespread and 70 percent of all breastfeeding mothers suffer from vitamin A deficiency. Women involved with the project increased the subsistence production of nutritious foods. Credits to develop poultry production proved an effective way of increasing motivation, nutritional levels and incomes. Some of the grassroots women's groups involved with the project sought credit through extension agencies or from the Rotating Fund for Peasant Women. The credit was used to initiate other social and productive projects, including purchasing a motorized maize mill and planting soybeans for milk.

Bali Climate conference has a message for rural community The world leaders recognised that 20% of the global emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) can be contained by forestation. The programme, Reducing Emissions From Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) aims to compensate the developing countries in the tropical region to maintain their forests and discourages deforestation. It allows developing countries to sell carbon offsets to rich countries in return for not burning their tropical forests from 2013. REDD initiative is the need of the hour when largescale deforestation is taking place across the world for urbanisation, oil palm, soyabean and bio-fuel crop plantation. The Bali conference also stressed upon the urgent need to cut carbon and methane emissions from tropical forests. The Bali conference also adopted a resolution on adaptation fund to help poor nations to cope with damage from climate change impact like droughts, extreme weather conditions or rising seas. The Adaptation Fund now comprises only about $36 million but might rise to $1-$5 billion a year by 2030, if investments in green technology in developing nations surges. The fund distinguished the responsibilities of the Global Environment Facility and the World Bank. The fund would have a 16-member board largely from developing countries and would start operating from 2008. Senior researchers of the United Nations Development Fund (UNDP) had urged the developed countries to urgently discuss adaptation funds as the key to solution of the problems. The Lead author of the recent UNDP report, Kevin Watkins said that as per estimate $86 billion annually. "The figure looks large, but actually it is only 0.2% of the rich countries GDP," he said and added that adaptation fund sourced from multilateral funding in the last two years was only $26 million—the amount spent by UK alone on flood control for a week. A group of small island communities led by Biotani Indonesia Foundation has urged that the adaptation fund should include a special corpus to cover their initiatives. The Bali conference succeeded in adopting a resolution on technology tranfer and also Its monitoring. It, however, failed address the vital issue of cut in GHG emissions and deferred it till 2009. It also postponed until next year any consideration of a plan to fund an untested technology which captures and buries the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, emitted from power plants that burn fossil fuels. It also failed to agree whether or not to allow companies to sell carbon offsets from destroying new production of powerful greenhouse gases called hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Benefiting factories have been the biggest winners under a UN scheme to reward companies which cut greenhouse gas emissions. Be the first to comment.

Catholic and Protestant reformers in the 16th century occasionally spoke scornfully of Anabaptists as "new monks," referring to Anabaptist insistence on holy living and intense spiritual life (e.g., TA Elsaß 1, 110-13). Anabaptists occasionally accepted the comparison (Klassen, William and Walter Klaassen, eds. and trans. The Writings of Pilgram Marpeck, Classics of the Radical Reformation, vol. 2. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1978: 217) but more frequently rejected it (Klassen & Klaassen: 215-16; Menno, Writings, 369, 401), in part because monks often came from the socially privileged classes. Several scholars have used monastic history as an aid to interpret Anabaptism (Troeltsch, Ritschl, Davis, Snyder, Martin). Many Anabaptists and Mennonites, beginning with the Hutterite chronicle, pointed to quasi-monastic sectarian medieval movements, especially Waldenses, as forerunners of Anabaptism (these theories are promulgated or discussed by Keller, Gratz, Verduin, Durnbaugh). One of the most extensive efforts to relate monasticism and Anabaptism drew on both monastic and quasi-monastic traditions (Davis). Most scholars have carefully limited their interpretations to pointing out "intellectual parallels" or general similarities; some have argued for direct continuity and influence. The crucial interpretive question revolves around the nature of monasticism: is it a nonconforming sectarian development critical of the institutional church (Workman) or an intensified institutional core of the ecclesiastical establishment? Or, did monasticism begin as a charismatic, lay, "sectarian" movement in the 4th century but become fully integrated into the sacramental, ecclesial, institutional church by the early Middle Ages (Rousseau, Martin)? How central the critical, separatist aspect of early monasticism is to monastic identity is disputed, even by those within the monastic community (Eoin de Bhaldraithe). Particularly significant in this regard is the distinction between contemplative monastic orders (Benedictine, Cistercian, Carthusian) and more lay-oriented, urban mendicant orders and houses of regular canons of the late Middle Ages (Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinian Friars, Praemonstratensians, Augustinian Canons). The latter orders were associated with the middle class and were visibly and pastorally active; the former were often but not always associated with the nobility and lived in secluded and rural areas. Most Anabaptist links to "monks" appear to have been with the mendicants and canons regular. Michael Sattler is the main exception to this generalization. Most interpreters agree that Anabaptists rejected the sacramental and institutional "culture-church" of the Middle Ages in favor of a voluntary, non-institutionalized, even anti-clerical church of the faithful few, in effect, reducing the church to a devout "monastic" core. At issue among scholars is whether the label "monastic" should properly be applied to a sectarian, pure church vision such as that held by Anabaptists, since most monks did not believe that the church was made up solely of monastics, rather, they believed that monks and nuns were part, perhaps the most important part, of the church. The qualities and virtues prized by Anabaptists and Mennonites (hospitality, humility, community, Gelassenheit, obedience, repentance, nonresistance, etc.) were also prime monastic virtues, although all medieval Catholics were exhorted to practice these same virtues. Significant parallels to monastic spirituality are found in the Mennonite period of post-Anabaptist history in which Anabaptist first-generation identity was transformed into a sacramental, ecclesial, institutional, cultural (ethnic) faith, even though Mennonites, Amish, and Hutterites avoided the language of sacramental and institutional Christianity (Cronk, Martin). During the 1980s growing Mennonite concern about the role of single adults in the church has not yet taken account of the traditional Christian monastic theology, with its implications for both marriage and singleness. Recent scholarship on monasticism emphasizes the social role of celibate communities, which enhanced the role of marriage while creating a sphere of activity for those remaining unmarried (Brown, Leclercq). Further research is needed in all these areas of Anabaptist and Mennonite history and culture. Cronk, Sandra. "Gelassenheit: The Rites of the Redemptive Process in the Old Order Amish and Old Order Mennonite Communities." PhD dissertation, U. of Chicago, 1977. See also Mennonite Quarterly Review 65 (1981): 5-44. For Ritschl, Gratz, Verduin, Keller, and others: see Davis, Kenneth R. Anabaptism and Asceticism: A Study in Intellectual Origins. Scottdale, 1974: 27-31. de Bhaldraithe, Eion. "Michael Sattler, Benedictine and Anabaptist." Downside Review 105 (April 1987): 111-131. Durnbaugh, Donald F. "Theories of Free Church Origins." Mennonite Quarterly Review 41 (1968): 83-95. Martin, Dennis D. "Monks, Mendicants and Anabaptists: Michael Sattler and the Benedictines Reconsidered." Mennonite Quarterly Review 60 (1986): 139-64. Reply by Snyder, C. Arnold. "Michael Sattler, Benedictine: Dennis Martin's Objections Reconsidered." Mennonite Quarterly Review 61 (1987): 251-79. Martin, Dennis D. "Catholic Spirituality and Mennonite Discipleship." Mennonite Quarterly Review 62 (1988): 5-25. Martin, Dennis D. "Nothing New under the Sun? Mennonites and History." Conrad Grebel Review 5 (1987): 1-27. Snyder, C. Arnold. "The Monastic Origins of Swiss Anabaptist Sectarianism." Mennonite Quarterly Review 57 (1983): 5-26. Snyder, C. Arnold. The Life and Thought of Michael Sattler. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1984. Troeltsch, Ernst. The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches. Translator: Olive Wyon. New York: Harper and Row, 1960: 239-46, 332-33. For general information on monastic history, see: Brown, Peter R. L. "The Notion of Virginity in the Early Church." Christian Spirituality: Origins to the 12th C. Editor:Bernard McGinn and John Meyendorff. New York: Crossroad (1985): 427-43. Gründler, Otto. "Devotio Moderna." Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation. Editor: Jill Raitt. New York: Crossroad (1987): 176-93. Knowles, David. Christian Monasticism. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969. Leclercq, Jean. Monks and Love in 12th-C. France. Oxford: Clarendon, 1979. Novak, Michael. "The Free Churches and the Roman Church." Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 2 (1965): 426-47. Rousseau, Phillip. Ascetics, Authority, and the Church in the Age of Jerome and Cassian. New York; Oxford, 1980. Workman, Herbert B. The Evolution of the Monastic Ideal from the Earliest Times to the Coming of the Friars. 2nd edition. London, 1927, reprinted with introduction by David Knowles. Boston: Beacon, 1962. Adapted by permission of Herald Press, Harrisonburg, Virginia, and Waterloo, Ontario, from Mennonite Encyclopedia, Vol. 5, pp. 601-602. All rights reserved. For information on ordering the encyclopedia visit the Herald Press website. ©1996-2013 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved. MLA style: Martin, Dennis D. "Monasticism." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1987. Web. 18 May 2013. http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/M653.html. APA style: Martin, Dennis D. (1987). Monasticism. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 18 May 2013, from http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/M653.html.

