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Category:Sustainable communities | {{Commons}}
{{Cat main|Sustainable community}}
[[Category:Sustainable development|Communities]]
[[Category:Intentional communities]] |
Category:Sustainable design | {{Commons category|Sustainable environmental design}}
{{cat main|Sustainable design}}
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development|Design]] |
Category:International sustainable development | {{Commons category|International sustainable development}}
[[Category:International development|Sustainable]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Global natural environment|Sustainable]] |
Product lifetime | {{Short description|Length of time a product is owned and used}}
[[File:S1 BWH10-8-02.JPG|thumb|''[[Festiniog Railway 0-4-0TT|Prince]]'' was built 1863 and operated 1864–1936, 1955–1968, 1980-present, a product life of over 150 years, a service life of around 125 years]]
'''Product lifetime''' or '''product lifespan''' is the time interval from when a product is sold to when it is discarded.<ref name=":6" />
Product lifetime is slightly different from [[service life]] because the latter considers only the effective time the product is used.<ref name=":6" /> It is also different from product economic life which refers to the point where maintaining a product is more expensive than replacing it;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heiskanen|first=E.|title=Conditions for product lifetime extension|journal=National Consumption Research Center|language=en|volume=22}}</ref> from product technical life which refers to the maximum period during which a product has the physical capacity to function;<ref name=":0"/> and from the functional life which is the time a product should last regardless of external intervention to increase its lifespan.<ref name="Cox 2013 21–29">{{Cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Jayne|last2=Griffith|first2=Sarah|last3=Giorgi|first3=Sara|last4=King|first4=Geoff|title=Consumer understanding of product lifetimes|journal=Resources, Conservation & Recycling|year=2013|language=en|volume=79|pages=21–29|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.003|issn=0921-3449}}</ref>
Product lifetime represent an important area of enquiry with regards to [[product design]], the [[circular economy]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/579000/IPOL_STU(2016)579000_EN.pdf|title=A longer lifetime for products: benefits for consumers and companies|last=Montalvo, C., Peck, D. and Rietveld, E.|publisher=European Parliament's Committee on Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO)|year=2016|location=Brussels}}</ref> and [[sustainable development]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Longer Lasting Products: alternatives to the throwaway society|last=Cooper|first=T|publisher=Gower|year=2010|editor-last=Cooper, T.|location=Farnham|pages=3–36|chapter=The significance of product longevity}}</ref> This is because products, with the materials involved in their design, production, distribution, use and disposal (across their [[Life Cycle Thinking|life cycle]]), embody carbon due to the energy involved in these processes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ciemap.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CIEMAP-Report.pdf|title=A whole system analysis of how industrial energy and material demand reduction can contribute to a low carbon future for the UK.|last=Norman, J.B., Serrenho, A.C., Cooper, S.J.G., Owen, A., Sakai, M., Scott, K., Brockway, P.E., Cooper, S., Giesekam, J., Salvia, G., Cullen, J.M., Barrett, J.R., Cooper, T., Hammond, G.P. and Allwood, J.M.|publisher=CIE-MAP|year=2016}}</ref> Therefore, if product lifetimes can be extended, the [[Embodied energy|use of energy]], [[Embodied carbon emissions|embodied in carbon]], can be reduced and progress can be made towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Bocken et al.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bocken|first1=Nancy M. P.|last2=Pauw|first2=Ingrid de|last3=Bakker|first3=Conny|last4=Grinten|first4=Bram van der|title=Product design and business model strategies for a circular economy|journal=Journal of Industrial and Production Engineering|volume=33|issue=5|pages=308–320|doi=10.1080/21681015.2016.1172124|issn=2168-1015|year=2016|doi-access=free}}</ref> term this "''Slowing resource loops''" (309, ''their emphasis''). In addition, excessive waste generation has been attributed to short-lived goods and a throwaway society.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Waste Makers|last=Packard|first=Vance|publisher=Penguin|year=1963|location=Harmondsworth}}</ref>
In recent years, there has been a growth in academic and policy discussions around product lifetimes. For example, discussion of product lifetimes are an integral part of the European Commission's action plan for the circular economy<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:8a8ef5e8-99a0-11e5-b3b7-01aa75ed71a1.0012.02/DOC_1&format=PDF|title=Closing the loop - An EU action plan for the Circular Economy|last=European Commission|year=2015|location=Brussels}}</ref>''.'' In academia, the PLATE (Product Lifetimes and the Environment) Consortium hosts regular conferences and seminars around the topic of product lifetimes and the environment (see: http://www.plateconference.org/). In the business world, the Canadian Kijiji platform's Secondhand Economy Index examines how consumers extend product lifetime through secondhand marketplaces, swapping, donating and renting/leasing/lending/pooling (see: https://www.kijiji.ca/kijijicentral/second-hand-economy/).
This article examines how product lifetimes are defined in the academic literature and discusses how product lifetimes can be measured. A distinction is made between the definition and measurement of ''actual'' and ''expected'' product lifetimes.
== Defining product lifetimes ==
Definitions of product lifetimes vary depending on what aspects those conducting research are interested in. Generally, actual product lifetimes refer to the actual time that a product exists in a particular state.<ref name=":6" /> In contrast, expected product lifetimes refer to users' expectations for the lifetime of a product.<ref name=":1" /> Additionally, actual and expected product lifetimes are influenced by durability and longevity; these concepts are briefly outlined below.
[[Durability]] is described by Cooper<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Beyond recycling: the longer life option|last=Cooper, T.|publisher=New Economics Foundation|year=1994|location=London}}</ref> as "the ability of a product to perform its required function over a lengthy period under normal use conditions of use without excessive expenditure on maintenance or repair" (p. 5). In contrast, longevity encompasses more than just the material properties of the product.<ref name=":0" /> Cooper<ref name=":0" /> notes that user behaviour, and broader social and cultural trends play important roles in the product's longevity. The paragraphs below outline the definitions of actual and expected product lifetimes.
=== Actual product lifetimes ===
Exhaustive work has been undertaken by Murakami et al.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Murakami|first1=Shinsuke|last2=Oguchi|first2=Masahiro|last3=Tasaki|first3=Tomohiro|last4=Daigo|first4=Ichiro|last5=Hashimoto|first5=Seiji|date=2010-08-01|title=Lifespan of Commodities, Part I|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=598–612|doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00250.x|s2cid=157493536|issn=1530-9290}}</ref> and Oguchi et al.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Oguchi|first1=Masahiro|last2=Murakami|first2=Shinsuke|last3=Tasaki|first3=Tomohiro|last4=Daigo|first4=Ichiro|last5=Hashimoto|first5=Seiji|date=2010-08-01|title=Lifespan of Commodities, Part II|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=613–626|doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00251.x|s2cid=154898164|issn=1530-9290}}</ref> and to outline several definitions and discuss methods for identifying actual product lifetimes. Murkami et al.<ref name=":6" /> identify the following overarching concepts in product lifetime definitions which are discussed below: Age, Residential time, Service life, Possession span and Duration of use.
==== Age ====
A product's age is the time from when the product was created to either the present or "the time of interest" (:<ref name=":6" /> 600) for the researchers.
==== Residential time ====
Residential time is considered to be time in which a product, its constituent materials and parts, exists in society.<ref name=":6" /> Residential time includes the time in which a product may be broken and/ or discarded.<ref name=":6" />
==== Service life ====
{{Main|Service life}}
According to Murkami et al.,<ref name=":6" /> the service life of a product refers to the duration of time for which products continue to work and can be used.
==== Possession span ====
The possession span is the period of time that a user has possession of the product.<ref name=":6" />
==== Duration of use ====
The duration of use indicates how long a user uses the product for.<ref name=":6" /> Murkami et al.<ref name=":6" /> distinguish duration of use from [[Service life]] by noting that duration of use is measured for a specific user, whereas [[Service life]] describes the total in-service use of the product for all its users (accounting for transfers of ownership e.g. reuse). Additionally, possession span is distinguished from duration of use, as possession span includes "dead storage" (:<ref name=":6" /> 601) time, where a product is owned by a user but not in use (i.e. in storage).
== Product lifetime extension ==
===Product lifetime extension business models (PLEBM)===
PLE is enacted through various entities that can be generically denominated as product lifetime extension business models (PLEBM) and which aim at improving product design (nature strategies)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bakker|first1=Conny|last2=Wang|first2=Feng|last3=Huisman|first3=Jacob|last4=den Hollander|first4=Marcel|title=Products that go round: exploring product life extension through design|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|year=2014|language=en|volume=69|pages=10–16|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.028|issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van Nes|first1=Nicole|last2=Cramer|first2=Jacqueline|title=Design strategies for the lifetime optimisation of products|journal=The Journal of Sustainable Product Design|year=2003|language=en|volume=3|issue=3–4|pages=101–107|doi=10.1007/s10970-005-2144-8|s2cid=111300945}}</ref> or increase the lifetime of the product during post-production phases (nurture strategies).<ref name="Cox 2013 21–29"/> Any organization could constitute a PLEBM for as long as it contributes to increase product lifetime. The Product lifetime extension business model (PLEBM) framework is a typology of PLE business models based on Osterwalder and Pigneur's (2010) framework.
===Expected product lifetimes===
{{main|Design life}}
A conference paper by Oguchi et al.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/28621/|title=Electronics Goes Green 2016+ Conference|last=Oguchi, M., Tasaki, T., Daigo, I., Cooper, T., Cole, C. and Gnanapragasam, A.|year=2016|location=Berlin|chapter=Consumers' expectations for product lifetimes of consumer durables.}}</ref> sought to identify and test differences in definitions of product lifetime expectations. Oguchi et al.<ref name=":1" /> illustrated that previous research into expected product lifetimes has been inconsistent in its use of the term expected product lifetimes. For example, Cooper<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cooper|first=Tim|title=Inadequate Life? Evidence of Consumer Attitudes to Product Obsolescence|journal=Journal of Consumer Policy|language=en|volume=27|issue=4|pages=421–449|doi=10.1007/s10603-004-2284-6|issn=0168-7034|year=2004|s2cid=56161987|url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/13899/1/NPS1082a_Cooper.pdf}}</ref> enquires about "reasonable" expected lifetimes, while Brook Lyndhurst<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.brooklyndhurst.co.uk/public-understanding-of-product-lifetimes-and-durability-_156.html|title=Public understanding of product lifetimes and durability (1)|last=Brook Lyndhurst|publisher=Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|year=2011|location=London}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Jayne|last2=Griffith|first2=Sarah|last3=Giorgi|first3=Sara|last4=King|first4=Geoff|date=2013-10-01|title=Consumer understanding of product lifetimes|journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling|series=SI: Resourceful Behaviours|volume=79|pages=21–29|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.003}}</ref> discusses "normal" expected lifetimes. Wieser et al.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www4.ntu.ac.uk/plate_conference/proceedings/index.html|title=Product Lifetimes and The Environment|last=Wieser, H., Tröger, N. and Hübner, R.|publisher=Nottingham Trent University|location=Nottingham|pages=388–393|chapter=The consumers’ desired and expected product lifetimes}}</ref> identified the tension between everyday expectations and desires, distinguishing between these expectations in his study of 21 products. In addition, earlier work by Tasaki et al.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=智宏|first1=田崎|last2=淳|first2=寺園|last3=祐一|first3=森口|date=2004-01-01|title=長期使用とリュース促進のための家電製品・パソコンの廃棄行動実態とその行動要因の調査|journal=廃棄物学会論文誌|volume=15|issue=4|pages=310–319|doi=10.3985/jswme.15.310|doi-access=free}}</ref> and more recent work by WRAP<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/clothing-longevity-measuring-active-use|title=Clothing longevity and measuring active use|last=Langley, E., Durkacz, S. and Tanase, S.|publisher=WRAP|year=2013|location=Banbury}}</ref> have asked users to report both how long they have owned an item for, and how long they expect to use the item for in future: WRAP<ref name=":2" /> term this "active use". Building on these previous studies (''described above''), Oguchi et al.<ref name=":1" /> identified and tested three distinct definitions of expected product lifetimes, these are outlined below.
==== Intended lifetime ====
Oguchi et al.<ref name=":1" /> define the intended lifetime as the length of time for which a user intends to use the product in question.
==== Ideal lifetime ====
The ideal length of time for which a user expects their product to last. Oguchi et al.<ref name=":1" /> describe this as "the highest preference of consumers".
==== Predicted lifetime ====
The realist prediction by the user of how long a product will last. The user is thought to make this prediction based on their previous experiences and "other relevant factors" (Oguhci et al.<ref name=":1" />).
== Measuring product lifetimes ==
Academic enquiry into the product lifetimes of electrical and electronic equipment was undertaken in 2000 by Cooper and Mayers<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/6671/|title=Prospects for household appliances|author1=Cooper, T. |author2=Mayers, K.|publisher=Sheffield Hallam University for E-SCOPE|year=2000|location=Sheffield}}</ref> who conducted household interviews and focus groups to establish the age at discard (actual product lifetime) and expected lifetimes for 17 products. Since this study, work has been undertaken by other academics into measuring actual and expected product lifetimes; the methods employed are outlined below.
=== Actual product lifetimes ===
{{main|Service life}}
Actual product lifetimes can be measured using a variety of methods which include: product testing, discard surveys, user interviews and modelling. These are discussed below.
==== Product testing ====
Products can be tested under laboratory conditions to assess their lifetime under different conditions of use.<ref name=":0" />
==== Discard surveys ====
Oguchi et al.<ref name=":8" /> identify that surveys of waste treatment and recycling facilities can provide information on the age of the appliance at break or discard. Identifying information such as the product serial and/ or batch number can be used to find out a date of manufacturer from which the age of the appliance at break or discard can be calculated.
==== User interviews ====
Cooper and Mayers<ref name=":4" /> conducted household [[interview]]s to establish the age of 17 electrical and electronic items at discard and break. However it has been noted that user interviews are subject to the accuracy of [[memory]], and that reviews of products which have failed in the past only provides information on "a historical situation" (:<ref name=":0" /> p. 10), not taking into account the features and lifetime of extant products.