Historical Newspaper Archives Search Tips Newspaper Archives Last & First Name Search - Using both name search fields returns newspaper articles in which the surname is automatically "near2" the first name. - This means the newspaper archive search engine automatically finds occurrences of the first and last names within two words of each other. - This helps to find occurrences of middle names or initials in the newspaper articles, without having to enter or remember them. - The "near2" search command is not order specific—meaning your newspaper search will retrieve the person's name no matter in what order it is mentioned: the first name then last name or the last name then first name. - This search default is intended to bring you the most occurrences of the name you are searching for in the online newspaper archives. - However, if the person's name is popular, like Smith, try using some of the available search options such as location, date range, and keyword, in order to narrow your search to the specific Smith you are looking for (see below). Using Advanced Search in the Newspaper Archive Database - There are two keyword search boxes to narrow your search for newspaper articles: "Include keywords" box and "Exclude keywords" box (see below). - Use the Date search box to enter a specific date or date range of the newspaper content you want to search online. Using Keywords & Quotation Marks to Search Newspapers - All the searches for historical newspaper articles are full-text keyword searches against OCR-generated ASCII text. - By using the "Include keywords" box and/or "Exclude keywords" box, you can narrow or expand your online newspaper article search. - Put phrases in quotes like "John Adams" in the "Include" keyword box to limit the newspaper article search to that exact name—versus using the last/first name search that brings back results matching John near2 Adams. - If you find too many names in the newspaper archive search results, narrow your search even more by typing names or places you do NOT want in your search in the "Exclude" box. Using Boolean Operators to Search Newspaper Archives - Use AND, OR, ADJx (order specific), NEARx (order non-specific) and Wildcards, such as "?" and "*") Broaden or narrow newspaper search queries - by emptying filled-in fields to broaden your search, or filling in empty fields to narrow your search. Display newspaper search results in different ways, such as: - Best matches (this is the newspaper search default) - Oldest items (based on newspaper publication dates) - Newest items (based on newspaper publication dates) - Once changed, the selection will remain the default until you change it again. Search Newspapers by Date Range - If you know the date of the newspaper content you are seeking, then use the "Date" search box. - Enter a specific date or a date range—a variety of date formats are accepted. - Examples: June 2, 1804, or 1804 - 1849, or June 1804 - August 1949. Using Colonial English Variant Spellings to Search Old Newspapers - Many of the newspapers in the historical newspaper archives are very old, and the searches must deal with Colonial English. - The long "s" character was almost identical to the "f" in many texts. - When searching old newspaper articles on words containing the letter "s," use the "?" wildcard in place of the "s." - Note: this can occur whether it is the first letter, a letter within a word, or at the end of a word. - The double "s" is in words like Massachusetts needs to be replaced with two wildcards in historical newspaper searches. Examples of Searching for Old Newspaper Articles with Colonial English |Modern Spelling||Colonial Spellings||Suggested Search| - In addition, type was set by hand for early American newspapers and printers did not always have enough pieces of type to include all of the letters in a word. This resulted in letters being omitted, or sometimes letters that looked similar were used as substitutions. - Much of this historic newspaper material did not use standard spellings. - Examples of some conventions that were common in old newspapers: - Use of name variants - Smith or Smythe - Use of "e" in word endings - Chesapeake or Chesapeak - Dropping the letter "h" - Philadelphia or Philadelpia - Examples of irregular vowel usage: - clerk - cleark - color - colour - Delaware - Deleware - Elijah - Elifha - Israel - Ifreal - Ifral - Jehovah - Javovah - Examples of letter e to word endings - Brown - Browne - Chesapeake - Chefopeak or Chefopeake - Clark - Clarke - highways - highwayes - Examples of interchanging use of the letters "i" and "y" - adjoining - adjoyning - Pennsylvania - Pensilvania or Penfilvania - rails - rayls Colonial Newspaper Search Notes - If in doubt, use wildcards such as the question mark "?" or the asterisk "*" in your colonial newspaper search. - A question mark is a single-character wildcard and an asterisk multi-character (allows for up to 5 characters) wildcard.

A genome-wide association study appearing in PLOS Genetics that involved thousands of individuals of European ancestry identified five genetic loci that appear to be associated with facial features. Among them: variants in and around genes implicated in prior studies of conditions that are characterized by face and/or skull malformations. The researchers behind the study, members of the International Visible Trait Genetics, or VisiGen, Consortium, argue that the new findings could contribute to what's known about facial evolution and development in humans, while at once laying the foundation for forensic tools for predicting facial features based on DNA alone. For more on this study, see this story from our sister publication GenomeWeb Daily News. Investigators from the Cleveland Clinic and elsewhere used post-mortem brain samples to look at the epigenetic and transcriptional profiles associated with autism spectrum disorder. As they reported in PLOS One, the researchers relied on arrays and bisulfite sequencing to assess genome-wide gene expression and DNA methylation profiles in two brain regions — the cerebellar hemisphere cortex and the Brodmann area 19 occipital cortex — in samples from nine males with idiopathic cases of autism spectrum disorder and nine unaffected male controls in the same age range. Overall brain expression patterns varied from one individual with ASD to the next. But the team did uncover some shared features within the ASD samples, including lower-than-usual expression of genes in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and protein production pathways in the brain samples from individuals with autism and shifts in the expression of certain brain-related genes. A PLOS Pathogens study of dengue virus by French researchers explores the basis for the pronounced conservation that's been noted in nucleotides found at the ends of the virus' RNA-based genome. Using chemical synthesis experiments, assays, and other analyses, the group determined that the virus, a representative of the Flavivirus genus, relies on an RNA end-repair process that involves the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase produced by a dengue virus gene called NS5. "Our findings provide a direct demonstration of the implication of a viral RNA polymerase in the conservation and repair of genome ends," the study's authors wrote. "Other polymerases from other RNA virus families are likely to employ similar mechanisms."

In response to growing demand from western U.S. and Canadian outdoor fruit and berry producers, Biobest is developing a native western bumblebee for outdoor pollination. Bumblebees are important pollinators of many cultivated crops. By pollinating our fruits and vegetables, they not only help deliver our healthy meals, but are also vital to overall food security. Bumblebees have the edge when it comes to effective pollination. They produce their own heat, which in combination with their furry coats enables them to fly early in the season when it is still far too cold for honeybees and other insects. Unlike honeybees, they also buzz or shake flowers to collect pollen, which assures effective pollination. The use of bumblebees has allowed growers to produce higher-yielding, better-quality and safer crops. In food crops like greenhouse tomatoes, bumblebees have for many years successfully replaced physical pollination or chemicals previously used to induce fruit set. The demand for bumblebees to help guarantee crop yield has increased in recent years as honeybees and other natural pollinators have declined, but because native western species have not been available commercially, western U.S. and Canadian growers of field crops like berries, top fruit and canola have been at a disadvantage, unable to share in the many benefits these pollinators offer. Biobest recognizes the ecological and economic benefits of using native species for pollination. Having pioneered the use of bumblebees for crop pollination, Biobest has now developed a native western bumblebee species especially for the western U.S. and Canada. Biobest has been successful in rearing a range of native western bumblebee species, allowing them to select the right candidate for the western U.S. market. The company says that only the species that proves most successful in crop pollination will be launched for use in its native territory. Biobest expects to begin pollination trials in the spring of 2013. For more information:

Fire ants can present a real problem for home owners. Almost every yard in our area has fire ants. Although they do not cause damage to the turf or other plant material, they can inflict painful stings. When their mounds are disturbed, the ants become aggressive and will attack anything that disturbs their mounds. An unsuspecting victim can be quickly covered with ants. The stings are usually just irritating and painful. However, some people are highly allergic and can become very ill with just one sting. Fire ants were accidentally introduced into the United States from South America through the port of Mobile, Ala., in the 1930s and they arrived into Georgia in the 1950s. At present, the ants are present in all counties except for some in the mountains. Human activity has helped spread the ants through shipments of ant infested nursery stock, soil, sod or other such material. They do not do as well in colder climates, which have slowed their spread northward. States in the western part of the country are trying to control the spread of fire ants through inspections of incoming agricultural products from infested areas and quarantines. The total elimination of fire ants from an area is not feasible. However, temporary measures can be initiated to control fire ant infestations. But the controls must be used continuously or the ants will return. Many situations exist that do not require the treatment of fire ants, like areas were little or no human activity occurs. However, in high traffic areas, such as lawns and garden areas, control of fire ants is a must. Killing the queen is very important in controlling fire ants. The queen stays in the mound and continues to reproduce while other ants build the mound and forage for food to feed the colony. Killing the foraging ants without killing the queen will not destroy the mound. There are basically three methods of treating fire ants. The first way is to broadcast fire ant bait such as Amdro, Logic, and several other brands on and around the mound while the ants are foraging. The ants think the bait is food when it actually is a poison. It goes down to the queen and gets rid of the colony over time. The second method is to treat the individual mounds with an insecticide drench, such as acephate, carbaryl (Sevin) and several others. The mound drenches use a small amount of the active poison ingredient mixed with water and poured upon the mound. Some times the "two step" method is used. The fire ants are treated with bait broadcasted into the area and then, seven days later, the mounds are drenched with the appropriate insecticide. A third method is broadcast applications of granular insecticides. The products are not baits. The products, such as fipronil (Over 'n Out, Chipco, TopChoice), can reduce the fire ant population substantially over time. However, these products only work where they have been directly applied to. Remember, when using chemical pesticides follow all label directions and safety precautions. One home method is to use boiling hot water. A couple of applications can kill a fire ant mound. However, each mound has to be treated individually and there is the risk of the applicator being scalded by the water. Never use gasoline to try to burn mounds. Besides the risk of setting yourself and the surrounding property on fire, the gasoline will kill the turf and can sterilize the soil. Some "home made remedies" such as grits, are totally useless in controlling fire ants. Fire ants are a big problem and will continue to be so. But they can be brought under controlled and should in areas of high usage due to their potential danger to human health. Timothy Daly is an agricultural and natural resource agent with the Gwinnett County Extension Service. He can be reached at 678-377-4010 or [email protected].