==== Modelling ====
Product lifetimes can be modelled using extant data from surveys with the application of [[probability]] and other [[Statistics|statistical concepts]] (e.g. [[Distribution (mathematics)|distributions]]).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www4.ntu.ac.uk/plate_conference/proceedings/index.html|title=Product Lifetimes and The Environment|last=Oguchi, M.|publisher=Nottingham Trent University|year=2015|location=Nottingham|pages=388–393|chapter=Methodologies for estimating actual lifetime distribution of products}}</ref> One of the earliest attempts to estimate product lifetimes was undertaken by Pennock and Jaeger<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pennock|first1=Jean L.|last2=Jaeger|first2=Carol M.|date=1957-06-01|title=Estimating the Service Life of Household Goods by Actuarial Methods|journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association|volume=52|issue=278|pages=175–185|doi=10.1080/01621459.1957.10501377|issn=0162-1459}}</ref> who utilised actuarial methods to measure the [[Service life]] of household goods for one owner. In the 1990s, Bayus<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bayus|first=Barry L.|date=1991-01-01|title=The Consumer Durable Replacement Buyer|jstor=1252202|journal=Journal of Marketing|volume=55|issue=1|pages=42–51|doi=10.2307/1252202}}</ref> modelled car replacement rates and Bayus and Gupta<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Bayus|first1=Barry L.|last2=Gupta|first2=Sachin|date=1992-08-01|title=An empirical analysis of consumer durable replacement intentions|journal=International Journal of Research in Marketing|volume=9|issue=3|pages=257–267|doi=10.1016/0167-8116(92)90021-C}}</ref> evaluated the user decision-making process and factors around replacement car purchases.<ref name=":9" /> In 2010, Oguchi et al.<ref name=":8" /> proposed modelling product lifetimes factoring the total number of products shipped and discarded in a year. Oguchi et al.<ref name=":8" /> outlined a series of equations which represent lifespan distributions for a given product at a particular point in time.
=== Expected product lifetimes ===
{{main|Design life}}
Expected product lifetimes are measured at the individual level using survey methods and collectively using focus groups. With the exception of Oguchi et al.<ref name=":1" /> and Wieser et al.,<ref name=":3" /> many studies into expected product lifetimes have not distinguished between the different definitions (outlined above). The methods for measuring expected product lifetimes are outlined below.
==== Survey methods ====
Survey methods into expected product lifetimes encompass [[Online Questionnaires|online questionnaires]],<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> household<ref name=":4" /> and telephone<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Echegaray|first=Fabián|date=2016-10-15|title=Consumers' reactions to product obsolescence in emerging markets: the case of Brazil|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|series=Special Volume: Transitions to Sustainable Consumption and Production in Cities|volume=134, Part A|pages=191–203|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.119|s2cid=153477681}}</ref> [[interview]]s. These studies asked individual participants to report their expectations for product lifetimes in units of time. Survey methods (such as Oguchi et al.<ref name=":1" />) can also use [[Likert scale|Likert items]] to evaluate if current products meet users expectations with regards to durability and longevity.
==== Focus groups ====
[[Focus group]]s can be convened where participants take part in discussions to reach a group consensus on product lifetime expectations.<ref name=":7" />
==See also==
* [[Circular economy]]
* [[Design life]]
* [[Durability]]
* [[Durable good]]
* [[Maintainability]]
* [[Planned obsolescence]]
* [[Repairability]]
* [[Product stewardship]]
* [[Sustainable products]]
* [[Throwaway society]]
* [[Waste minimization]]
* [[Whole-life cost]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Product lifetimes}}
[[Category:Product design]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Ecoplanet Bamboo Group | {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{multiple issues|
{{primary sources|date=January 2017}}
{{COI|date=October 2019}}
}}
Winner of the [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]'s 2014 Award for Corporate Excellence,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/ace |title=Archived copy |access-date=January 5, 2017 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> founded in 2010 by Troy Wiseman and Camille Rebelo, EcoPlanet Bamboo has pioneered the industrialization of bamboo as an alternative fiber for timber manufacturing industries. To date the Company has 37,250 acres of bamboo farms under ownership, in Central American, Western and Southern Africa, with larger scale [[plantation]]s underway.
EcoPlanet Bamboo is a privately owned United States Company, registered in Delaware and with corporate headquarters located outside of Chicago, Illinois. It is a US Series LLC allowing each geographic region and individual bamboo plantation to be funded and operated separately but under the same umbrella.
The Company has been recognized for its social impact<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20131017005822/en/EcoPlanet-Bamboo-Wins-IAIR-Award-Sustainability|title=EcoPlanet Bamboo Wins IAIR Award for Sustainability|website=Businesswire.com|date=October 17, 2013 |accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref> created more than 750 jobs and operates in some of the poorest parts of the world in [[Nicaragua]], South Africa and [[Ghana]].
EcoPlanet Bamboo plants species of tropical clumping ([[sympodial]]) bamboos, using only highly degraded<ref>''EcoPlanet Bamboo uses the UNFCCC tool for the Identification of Degraded Land.''</ref> and marginal land to produce a tree free, [[deforestation]] free fiber. The Company has developed a framework for what sustainability means in respect to [[bamboo]]. Farms reach maturity in 5–7 years and the fiber is targeted towards [[Fortune 500|Fortune 500 companies]] dependent on wood and fiber as their raw resource.
The company is highly decentralized with individual bamboo plantations operating under EcoPlanet Bamboo Groups standardized operational framework to achieve [[Forest restoration|Forest Landscape Restoration]].<ref>{{cite web |title=4.6 Commercial bamboo plantations as a tool for restoring landscapes |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/478515978/Commercial-bamboo-plantations-as-a-tool-for-restoring-landscapes |accessdate=14 November 2017}}</ref> A full set of qualified managerial staff exists on each farm and is overseen by a core managerial team.
==Bamboo in China==
Although bamboo is a plant that has been grown and harvested in China for generations, it occurs only within a smallholder model. There are few commercial or large scale managed plantations. The majority of area under bamboo comprises plots of a few Mu in size, owned by individual farmers or families, and managed as part of a [[Crop diversity|diverse]] mix of livelihood crops. Throughout China bamboo has been planted only in areas not suitable for agriculture, which generally mean mountainous land that is often inaccessible. Most of China's bamboo industry is focused on a single iconic species – [[Phyllostachys edulis|Moso (''Phyllostachys edulis'')]]
The processing of bamboo in China is dominated by low and medium level processing, with a large focus on two very different markets (1) the global handicraft industry and (2) the production of [[Bamboo shoot|edible bamboo shoots]] for the food industry. In recent years there has been an increase in the production of [[bamboo floor]]ing.
EcoPlanet Bamboo is working in a different manner growing certified bamboo fiber for the [[pulp and paper industry]], textiles and [[Engineered wood|engineered timber]].
==Historical barriers to industrialization==
EcoPlanet Bamboo claims to have overcome many barriers to industrialize bamboo as a commercial crop:
# A lack of planting material. See “[[Bamboo#Mass flowering|bamboo mass flowering]]".
# Lack of knowledge on the growth, ecology and yields of bamboos other than Moso.
# High investment required to take bamboo through the 6–7 years required to reach maturity.
# Difficulty of operating in remote parts of the developing world.
==Bamboo sustainability==
EcoPlanet Bamboo is a triple bottom line company promoting the concept of conscious capitalism. The company has pioneered the concept of sustainability certification for commercially produced bamboo. Nicaraguan farms are certified under the [[Forest Stewardship Council]] (FSC), the [[Verified Carbon Standard]] (VCS) and have gold level Climate Community Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA) stamp of approval. EcoPlanet Bamboo is the first entity to have received these certifications for application to bamboo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20121115006752/en/EcoPlanet-Bamboo-Acquires-FSC-Certification-Enabling-Supply|title=EcoPlanet Bamboo Acquires FSC Certification, Enabling Supply of a Sustainable Alternative Fiber to US & Multinational Manufacturing Industries|website=Bsinesswire.com|date=November 15, 2012 |accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref>
The Company has been insured by the [[Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency|World Bank's Multilateral Insurance Guarantee Agency (MIGA)]], holding a $48 million policy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.agriinvestor.com/miga-increases-ecoplanet-bamboo-guarantee/|title=MIGA increases EcoPlanet Bamboo guarantee - Agri Investor|date=June 25, 2015|website=Agriinvestor.com|accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref> MIGA has featured EcoPlanet Bamboo for strong social and environmental impact.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.miga.org/Lists/General/CustomDisp.aspx?ID=1488|title=General|website=Miga.org|accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref>
EcoPlanet Bamboo's farms are examples of private [[Forest restoration#Forest landscape restoration|sector forest landscape restoration]], with planted bamboo [[Habitat conservation|conserving]] and reconnecting remnant forest patches and scattered native vegetation, restoring soil functioning, water tables and carbon sinks.
==US Department of State ACE Award==
This annual award was presented to EcoPlanet Bamboo by [[John Kerry|Secretary Kerry]] at the US State Department in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/12/234839.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=June 24, 2017 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> EcoPlanet Bamboo was honored alongside the [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca Cola company]] for trendsetting good business practices in its countries of operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pronicaragua.gob.ni/en/press-releases/1434-ecoplanet-bamboo-earns-award-for-corporate-excelle/|title=EcoPlanet Bamboo earns Award for Corporate Excellence|website=PRONicaragua.gob.ni|accessdate=November 14, 2017}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.bambuskomfort.com/bambusparkett/ Bamboo Parquet Plank]
[[Category:Bamboo]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
African Centre for Technology Studies | {{Infobox organization
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| key_people = Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng PhD., Director<ref name="Ochieng_stakeholder_capitalism_2008">{{cite journal |title=Comparative capitalism and sustainable development: Stakeholder capitalism and co-management in the Kenyan fisheries sub sector |author=Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng |year=2008 |journal=[[Natural Resources Forum]] |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=64–76 |doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.2008.00168.x}} Ochieng examines the Kenyan fisheries sub sector - using the production of''Obamo'' made from [[tilapia]], a [[dried fish]], as an example of sustainable development</ref>
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| website = [http://www.acts-net.org/ www.acts-net.org/]
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| address =Crescent Road, Nairobi
|telephone =(254-2) 744047
}}
'''African Centre for Technology Studies''' (ACTS) is an intergovernmental non-profit organization, founded in 1988 by [[Calestous Juma]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|commas=true}}<ref name="Juma_Harvard_2012" /> in Nairobi, Kenya, promoting policy-oriented research on science and technology in development that is sustainable in terms of the economy, society, and the environment.<ref name="who_when" /> It was the first African non-profit organization to combine policy research, science and technology.<ref name="Juma_Harvard_2012" />{{rp|6}}
==History==
Founded in 1988, ACTS was a pioneer in development research on innovative development policies related to applied science, technology, and innovation.<ref name="who_when" /><ref name="Juma_Harvard_2012" />
ACTS research influenced policies on industrial property legislation and policy in Kenya, environmental impact assessment standards in Eastern and Southern Africa, [[biofuels]] and [[bio-energy]] in Kenya, Eastern and West Africa. ACTS has also influenced policies across Africa on issues such as [[climate change adaptation]] and [[climate change mitigation|mitigation]], agriculture, biotechnology, [[biodiplomacy]], and [[biosafety]].<ref name="who_when" />
==Affiliations==
ACTS is a member of the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data (GPSDD), which includes 150 data producers and users working towards sustainable development focusing on data that informs research ending extreme poverty and addressing climate change. The Canadian, Colombian, French, Ghanaian, Italian, Mexican, Moroccan, Nigerian, Philippine, Senegalese, United Kingdom and United States' governments are member-states of the network.<ref name="sustainabledevelopment_UN">{{citation |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=9691 |title=Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data |publisher=United Nations |date=2016 |accessdate=December 23, 2016}}</ref>
==Awards==
In 2013, ACTS was named as one of the top Environment Think Tanks globally.<ref name="who_when" /> In 1991 the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa ([[CODESRIA]]) honored ACTS for its contribution to expanding the knowledge base for development in Africa with the Justinian Rweyemamu Prize, named after Tanzania's first major economics scholar, [[Justinian Rweyemamu]].<ref name="who_when" /><ref name="Juma_Harvard_2012" />{{rp|6}}
==Community-based actions==
ACTS policy researchers engage with local communities to encourage communities to reflect on and learn from their own coping mechanisms when faced with flood-prone areas. They then choose best practice adaptations and develop long-term proactive strategies for flood mitigation which might include crop diversification.<ref>{{citation |url=http://cdkn.org/resource/in-conversation-with-elvin-nyukuri-african-centre-for-technology-studies-2/?loclang=en_gb |title=In conversation with… Elvin Nyukuri, African Centre for Technology Studies |publisher=African Centre for Technology Studies |date=May 16, 2011 |accessdate=January 22, 2017}}</ref>
==Selected publications==
ACTS published the groundbreaking study by Harvard professor, Calestous Juma<ref name="List of Fellows">{{cite web|title=List of Fellows|url=http://www.raeng.org.uk/about-us/people-council-committees/the-fellowship/list-of-fellows|access-date=2017-01-23|archive-date=2016-06-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608094405/http://www.raeng.org.uk/about-us/people-council-committees/the-fellowship/list-of-fellows|url-status=dead}}</ref> and J. B. Ojwang entitled ''Innovation and Sovereignty: The Patent Debate in African Development.''<ref name="Juma_1989">{{cite book |date=1989 |title=Innovation and Sovereignty: The Patent Debate in African Development |publisher=African Centre for Technology Studies |location=Nairobi |author1=Calestous Juma |author2=J. B. Ojwang |isbn=9966410007}}</ref> Juma directs the Harvard Kennedy School's (HKS) Agricultural Innovation in Africa Project funded by the [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]].<ref name="Juma_Harvard_2012">{{citation |url=https://apps.hks.harvard.edu/faculty/cv/calestousjuma.pdf |format=PDF |date=November 2012|title=Calestous Juma |pages=27 |accessdate=January 22, 2017}}</ref>
In his 1993 article, in which he examined legal processes regarding access and tenurial issues in regards to group and individual pastoral natural resource management in Turkana in Kenya, focusing on tree rights, Edmund G.C. Barrow made a case for indigenous property rights.<ref name="Barrow_1993_Tree_rights">{{citation |publisher=Biopolicy International, African Centre for Technology Studies via Bioline International |number=8 |date=1993 |pages=1–23 |title=Tree Rights in Kenya: The Case of the Turkana (Part 1) |author=Edmund G.C. Barrow |isbn=9966-41-046-5|url=http://www.bioline.org.br/request?bp93008 |location=Nairobi, Kenya |editor=Calestous Juma |editor2=John Mugabe |editor3=Norman Clark |editor4=Walter Reid |accessdate=January 22, 2017}}"This issue of Biopolicy International was published in conjunction with the [[World Resources Institute]] (WRI). Financial support included the Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA), the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA), the [[Danish International Development Agency]] (DANIDA), Initiatives Ltd., the [[International Development Research Centre]] (IDRC), The World Conservation Union (IUCN), [[Stockholm Environment Institute]] (SEI), Swedish Society for the Conservation of Nature (SSCN), and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP).</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20161107062137/http://www.positivedeviance.org/pdf/evaluation/Agricultural%20Development%20in%20Kenya.pdf Ochieng, C. (2007). Development through positive deviance and its implications for economic policy making and public administration in Africa: the case of Kenya agricultural development, 1930-2004. World Development 35: (3) 454–479.]