Schopf, J. William Adult Nonfiction QH325 .S384 1999 Summary: One of the greatest mysteries in reconstructing the history of life on Earth has been the apparent absence of fossils dating back more than 550 million years. We have long known that fossils of sophisticated marine life-forms existed at the dawn of the Cambrian Period, but until recently scientists had found no traces of Precambrian fossils. The quest to find such traces began in earnest in the mid-1960s and culminated in one dramatic moment in 1993 when William Schopf identified fossilized microorganisms three and a half "billion years old. This startling find opened up a vast period of time--some eighty-five percent of Earth's history--to new research and new ideas about life's beginnings. In this book, William Schopf, a pioneer of modern paleobiology, tells for the first time the exciting and fascinating story of the origins and earliest evolution of life and how that story has been unearthed. Gracefully blending his personal story of discovery with the basics needed to understand the astonishing science he describes, Schopf has produced an introduction to paleobiology for the interested reader as well as a primer for beginning s Question about returns, requests or other account details? Add a Comment

Many things can trigger depression. It is common during life changes such as adolescence, marriage, birth and menopause. It can be a consequence of your upbringing - such as whether or not you were taught effective coping skills as a child. There is a genetic component to depression, and influences such as diet, stress and illness also play a part. Being depressed can make you feel out of control and helpless, yet there are many ways to avoid falling into depression. * Examine your diet. What you eat - or don’t eat - can influence your mood. The same diets that can cause heart disease and arthritis in some individuals - one that is high in sodium and saturated fat, and low in whole, fresh plant foods and unrefined essential fatty acids (EFAs) - can cause depression in others. Likewise, food allergies can also alter brain function and trigger depression (Biol Psychiatry, 1981; 16: 3-19). Wheat, milk, corn, beef and eggs are common culprits (Ann Allergy, 1982; 48: 166-71). But bear in mind that food allergies linked to depression often have an addictive quality - so whatever you eat compulsively may be contributing to the problem. * Psychotherapy is as effective as drugs. Cognitive behavioural therapy can help those at risk of depression to become more conscious of negative thoughts and attitudes that feed into their depressions. Patients undergoing such therapy can learn to change (or at least mitigate) these unhelpful tendencies (J Consult Clin Psychol, 1989; 57: 414-9). * Drug-induced depression is very common. Around 200 different classes of drugs have been implicated, including beta-blockers, tranquillisers, corticosteroids and birth-control pills, as well as alcohol and recreational drugs. If you think you may be reacting to a drug, consider switching to another family of drugs or trying other options. * Environmental pollutants such as heavy metals, petrochemicals, pesticides and other toxins can disrupt the nervous system and lead to mild, but chronic, mood disorders, including depression (Med Clin North Am, 1990; 74: 325-45). Similarly, exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs), especially at work (West J Med, 2000; 173: 94-100) can lead to more depression and suicide in some vulnerable individuals (Bioelectromagnetics, 2001; [Suppl 5]: S132-43). * St John’s wort is the most effective herbal remedy for mild depression because it works in a similar way to conventional antidepressants. A standardised extract (0.03 per cent hypericin) usually at a dose of 300 mg three times a day can be just as effective as antidepressant drugs (BMJ, 1996; 313: 253-8). What’s more, the side-effects are minimal. * Traditional acupuncture can be as good as conventional drugs for preventing relapses in depression (Compl Ther Med, 2001; 9: 216-8). * Electroacupuncture can benefit those suffering from major depression who cannot tolerate the side-effects of antidepressant drugs (Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 1998; 52 [Suppl]: S338-40). * Stay active. People who exercise regularly have less depression (Prev Med, 2003; 36: 698- 703). Typically, any aerobic exercise, such as walking or jogging, for 20-30 minutes three or four times a week will benefit mild-to-moderate depression (BMJ, 1985; 291: 109). * Acknowledge your feelings. Depressed individuals often try to suppress their ‘bad’ feelings, especially those concerning distressing life experiences. ‘Confessing’ your most troubling feelings and experiences in a private diary can have significant long-term benefits on both mental and physical health (J Abnorm Psychol, 1986; 95: 274-81; J Consult Clin Psychol, 1989; 57: 414-9). * Get a good night’s sleep. Since depression and lack of sleep can form a vicious circle, make sure you sleep well. Stick to regular bedtimes; having curtains that keep the light out will help regulate night-time melatonin secretion; and don’t exercise or take stimulants such as coffee or alcohol before going to bed.

Learning is the means whereby we acquire new working knowledge about the world. Memory is the means whereby we retain that knowledge over time. Our abilities to learn and remember are essential to our sense of self and our ability to function effectively in daily life. Memory is the glue that holds our mental life together. As a result, we are who we are in large part because of what we have learned and what we remember from past experience. But what is memory? How does the brain capture and sustain it? Why does memory sometimes fail us? Those simple questions, of course, have exceedingly complex answers, and many biological details about the process of memory in humans and other animals remain unknown. HHMI investigator Eric R. Kandel of Columbia University, however, has provided a good start. His studies of the molecular basis of learning and memory underpin much of what we know about how events are recorded by the brain, processed by individual nerve cells, and etched in gray matter. For his work on learning and memory, Kandel was awarded a share of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In the 1960s, Kandel began his studies of learning and memory by focusing on the behavior of the sea slug Aplysia, which he found to be a marvelously tractable system in which to study the cellular basis of these abilities. With only about 20,000 nerve cells — compared with the roughly thousand billion in humans — and a well-delineated neural circuitry, it proved possible to zero in on a biologically interesting reflex pathway. Like humans and other animals, Aplysia is capable of learning to modify this reflex, and this learning involves making memories. Kandel found that the cellular basis for memory depends on persistent changes in synapses, the connections between nerve cells. The differences in the strength of these connections come about through learning. Kandel found that when, in the simple withdrawal reflex, the gill reacts to touch, the connection between the sensory nerve cell and motor nerve cell of the reflex are activated. When the sea slug was taught to ignore a harmless touch, the connections between the sensory nerve cell and motor cell weakened. When the same light touch was coupled to an unpleasant fearful stimulus the animal became sensitized. It would now react strongly to the light touch because the same set of connections had strengthened. Kandel later discovered that short-term memory is kindled by the modulation of synapses and that long-term memory is sustained by the activation of genes. The formation of memories, Kandel determined, is a function of biochemical changes that occur at the synapse. To make short-term memories, the proteins involved in a chain of events at the nexus of nerve cells are chemically altered by the addition of phosphate groups. To cement a memory for the long haul, proteins are added at the synapse to make new connections with sensitization and lose connections with habituation. In the 1990s, he turned from studying simple forms of learning to more complex forms using genetically modified mice and showed that similar principles for short and long term memory were at work here as well. By laying a foundation for understanding the events that shape our ability to learn and remember, Kandel's work has helped us understand not only the cellular processes that occur during the acts of learning and remembering, but also - through his work on mice - where things can go wrong when dementia and other illnesses that affect memory arise. The cellular processes revealed by Kandel are among the targets of drugs used to alleviate these disorders of memory. Pinpointing the activity of individual nerve cells engaged in the process of learning and memory may help in the development of new, more effective agents to treat diseases that affect the brain. Photo: Matthew Septimus

Take a look at this snapshot from Health Canada's website fact sheet entitled Healthy Lawn Tips. - Although it may look untidy, leave grass clippings on your lawn when you mow it to provide nutrient recycling. - Aerate compacted soil in the fall to help oxygen, water and nutrients reach roots. - Over-seed patchy areas. - In heavy traffic areas, replace grass with mulch or paving stones. - Check your lawn for early signs of pests and other problems such as holes caused by small animals digging for insects. - Set your mower so that your grass is seven to eight cm high to encourage deeper roots and help fend off weeds. - Water infrequently, but when you do, make sure you allow the water to get deep into the soil (about 1.5 centimetres) to promote deep roots. Over-watering starves the soil of oxygen and invites disease. Apply at least 2.5 centimetres of water. Put a container on your lawn to measure how much you've watered. An empty tuna can is about the right height. - Maintain good soil with ample depth and organic matter to prevent problems. - If physical control methods fail and you use a pesticide, be sure the one you pick lists the pest you are trying to control on the label, and follow all the instructions. More information is available online at www.healthcanada.gc.ca/pmra. Fact sheets include Starting a Lawn, Lawn Maintenance, Life of a Lawn and Common Lawn Problems.