Ochieng, C. (2007) Re-vitalizing African agriculture through innovative business and organizational arrangements: promising developments in the traditional crops sector. Journal of Modern African Studies 45 :( 1) 143–169.
Ochieng, C. (2007) The EU-ACP economic partnership agreements and the development question: opportunities and constraints posed by Article XXIV and special and differential treatment provisions of the WTO. Journal of International Economic Law 10: (2) 363–395.
Ochieng, C & Houdet, J. (2015) eds. Responsible Exploitation of Natural Resources for African Development. ACTS Special Issue Paper Series 001. ACTS Press, Nairobi
== External links ==
* [http://www.acts-net.org/ ACTS website]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Non-profit organisations based in Kenya]]
[[Category:International development in Africa]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability and environmental management]] |
Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment | '''Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment (PEACE)''', is a four-year project funded by the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Tar Patar finds light at the end of the tunnel|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/903573/power-woes-tar-patar-finds-light-at-the-end-of-the-tunnel/|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=15 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=PTI-led KPK govt inaugurates micro hydro project in Kalam|url=http://www.thenewsteller.com/local/pti-led-kpk-govt-inaugurates-micro-hydro-project-in-kalam/16523/|newspaper=The Newsteller|date=28 May 2015}}</ref> and implemented by the [[Sarhad Rural Support Programme]] (SRSP).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/168759-EU-to-continue-support-for-development-of-marginalised-areas-ambassador|title=EU to continue support for development of marginalised areas: Ambassador|last=Khankhel|first=Essa|date=30 November 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobbs|first=Ellen|last2=Wheldon|first2=Anne|last3=Sharma|first3=Chhavi|date=2016-10-07|title=15 years of development in access to off-grid renewable electricity: insights from the Ashden Awards|url=https://factsreports.revues.org/4214|journal=Field Actions Science Reports. The Journal of Field Actions|language=en|issue=Special Issue 15|pages=150–159|issn=1867-139X}}</ref> It was launched in 2013 in all districts of [[Malakand Division]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Pakistan]], namely, [[Swat, Pakistan|Swat]], [[Shangla]], [[Buner]], [[Lower Dir]], [[Upper Dir]], [[Chitral]] and [[Malakand Agency]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Empowering local communities: Olive trees spell greener days for Lower Dir's farmers|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/861345/empowering-local-communities-olive-trees-spell-greener-days-for-lower-dirs-farmers/|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=31 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/142320-KP-govt-implementing-reform-agenda-Khattak|title=KP govt implementing reform agenda: Khattak|date=14 August 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref>
== Project details ==
The Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment (PEACE) commenced after an agreement worth '''[[Euro sign|€]]''' 40 million was signed between the [[Sarhad Rural Support Programme]] (SRSP) and the [[European Union]] (EU).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.heis.com.ba/?opcija=pregled_vijest&jezik=eng&vid=167|title=Technical Appraisal and Monitoring of a Micro-Hydel Programme in Pakistan|date=4 January 2014|publisher=Hydro Engineering Institute Sarajevo}}</ref> The project runs under the principles of financial sustainability and equitable sharing of benefits with the community for [[Social development theory|social development]] purposes.<ref>{{cite news|title=Work on EU-funded power project launched|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/print/29855-work-on-eu-funded-power-project-launched|newspaper=The News International|date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Use of electric dryers brings dividend for Swat fruit farmers|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1221639|newspaper=DAWN|date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arynews.tv/en/150-kv-micro-hydro-power-house-inaugurated-in-chitral/|title=150 KV Micro Hydro Power House inaugurated in Chitral|last=Farooqui|first=Gul Hammad|date=26 July 2016|publisher=ARY News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1242263|title=Villagers happy as they get a bridge|last=Khaliq|first=Fazal|date=27 February 2016|newspaper=DAWN|language=en}}</ref>
=== Hydro electricity ===
Under the PEACE project 62% of the funding is utilised for generation of community run [[Micro hydro|micro-hydro]] power units in the project areas.<ref>{{cite news|title=CM reiterates commitment to community development|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/print/72693-cm-reiterates-commitment-to-community-development|newspaper=The News International|date=12 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/145312-3-micro-power-projects-completed-in-far-off-Chitral-villages|title=3 micro-power projects completed in far-off Chitral villages|date=26 August 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref> Hydro power stations under the project are primarily built in areas where there is no active [[Electrical grid|national grid]] or where such grid stands disrupted.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1299805/eu-ambassador-inaugurates-power-station-in-swat|title=EU ambassador inaugurates power station in Swat|date=1 December 2016|newspaper=DAWN}}</ref> Communities contribute time and labour, known as "[[sweat equity]]", which creates a [[Ownership (psychology)|sense of ownership]] and helps sustain the projects.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1245011|title=Women benefit most from 'smart villages' in Pakistan's Hindu Kush|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=2016-03-11|newspaper=DAWN}}</ref> The MHPs are run as a [[social enterprise]] and its earnings are spent on the welfare of local communities,<ref>{{cite news|title=Power up: Hydro project to light up 13,000 houses in Chitral |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/854756/power-up-hydro-project-to-light-up-13000-houses-in-chitral/|newspaper=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=New initiatives: PTI chairman promises a "different" LG system|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/595546/new-initiatives-pti-chairman-promises-a-different-lg-system/|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/161140-Ashuran-Power-House-starts-production-in-Kalam|title=Ashuran Power House starts production in Kalam|date=31 October 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref> particularly women.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/168929-Project-good-example-of-govt-donor-collaboration-Ambassador-Cautain|title=Project good example of govt-donor collaboration: Ambassador Cautain|date=1 December 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref> [[Electricity]] is generated harnessing the small [[Meltwater|glacier-meltwater]] rivers that drop steeply off soaring mountains.<ref>{{cite news|title=Son, you brought electricity to the village and added 15 years to my life|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jun/12/pakistan-electricity-village-micro-hydro-ashden-award|newspaper=The Guardian|date=12 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pakistanherald.com/news/10888/24-may-2016/power-plant-inaugurated-in-upper-dir|title=Power plant inaugurated in Upper Dir|date=24 May 2016|newspaper=Pakistan Herald}}</ref>
The European Union under the PEACE project has funded the Sarhad Rural Support Programme (SRSP) to set up 240 [[Micro hydro|micro hydropower plants]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Make your own electricity: A tale of Swat's restless heroes|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1186944 |newspaper=DAWN|date=10 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/146090-KP-to-generate-100MW-micro-hydropower-projects|title=KP to generate 100MW micro-hydropower projects|date=29 August 2016|publisher=The News International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/732027/at-long-last-kalam-gets-electricity-after-six-years/|title=At long last: Kalam gets electricity after six years.|date=2014-07-07|newspaper=The Express Tribune|language=en-US}}</ref> in the [[Malakand Division]]. In general, [[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 4/unit is charged for [[Domestic energy consumption|domestic]] and [[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 7-10/unit is charged for commercial use.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bringing hydro power to the rural areas of Pakistan |url=http://energy-access.gnesd.org/cases/48-sarhad-rural-support-programme.html|publisher=GNESD Energy Access Knowledge Based}}</ref>
=== Community infrastructure ===
A significant portion of the funds are allocated to the building or restoration of basic [[infrastructure]] such as road, bridges, water channels etc.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1142648|title=Road link to Chitral village restored after four years.|date=6 November 2014|newspaper=DAWN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/archive/print/535043-bridge-brings-joy-to-remote-villages-in-chitral|title=Bridge brings joy to remote villages in Chitral.|date=6 November 2014|website=The News International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1004653/timely-assistance-solar-plants-provided-to-chitral-hospitals/|title=Timely assistance: Solar plants provided to Chitral hospitals|date=6 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/678598/lowari-tunnel-chitral-left-out-in-the-cold/|title=Lowari Tunnel: Chitral left out in the cold - The Express Tribune|date=2014-03-04|newspaper=The Express Tribune|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Environmental aspect ==
Electricity from hydro schemes cuts down the use of [[Wood fuel|wood]] for [[cooking]], [[heating]] and [[light]]ing, consequently reducing [[deforestation]] which is a huge problem in the [[Deforestation by region|region]]. The hydro schemes also cut [[greenhouse gas emissions]], by virtually eliminating the use of [[kerosene]] [[Kerosene lamp|lighting]], cutting the use of [[diesel engine|diesel]] [[Diesel generator|generators]], and also reducing the use of unsustainable wood. A detailed breakdown has not been made of [[Fossil fuel|fuels]] replaced, but an indication of the significance can be made by assuming that the estimated 110,000 [[Kilowatt hour|MWh]] of electricity generated each year replaces diesel generation producing around 0.8 [[tonne]]s of [[carbon dioxide]] per MWh. This suggests a substantial greenhouse gas saving of around 88,000 tonnes of [[carbon dioxide]] per year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ashden.org/files/case_studies/SRSP%20Pakistan.pdf|title=Winner case study summary: Sarhad Rural Support Programme, Pakistan.|date=2015|publisher=Ashden Award for Increasing Energy Access, supported by the IKEA Foundation Award}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ashden.org/winners/SRSP15|title=The power of water brings new life to mountain villages|date=2015-06-05|newspaper=Ashden Awards, sustainable and renewable energy in the UK and developing world}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://webwidemedia.net/rspn/index.php/about-us/awards-recognition|title=Awards & Recognitions {{!}} RSPN|website=Rural Support Programmes Network (RSPN)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/804936/what-the-smart-villages-of-pakistan-can-teach-us-about-energy|title=What the 'smart villages' of Pakistan can teach us about energy|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=12 March 2016|newspaper=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref>
Pakistan is only producing 128 out of a potential of 3,100 [[Watt|MW]] of electricity from small hydropower projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thethirdpole.net/2016/03/10/the-smart-villages-of-northern-pakistan/|title=The "smart villages" of northern Pakistan|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=2016-03-10|website=The Third Pole}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://earthjournalism.net/stories/hurry-up-with-the-micro-hydro|title=Hurry up with the micro hydro|last=Cheema|first=Abdur Rehman|date=21 July 2015|website=Earth Journalism Network}}</ref>
== Recognition ==
In 2015 the Programme for Economic Advancement and Community Empowerment (PEACE) project earned the [[Sarhad Rural Support Programme]] (SRSP) an [[Ashden|Ashden Award]] for Increasing Energy Access.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.unep.org/ourplanet/december-2015/articles/blazing-trail|title=Blazing the Trail : Our Planet|last=Butler Sloss|first=Sarah|date=2015|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eco-business.com/press-releases/green-energy-awards-seek-sustainable-energy-pioneers-in-asia/|title=Green energy awards seek sustainable energy pioneers in Asia|date=8 September 2015|publisher=Eco-Business}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Ashden Award Ceremony|date=2016-09-06|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-utaxWJujQ}}</ref> In 2017 the project attracted the National Award given out by the [[Energy Globe Award]] in Pakistan for supplying electricity to [[Off-the-grid|off-grid]] areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.energyglobe.info/pakistan2017?cl=en|title=National Energy Globe Award Pakistan 2017|website=Energy Globe}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[European Union]]
* [[Hydro power]]
* [[Pico hydro]]
* [[Small hydro]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Sustainable energy]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Renewable energy]]
[[Category:Electricity]]
[[Category:Rural community development]]
[[Category:Development organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Rural development in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistan–European Union relations]] |
Peter Jacobs (landscape architect) | {{Short description|Canadian landscape architect}}
{{Other people|Peter Jacobs}}
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'''Peter Daniel Alexander Jacobs''' {{Post-nominals|country=CAN|CM|RCA|size=100%}} (born 3 December 1939) is a Canadian [[landscape architect]] specializing in the conservation and development of rural and northern landscapes and in urban landscape design.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/luniversite-honore-11-professeurs-emerites/|title=Nouvelle – Université de Montréal – Faculté de l'aménagement|last=Montréal|first=Université de|website=amenagement.umontreal.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816200859/http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/luniversite-honore-11-professeurs-emerites/|archive-date=2017-08-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> He is [[Emeritus Professor|Emeritus professor]] of the School of Planning and Landscape Architecture of the [[Université de Montréal|Universite de Montreal]], Emeritus Chair of the Commission on Environmental Planning of the International Union for the conservation of nature ([[IUCN protected area categories|IUCN]]), Past President of the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA), Chair of the Kativik Environmental Quality Commission (from 1979) and a Member of the Royal Canadian Academy of the Arts.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://ville.montreal.qc.ca/portal/page?_pageid=6377,52473581&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL|title=Ville de Montréal – Conseil du patrimoine de Montréal – Membres|website=ville.montreal.qc.ca|language=fr-ca|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/peter-jacobs-recu-a-lacademie-royale-des-arts-du-canada/|title=Nouvelle – Université de Montréal – Faculté de l'aménagement|last=Montréal|first=Université de|website=amenagement.umontreal.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807232717/http://amenagement.umontreal.ca/amenagement/la-faculte/nouvelles/nouvelle/article/peter-jacobs-recu-a-lacademie-royale-des-arts-du-canada/|archive-date=2017-08-07|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== Biography ==
Jacobs was born in Montreal on 3 December 1939. His parents were both natives of [[New York City]]: Jacob Joseph Jacobs graduated from New York University as a chemical engineer and Francis Alexander graduated from Barnard College in ancient languages. His interest in nature and the landscape was nurtured during summer family trips to the ocean and others in the northern boreal forest. His commitment to the urban landscape was derived from his experience of the cultural diversity and convivial social energy of Montreal. He is married to Ellen Vineberg Jacobs, distinguished professor emerita of Concordia University in Montreal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.recherche.umontreal.ca/la-recherche-a-ludem/la-vitrine-des-professeurs/informations/chercheur/495/pid/16/|title=Portail de la recherche: Informations|website=www.recherche.umontreal.ca|language=fr-FR|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>
Jacobs graduated from Antioch College with a bachelor's degree (1961) in engineering and fine arts. He continued his studies at the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]], where he obtained a Masters of Architecture degree (1964) followed by a Master of Landscape Architecture degree (1968).<ref name=":0"/> He then pursued a program of special studies in human ecology at Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archiv.umontreal.ca/P0000/P0397.html|title=P0397 Fonds Peter Jacobs- Université de Montréal – Division de la gestion de documents et des archives|website=www.archiv.umontreal.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>
Following his studies, Jacobs pursued both an academic and professional career. After first practicing architecture, he concentrated on landscape planning and urban design. In 1971 he was promoted to associate professor and in 1979 to full professor in the School of Landscape Architecture, Universite de Montreal. He was the school's first director (1978) and the first associate dean of research of the Faculte de l’Amenagement (1977–1984).<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=P0397 Fonds Peter Jacobs- Université de Montréal – Division de la gestion de documents et des archives|url=http://www.archiv.umontreal.ca/P0000/P0397.html|last=Udem|first=Archives|website=www.archiv.umontreal.ca}}</ref><ref name=":8"/> He was named Emeritus professor in 2016.<ref name=":8" />
Peter Jacobs is Fellow and past president of the [[Canadian Society of Landscape Architects]] (CSLA) (1978–1980), Fellow of the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]] (ASLA), and served as the Canadian delegate to the [[International Federation of Landscape Architects]] (IFLA) (1986–1995). In 2016, he was named Chair of the Montreal Heritage Council and member of the Order of Canada .<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=http://nouvelles.umontreal.ca/article/2016/12/02/peter-jacobs-nomme-a-la-presidence-du-conseil-du-patrimoine-de-montreal/|title=Peter Jacobs nommé à la présidence du Conseil du patrimoine de Montréal|date=2017-03-17|access-date=2017-04-03|language=fr}}</ref>
== Main achievements and contributions ==
=== Pedagogical development of a new field of studies ===
Jacobs' teaching is based on the structure and meaning of the urban and rural landscape as well as the use of criteria such as belonging, equity, and integrity in the design of landscape form. Due to his expertise, Peter Jacobs has been invited to evaluate numerous academic programs in Canada, Israel, Columbia, France, China and Spain. He has also given intensive courses and design studios in more than 50 universities around the world.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10" />
His research and community activities have focused on the sustainable and equitable development and conservation of the landscape in association with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), with the Kativik Environmental Quality Commission as Chair of the commission (KEQC) since 1979,<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca/evaluations/cqek.htm|title=Commission de la qualité de l'environnement Kativik (CQEK)|website=www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref> and as Chair of the Public Advisory Council for the Canadian State of the Environment Report (1991).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The State of Canada's Environment|publisher=Government of Canada, Canada Communication Group|year=1991|isbn=0-660-14237-6|location=the University of California|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/stateofcanadasen0000unse}}</ref>
=== Early stages of environmental evaluation ===
Jacobs was one of the early participants in a variety of environmental evaluation formats related to urban development and the North, both as a chair and a member of numerous public commissions. He chaired the public consultation process on the future of Lancaster Sound in the Canadian arctic (1980) and has Chaired the Kativik Environmental Quality Commission in [[Nunavik]] (since 1981).<ref name=":11" /> He also co-Chaired the public hearings related to the environmental impacts of the [[James Bay Hydroelectric Project|Great Whale Hydoelectric Project]] flowing into [[James Bay]], Quebec (1992–1994).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nunavik : un environnement en évolution|last1=Jacobs|first1=Peter|last2=Berrouard|first2=Daniel|last3=Paul|first3=Mireille|year=2009|editor-last=Commission de la qualité de l’environnement Kativik}}</ref>
In the urban context, he has participated as a commissioner for the Bureau de consultation de Montreal and the Office de consultation Publique de Montreal on files related to the development of urban neighborhoods, urban infrastructure, and the planning and design of large metropolitan parks and nature reserves.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ocpm.qc.ca/commissaire/peter-jacobs|title=Peter Jacobs|date=2015-12-14|work=OCPM|access-date=2017-04-03|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10" />
In 1990, as a member of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), he co-edited and was one of the chief architects of a research report on ''Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment : Perspectives on Planning for a Common Future''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment : Perspectives on Planning for a Common Future|last1=Jacobs|first1=Peter|last2=Sadler|first2=Barry|publisher=Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council|year=1988|location=Hull, Quebec}}</ref> Internationally, he has served as a consultant for programs sponsored by [[UNESCO]], MAB, UNU, and [[IUCN protected area categories|IUCN]].
=== Relationship of landscape and culture ===
One of the principal research fields developed by Jacobs is linked to the impact of culture and cultural values to the perception and management of landscapes. Numerous international missions in Africa, Latin America, Australia, and Europe as well as the arctic landscapes of Northern Quebec have provided a rich array of conditions and experiences that contribute to a diversity of cultural perspectives as to how the landscape is perceived and managed.
His prolonged research visits to Dumbarton Oaks as chair of the Senior Fellows of the Landscape and Garden Studies program<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.doaks.org/research/garden-landscape|title=Garden and Landscape Studies — Dumbarton Oaks|last=admin|website=www.doaks.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref> and subsequently as Beatrix Farrand Distinguished Fellow provided further material with which to evaluate the diverse cultural visions of the landscape.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://www.doaks.org/library-archives/dumbarton-oaks-archives/historical-records/oral-history-project/peter-jacobs|title=Peter Jacobs — Dumbarton Oaks|last=gabrielas|website=www.doaks.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212092038/http://www.doaks.org/library-archives/dumbarton-oaks-archives/historical-records/oral-history-project/peter-jacobs|archive-date=2017-02-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Community service ===
Jacobs' commitment to the community is marked by his desire to integrate professional practice with academic research in the service of community growth and development. As chair of the Environmental Planning Commission<ref name=":10" /> from 1978 to 1990, he helped formulate nature conservation programs and action plans for numerous countries. His environmental activities have focused on nature conservancy, the preservation of [[urban green space|urban open space]], and the development of policy, programs, and plans in support of equitable and sustainable development.
He has served as vice-president of the Solomon Schecter Academy (1973–1976), advisor to the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, member of the intercultural advisory committee of the City of Montreal, and president of the Jewish Public Library of Montreal(1996–2000)<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Jacobs|first=Peter|date=|title=Board of Trustees - Congregation Shaar Hashomayim|url=https://www.shaarhashomayim.org/board-trustees|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-22|website=www.shaarhashomayim.org}}</ref> He has also served as Chair of the community planning and allocations committee and as a Director of the Federation of Jewish Community Agencies, the United Israel Agencies of Canada and the Canadian Jewish National Fund and is an Officer of the Shaar Hashomayim Synagogue, Westmount, Quebec.<ref name=":3" />
== Prizes and distinctions ==
* 2020 : Appointed as a member of the [[Order of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gg.ca/en/activities/2020/governor-general-announces-114-new-appointments-order-canada|title=Governor General Announces 114 New Appointments to the Order of Canada }}</ref>
*2020 : Governor General’s Medal in Landscape Architecture
This list comes from the research portal of the Université de Montréal<ref name=":0" />
* 2016 : Emeritus professor, Université de Montreal, Faculté de l’aménagement<ref name=":8" />
* 2015 : Member, Royal Canadian Academy of the Arts<ref name=":1" />
* 2013 : Frederick G. Todd Prize, Quebec association of landscape architects<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://aapq.org/laureats/2013|title=Lauréats 2013 {{!}} Association des architectes paysagistes du Québec|website=aapq.org|language=fr|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>
* 2013 : Key stone Prize, Founder, Heritage Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 2010 : A Story Garden, Design Prize, The arts and the city, City of Montreal<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bulletiname.umontreal.ca/rubrique.php?id=8&rid=86&an=1|title=Bulletin d'activités de la Faculté de l'aménagement|website=www.bulletiname.umontreal.ca|access-date=2017-04-06}}</ref>
* 2009 : The Mont-Royal Prize, Friends of the Mountain and City of Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 2008 : Inaugural Beatrix Farrand Distinguished Fellow, Dunbarton Oaks, Harvard University, Washington DC, Landscape and Garden design<ref name=":5" />
* 2008 : Teaching Award, Canadian Society of landscape architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 2007 : Distinguished service award, Federation CJA, Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1998 : Honorary member, Columbian society of landscape architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1994 : President's prize, Canadian society of landscape architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1994 : Regional Award, design excellence, Faubourg Quebec, CSLA, in association with P. Poullaouec-Gonidec and Bernard St. Denis{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1993 : Gouvenor General of Canada Prize commemorating the 125th Anniversary of Confederation{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1993 : Regional Award, design excellence, Place Berri, Montreal. CSLA, in association with P. Poullaouec-Gonidec and Bernard St. Denis{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1992 : Special Prize, Order of Architects of Quebec, Place Berri, Montreal{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1990 : Elected Fellow, American Society of Landscape Architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1988 : A.H. Tammsaare Prize, Eastern European Committee, IUCN{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
* 1986 : Elected Fellow of the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}
== Selected publications ==
This list comes from the research portal of the Université de Montréal<ref name=":0" />
=== Books et collections ===
* 2009 : Jacobs, Peter; Nunavik : ''Un environnement en évolution'' : Une évaluation environnementale et sociale du développement nordique 1979–2009; Commission de la qualité de l’environnement Kativik, Kuujjuaq. Avec Daniel Berrouard et Mireille Paul
* 2000 : Jacobs, Peter et Foisy Oswald (2000); ''Les Quatre Saisons du Mont Royal'' ; Méridien, Montréal; 140 p.
* 1987 : Jacobs, Peter & Munro, David, eds. ''Conservation with Equity: Strategies for Sustainable Development'' ; Proceedings of the Ottawa Conference on Implementing the World Conservation Strategy, IUCN. 466 p.
* 1986 : Jacobs, Peter & Châtignier, Hervé. Ed. ''Proceedings of the Kativik Environment Conference'', Kujuuak, QC. Kativik Regional Government; Editions Boulard; 319 p.
* 1985 : Jacobs, Peter, ed.. "Environmental Planning and Management for Sustainable Development"; Special Issue of ''Landscape Planning''. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1985, 110 p.
* 1983 : Jacobs, Peter et Robert, Francine, éd. ''Stratégie de conservation de l'eau'', Colloque international tenu à la Ville de Québec, juin 1981, mars 1983, 418 p.
* 1981 : Jacobs, Peter, ''Environmental Strategy and Action: The Challenge of the World Conservation Strategy'', University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, 99 p.
* 1981: Jacobs, Peter, "Population, ressources et environnement, Étude régionale du Détroit de Lancaster, Affaires indiennes et du Nord Canada, 69 p.
* 1979 : Jacobs, Peter, ed. "Canada: Landscape Planning for People". ''Landscape Planning'', Vol. 6, no. 2, August, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, Amsterdam, 153 p.
=== Book chapters ===
* 2013 : Jacobs, Peter; ''Modern Garden Types''; in: ''A Cultural History of Gardens in the Modern Age''; John Dixon Hunt and Michael Leslie, eds. Bloomsbury Publishing; London
* 2007 : Jacobs, Peter; Echoes, F. Parade : Fernando Chacel's Gardens in the coastal Plain of Jacarepaguà; ''Contemporary Garden Aesthetics, Creations and Interpretations'' ; Harvard Press and Dumbarton Oaks, Spring
* 2007 : Heyes, S. and Jacobs, P.; "{{sic|?|Loo|sing}} Place : Diminishing Knowledge of the Arctic Coastal Landscape"; in : ''Different Takes on Place'' ; F. Vaudary, J. Malpas, M. Higgins eds.; The National Museum of Canberra, Australia, Spring
* 1994 : Jacobs, Peter; Bouchard, Michel and Lépine, Brigitte. ''To leave as much and as good''; in ''Keeping Ahead : the inclusion of long term futures in Environmental Impact Assessment'', R.E. Munn, Editor; Institute of Environmental Studies, Toronto
* 1990 Sadler, Barry and Jacobs, Peter; ''A Key to Tomorrow: on the relationship of environmental assessment and sustainable development''; in: ''Sustainable Development and environmental assessment'' ; CCEARC, Ottawa
* 1989 : Jacobs, Peter; The magic mountain; An urban landscape for the next millennium; in: ''Grass roots, Greystones, and Glass Towers'' ; Brian Demchinsky, ed.; Vehicle Press, Montreal
* 1988 : Jacobs, Peter. ''Towards a network of knowing and of planning in the Canadian North''; In: ''Knowing the North'', William Wonders, ed., Boreal Institute for Northern Studies; Edmonton, Alberta
* 1984 : Jacobs, Peter. ''The Lancaster Sound Regional Study'', in ''Culture and Conservation'' : ''The Human Dimensionin Environmental Planning,'' J.A. McNeely and D. Pitt, Editors, Croom Helm; London, 65-80
* 1984 : Jacobs, Peter. ''Environmental Planning and Rational Use''; in : ''Sustaining Tomorrow: A Strategy for World Conservation and Development'', Thibodeau & Field Ed; U. Press of New England, Hanover and London, 77-85
=== Professional commissions and exhibitions ===
* 2012 : Landscape Theory and Practice: An online course developed for the Royal Architecture Institute of Canada in collaboration with the University of Athabasca.