Healthy Eating Plate Harvard’s New Guide to Healthy Eating Start here to learn more about the new Healthy Eating Plate created by nutrition experts at Harvard School of Public Health, in conjunction with Harvard Health Publications. The Healthy Eating Plate can be your blueprint for planning a healthy balanced meal, and it fixes key flaws in the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s MyPlate. How can you follow the Healthy Eating Plate? Here’s a rundown, section by section: - Fill half of your plate with vegetables and fruits. The more color, and the more variety on this part of the plate, the better. Potatoes and French fries don’t count as vegetables on the Healthy Eating Plate, because they are high in fast-digested starch (carbohydrate), which has the same roller-coaster effect on blood sugar and insulin as white bread and sweets. These surges, in the short term, can lead to hunger and overeating, and in the long term, can lead to weight gain, type 2 diabetes, and other health problems. Read more about vegetables and fruits, or read more about carbohydrates and health. - Save a quarter of your plate for whole grains—not just any grains: Whole grains—whole wheat, brown rice, and foods made with them, such as whole wheat pasta—have a gentler effect on blood sugar and insulin than white bread, white rice, and other so-called “refined grains.” That’s why the Healthy Eating Plate says to choose whole grains—the less processed, the better—and limit refined grains. Read more about whole grains. - Put a healthy source of protein on one quarter of your plate: Chose fish, chicken, beans or nuts, since these contain beneficial nutrients, such as the heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids in fish, and the fiber in beans. An egg a day is okay for most people, too (people with diabetes should limit their egg intake to three yolks a week, but egg whites are fine). Limit red meat—beef, pork, and lamb—and avoid processed meats—bacon, cold cuts, hot dogs, and the like—since over time, regularly eating even small amounts of these foods raises the risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and colon cancer. Read more about healthy proteins. - Use healthy plant oils. The glass bottle near the Healthy Eating Plate is a reminder to use healthy vegetable oils, like olive, canola, soy, corn, sunflower, peanut, and others, in cooking, on salad, and at the table. Limit butter, and avoid unhealthy trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils. Read more about healthy fats. - Drink water, coffee or tea. On the Healthy Eating Plate, complete your meal with a glass of water, or if you like, a cup of tea or coffee (with little or no sugar). (Questions about caffeine and kids? Read more.) Limit milk and dairy products to one to two servings per day, since high intakes are associated with increased risk of prostate cancer and possibly ovarian cancer. Limit juice to a small glass per day, since it is as high in sugar as a sugary soda. Skip the sugary drinks, since they provide lots of calories and virtually no other nutrients. And over time, routinely drinking sugary drinks can lead to weight gain, increase the risk of type 2 diabetes, and possibly increase the risk of heart disease. Read more about healthy drinks, or read more about calcium, milk, and health. - Stay active. The small red figure running across the Healthy Eating Plate’s placemat is a reminder that staying active is half of the secret to weight control. The other half is eating a healthy diet with modest portions that meet your calorie needs. Read 20 tips for staying active. Comparing the Harvard Healthy Eating Plate to the USDA’s MyPlate shows the shortcomings of MyPlate. Read a head-to-head comparison of the Healthy Eating Plate vs. the USDA’s MyPlate. You can use the Healthy Eating Plate side by side with the Healthy Eating Pyramid, a simple and trustworthy guide to healthy eating created by faculty in the Department of Nutrition at Harvard School of Public Health. Read an in-depth article about the Healthy Eating Plate and the Healthy Eating Pyramid. Or read answers to common questions about the Healthy Eating Plate. Download the Healthy Eating Plate The Healthy Eating Plate image on this Web site is owned by the Harvard University. It may be downloaded and used without permission for educational and other non-commercial uses with proper attribution, including the following copyright notification and credit line: Copyright © 2011, Harvard University. For more information about The Healthy Eating Plate, please see The Nutrition Source, Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, www.thenutritionsource.org, and Harvard Health Publications, health.harvard.edu. Any other use, including commercial reuse or mounting on other systems, requires permission from the Department of Nutrition at Harvard School of Public Health. To request permission, please contact us using the Healthy Eating Plate reprint request form on this Web site. The aim of the Harvard School of Public Health Nutrition Source is to provide timely information on diet and nutrition for clinicians, allied health professionals, and the public. The contents of this Web site are not intended to offer personal medical advice. You should seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this Web site. The information does not mention brand names, nor does it endorse any particular products.

American PoetryIf we define poetry as the heart of man expressed in beautiful language, we shall not say that we have no national poetry. True, America has produced no Shakespeare and no Milton, but we have an inheritance in all English literature; and many poets in America have followed in the footsteps of their literary British forefathers. Puritan life was severe. It was warfare, and manual labor of a most exhausting type, and loneliness, and devotion to a strict sense of duty. It was a life in which pleasure was given the least place and duty the greatest. Our Puritan ancestors thought music and poetry dangerous, if not actually sinful, because they made men think of this world rather than of heaven. When Anne Bradstreet wrote our first known American poems, she was expressing English thought; "The tenth muse" was not animated by the life around her, but was living in a dream of the land she had left behind; her poems are faint echoes of the poetry of England. After time had identified her with life in the new world, she wrote "Contemplations," in which her English nightingales are changed to crickets and her English gilli-flowers to American blackberry vines. The truly representative poetry of colonial times is Michael Wigglesworth's "Day of Doom. This is the real heart of the Puritan, his conscience, in imperfect rhyme. It fulfills the first part of our definition, but shows by its lack of beautiful style that both elements are necessary to produce real poetry. Philip Freneau was the first American who sought to express his life in poetry. The test of beauty of language again excludes from real poetry some of his expressions and leaves us a few beautiful lyrics, such as "The Wild Honeysuckle," in which the poet sings his love of American nature. With them American poetry may be said to begin. The first historical event of national importance was the American Revolution. Amid the bitter years of want, of suffering, and of war; few men tried to write anything beautiful. Life was harsh and stirring and this note was echoed in all the literature. As a result we have narrative and political poetry, such as "The Battle of the Kegs" and "A Fable," dealing almost entirely with events and aiming to arouse military ardor. In "The Ballad of Nathan Hale," the musical expression of bravery, pride, and sympathy raises the poem so far above the rhymes of their period that it will long endure as the most memorable poetic expression of the Revolutionary period. Poetry was still a thing of the moment, an avocation, not dignified by receiving the best of a man. With William Cullen Bryant came a change. He told our nation that in the new world as well as in the old some men should live for the beautiful. Everything in nature spoke to him in terms of human life. Other poets saw the re1ation between their own lives and the life of the flowers and the birds, but Bryant constantly expressed this relationship. The concluding stanza of "To a Waterfowl" is the most perfect example of this characteristic, but it underlies also the whole thought of his youthful poem "Thanatopsis" (A View of Death). If we could all read the lives of our gentians and bobolinks as he did, there would be more true poetry in America. Modern thinkers urge us to step outside of ourselves into the lives of others and by our imagination to share their emotions; this is no new ambition in America; since Bryant in "The Crowded Street" analyzes the life in the faces he sees. Until the early part of the nineteenth century American poetry dealt mainly with the facts of history and the description of nature. A new element of fancy is prominent in Joseph Rodman Drake's "The Culprit Fay." It dances through a long narrative with the delicacy of the fay himself. Edgar Allan Poe brought into our poetry somber sentiment and musical expression. Puritan poetry was somber, but it was almost devoid of sentiment. Poe loved sad beauty and meditated on the sad things in life. Many of his poems lament the loss of some fair one. "To Helen," "Annabel Lee" "Lenore," and "To One In Paradise" have the theme, while in "The Raven" the poet is seeking solace for the loss of Lenore. "Eulalie--A Song" rises, on the other hand to intense happiness. With Poe the sound by which his idea was expressed was as important as the thought itself. He knew how to make the sound suit the thought, as in "The Raven" and "The Bells." One who understands no English can grasp the meaning of the different sections from the mere sound, so clearly distinguishable are the clashing of the brass and the tolling of the iron bells. If we return to our definition of poetry as an expression of the heart of a man, we shall find the explanation of these peculiarities: Poe was a man of moods and possessed the ability to express these moods in appropriate The contrast between the emotion of Poe and the calm spirit of the man who followed him is very great. In Henry Wadsworth Longfellow American poetry reached high-water mark. Lacadio Hearn in his "Interpretations of Literature" says: "Really I believe that it is a very good test of any Englishman's ability to feel poetry, simply to ask him, `Did you like Longfellow when you were a boy?' If he says `No,' then it is no use to talk to him on the subject of poetry at all, however much he might be able to tell you about quantities and metres." No American has in equal degree won the name of "household poet." If this term is correctly understood, it sums up his merits more succinctly than can any other Longfellow dealt largely with men and women and the emotions common to us all. Hiawatha conquering the deer and bison, and hunting in despair for food where only snow and ice abound; Evangeline faithful to her father and her lover, and relieving suffering in the rude hospitals of a new world; John Alden fighting the battle between love and duty; Robert of Sicily learning the lesson of humility; Sir Federigo offering his last possession to the woman he loved; Paul Revere serving his country in time of need; the monk proving that only a sense of duty done can bring happiness: all these and more express the emotions which we know are true in our own lives. In his longer narrative poems he makes the legends of Puritan life real to us; he takes English folk-lore and makes us see Othere talking to Arthur, and the Viking stealing his bride. His short poems are even better known than his longer narratives. In them he expressed his gentle, sincere love of the young, the suffering, and the sorrowful. In the Sonnets he showed; that deep appreciation of European literature which made noteworthy his teaching at Harvard and his He believed that he was assigned a definite task in the world which he described as follows in his last poem: "As comes the smile to the lips, The foam to the surge; So come to the Poet his songs, All hitherward blown From the misty realm, that belongs To the vast unknown. His, and not his, are the lays He sings; and their fame Is his, and not his; and the praise And the pride of a name. For voices pursue him by day And haunt him by night, And he listens and needs must obey, When the Angel says: 'Write!' John Greenleaf Whittier seems to suffer by coming in such close proximity to Longfellow. Genuine he was, but his spirit was less buoyant than Longfellow's and he touches our hearts less. Most of his early poems were devoted to a current political issue. They aimed to win converts to the cause of anti-slavery. Such poems always suffer in time in comparison with the song of a man who sings because "the heart is so full that a drop overfills it." Whittier's later poems belong more to this class and some of them speak to-day to our emotions as well as to our intellects. "The Hero" moves us with a desire to serve mankind, and the stirring tone of "Barbara Frietchie" arouses our patriotism by its picture of the same type of bravery. In similar vein is "Barclay of Ury," which must have touched deeply the heart of the Quaker poet. "The Pipes of Lucknow" is dramatic in its intense grasp of a climactic hour and loses none of its force in the expression. We can actually hear the skirl of the bagpipes. Whittier knew the artists of the world and talked to us about Raphael and Burns with clear-sighted, affectionate interest. His poems show varied characteristics; the love of the sterner aspects of nature, modified by the appreciation of the humble flower; the conscience of the Puritan, tinged with sympathy for the sorrowful; the steadfastness of the Quaker, stirred by the fire of the patriot. The poetry of Ralph Waldo Emerson is marked by serious contemplation rather than by warmth of emotional expression. In Longfellow the appeal is constantly to a heart which is not disassociated from a brain; in Emerson the appeal is often to the intellect alone. We recognize the force of the lesson in "The Titmouse," even if it leaves us less devoted citizens than does "The Hero" and less capable women than does "Evangeline." He reaches his highest excellence when he makes us feel as well as understand a lesson, as in "The Concord Hymn" and "Forbearance." If we could all write on the tablets of our hearts that single stanza, forbearance would be a real factor in life. And it is to this poet whom we call unemotional that we owe this inspiring quatrain: "So nigh is grandeur to our dust, So near is God to man, When duty whispers low, Thou must, The youth replies, I can!" James Russell Lowell was animated by a well-defined purpose which he described in the following lines: "It may be glorious to write Thoughts that make glad the two or three High souls like those far stars that come in sight Once in a century. But better far it is to speak One simple word which, now and then Shall waken their free nature in the weak And friendless sons of men. To write some earnest verse or line Which, seeking not the praise of art, Shall make a clearer faith and manhood shine In the untutored heart." His very accomplishments made it difficult for him to reach this aim, since his poetry does not move "the untutored heart" so readily as does that of Longfellow or Whittier. It is, on the whole, too deeply burdened with learning and too individual in expression to fulfil his highest desire. Of his early poems the most generally known is probably "The Vision of Sir Launfal," in which a strong moral purpose is combined with lines of beautiful nature description: "And what is so rare as a day in June? Then, if ever, come perfect days. Two works by which he will be permanently remembered show a deeper and more effective Lowell. "The Biglow Papers" are the most successful of all the American poems which attempt to improve conditions by means of humor. Although they refer in the main to the situation at the time of the Mexican War, they deal with such universal political traits that they may be applied to almost any age. They are written in a Yankee dialect which, it is asserted, was never spoken, but which enhances the humor, as in "What Mr. Robinson Thinks." Lowell's tribute to Lincoln occurs in the Ode which he wrote to commemorate the Harvard students who enlisted in the Civil War. After dwelling on the search for truth which should be the aim of every college student, he turns to the delineation of Lincoln's character in a eulogy of great beauty. Clear in analysis, far- sighted in judgment, and loving in sentiment, he expresses that opinion of Lincoln which has become a part of the web of American thought. His is no hurried judgment, but the calm statement of opinion which is to-day accepted by the world: "They all are gone, and, standing like a tower, Our children shall behold his fame, The kindly-earnest, brave, foreseeing man, Sagacious, patient, dreading, praise, not blame, Now birth of our new soil, the first American." With Oliver Wendell Holmes comes the last of this brief American list of honor. No other American has so combined delicacy with the New England humor. We should be poorer by many a smile without "My Aunt" and "The Deacon's Masterpiece." But this is not his entire gift. "The Chambered Nautilus" strikes the chord of noble sentiment sounded in the last stanza of "Thanatopsis" and it will continue to sing in our hearts "As the swift seasons roll." There is in his poems the smile and the sigh of the well- "And if I should live to be The last leaf upon the tree In the Spring. Let them smile; as I do now; As the old forsaken bough Where I cling." And is this all? Around these few names does all the fragrance of American poetry hover? In the hurry, prosperity, and luxury of modern life is the care if the flower of poetry lost? Surely not. The last half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth have brought many beautiful flowers of poetry and hints of more perfect blossoms. Lanier has sung of the life of the south he loved; Whitman and Miller have stirred us with enthusiasm for the progress of the nation; Field and Riley have made us laugh and cry in sympathy; Aldrich, Sill, Van Dyke, Burroughs, and Thoreau have shared with us their hoard of beauty. Among the present generation may there appear many men and women whose devotion to the delicate flower shall be repaid by the gratitude of Contributed by Carhart, Margaret Spraque 22 June 2003