* 2000 : Re-imaging Champlain Boulevard, A landscape strategy for the Ministry of Transport and the National Capital Commission of Quebec.
* 1996 : An evaluation and strategic development plan for the Botanical Gardens, Parks and Scientific equipment Service of Montreal
* 1994 : Consultant, Berri Metro station, Montreal, Transportation Commission In collaboration with Jacques Rousseau and P. Poullaouec-Gonidec
* 1993 : Member, Expert committee for the redesign of the Expo 67 Islands Parks Service, City of Montreal
* 1993 : Consultant for the redesign of Rene-Levesque Boulevard and Dufferin, City of Quebec, National Capital Commission of Quebec
* 1992 : Concept, program and initial design, Place Berri, Parks service of Montreal.
* 1991 : Consultant, Design criteria for a new Haute Etudes Commercial complex, Universite de Montreal, in association with Jean-Claude Marsan, John MacLeod, P. Poullaoeuc-Gonidec and Bernard St. Denis
== References ==
<references />
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jacobs, Peter}}
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:Canadian landscape architects]]
[[Category:Landscape architects]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Université de Montréal]]
[[Category:Architects from Montreal]]
[[Category:Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Antioch College alumni]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Canada]]
[[Category:People from Westmount, Quebec]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts]] |
VinylPlus | {{Short description|Vinyl research programme}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = VinylPlus® <!-- defaults to {{PAGENAME}} if not provided -->
| image =
| image_size =
| alt = <!-- see [[WP:ALT]] -->
| caption =
| predecessor = Vinyl 2010
| formation = 22 June 2011
| founder = <!-- or: | founders = --> ECVM, EuPC, ESPA, European Plasticisers
| type = Sustainability programme
| status = <!-- Organization's legal status and/or description (company, charity, foundation, etc) -->
| purpose = <!-- or: | focus = --> <!--(humanitarian, activism, peacekeeping, etc)-->
| professional_title = <!-- for professional associations -->
| headquarters = [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
| location =
| coords = <!-- location's {{coord}}s -->
| region = [[EU28]] + [[Norway]] & [[Switzerland]] <!-- or: | region_served = --> <!--Any particular region or regions associated with or served by the organization-->
| services =
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| membership_year = <!-- Year to which membership number/data apply -->
| language = <!-- or: | languages = --> <!--Any official language or languages used by the organization-->
| sec_gen = <!-- Name of the organization's Secretary General (if post exists) -->
| leader_title = General Manager <!-- defaults to "Leader" -->
| leader_name = Dr. Brigitte Dero
| leader_title2 = Chairman
| leader_name2 = Stefan Sommer
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'''VinylPlus''' was founded by the European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers (ECVM), the European Stabiliser Producers Association (ESPA), European Plasticisers and the European Plastics Converters (EuPC) in 2011 when the [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] industry renewed a previous initiative called Vinyl 2010. VinylPlus is a ten-year, industry-wide voluntary commitment to develop more ecologically responsible ways to produce, use and recycle PVC. The programme aligns with the principles and targets of the [[United Nations|UN]]’s [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) and the [[circular economy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=91|title=VinylPlus - United Nations Partnerships for SDGs platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref>
VinylPlus includes all European PVC industry sectors: resin and additives producers, as well as plastics converters and recyclers. It covers the EU-28 plus Norway and Switzerland.
VinylPlus is included in the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Rio+20]] Registry of Commitments, and is a member of the Green Industry Platform, the global partnership led by the [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)]] and the United Nations Environment Platform Programme (UNEP). VinylPlus is also registered as a partner on the UN Partnerships for SDGs platform where it is recognised as fulfilling the SMART criteria.
== History ==
VinylPlus succeeded Vinyl 2010, which was the European PVC industry's first voluntary commitment. Vinyl 2010 was set up in 2000 around the principles of [[Responsible Care]] adopted by the European chemicals industry in the 1980s . Its programme aimed to shift the PVC industry to a more sustainable model by improving recycling and substituting hazardous additives.
At the same time, the [[European Union]] also started addressing environmental concerns about plastics, notably developing the [[Waste framework directive|Waste Framework Directive]] (EU Directive 2008/98/EC), which laid down key EU recycling rules.
Vinyl 2010 also set up a monitoring committee, which was kept upon the creation of VinylPlus. The committee was designed as an independent verification of the programme's activities, and includes representatives from the [[European Commission]], the [[European Parliament]], trade unions, consumer associations and academia.
== Recycling ==
One aspect of the programme is to improve recycling figures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/recycling/circular-economy|title=VinylPlus - The Circular Economy|website=vinylplus.eu|language=en|access-date=2018-11-13}}</ref> VinylPlus sets public recycling targets that it publishes online and in an annual progress report.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/progress/external-verification|title=VinylPlus - External verification|website=vinylplus.eu|access-date=2019-01-10}}</ref> VinylPlus accredits Recovinyl to helping with recycling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/recycling/recovinyl|title=VinylPlus - Recovinyl|last=|first=|date=|website=vinylplus.eu|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-01-10}}</ref> Recovinyl was set up by VinylPlus in 2003, and is an industry-wide platform that gathers European recyclers and converters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/uploads/Modules/Documents/recovinyl-web.pdf|title=PVC Recycling in Action|last=VInylPlus|first=|date=10 January 2019|website=VinylPlus|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>
== The VinylPlus Sustainability Forum ==
VinylPlus organises an annual forum: The VinylPlus Sustainability Forum. The first one took place in Istanbul in 2013. The event aims to encourage dialogue on sustainability by assembling representatives from the PVC industry, policy makers, consumer groups, retailers, architects, designers, recyclers and NGOs. The themes from past forums have been:
* 2013: Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth for Europe and Beyond
* 2014: Enhancing the Value of Partnerships
* 2015: More Vinyl, Less Carbon
* 2016: Smart Vinyl For Our Cities
* 2017: Towards Circular Economy
* 2018: Meeting Societal Needs
*2019: Accelerating Innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vinylplus.eu/community/vinyl-sustainability-forum|title=VinylPlus - The VinylPlus Sustainability Forum 2019|website=vinylplus.eu|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref>
== Governance ==
VinylPlus's management Board represents all European PVC industry sectors: resin and additives producers, as well as plastics converters. The Monitoring Committee offers guidance and advice, while ensuring an independent evaluation of the initiatives undertaken in the Voluntary Commitment. The Monitoring Committee currently includes representatives from the European Commission, the European Parliament, trade unions, consumer associations and academia, as well as representatives from the European PVC industry. The Monitoring Committee's stated goal is to ensure VinylPlus's transparency, participation and accountability.
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Plastic recycling]] |
Climate-friendly school | {{Multiple issues|
{{POV|date=June 2023}}
{{Essay-like|date=June 2023}}
}}
[[File:Climate change adaptation icon.png|thumb|Climate change adaption icon]]
A '''climate-friendly school''', or eco-school,<ref name=":3" /> encourages the education of sustainable developments, especially by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide produced in order to decrease the effects of [[climate change]]. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=CLIMATE-FRIENDLY {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/climate-friendly|access-date=2020-11-11|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en}}</ref> The term "climate-friendly school" arose and was promoted by the [[United Nations]]' [[education for sustainable development]] program (ESD).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2013-05-10|title=Education for Sustainable Development|url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development|access-date=2020-11-11|website=UNESCO|language=en}}</ref>
The scientific [[Scientific consensus on climate change|consensus]] on the warming of the climate system and growing [[Climate change#Public awareness|public]] concern about its effects, as well as the increased [[:Category:Climate change treaties|international commitments]] by countries to reduce global emissions, has accelerated investment into climate-friendly technologies in recent years.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Climate Change Evidence: How Do We Know?|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence|access-date=2020-11-11|website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet}}</ref>
== Climate-friendly initiatives ==
International initiatives such as the [[United Nations|United Nation's]] [[education for sustainable development]] program (ESD), supported by the [[Foundation for Environmental Education]] [[Eco-Schools|eco-schools]] program and the [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP's]] [[Global Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability|global universities partnership on environment and sustainability]] have led the development of climate-friendly schools.<ref name=":2" /> In order to minimise the production of carbon dioxide, these initiatives have encouraged the calculation and reduction of carbon footprints, the reduction of waste (through composting, purchasing policies, litter-less lunches), alternative transport options and increased education of climate change issues.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What your school can do {{!}} Climate Change Connection|url=https://climatechangeconnection.org/resources/climate-friendly-schools/what-to-do/|access-date=2020-11-11|website=climatechangeconnection.org}}</ref>
=== Education for sustainable development (ESD) ===
The education for sustainable development (ESD) was developed through broad consultations with stakeholders from 2016 to 2018 with the aim of contributing to the achievement of 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]]. The United Nations introduced a "whole-school" approach, surrounding a situation where students learn about climate change is further improved by formal and informal messages promoted by the school's values and actions. The "whole-school" approach to climate change means that an educational institution encourages action for reducing climate change in every aspect of school life.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Implementing a Whole-School Approach to Climate Change|url=https://aspnet.unesco.org/en-us/whole-school-approach-to-climate-change|access-date=2020-10-26|website=aspnet.unesco.org}}</ref> This includes school governance, teaching content and methodology, campus and facilities management as well as cooperation with partners and the broader communities. This actively involves all internal and external school stakeholders, namely students, teachers, principals, school staff at all levels and the wider school community such as families and community members in reflecting and acting on climate change is key to a whole-school approach.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Gibb|first=Natalie|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002467/246740e.pdf|title=Getting Climate-Ready: A Guide for Schools on Climate Action|publisher=Paris, UNESCO|year=2016|isbn=978-92-3-100193-2|pages=5, 7–8, 10, 15, 18–19}}</ref>
=== Eco-schools ===
The [[Eco-Schools|eco-schools]] program was developed in 1994 with the support of the European Commission and identified as model initiative for the [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] program by the United Nations. The aim of the program is to promote sustainable development issues in schools through the introduction of a seven-step methodology and eleven-subject theme encouragement.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Eco Schools|url=https://www.ecoschools.global/|access-date=2020-11-11|website=Eco Schools|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Global Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability ===
The [[Global Universities Partnership on Environment and Sustainability|global universities partnership on environment and sustainability]] was launched in 2012 at the UNEP in Shanghai, China. In accordance with the [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] program it aims to increase the mainstreaming of sustainability practises and education into universities worldwide. The program pays special attention to enabling individual transformation, societal transformation and technological advancement.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Environment|first=U. N.|date=2017-10-12|title=Global Universities Partnership on Environment for Sustainability|url=http://www.unenvironment.org/es/node/10655|access-date=2020-11-11|website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme|language=es}}</ref>
== Climate-friendly schools ==
According to a UNESCO report, the following schools situated around the world have implemented the system of a "climate-friendly school", with respect to climate agreements.