The Matter at Issue: The Throne of France The Hundred Years War was fought largely over who would be the king of France. The English kings, who had originally been French nobles that invaded and conquered England in 1066, still held lands in France. The English lands in France had long been viewed uncomfortably by the French king. Through the 13th century, strong French kings had reclaimed French lands held by the English kings. By the early 14th century, three events came together. First, the English kings noted that one more push by the French would deive the English completely out of France. Second, the French were entering a period of weak kings. Third, the English throne was now occupied by the young, vigorous, able and (ultimately) long lived Edward III. In any other circumstances it would appear absurd for the English king to come up with the idea of claiming the French throne in order to protect English lands in France. But Edward III was bold and, in one of those uniquely Medieval ironies, he had law and custom on his side. The English claim to the French throne was strong, as were the English armies and Edward IIIs resolve. The resulting war outlived Edward, and his great grandson, Henry V, came within a hair of actually taking the French throne. The items below explain the situation in rather more detail. Historical Kings of France Historical Kings of England The English Position of the Throne of France The French Ultimatum A Summary of Overlapping Claims to Various Thrones

In fact, the United States apparently just emerged from the hottest spring on record. The period between June 2011 and May of this year was the warmest on record since NOAA record keeping began in 1985. Aside from Washington, every state experienced higher-than-average temperatures during that period, which also featured the second-warmest summer and fourth-warmest winter in almost 28 years. The nation's average temperature during those 12 months hovered at 56 degrees Fahrenheit, reportedly 3.2 degrees above the long-term average, surpassing the previous record, which was just set in April, in an analysis of temperatures between May 2011 and April 2012. The warmer-than-average conditions persisted through the winter and spring, resulting in a limited snowfall that the Rutgers Global Snow Lab reports was the third-smallest on record for the contiguous U.S. The rising temperatures may have altered precipitation patterns as well, according to NOAA. While the country as a whole actually experienced a drier spring than usual, the West Coast, Northern Plains and Upper Midwest regions were simultaneously wetter than average. On a more concerning note, the prevalence of natural disasters, such as the disastrous tornado in Joplin, Mo., and the massive, hurricane-caused flooding in Vermont, that plagued the country over the past year were also far form usual. The U.S. Climate Extreme Index, which tracks extremes in temperatures, precipitation, drought and tropical cyclones, reached 44 percent this past spring. That's twice the average value. The NOAA report is not the only recent analysis to note the prevalence, and consequences, of rising temperatures. On Thursday, NASA reported that scientists have discovered unprecedented blooms of plant life beneath the waters of the Arctic Ocean. While that certainly does not seem like cause for concern, NASA noted it was likely caused by a thinning of the Arctic Ocean's three-foot thick layer of ice, allowing the sun to penetrate that ice to foster plant life under the sea. A continuous rise in summer temperatures is expected to triple the number of heat-related deaths in the U.S. by the end of the century, the Natural Resources Defense Council reported last month. In an analysis of peer-reviewed data, the organization said summer temperatures could rise by 4 to 11 degrees Fahrenheit by that time due to human-induced climate change, which could increase the number of summer heat-related deaths from 1,300 to 4,600 a year.

Education:Gala Celebrations 4 Telecommunications Grade 9 / World History / Technology Time Required for Completed Lesson 30 minutes for introduction and 40 minutes for presentations, time will vary based on size of class; work can be completed in class or out of class 6.2.12.C.1.e, 6.2.12.D.2.e, 6.2.12.C.3.d, 6.2.12.C.4.d, 6.2.12.D.5.c, 6.2.12.D.6.a Common Core State Standards SL.9-10.4. Present information, findings, and supporting evidence clearly, concisely, and logically such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning and the organization, development, substance, and style are appropriate to purpose, audience, and task. SL.9-10.5. Make strategic use of digital media (e.g., textual, graphical, audio, visual, and interactive elements) in presentations to enhance understanding of findings, reasoning, and evidence and to add interest. SL.9-10.6. Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and tasks, demonstrating command of formal English when indicated or appropriate. Computer lab or laptop cart if working on assignment in class; lap top with projector required for presentations Open class with a discussion about telecommunications and celebrations. How do people communication? How has communication changed? How do we celebrate milestones in our lives – births, marriages, birthdays? Share with students article - Happy Anniversary: First email Sent with an Attachment Turns 20! (See resources below for link) Brainstorm with class a celebration honoring this telecommunications milestone. Divide classes into small groups – 2 or 3 students in each group. Groups can be assigned telecommunications milestones or pick their own milestone. Each group should have a different milestone. Milestones can included Gutenberg’s improved Printing Press, the Optical Telegraph, the American Postal Service, the Pony Express, the Stagecoach, the Telegraph, Morse Code, the Telephone, the Radio, the Electronic Television, the Internet, Pagers, Cellular Devices, Social Media Websites, and E-mail. The student groups will work as party planners. Their task is to plan and present a Gala Celebration honoring their telecommunications milestone. The plan can be presented in a PowerPoint or Prezi format. The plan must include the following: a meaningful date and location for the celebration, an invitation, decorations, guest list (of living and deceased dignitaries), basic menu, entertainment and party favors. Student groups are given two weeks to complete their presentations. (See resources section below for links) Be sure to pair students with a higher level learner to help her/him with activity. Be prepared to share additional notes with students and if necessary extend due dates. Group Project and Presentation Rubrics Language Arts (presentation skills, research skills) Review and return rubrics to students. Decorate the classroom or bulletin boards with printed invitations for the Gala Celebrations.