=== Greece ===
[[File:Teaching climate change adaptation icon.png|thumb|225x225px|Teaching climate change adaption icon]]
As an experimental school, the Athens-Gennadeio in Greece was encouraged to introduce innovative programmes.<ref>Gkaras, Georgios & Yiatas, Dimitris. (2017). 'Teaching "emergence" with NetLogo in a High School project about Complex Systems and Climate Change'</ref> In 2013, the school introduced systems into biology and chemistry courses for 157 senior secondary students. In this systems unit, students worked in groups to investigate climate change, virus transmission, and ecosystem dynamics with the help of computer simulations. Through their investigations, students discovered the properties of complex systems, such as positive and negative [[Feedback|feedback loops]]. A group of students measured the energy sustainability of the school building, to find its weaknesses and construct an action plan to improve it.<ref name=":0" />
=== Lebanon ===
The Al-Kawthar Secondary School in Beirut, Lebanon works to raise awareness of climate change within their school. So far, 2,421 students, 310 teachers, and 110 families have been involved in projects including [[Tree planting|tree-planting]], making handicrafts from recycled materials, visiting national forests, recycling, and conserving water. The school also hosted film nights and workshops where students, families and teachers suggested ways to save the planet. Following the ISO-26000 guidelines for socially responsible institutions, the school has committed to a continuous process of improvement. At the beginning of the school year, the environmental committee develops an action plan based on what was learned and achieved the previous year. The committee keeps a record of their activities, so the school can identify high-impact activities and activities that could be scaled up. Teachers and students deepen their learning by sharing their experiences with other schools in [[Lebanon]] and around the world.<ref name=":0" />
=== Côte d’Ivoire ===
[[File:Childrens Movement for Civic Awareness.jpg|thumb|245x245px|Children's movement for civic awareness]]
In [[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]], [[UNESCO ASPNet|ASPnet]] schools implemented initiatives, with the consultation university researchers and medical practitioners, that aimed to preserve the biodiversity of forests. The biodiversity of forests was acknowledged to be under threat due to the widespread uses of forest resources as a culturally important practise in [[traditional medicine]]. The schools promote visits to botanical gardens where parents and traditional medicine practitioners teach students about traditional medicinal plant cultivation and methods of sustainable conservation. In collaboration with the experts and researchers, the ASPnet schools are now considering creating a genebank as well as replanting endangered species.<ref name=":0" />
=== Brazil ===
In Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, the Colégio Israelita Brasileiro A. Liessen's environment team has developed initiatives to teach janitors, teachers, students and engineers about sustainable practices in experiential, non-formal learning activities. The team built a [[green roof]], [[Solar cooker|solar ovens]], bamboo bicycle racks and planted spices, flowers, and meditation gardens that could be converted into [[biodiesel]] cooking oils. The team has also offered trainings for school community members in order to secure buy-ins for the projects. For example, training on waste sorting and cooking oil collection was offered to employees and a gardening workshop was organized for student volunteers, so they could assist maintenance staff in caring for the expanding school gardens.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Nagoya City Sengoku Elementary School.jpg|thumb|Nagoya City Sengoku Elementary School]]
=== Japan ===
The [[Nagoya International School]] in Japan is committed to developing a school culture of sustainability, as expressed in their school mission statement. The institution aims to “nurture in its students the capacity to objectively define what is truly needed in the global society, to take action on their own, and to become active agents for [[sustainable development]].”<ref name=":0" />
== See also ==
* [[UNESCO ASPNet|UNESCO ASPnet]]
* [[Education for sustainable development]]
* [[Global citizenship education|Global Citizenship Education]]
* [[Climate change education (CCE)|Climate Change Education (CCE)]]
== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Getting Climate Ready: A Guide for Schools on Climate Action
| author = Gibb, Natalie
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 5, 7-8, 10, 15, 18-19
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002467/246740e.pdf
| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=246740&set=0058D7D42B_3_16&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Free content from UNESCO]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental education]]
[[Category:Meteorology and climate education]] |
Climate change education | {{Short description|Education that aims to address and develop effective responses to climate change}}
[[File:Figure 1 Whole school approach to climate change Getting Climate-Ready.svg|thumb|A [[UNESCO]] diagram visualising a "whole school approach" to climate change]]
'''Climate change education''' (CCE) is [[education]] that aims to address and develop effective responses to [[climate change]]. It helps learners understand the causes and consequences of climate change, prepares them to live with the [[effects of global warming|impacts of climate change]] and empowers learners to take appropriate actions to adopt more [[Sustainable living|sustainable lifestyles]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002330/233083e.pdf|title=Not Just Hot Air: Putting Climate Change Education into Practice|last=UNESCO|publisher=Paris, UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100101-7|pages=6, 8, 10, 32, 40, 44, 46, 48, 58}}</ref> Climate change and climate change education are global challenges that can be anchored in the curriculum in order to provide local learning and widen up mindset shits on how climate change can be mitigated. In such as case CCE is more than climate change literacy but understanding ways of dealing with climate<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNSSC {{!}} United Nations System Staff College |url=https://www.unssc.org/ |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=www.unssc.org |language=en}}</ref>
CCE helps policymakers understand the urgency and importance of putting mechanisms into place to [[climate change mitigation|combat climate change]] on a national and global scale. Communities learn about how climate change will affect them, what they can do to protect themselves from negative consequences, and how they can reduce their own [[carbon footprint]]. In particular, CCE helps increase the resilience of already vulnerable communities who are the most likely to be adversely affected by climate change.<ref name=":0" />
CCE is rooted in [[Education for sustainable development]] (ESD).<ref name=":0" />
== UNESCO Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development programme ==
Established in 2010, the [[UNESCO]] Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development programme (CCESD) aims to help people understand climate change by expanding CCE activities in [[Nonformal learning|nonformal education]] through the media, networking and partnerships. With the help of organizations and individuals, UNESCO is able to host the World Higher Education Conference (in Barcelona 2022).<ref group="1">{{cite web |title=UNESCO World Higher Education Conference 2022 |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-world-higher-education-conference-2022 |website=unesco |access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref> It is grounded in the [[Holism|holistic]] approach of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) which incorporates key sustainable development issues such as climate change, [[disaster risk reduction]] and others into education, in a way that addresses the interdependence of [[environmental sustainability]], economic viability and social justice. It promotes participatory teaching and learning methods that motivate and empower learners to change their behaviour and take action for sustainable development. The programme seeks to help people understand the impact of global warming today and increase 'climate literacy', especially among young people, and aims to make education a more central part of the international response to climate change. UNESCO works with national governments to integrate CCE into national [[Curriculum|curricula]] and to develop innovative teaching and learning approaches for doing so.<ref name=":0" />
== Selected country profiles regarding CCE and ESD ==
=== Australia ===
Australia has been at the forefront of [[Education for sustainable development|education for sustainability]], adopting in 2000 a national plan entitled Environmental Education for a Sustainable Future. A number of initiatives and bodies were created to implement the national plan, including the Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative and [[Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability]]. These provided a strong foundation for Australia's strategy, launched in 2006, to respond to the [[Education for sustainable development#United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development .28DESD.29|UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]]. The strategy set out the goal to mainstream sustainability through a holistic approach that engages the community through education and [[lifelong learning]]. Whereas climate change was referred to as one of a number of environmental concerns in the first national plan, a new plan launched in 2009, entitled Living Sustainably: the Australian Government's National Action Plan for Education for Sustainability, had a greater focus on climate change and its impacts on other natural resources within a wider global context. The new plan incorporated climate change within education for sustainability, rather than establishing a new and potentially competing field of Climate Change Education. Australia introduced its first-ever national curriculum in 2014, including sustainability as one of three cross-curriculum subjects.<ref name=":0" />
Since 2009, Climate Change Education has been most evident in the [[TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training)|VET sector]]. [[Council of Australian Governments|COAG]] endorsed the Green Skills Agreement in 2009, and the Ministerial Council for Vocational and Technical Education published the National VET Sector Sustainability Policy and Action Plan (2009-2012). These initiatives aimed to provide workers with the skills needed to transition to a low-carbon economy and VET teachers with suitable training packages to promote education for sustainability.<ref name=":0" />
=== China ===
China introduced [[environmental education]] in the late 1970s as a result of increased attention to sustainable development and the need to protect the environment. Following the [[Earth Summit|United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]] (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), environmental education moved towards environment, population and development, and finally education for sustainable development.<ref name=":0" />
The Chinese government has produced a number of policy documents identifying environmental education and ESD as key to quality education. In 2003, the Ministry of Education issued the first guiding policy - the Guidelines for Implementing Environmental Education in Elementary and Secondary School - on environmental education in China. ESD was formally incorporated into the national education policy in 2010 in The National Education Outline 2010-2020, and further integrated in some local education policies. National climate change policies and plans in China refer to education but do not specifically address CCE. This has resulted in limited institutional support to date. There is no national ESD or CCE action plan or official policy to inform its implementation.<ref name=":0" />
In China, ESD mainly refers to providing individuals with the scientific knowledge, learning capacity, values and lifestyle choices to meet the country's sustainable development objectives. CCE is most commonly implemented as a component of ESD. A number of educational approaches have been adopted to facilitate the implementation of ESD. These include integrating ESD values into school philosophy, [[curriculum development]], capacity-building of teachers and educators, ESD pedagogical approaches and ESD and CCE thematic activities.<ref name=":0" />
ESD is a component of compulsory education, but is limited in higher education, VET and adult education. The Ministry of Education has recently issued a guidance document that identified the VET sector in particular as needing to be reformed to meet the sustainable development objectives of the Chinese economy.<ref name=":0" />
=== Denmark ===
Denmark and its neighbouring countries began working together in the 1990s to formulate a policy for ESD. While Denmark signed the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE) declaration on ESD in 2005, it did not adopt a strategy until 2009, just before the half-way point of the DESD. The Ministry of Education, which was made responsible for the DESD, organised a consultation process on how to promote ESD before adopting its strategy in 2009.<ref name=":0" />
The UN Climate Summit (COP15) held in Denmark in December 2009 provided the impetus to develop of a number of national ESD policy initiatives. A national strategy on ESD was developed with a substantial climate change component. The aim of the strategy is to make citizens more responsible for their actions by improving their scientific knowledge. The ESD strategy notes that climate change should not be the sole focus of ESD, though the concrete initiatives that are part of the strategy mostly support the CCE projects and activities that were part of COP15 preparations.<ref name=":0" />
A new national school curriculum adopted in 2009 included elements of ESD and CCE. The concept of sustainability was embedded in the goals describing the interrelationships between nature and society. CCE is mostly approached as teaching climate science, but it was also included in subjects such as geography and social studies, where the interrelationships between human behaviour, consumption and climate are examined.<ref name=":0" />
There has been no explicit policy change in the TVET sector to upgrade skills to respond to climate change and environmental issues. However, it is important to note that the Danish TVET sector had previously reflected skills related to ecological modernisation in areas such as energy generation, [[waste management]] and agriculture. While the new government identified the economic and environmental climate change crises as important, education is only referred to in relation to the economic crisis. There is no mention of climate change or sustainability with regard to education, and the platform documentation on 'green transition' does not mention education. Overall, no policy strategy has been set to promote ESD, CCE, or the 'greening' of TVET as part of the government's sustainable development and climate change policies. Government initiatives support NGO-led projects to raise community awareness of climate change. A national network on ESD was established with funding through to 2013.<ref name=":0" />
=== Dominican Republic ===
The Dominican Republic has taken a lead role in promoting ESD. Environmental education was made mandatory for all schools in 1998 and this has since evolved into ESD. In 2000, the General Law of Environment and Natural Resources changed the way environmental education was taught, moving from a subject matter to a cross-cutting and interdisciplinary theme. Risk management is also an important aspect of MINERD's strategic plan, and has been integrated into the school curriculum as a cross-cutting subject. In 2004, the Environmental Education Strategy for Sustainable Development was adopted, which fosters formal and non-formal ESD. It is based on constructivism and uses a variety of pedagogical techniques that promote participatory learning.<ref name=":0" />
The Ten-year 2008-2018 Education Plan (PDE) addresses the issue of quality education, including sustainable development and a culture of peace. It also established a process for periodic review of the curriculum. Climate change is also being introduced into the curriculum. The National Teacher Training Institute (INAFOCAM) and the Salomé Ureña Higher Institute for Teacher Training (ISFODOSU) provide support for environmental education through teacher training and curriculum support. The Ten-year 2008-2018 Higher Education Plan (PDES) includes environmental issues in the curricula and establishes a research programme to promote sustainable development.<ref name=":0" />
The Dominican Republic has been involved in a number of ESD and CCE initiatives that have helped build local capacity, including:
* formal, non-formal and informal projects on ESD led by governmental agencies, civil society organizations, young leaders and local communities;
* UN: CC Learn Project, which supports the design and implementation of results-oriented and sustainable learning to address climate change (see the detailed case study in this Report);
* National Strategy to Strengthen Human Resource Capacities to Advance Green, Low Emission and Climate Resilient Development (ENDVBERC);
* teacher training supported by the UN: CC Learn-UNITAR, and the UNESCO-CCESD pilot programme.<ref name=":0" />
===UK===
In the United Kingdom, the [[Teach the Future|Teach the Future campaign]] aims to rapidly repurpose the education system around the climate emergency and [[ecological crisis]];<ref>{{Cite web|title=Who we are|url=https://www.teachthefuture.uk/about|website=Teach the Future|language=en|access-date=2020-05-29}}</ref> they are cohosted by the [[UK Student Climate Network]] and [[National Union of Students (United Kingdom)|SOS-UK]] and are in the process of devolving their campaign to Scotland and Northern Ireland from England.
They have 3 asks of the Government<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Hub|url=https://www.teachthefuture.uk/hub/44e33423-98c7-4882-9e7f-81c8fd450722|website=Teach the Future|language=en|access-date=2020-05-29|archive-date=2020-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701225243/https://www.teachthefuture.uk/hub/44e33423-98c7-4882-9e7f-81c8fd450722}}</ref>
* A government commissioned review into how the English formal education system is preparing students for the climate emergency and ecological crisis
* The inclusion of the climate emergency and ecological crisis in English teaching standards and training
* The enactment of an English Climate Emergency Education Act - the first student written bill in history
====England====
Environmental and development education have been present in England since the 1970s, when civil society organizations took the lead. From the late 1990s, the UK government promoted sustainable development and ESD at the local, regional and national levels. However, while a number of strategic government reports addressed CCE, government policy has focused less on ESD since 2010.<ref name=":0" />
The 2008 report Brighter Futures – Greener Lives: Sustainable Development Action Plan 2008-2010 outlined a number of specific initiatives related to Climate Change Education using an ESD approach. This included empowering youth with the skills, knowledge and freedom to voice their opinions and make a difference. The same year, CCE was introduced into the [[Key Stage 3]] (11 to 14 year-olds) geography curriculum.<ref name=":0" />
The report '' Education for Sustainable Development in the UK 2010'' noted that there were signs of substantial progress in embedding ESD-related policies and developing practices in the UK across a wide range of sectors in 2008 and 2009. For example, documents in 2009 highlighted the 'Sustainable Schools' project that aims to empower youth to cope with the future challenges facing the planet. The aim is for all schools to be 'Sustainable Schools' by 2020.<ref name=":0" />
====Scotland====
The Scottish Government commissioned a
climate change TV advert,<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/3Smb3jZUPHA Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508195451/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Smb3jZUPHA&spf=navigate Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Smb3jZUPHA| title = Climate Change TV Advert - 30 Second | website=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> possibly as part of public awareness program.{{Original research inline|date=November 2019}}
=== Republic of Korea ===
The Republic of Korea has a number of policies and initiatives supporting environmental education. In 2008, the Environmental Education Promotion Act encouraged the development of environmental education. It aimed to raise national environmental awareness, to encourage people to develop research and inquiry skills, and to put what they learn into action.<ref name=":0" />
The Ministry of Environment, in its 2011-2015 Environmental Education Master Plan, proposed a policy agenda for environmental education to be implemented through formal education, social environmental education and educational infrastructure approaches. The various approaches in the formal education area include:
* 'Environment and Green Growth' as an elective subject in middle and high school curricula, and classes in elementary school designed to integrate environmental education;
* the establishment of the Natural Environmental Studies Institute that offers interactive youth programmes for environmental studies;
* Environment Model Schools, designed to demonstrate best-practice;
* 'Low Carbon Challenge' involving ten universities;
* in-service training for teachers to upskill, specializing in environmental education.<ref name=":0" />
=== Vietnam ===
The development of ESD in Vietnam took place in the most recent decades. The National Council of Sustainable Development was formed in 2006 to acknowledge the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD).<ref name=":04">{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000190101|title=Climate change education for sustainable development: the UNESCO climate change initiative|website=unesdoc.unesco.org|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref> A committee consisting of high-ranking leaders such as government leaders and ministers were appointed to develop an education for sustainability guideline.
The Ministry for Education and Training (MOET) played an important role to push forward establishment goals for ESD and CCE. Furthermore, they were also able to recognize the climate change impacts overall in Vietnam such as increase in average temperature and sea rise level. From 1951-2000, Vietnam's global average temperature increased about 0.5-0.7 Celsius, and sea level had risen about 20 cm.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2014|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Rajib|editor2-last=Oikawa|editor2-first=Yukihiko|title=Education for Sustainable Development and Disaster Risk Reduction|journal=Disaster Risk Reduction|doi=10.1007/978-4-431-55090-7|isbn=978-4-431-55089-1|s2cid=126680026|issn=2196-4106}}</ref> These two factors had put a hold on the growing socioeconomic achievements; therefore, MOET acted on the development education aspects to mitigate climate change in the future.<ref name=":12" /> The first key steps MOET promoted toward ESD and CCE were ''the National Action Plan of Education for Sustainable Development of Viet Nam in 2010 and the Action Plan for Response to Climate Change of the Education Sector for the period of 2011-2015''.<ref name=":04" />
''Action Plan of Education for Sustainable Development''
In 2016, Vietnam, Costa Rica, and Kenya started their partnership with UNESCO to establish high standard ESD policies at a regional and global level.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html|title=UNESCO Global Action Programme On Education For Sustainable Development|date=10 February 2020|website=UNESCO Digital library}}</ref> Through UNESCO, there were four main projects that the countries can get involved in different socioeconomic levels such as ''Advancing ESD policy development, A whole-institution approach to climate change through the UNESCO Associated Schools Network (ASPnet), Sustainability starts with teachers, Empower youth ESD leaders as change agents, and Community for ESD.''
''Climate Change Education''
In 2009, MOET was able to develop and implement environmental education (EE) and CCE education into formal education curriculum. This gained approval from ESD standpoints,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development|title=Education for Sustainable Development|date=2013-05-10|website=UNESCO|language=en|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html|title=Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|language=EN|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref> however it was still not considered to count towards all ESD approaches.<ref name=":04" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Nguyen|first=Thao Phuong|date=2019-07-03|title=Searching for education for sustainable development in Vietnam|journal=Environmental Education Research|language=en|volume=25|issue=7|pages=991–1003|doi=10.1080/13504622.2019.1569202|s2cid=150247389|issn=1350-4622}}</ref> Furthermore, one of the main challenges MOET was facing during this time was an increase of materials on top the regular curriculum, resulted in overloading students with knowledge.<ref name=":22" />
=== United States of America ===
Since the year 2013, over 20 states and the District of Columbia have adopted the Next Generation Science Standards which encourages "climate literacy" in order to better educate students of Earth's current climate crisis with updated scientific information around climate change.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jaffee |first=Lucy |title=Why don't more U.S. schools teach about climate change? |url=https://news-decoder.com/why-dont-more-u-s-schools-teach-about-climate-change/ |access-date=2022-08-23 |work=News Decoder |language=en-US}}</ref> According to the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication, Americans in all 50 states support the education of climate change to children in schools.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Americans Support Teaching Children about Global Warming |url=https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/americans-support-teaching-children-global-warming/ |access-date=2022-08-23 |website=Yale Program on Climate Change Communication |language=en-US}}</ref>
In 2020, the New Jersey State Board of Education adopted new learning standards which integrate climate change across all content areas;<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Jersey Student Learning Standards |url=https://www.nj.gov/education/cccs/2020/ |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=www.nj.gov}}</ref> the standards came into effect with the 2022-23 school year,<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Jersey first state to introduce climate change curriculum in schools |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/jersey-state-introduce-climate-change-curriculum-schools/story?id=90322277 |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref> making New Jersey the first state to do so.
== See also ==
* [[UNESCO ASPNet|UNESCO ASPnet]]
* [[Global citizenship education|Global Citizenship Education]]
* [[Climate-friendly school]]
* [[Environmental education]]
* [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)]]
== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Not Just Hot Air: Putting Climate Change Education into Practice
| author = UNESCO
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 6, 8, 10, 32, 40, 44, 46, 48, 58
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002330/233083e.pdf
| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=233083&set=0058DD2731_2_73&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=1}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Climate change}}
[[Category:Free content from UNESCO]]
[[Category:Environmental education]]
[[Category:Climate change and society]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate communication| ]]
[[Category:Meteorology and climate education]] |
Integrated modification methodology | {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
'''Integrated modification methodology''' ('''IMM''') is a procedure encompassing an open set of scientific techniques for morphologically analyzing the [[built environment]] in a multiscale manner and evaluating its performance in actual states or under specific design scenarios.
The methodology is structured around a nonlinear phasing process aiming for delivering a systemic understanding of any given urban settlement, formulating the modification set-ups for improving its performance, and examining the modification strategies to transform that system. The basic assumption in IMM is the recognition of the built environment as a [[Complex adaptive system|Complex Adaptive System]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brownlee|first=J|date=2007|title=Complex Adaptive Systems|journal=CIS Technical Report|pages=1–6}}</ref>
IMM has been developed by IMMdesignlab, a research lab based at [[Polytechnic University of Milan|Politecnico di Milano]] at the Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering (DABC).
==History==
IMM began in 2010 as an academic research at Politecnico di Milano. That research criticized the analytical approach frequently used to study and evaluate the built environment by most of the sustainable development methods. By Recognizing the built environment as a [[Complex Adaptive System]] (CAS), IMM is urged towards a holistic simulation rather than simplifying the complex mechanisms within the cities with [[reductionism]].
In 2013, Massimo Tadi established the ''IMMdesignlab'' at the Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering (DABC) of the Politecnico di Milano. The purpose of the mentioned laboratory is to develop IMM through research and education.
IN 2015, ''Integrated Modification Methodology for the Sustainable Built Environment'' has been approved as an academic course in the curriculum of the ''Architectural Engineering'', an International Master Program in Politecnico di Milano.
==Background==
At its theoretical background, Integrated Modification Methodology refers to the contemporary urban development as a highly paradoxical context arisen from the social and economic significance of the cities on the one hand and their arguably negative environmental impacts on the other. Asserting the inevitably of [[urbanization]], IMM declares that the only way to overcome that paradox for the cities is to develop in a profound integration with the [[ecology]]. According to IMM, the fundamental prerequisite of ecologically [[sustainable development]] is to have a comprehensive systemic understanding of the built environment.
IMM suggests that the advancement in construction techniques, building materials quality and transportation technologies alone have not solved the complex problems of the urban life simply because such improvements are not necessarily dealing with the systemic integration. The core argument of IMM is that the performance of the city is being chiefly driven by the complex relationships subsystems rather than the independent qualities of the urban elements. Thus, it aims at portraying the systemic structure of the built environment by introducing a logical framework for modeling the linkage between the city's static and dynamic elements.
== Methodology ==
Integrated Modification Methodology is based on an iterative process involving the following four major phases:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tadi|first=Massimo|last2=Vahabzadeh Manesh|first2=S|date=2014|title=Transformation of an urban complex system into a more sustainable form via integrated modification methodology (I.M.M)|journal=The International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning|volume=9}}</ref>
# Investigation
# Formulation
# Modification
# Retrofitting and Optimization
The first phase, Investigation, is a synthesis-based inquiry into the systemic structure of the urban form. It begins with ''Horizontal Investigation'' in which the area under study is being dismantled into its morphology-generator elements, namely Urban Built-ups, Urban Voids, Types of Uses, and Links. It follows with ''Vertical Investigation'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vahabzadeh Manesh|first=S|last2=Tadi|first2=Massimo|date=2011|title=, Sustainable urban morphology emergence via Complex Adaptive System analysis|journal=Procedia Engineering|pages=89–97}}</ref> that is a study of integral relationships between the mentioned elements. The output of Vertical Investigation is a set of quantitative descriptions and qualitative illustrations of certain attributes named ''[[Key Categories]]''. In a nutshell they are types of [[emergence]] that show how elements come to self-organize or to synchronize their states into forming a new level of organization. Hence in IMM, Key Categories are the result of an emergence process of interaction between elementary parts (Urban Built-ups, Urban Voids, Types of Uses, and Links) to form a synergy able to add value to the combined organization. Key categories are the products of the synergy between elementary parts, a new organization that emerge not (simply as) an additive result of the proprieties of the elementary parts.
IMM declares that the city's functioning manner is chiefly driven from the Key Categories, hence, they have the most fundamental role in understanding the architecture of the city as a Complex Adaptive System. The Investigation phase concludes with the ''Evaluation'' step which is basically an examination of the system's performance by referring to a list of verified indicators associated with ecological sustainability. The same indicators are later used in the CAS retrofitting process necessary for the final evaluation of the system performance, after the transformation design process occurred.
The Formulation phase is a technical assumption of the most critical Key Category and the urban element within the area deduced from the Investigation phase. These critical attributes are being interpreted as the Catalysts of transformation and are to come to the designer's use to set a contextual priority list of ''[[Design Ordering Principals]]''.
The third phase is the introduction of the modification/design scenarios to the project and advances with examining them by the exact procedure of the Investigation phase in a repetitive manner until the transformed context is predicted to be acceptable in arrangement and evaluation.
The fourth phase, Retrofitting and Optimization, is a testing process of the outcomes of the modification phase, then a local optimization by technical strategies (e.g. installing photovoltaic panels, designing green roofs, studying building orientations etc.) is initiated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tadi|first=Massimo|last2=Mohammad Zadeh|first2=Hadi|date=2014|others=Naraghi, Vahabzadeh Manesh|title=Environmental and energy performance optimization of a neighborhood in Tehran, via IMM methodology|journal=International Journal of Engineering Science and Innovative Technology (IJESIT)|pages=409–428}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[wiktionary:Analysis|Analysis]]
*[[Center for the Built Environment]]
*[[Chaos theory]]
*[[Circles of Sustainability]]
*[[Cognitive science]]
*[[Collaboration]]
*[[Complex system]]
*Design
*[[Design education]]
*[[Design Impact Measures]]
*[[Design research]]
*[[Design strategy]]
*[[Design thinking]]
*[[Ecology]]
*[[Ecological footprint]]
*[[Energy conservation]]
*[[Conceptual framework]]
*[[Heuristic]]
*[[Holistic]]
*[[Innovation]]
*[[Interaction design]]
*[[Intuition (knowledge)]]
*[[Method (software engineering)|Method]]
*[[Observation]]
*[[Participatory design]]
*[[Principles of intelligent urbanism]]
*[[Programming paradigm]]
*[[Renewable energy]]
*[[Simulation]]
*[[Sustainable architecture]]
*[[Sustainable design]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Sustainable landscape architecture]]
*[[Sustainable preservation]]
*[[Sustainable refurbishment]]
*[[Wicked problem]]
*[[World Green Building Council]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
*Ahern, J. (2006). "Green Infrastructure for Cities: The spatial Dimension". In Cities of the Future Towards Integrated Sustainable Water and Landscape Management, edited by Vladimir Novotny and Paul Brown, 267–283. London: WA publishing.
* Anderson, P. (1999). Complexity Theory and Organization Science Organization Science. 10(3): 216–232.
* Batty, M. (2009). Cities as Complex Systems: Scaling, Interaction,Networks, Dynamics and Urban Morphologies. In Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science. Springer.
* Bennett, S., (2009), A Case of Complex Adaptive Systems Theory- Sustainable Global Governance: The Singular Challenge of the Twenty-first Century. RISC-Research Paper No.5: p. 38
* Brownlee, J., (2007), Complex Adaptive Systems. CIS Technical Report: p. 1–6.
* Backlund, A. (2000), "The definition of system". In: ''Kybernetes'' Vol. 29 nr. 4, pp. 444–451.
* Clarke, C. and P. Anzalone, Architectural Applications of Complex Adaptive Systems, XO (eXtended Office). p. 19.
* Crotti, S., (1991), Metafora, Morfogenesi e Progetto, E.D'alfonso and E.Franzini, Editors. 1991: Milano.
* Hildebrand, F. (1999), Designing the city towards a more sustainable urban form. Routledge.
* Hough, Micheal. (2004). Cities and Natural Processes: a Basis for Sustainability. London: Routledge.
* Jenks, M., E. Burton, and K. Williams, (1996), The compact city, a sustainable form?: F a FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall. 288
* Ratti C., Baker N., (2005) Steemers K., Energy consumption and urban texture, Energy and buildings, Elsevier.
* Salat, S. and L. Bourdic, Urban complexity, scale hierarchy, energy efficiency and economic value creation. WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment, 2012. Vol 155: p. 11.
* Steel, C. (2009), Hungry City: How Food Shapes Our Lives, Random House UK.
* Tadi, M. Vahabzadeh Manesh, S. A.Daysh, G. Kahraman, I. Ursu (2013) The case study of Timișoara (Romania). IMM design for a more sustainable, livable and responsible city. AST Management Pty Ltd, Nerang, QLD, Australia.
*Tadi, M. & Bogunovich, D. (2017). New Lynn - Auckland IMM Case Study: Low-density urban morphology and energy performance optimisation. Auckland, New Zealand. Retrieved from http://unitec.ac.nz/epress/
* Thom, R., (1975), Stabilite Structurelle et Morphogenese. Massachusetts: W.A.Benjamin, Inc. 348.