What Is It? Varicose veins occur when veins just below the skin's surface are damaged, become swollen and fill with too much blood. Veins are the blood vessels that return blood to the heart. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. Varicose veins most commonly occur in the legs. In about 50% of cases, the condition runs in families, and probably is related to an inherited weakness in the veins' walls or the valves inside veins that keep blood from backing up. Pregnancy is another common cause of varicose veins. During pregnancy, the volume of blood increases causing veins to expand. Also, occupations that require uninterrupted standing (waitresses and waiters, nurses, mothers with young children) may force leg veins and valves to work against gravity for hours, increasing the risk of pressure-related vein and valve damage. Garters also can increase the risk of varicose veins if their tight elastics slow blood flow in the legs. Varicose veins are 2 to 3 times more common in women than men. Obese people are more likely to develop varicose veins. Varicose veins can be associated with prior blood clots and damage to the deeper veins in one or both legs, a situation that sometimes can lead to chronic venous insufficiency. When this happens, the veins lose their ability to effectively move blood back to the heart. This can cause significant leg swelling and skin sores or ulcers. In the legs, varicose veins commonly are found along the inside of the leg, at the ankles and at the back of the calf. The affected veins look blue, swollen or stretched out, kinked or twisted. In some people, varicose veins do not cause any symptoms. However, other people may experience one or more of the following: - A dull ache in the legs - A feeling of pressure or heaviness in the legs - Swollen feet and ankles - Itching skin near the damaged veins In more severe cases of chronic venous insufficiency, a slowing of blood flow through the vein can lead to localized skin changes, including dryness, a rash or brownish discoloration and open sores (ulcers). Slow blood flow also can cause a clot to form inside the affected vein. This condition is called thrombosis. In general, symptoms of varicose veins are worse at the end of the day, especially after periods of prolonged standing. Some women also find that their symptoms are more intense during the days before their menstrual periods, and during pregnancy. Your doctor will ask you about your symptoms and about your family history of varicose veins. He or she also will ask about your lifestyle, especially the number of hours that you spend on your feet. In women, your doctor will ask about your pregnancy history and about the tightness of elastics on the socks or stockings you wear. Your doctor can diagnose varicose veins with a simple physical examination. In most cases, no special tests are necessary. Varicose veins are a long-term problem, but symptoms can come and go. If you are pregnant and experiencing severe problems with varicose veins, your symptoms will improve after delivery. However, your varicose veins probably will not disappear totally, and you can expect symptoms to return during future pregnancies. You can help to prevent varicose veins by maintaining a normal weight and by avoiding situations where you must stand for prolonged periods. Even with these preventive measures, however, you still may develop varicose veins if this condition tends to run in your family. If you already have varicose veins, you can prevent symptom flare-ups by periodically lying down or sitting down with your legs elevated above the level of your chest. Some physicians also recommend that you wear support stockings or more specialized compression stockings when you walk or stand for long periods of time. The stockings prevent blood from pooling in the veins, and prevent strain on the valves and leg swelling. Treatment for most people with mild symptoms of varicose veins includes: - Elevating and supporting the legs periodically throughout the day - Wearing compression stockings For varicose veins that are close to the skin, dermatologists or vascular surgeons may offer sclerotherapy or laser therapy. Sclerotherapy involves injection of an irritating into the affected vein, causing the vein to scar and shut down. Laser therapy can be effective for the smallest varicose veins. People with severe venous insufficiency can develop recurrent blood clots and skin ulcers. The traditional surgery is called vein stripping and ligation. In this surgical procedure, the abnormal veins are tied off and pulled out of the body through series of small cuts in the skin. Another surgical procedure, called ambulatory phlebectomy, also removes veins through small skin incisions, but it is less invasive than classic stripping and ligation. Newer therapies include endovenous thermal ablation and transilluminated power phlebotomy (a modified form of ambulatory phlebotomy). Endovenous thermal ablation uses laser or high-frequency radio waves to heat the abnormal veins. These newer procedures appear to cause less scarring, with less "down time." External laser therapy is reserved primarily for cosmetic removal of small, superficial, spider-like veins. When to Call a Professional Call your doctor whenever you have pain, swelling, skin ulcers or an unexplained area of bruising on your legs. New leg swelling, especially in just one leg, can be caused by a blood clot, which requires immediate treatment. If you have varicose veins, call your doctor immediately if you develop an ulcer or a painful, black and blue area near a varicose vein or if you cut the skin over a varicose vein and you have trouble controlling the bleeding. Varicose veins are a long-term problem, but their symptoms often can be controlled with leg elevation and therapeutic stockings. Surgical procedures remove varicose veins permanently, but they leave scars, and they cannot prevent new varicose veins from forming. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) P.O. Box 30105 Bethesda, MD 20824-0105 American College of Surgeons (ACS) 633 North Saint Clair St. Chicago, IL 60611-3211

Only 1% of all cancer cases in the U.S. are cancers of the testicle. But it is the most common form of cancer in young men. In 2012, it is estimated that there will be 8,600 new cases of testicular cancer, and that 360 men will die from this disease. There are several risk factors for testicular cancer: - Most cases happen in young men, typically 15-40 years of age. But older men may also develop the disease. - Failure of one or both testicles to descend from within the body before birth (known as cryptorchidism). This raises the risk of cancer approximately ten-fold. - If there is cancer in one testicle, the risk for cancer in the other testicle goes up. - When a first-degree family member (father, brother or son) has been affected. - Having Klinefelters syndrome (a congenital abnormality of chromosomes). But in the majority of cases, there arent any risk factors present. And there is no evidence that injuring the testicle or getting a sexually transmitted disease (other than HIV) increases the risk of cancer. If its detected early, testicular cancer responds exceptionally well to treatment. The survival rate for early-stage tumors is over 95%. Treatment is less effective if the diagnosis is delayed. You should see your doctor right away if: - You have pain in your testicle - You notice new lumps - Any of your testicles gets bigger Some doctors recommend that young men do regular testicle self-exams. But there is no proof that self-exam leads to earlier diagnosis and better outcomes.

Gay and Lesbian Issues The adolescent years are full of challenges, many related to sex and sexual identity. These issues can be especially difficult for teens who are (or think they may be) homosexual. Homosexual teens deserve the same understanding and respect as heterosexual teens, and it is important for everyone to know the facts about homosexuality. Here are the basics. Each of us has a biological sex (we have a male or female body), a gender identity (we feel like a male or female), and a sexual orientation (we are attracted to males or females). Homosexuality refers to a person's sexual orientation; homosexual teen-agers have strong romantic or sexual feelings for a person of the same sex. Heterosexual teen-agers are attracted to people of the opposite sex, and bisexual teens are attracted to people of both sexes. The word "gay" is used to describe both men and women who are homosexual, with the word "lesbian" specifically referring to a homosexual woman. It is estimated that 10 percent of the population in the United States and throughout the world is lesbian or gay. Although scientists don't know why some people are homosexual and others are not, most believe that homosexuality is a normal variation of sexual orientation. It may be genetic, result from natural substances (hormones) in the body, be influenced by the environment before or after birth, or, most likely, several of these things working in combination. Homosexual teens are found in all types of families. Homosexuality is not caused by "bad parenting." If your teen is gay, it is not because of anything you or anyone else did. Homosexuality also is not something a person chooses, nor is it an illness that can be cured. According to the American Psychiatric Association, so-called therapies such as "reparative therapy" and "transformational ministry" don't work and actually can be harmful, causing guilt and anxiety in homosexual teens. Not all teen-agers who are attracted to members of the same sex are homosexual. Many teens experiment with their sexuality during adolescence, in much the same way that they experiment with clothing, body art or music. This brief sexual experimentation is thought to be a normal part of sexual development. For homosexual teens, the attraction to people of the same sex is stronger and longer lasting. Back to top Every family is different. While one parent may find out by chance that a teen is homosexual, others may hear directly from their teen in person, in a letter or by a phone call. When a teen tells other people that he is homosexual, it's called "coming out." Although this process sometimes can be difficult or painful for families, it also can be a time of tremendous growth. It is important to remember that all teens need their family's support and acceptance, especially when they are dealing with sensitive issues. Back to top "Coming out" can be scary and painful, and parents need to reassure their children that they will not be loved any less for sharing the truth about themselves. If your teen tells you he is gay, let him know that you love him unconditionally, and accept him no matter what. Show your teen that you care by learning more about homosexuality. Read books on the subject or check out reputable Web sites (such as www.pflag.org). Talk to some adults you know who are gay. Look for organizations or support groups in your community that can give you information on homosexuality. It will be easier for you to support your teen when you know more and are comfortable with the subject. Parents may worry about how friends, neighbors and family will react to their teen's homosexuality. It is usually best not to share any information without your teen-ager's permission. Unfortunately, prejudice against homosexuals is widespread, mostly due to ignorance and fear. When your teen is ready for you to let others know, you should talk with them about your teen's sexual orientation and help them to understand, by using what you have learned. Back to top Growing up as a homosexual in a mostly heterosexual society often is not easy. Gay and lesbian adolescents sometimes must cope with unfair, prejudiced, and even violent behavior at school, at home and in the community. They may feel fear or be alone and unsupported. This can push some teens to use drugs and alcohol, engage in risky sexual behavior, or even attempt suicide. It is important that homosexual teens feel supported by their parents and always able to talk openly with them about these issues. Overall, most gay and lesbian youth grow up to be well-adjusted and happy adults, with successful careers and family lives. Books for parents of the newly out: "Is it A Choice? Answers to 300 Most Asked Questions About Gay and Lesbian People" by Eric Marcus "Loving Someone Gay" by Don Clark, Ph.D. "My Child is Gay" by Bryce McDougall, editor Last updated May 29, 2011

The satellite images displayed are infrared (IR) images. Warmest (lowest) clouds are shown in white; coldest (highest) clouds are displayed in shades of yellow, red, and purple. Imagery is obtained from the GOES and METEOSAT geostationary satellites, and the two US Polar Orbiter (POES) satellites. POES satellites orbit the earth 14 times each day at an altitude of approximately 520 miles (870 km). As each orbit is made the satellite can view a 1,600 mile (2,700 km) wide area of the earth. Due to the rotation of the earth the satellite is able to view every spot on earth twice each day. Data from multiple orbits are mosaicked together to provide wide scale global and full earth views in a single image. Occasional dark triangular areas that occur on POES images are a result of gaps in data transmitted from the orbiters. A weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather of the Earth. These meteorological satellites, however, see more than clouds and cloud systems . City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover , ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., are other types of environmental information collected using weather satellites. Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna. Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored. Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea color, and ice fields. For example, the 2002 oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT, which, though not a weather satellite, flies an instrument (ASAR) which can see changes in the sea surface El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images. The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data. Collectively, weather satellites flown by the U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather

|Scientific Name:||Phoebastria albatrus| |Species Authority:||(Pallas, 1769)| |Red List Category & Criteria:||Vulnerable D2 ver 3.1| |Reviewer/s:||Butchart, S. & Taylor, J.| |Contributor/s:||Balogh, G., Chan, S., Hasegawa, H., Peet, N., Rivera, K. & Suryan, R.| This species is listed as Vulnerable because, although conservation efforts have resulted in a steady population increase, it still has a very small breeding range, limited to Torishima and Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands), rendering it susceptible to stochastic events and human impacts. Phoebastria albatrus breeds on Torishima (Japan), and Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands), that are claimed jointly by Japan, mainland China and Chinese Taipei. Historically there are believed to have been at least nine colonies south of Japan and in the East China Sea (Piatt et al. 2006). Its marine range covers most of the northern Pacific Ocean, but it occurs in highest densities in areas of upwelling along shelf waters of the Pacific Rim, particularly along the coasts of Japan, eastern Russia, the Aleutians and Alaska (Piatt et al. 2006, Suryan et al. 2007). During breeding (December - May) it is found in highest densities around Japan. Satellite tracking has indicated that during the post-breeding period, females spend more time offshore of Japan and Russia, while males and juveniles spend greater time around the Aleutian Islands, Bering Sea and off the coast of North America (Suryan et al. 2007). Juveniles have been shown to travel twice the distances per day and spend more time within continental shelf habitat than adult birds (Suryan et al. 2008). The species declined dramatically during the 19th and 20th centuries owing to exploitation for feathers, and was believed extinct in 1949, but was rediscovered in 1951. The current population is estimated, via direct counts and modelling based on productivity data, to be 2,364 individuals, with 1,922 birds on Torishima and 442 birds on Minami-kojima (G.R. Balogh in litt. 2008). In 1954, 25 birds (including at least six pairs) were present on Torishima. Given that there are now c.426 breeding pairs on Torishima (G.R. Balogh in litt. 2008), the species has undergone an enormous increase since its rediscovery and the onset of conservation efforts. In addition, in 2010, one nesting pair was observed on Kure Atoll (Hawaii, USA), but was probably female-female and unsuccessful, and one chick was produced on Midway Atoll (M. Naughton pers. comm. 2011). A tsunami which hit Midway Atoll in March 2011, did not impact on the single pair nesting on Eastern Island (U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service 2008). Native:Canada; China; Japan; Korea, Republic of; Mexico; Russian Federation; Taiwan, Province of China; United States; United States Minor Outlying Islands Present - origin uncertain:Northern Mariana Islands; Philippines |Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.| |Population:||At the end of the 2006-2007 breeding season, the global population was estimated to be 2,364 individuals, with 1,922 birds on Torishima and 442 birds on Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands). This estimate is based on: direct observation of breeding pairs on Torishima; an assumption on numbers of non-breeding birds; an estimate for the Minami-kojima population that is based upon a 2002 estimate and an assumption of population growth rate (which, together, puts the Minami-kojima population at about 15% of the global population [G.R. Balogh in litt. 2008]). More recently, Brazil (2009) estimates the population in Japan at c.100-10,000 breeding pairs and c.50-1,000 individuals on migration. The population is taken here as likely to number 2,200-2,500 individuals based on these estimates, roughly equating to 1,500-1,700 mature individuals.| |Habitat and Ecology:||Behaviour Phoebastria albatrus is a colonial, annually breeding species, with each breeding cycle lasting about 8 months. Birds begin to arrive at the main colony on Torishima Island in early October. A single egg is laid in late October to late November and incubation lasts 64 to 65 days. Hatching occurs in late December through January. Chicks begin to fledge in late May into June. There is little information on timing of breeding on Minami-kojima. First breeding sometimes occurs when birds are five years old, but more commonly when birds are aged six. It forages diurnally and potentially nocturnally, either singly or in groups primarily taking prey by surface-seizing (ACAP 2009). During the breeding season, individuals nesting off Japan forage over the continental shelf (Kiyota and Minami 2008). Habitat Breeding Historically, it preferred level, open, areas adjacent to tall clumps of the grass Miscanthus sinensis for nesting. Diet It feeds mainly on squid, but also takes shrimp, fish, flying fish eggs and other crustaceans (ACAP 2009). It has been recorded following ships to feed on scraps and fish offal.| |Major Threat(s):||Its historical decline was caused by exploitation. Today, the key threats are the instability of soil on its main breeding site (Torishima), the threat of mortality and habitat loss from the active volcano on Torishima, and mortality caused by fisheries. Torishima is also vulnerable to other natural disasters, such as typhoons. Introduced predators are a potential threat at colonies. Environmental contaminants at sea (oil based compounds) may also be a threat (G.R. Balogh in litt. 2008). Threats at sea (fisheries, oil pollution) are exacerbated by the fact that birds concentrate into predictable hotspots (Piatt et al. 2006). Modelling work has showed that even a small increase in low level chronic mortality (such as fisheries bycatch) has more of an impact on population growth rates than stochastic and theoretically catastrophic events, such as volcanic eruptions (Finkelstein et al. 2010). Phoebastria albatrus has the greatest potential overlap with fisheries that occur in the shallower waters along continental shelf break and slope regions, e.g., sablefish and Pacific halibut longline fisheries off the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia. Although, overlap between the distribution of birds and fishery effort does not mean that interactions between birds and boats necessarily occur, P. albatrus are known to have been killed in U.S. and Russian longline fisheries for Pacific cod and Pacific halibut. In addition, birds on Torishima have been observed with hooks in their mouths of the style used in Japanese fisheries near the island (ACAP 2009).| Conservation Actions Underway It is legally protected in Japan, Canada and the USA. A draft recovery plan has been developed (USFWS 2005). Mitigation measures have been established in the Alaska demersal longline fishery and in the Hawaii-based pelagic longline fishery (NOAA 2008). Streamer lines (both heavy weight lines for large boats and lightweight lines for smaller vessels) have been designed to keep birds from longline hooks as they are set, and these are being distributed free to the Alaskan longline fleet (USFWS 2005), though they are not deployed in near-shore waters. In 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission passed a measure which requires large tuna and swordfish longline vessels (>24m long) to use a combination of two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing north of 23 degrees North. Torishima has been established as a National Wildlife Protection Area. In 1981-1982, native plants were transplanted into the Torishima nesting colony in order to stabilise the nesting habitat and the nest structures. This has enhanced breeding success, with over 60% of eggs now resulting in fledged young. Decoys have been used to attract birds to nest at another site on Torishima since 1993 and the first pair started breeding at this new site in November 1995. The number of chicks fledged from this new colony has increased from one chick in 2004; four chicks in 2005; 13 chicks in 2006; 16 chicks in 2007. In October-November 2007, 35 eggs were laid at this new site (Sato 2009). In 2007, the Japanese government approved a project to translocate chicks from Torishima to Mukojima, 300 km away. All ten chicks of the first translocations in March 2008 fledged (Jacobs 2009). If successful, this project will translocate at least ten chicks per year for five years. Conservation Actions Proposed Continue to promote measures designed to protect this species from becoming hooked or entangled by commercial fishing gear. Re-establish birds within historic range as insurance against natural disasters on primary breeding colony. Promote conservation measures for the Minami-kojima population. Continue research into the at-sea distribution and marine habitat use through satellite telemetry studies. Continue land-based management and population monitoring. |Citation:||BirdLife International 2012. Phoebastria albatrus. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 18 May 2013.| |Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please fill in the feedback form so that we can correct or extend the information provided|

Ahh, the pincer grasp! It's an important evolutionary milestone that nobody knows about until they become parents. (Why should opposable thumbs get all the attention?) The ability to pick up small objects using your thumb and pointer finger usually kicks in around 9 months -- and, the bonus for parents is that it allows infants to feed their own darn selves. So put down the spoon and serve up these great finger food ideas. Don't Expect Your Baby to Chew "Before age one, babies gum their food rather than chew it," says Jennifer Shu, M.D., coauthor of the book Food Fights from the American Academy of Pediatrics. So serve up tiny bites -- about the size of a pea or your pinky fingernail -- in case your tot swallows it whole. Common choking hazard to avoid: Hot dogs and other sausages, hard or gummy candy, chewing gum, all nuts, whole grapes and cherry tomatoes, raisins and any dried-fruit pieces, popcorn, and seeds and gobs of peanut (or other nut) butter. But any food can pose a choking risk if not sized right. Quarter grapes, slice blueberries, dice cooked carrots, break up crackers, and so on.

The First Liberation Day in the DP Camps Livik's opinion was clear: There was no reason to celebrate or to put on a festive face, since "joy has been silenced in the Jewish heart, our words are still full of sorrow"... Shmuel Grinberg, in contrast, agreed that She'arit Hapleta would soon be marking Liberation Day... but warned against losing the historical perspective of what was happening. Even though anti-Semitism had not disappeared and Jewish suffering had not ended, "we neither have nor want to weaken the great historic truth, the great struggle against the monster of human oppression, for our spiritual and moral liberation". Leo Schwarz, who took part in the meeting, explained: "One of the main questions was, should the liberation be commemorated today as a day of mourning or a day of thanksgiving. There was little disagreement about the memory of the murdered martyrs... concerning celebrations of Liberation Day there were differences among groups within She'arit Hapleta, but the victors were those whose psychology had already been influenced by the positive dialectic of the future. Most members of the Central Committee supported the declaration of "a memorial day combined with the liberation, which must express our grief and bitterness over the great tragedy of European Jewry, and simultaneously be a day of thanksgiving, which will be celebrated as a national symbol and will emphasize that the Jewish people still lives". It was decided to observe the 14th of Adar as Liberation Day (15th May in 1946), as a memorial and victory day. From: Mankovitz, Ze'ev, Ideology and Politics Among She'arit Hapleta in the American Zone of Occupation in Germany 1945-1946, Ph.D. thesis, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1987, pp. 279-280 (Hebrew). Source: Yad Vashem

DEPUTIES OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE DEPUTIES OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE, representatives of Jewish communities in Russia to the government during the reign of *Alexander I (1801–25). After parts of *Poland-Lithuania had been annexed by Russia, the large communities sent shtadlanim to the court at St. Petersburg to represent them and defend their rights. Most of the shtadlanim were merchants or contractors who visited the city on business. When a committee was set up to frame a "Jewish constitution" in 1802–04 it was joined by several government-appointed Jewish advisers (N.N. *Notkin, A. *Peretz, and J.L. *Nevakhovich). The government also requested some important communities to send representatives to the committee. Together they tried to influence the committee in favor of Jewish rights. In 1807 the government appointed a "Jewish committee" to implement the inimical "Jewish constitution" of 1804 and proposed that the communities elect deputies to represent the Jews before the provincial governors. The memoranda of these deputies were referred to the "Jewish committee" in St. Petersburg and were influential in obtaining a temporary halt to the expulsion of Jews from the villages. It was also proposed to abolish the prohibition on the lease and sale of alcohol by Jews. During the invasion by Napoleon two "deputies of the Jewish people," Zundel Sonnenberg and Eliezer Dillon, accompanied Alexander's military headquarters in 1812–13, and acted as liaison between the czar and the large Jewish population in the combat area. They regularly presented memoranda and petitions concerning Jewish affairs to the court and transmitted its instructions to the Jewish communities. After the war an attempt was made to convert the committee of deputies into a permanent institution. The Jewish communities were requested to send representatives to St. Petersburg to maintain permanent contact with the ministries of religious affairs and popular education. On August 19, 1818, electors from the 12 districts (gubernia) of the *Pale of Settlement convened and elected three deputies, Zundel Sonnenberg, Beinush Lapkovski, and Michael Eisenstadt, and three deputy representatives. In order to raise funds to cover their expenses, which probably also included furnishing bribes, the assembly resolved that every Jew was to donate the silver headpiece of his prayer shawl. The change in Alexander's policy toward the Jews at the end of his reign reduced the importance and status of the deputies. Sonnenberg was dismissed because of "impudence toward the authorities." In 1825 the Jewish deputation was officially suspended "until the need arises for a new deputation," and the institution was thereby abolished and not renewed. However, the government continued to make use of Jewish representatives. In 1840 consultative committees, chosen from among "enlightened" Jews, were created and attached to governors in Kiev and five other towns. In 1844 the function of "Learned Jew" (uchoni yevrei) was created, meaning an expertand consultant in Jewish religious affairs attached to the district governers and responsible for education and interior affairs. J.I. Hessen (Gessen), Yevrei v Rossii (1906), 421–32; idem, in: Yevreyskaya starina, 2 (1909), 17–29, 196–206; S. Pen, in: Voskhod, nos. 1–3 (1905). [Yehuda Slutsky / Shmuel Spector (2nd ed.)] Source: Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved.

Judaic Treasures of the Jerusalem was and remains the holiest of cities in the Holy Land, but Jews also gave a measure of holiness to three other cities there: Hebron, Safed, and Tiberias. The holiness of Jerusalem arises in part from what remains there, but more from what took place there. So it is with its sister cities. Hebron is where the patriarchs and matriarchs lived and are buried, and it was the first capital of King David. Tiberias, on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, was chosen by the patriarch of the Jews in the second century as his seat. The Palestinian Talmud was largely composed in its great rabbinical academy. in the environs of Safed, high in the Galilean hills, are the graves of the leading rabbis of late antiquity. Its stature as a holy city was enhanced in the sixteenth century, when it was the greatest center of Jewish mysticism and seat of Jewish legal scholarship. To gain entree into the company of the three more ancient holy cities, it called itself Beth-El, suggesting identity with the biblical site which Jacob called "The Gate of Heaven." A striking pastel-colored manuscript "holy site map" links these four holy cities together. Drawn and painted in Palestine in the second half of the nineteenth century, it depicts those venues which indicate their holiness. There is a suggestion of their geographic positioning, but the "map" is far more a statement of the place these cities hold in Jewish veneration, than of the geographical site they occupy. To pious Jewish families, such wall plaques were more meaningful depictions of the Holy Land than the most aesthetically beautiful and topographically exact representations. A small illustrated guide book to the burial places of biblical figures and saintly rabbis in the Holy Land, Zikaron Birushalayim, appeared in Constantinople in 1743. It tells the pious pilgrim where graves may be found and what prayers are to be said. Prefaced by a panegyric to the land, it cites a midrashic statement that, in time to come, when Jerusalem shall be rebuilt, three walls-one of silver, one of gold, and the innermost of multicolored precious stones-will encompass the dazzling city. In Hebron the pilgrim is not only directed to the holy grave sites, but also regaled with wondrous tales. One tells of a sexton of the community sent down to search for a ring which had fallen to the depths of the patriarchs' burial cave, finding at the floor of the cave three ancient men seated on chairs, engaged in study. He greets them; they return his greetings, give him the ring, and instruct him not to disclose what he had learned. When he ascended and was asked what he had seen, he replied: "Three elders sitting on chairs. As for the rest, I am not permitted to tell." For actual pilgrims, the little volume provided factual information. For pilgrims in their own imagination, it offered edification through tales and quaint illustrations. The last page has a woodcut of Jericho, a seven-walled city, below which a man surrounded by a multitude is sounding a shofar. The most striking woodcut is of an imposing building, representing the Temple in Jerusalem. In the concentric circles of holiness cited in the Tanhuma, Jerusalem is at the center of the Holy Land; the Temple at the center of Jerusalem; and the Holy of Holies at the center of the Holy Temple. The Temple is prominently featured in illustrated books about the Holy Land. In A Pisgah-Sight of Palestine, three chapters describe and three engravings portray the Temple. Early Hebrew books are quite poor in illustrations, because relatively few deal with subjects that demand visual presentation. Among these are books dealing with laws concerning the Temple, and since its architecture and vessels are pertinent to the laws, they invite illustration. A case in point is Sefer Hanukat Ha-Bayit by Moses (Hefez) Gentili (1663-1711), published in Venice in 1696. A treatise on the building of the Second Temple, it abounds in engraved architectural illustrations, including a menorah, the seven-branched candlestick; most notable is a large pull-out map of the Temple, identifying fifty-eight components of the Temple's structure. The engravings were added after the printing, as was the map, and a copy containing both is rare. Moses Gentili, born in Trieste, lived in Venice where he taught Talmud and Midrash, and perhaps philosophy and science as well. His best-known work, Melekhet Mahashevet, Venice, 1710, a commentary on the Pentateuch, contains a picture of the author, a clean-shaven, ministerial-looking gentleman. There are many published descriptions and illustrations of the Temple's appearance in many languages. Some are based on careful study of the available sources, others are creations of the imagination, generally inspired by the grandest building the artist knew. A plan of the Temple to be is found at the end of the 1789 Grodno edition of Zurat Beit Ha-Mikdash (The Form of the Holy Temple) by Yom Tov Lipmann Heller (1579-1654), one of the major figures in Jewish scholarship in the first half of the seventeenth century. The book is one of Heller's earliest works and is a projection of the plan of the Temple as envisaged in the prophecy of Ezekiel. We have thus traversed the Holy Land and glimpsed its holy places, past, present, and future.

To make this sentence true i have to put <,>,or = in between ( ) the given fractions or Decimals? 7/20 ( ) 2/5 0.15 ( ) 1/8 Please explain? Given a rectangular prism with dimensions w = 3, l = 4, and h = 6. If you created a second rectangular prism with the length doubled but the height halved (and the width stays the same), which would be the relation of the second volume to the first volume? 740 mm Hg How would you calculate the concentration of an aqueous solution of Ca(OH2)that has a pH of 12.57. poetry, part 1 Which one of the following lines best illustrates personification? A. A narrow wind complains all day. B. The fog comes on little cat feet. C. She floated graceful as a dove. D. Spring is a dream unsung. Wilma's arm is broken when Paula knocks her down during an agrument. If Wilma sues Paula for battery, what damages is Wilma likely to receive? Well I saying both. I have describe two cultrals and their views on health. i shows african and caucaisians american. I know that african american An excessive impact on minority populations is chronic diseases. Chronic diseases that are consider in African American are AIDS, ... I need some help with what are some of the implications to health care providers in African American and Caucasian? Considering cultural views on the health as organic, health as harmony and disease as a curse or stigma I need some help with listing at two pros and cons for each of the given patient and caregiver roles as a -Mechanics and machines -Parents and children -Spiritualists and believers -Providers and consumers -Partners This is so I can right my paper For Further Reading