* Vahabzadeh Manesh, S. M. Tadi, (2013) Neighborhood Design and Urban Morphological Transformation through Integrated Modification Methodology (IMM) part 1. The Designer Architectural Magazine Vol.8. IRAN.
==External links==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air European Environment Agency – Air Pollution]
* [https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/sustainability-transitions European Environment Agency – Sustainability Transition]
* [http://www.energyrecoverycouncil.org Energy Recovery Council]
* [http://www.tod.org Transit Oriented Development Institute]
* [https://unhabitat.org UNHabitat for a better Urban Future]
* [http://www.worldgbc.org World Green Building Council]
* [http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS Urban population (% of total)] – World Bank website based on UN data.
* [https://www.statista.com/statistics/270860/urbanization-by-continent/ Degree of urbanization (percentage of urban population in total population) by continent in 2016] – [[Statista]], based on [[Population Reference Bureau]] data.
{{div col end}}
{{Design}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Environmental humanities}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Land-use planning}}
[[Category:Sustainable architecture]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Sustainable urban planning]]
[[Category:Academic disciplines]] |
Sustainable development reserve (Brazil) | A '''sustainable development reserve''' ({{lang-pt|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável}}, RDS) in Brazil is a type of [[Protected areas of Brazil|protected area]] inhabited by a traditional population that seeks to preserve nature while maintaining and improving the life of the population through [[sustainable development]].
==Background==
The concept of Sustainable Development Reserves originated in the Projeto Mamirauá launched in the early 1990s by the Sociedade Civil Mamirauá.
The project followed the principle of management based on scientific research and controlled use of natural resources.
The local population participates actively in the planning process and in responsible for managing and monitoring the area.
Key aspects are that the strategy can adapt to changes in the market, private property is maintained, plans are implemented to improve living conditions, and the local people partner with government agencies and NGOs to develop proposals for sustainable use.{{sfn|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}
The [[Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve]] was established in 1996, the first such reserve in Brazil.{{sfn|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}
The adjacent [[Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve]] was established in 1998 after the successful implementation of the Mamirauá reserve, and was fully supported by the local people.
They already recognized the importance of preserving the vegetation and animals that they depend upon for their livelihood.{{sfn|Luiz Claudio Marigo|1999}}
The new category of protected area was included in the National Protected Areas System (SNUG), which defined types of [[Protected areas of Brazil|protected area of Brazil]] in 2000.{{sfn|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}
==Structure==
A Sustainable Development Reserve (RDS) holds traditional populations that live by sustainable [[exploitation of natural resources]], developed over generations and adapted to the local ecology, and that protect nature and maintain biological diversity.
The goals are to preserve nature while preserving and improving the quality of life of the traditional populations, and to advance scientific knowledge and understanding of traditional techniques for managing the environment.{{sfn|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}
The land in an RDS is in the public domain, and may be expropriated.
Land use is regulated according to Law 9985 article 23 (2000) and in specific regulations.
A board of directors is chaired by the administrative agency and includes representatives of public bodies, civil society organizations and traditional populations living in the area.{{sfn|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}
A management plan is created by the administrative agency, which recognises the dynamic balance between conservation goals and the size of the population.
Natural ecosystems may be exploited sustainably, and cultivation of introduced species is allowed, subject to the management plan.
The plan defines areas where the ecology is fully protected, buffer zones, zones of sustainable use and ecological corridors.
Public visits to the RDS are allowed and encouraged where compatible with local interests and the management plan.
Scientific research and education with focus on conservation of nature are also encouraged.{{sfn|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}
==Selected reserves==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Conservation Unit !! Level !! State !! Area (ha) !! Created !! Biome
|-
| [[Alcobaça Sustainable Development Reserve|Alcobaça]] || State || [[Pará]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 36,128|| 2002 ||
|-
| [[Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve|Amanã]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 2,350,000 || 1998 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Aripuanã Sustainable Development Reserve|Aripuanã]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 224,291|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Aventureiro Sustainable Development Reserve|Aventureiro]] || State || [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 1,312 || 2014 || Coastal Marine
|-
| [[Bararati Sustainable Development Reserve|Bararati]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 113,606|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Barra do Una Sustainable Development Reserve|Barra do Una]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 1,487 || 2006 || Coastal Marine
|-
| [[Barreiro/Anhemas Sustainable Development Reserve|Barreiro/Anhemas]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 3,175 || 2008 || [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Canumã Sustainable Development Reserve|Canumã]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 22,355|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Concha D'Ostra Sustainable Development Reserve|Concha D'Ostra]] || State || Espírito Santo ||style="text-align:right;"| 953 || 2003 || [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Cujubim Sustainable Development Reserve|Cujubim]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 2,450,380|| 2003 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Despraiado Sustainable Development Reserve|Despraiado]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 3,953 || 2006 || [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Igapó-Açu Sustainable Development Reserve|Igapó-Açu]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 397,557|| 2009 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Itapanhapima Sustainable Development Reserve|Itapanhapima]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 1,243 || 2008 || [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Itatupã-Baquiá Sustainable Development Reserve|Itatupã-Baquiá]] || Federal || [[Pará]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 64,735|| 2005 ||
|-
| [[Juma Sustainable Development Reserve|Juma]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 589,611|| 2006 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Lavras Sustainable Development Reserve|Lavras]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 890 || 2008 || [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve|Mamirauá]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 1,124,000 || 1990 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Matupiri Sustainable Development Reserve|Matupiri]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 179,083|| 2009 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Nascentes Geraizeiras Sustainable Development Reserve|Nascentes Geraizeiras]] || Federal || [[Minas Gerais]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 38,177|| 2014 || [[Cerrado]]
|-
| [[Piagaçu-Purus Sustainable Development Reserve|Piagaçu-Purus]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 1,008,167|| 2003 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Pinheirinhos Sustainable Development Reserve|Pinheirinhos]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 1,531 || 2008 || [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Pucuruí-Ararão Sustainable Development Reserve|Pucuruí-Ararão]] || State || [[Pará]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 29,049|| 2002 ||
|-
| [[Puranga Conquista Sustainable Development Reserve|Puranga Conquista]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 76,936|| 2014 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Quilombos de Barra do Turvo Sustainable Development Reserve|Quilombos de Barra do Turvo]] || State || [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 5,826 || 2008 || [[Atlantic Forest]]
|-
| [[Rio Amapá Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Amapá]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 216,109|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Rio Iratapuru Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Iratapuru]] || State || [[Amapá]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 806,184 || 1997 ||
|-
| [[Rio Madeira Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Madeira]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 283,117|| 2006 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Rio Negro Sustainable Development Reserve|Rio Negro]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 103,086|| 2008 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve|Tupé]] || Municipal || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 11,930 || 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Uacari Sustainable Development Reserve|Uacari]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 632,949|| 2005 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Uatumã Sustainable Development Reserve|Uatumã]] || State || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 424,430|| 2004 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|-
| [[Urariá Sustainable Development Reserve|Urariá]] || Municipal || [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 59,137 || 2001 || [[Amazon biome|Amazon]]
|}
==Notes==
{{notes}}
{{reflist|30em}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{citation|journal=AO|issue=87|date=January–February 1999|title=Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Amanã
|author=Luiz Claudio Marigo |location=Rio de Janeiro|language=Portuguese |url=http://www.ao.com.br/ao87_8.htm|accessdate=2016-05-05}}
*{{citation|ref={{harvid|Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve – ISA}}|language=Portuguese
|title=Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentáve|publisher=ISA: Instituto Socioambiental
|url=https://uc.socioambiental.org/uso-sustent%C3%A1vel/reserva-de-desenvolvimento-sustent%C3%A1vel|accessdate=2016-05-04}}
*{{citation|ref={{harvid|Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável – Sociedade Civil Mamirauá}}|language=Portuguese
|title=Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável|publisher=Sociedade Civil Mamirauá
|url=http://www.mamiraua.org.br/pt-br/reservas/|accessdate=2016-05-05}}
{{refend}}
{{Protected areas of Brazil}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Development Reserve, Brazil}}
[[Category:Sustainable development reserves of Brazil| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous politics in Brazil]]
[[Category:Sustainability in Brazil]]
[[Category:Sustainable communities]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Types of protected area of Brazil]] |
Engineers Without Borders (Ireland) | {{Short description|Irish international development organization}}
{{primary sources|date=December 2016}}
'''Engineers Without Borders Ireland''' is an [[international development]] organisation for students and professionals from [[Ireland]] who share a common interest in [[sustainable development]] through engineering and [[appropriate technologies]].
The organisation was initially founded in 2007, and partook in a two-week project in the Sonairte: The National Ecology Centre in Co. Meath, Ireland. After a lull in activities, a small group of engineers began discussions on reviving EWB-Ireland in 2009. These discussions led to the formation of EWB-Ireland's first ever national committee in January 2010. The committee is a small group of engineers from numerous disciplines, located throughout the country.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ewb-ireland.org/history |title=EWB-Ireland Website - History |access-date=2011-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726042858/http://www.ewb-ireland.org/history |archive-date=2011-07-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Currently, EWB-Ireland has branches in [[University College Dublin]] and [[Queen's University Belfast]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ewb-ireland.org/branches |title=EWB Ireland Website - Branches |access-date=2011-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726043316/http://www.ewb-ireland.org/branches |archive-date=2011-07-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://ewb-ireland.org/ EWB-Ireland Website]
* [https://sonairte.ie/ Sonairte: The National Ecology Centre]
{{Engineers Without Borders}}
{{Sansfrontieres}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Development charities based in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Appropriate technology organizations]]
[[Category:Engineers Without Borders|Ireland]]
[[Category:All-Ireland organisations]] |
Green gross domestic product | {{Short description|Gross domestic product with environmental consequences factored in}}
The '''green gross domestic product''' ('''green GDP''' or '''GGDP''') is an index of [[economic growth]] with the environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country's conventional [[GDP]]. Green GDP monetizes the [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]], and accounts for costs caused by [[climate change]]. Some environmental experts prefer physical indicators (such as "[[waste]] [[per capita]]" or "[[carbon dioxide emissions]] per year"), which may be aggregated to indices such as the "[[Sustainable Development Index]]".
==Calculation==
=== Formula ===
The environmental and related social costs to develop the economy are taken into consideration when calculating the green GDP, which can be expressed as:
'''Green GDP = GDP − Environmental Costs − Social Costs'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Chi |first=Ying F. |last2=Rauch |first2=Jason N. |date=2010 |title=The Plight of Green GDP in China |url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8FX794J |doi=10.7916/D8FX794J |issn=1948-3074|journal = Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development}}</ref>
where the environmental cost typically qualifies:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Xuanjian |last2=Gui |first2=Ya |date=2020 |editor-last=Weerasinghe |editor-first=R. |editor2-last=Wu |editor2-first=J. |editor3-last=Weng |editor3-first=C.-H. |title=An Empirical Study on Green Investment and Economic Growth in China |url=https://www.e3s-conferences.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202019405058 |journal=E3S Web of Conferences |volume=194 |pages=05058 |doi=10.1051/e3sconf/202019405058 |issn=2267-1242|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Depletion value of [[natural resource]]s, e.g. oil, coal, natural gas, wood, and metals;
* [[Environmental degradation|Degradation]] cost of ecological environment, e.g. underground water pollution, topsoil erosion, and extinction of wildlife;
* [[Restoration ecology|Restoration]] cost of natural resources, e.g. waste recycling, wetland restoration, and afforestation;
and the social costs typically include:
* Poverty caused by degradation of environment, e.g. shortage of natural resources after exploitation;
* Extra healthcare expenditure coming with the degradation of ecological environment;
Above calculations can also be applied to [[net domestic product]] (NDP), which deducts the depreciation of produced capital from GDP.
=== Valuation methodology ===
Since the indicators of environment are generally expressed in national accounts, the conversion of the resource activity into a monetary value is necessary. A common procedure to evaluate, proposed by United Nations in its [[System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting]] handbook, applies following steps:<ref>{{Cite ebook|date=2014-12-31 |title=System of Environmental Economic Accounting 2012 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789210562850-en |doi=10.1787/9789210562850-en|isbn=9789210562850}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!No.
!SEEA Steps
|-
|1
|Compilation of the supply and use accounts (GDP accounting)
|-
|2
|Identification and compilation of environmental protection expenditures
|-
|3
|Compilation of produced resource asset accounts
|-
|4
|Compilation of physical resource accounts
|-
|5
|Valuation of the resource: compiling the monetary accounts
|-
|6
|Compilation of physical environmental accounts (non-economic assets)
|-
|7
|Compilation of emissions by economic sector
|-
|8
|Maintenance costing of environmental degradation
|}
If current values of resources are non-existent or non-explicit, the next option is to value the resource based upon the present value of expected net returns from future commercial use. That is, the sum of present values for future expected income minus expected future expenditures (the cash flow CF), for each future time point (t), is termed the net present value (NPV).
==Rationale==
The motivation for creating a green GDP originates from the inherent limitations of GDP as an indicator of [[economic performance]] and [[social progress]]. GDP assesses gross output alone, without identifying the wealth and assets that underlie output.<ref name="WAVES"/> GDP does not account for significant or permanent depletion, or replenishment, of these assets. Ultimately, GDP has no capacity to identify whether the level of [[income]] generated in a country is [[sustainable]]. Richard Stone, one of the creators of the original GDP index, suggested that, while "the three pillars on which an analysis of society ought to rest are studies of economic, socio-[[demographic]], and environmental phenomenon", he had done little work in the area of [[environmental issues]].<ref>Richard Stone, [https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1984/stone-lecture.pdf "The Accounts of Society"], "The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1984", 8 December 1984</ref>
[[Natural capital]] is poorly represented in GDP. Resources are not adequately considered as economic assets.<ref>[http://www.ihdp.unu.edu/article/read/iwr-policy "Policy Recommendations"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075450/http://www.ihdp.unu.edu/article/read/iwr-policy |date=2013-04-20 }}, "[[International Human Dimensions Programme]] on Global Environmental Change", 2012</ref> Relative to their costs, companies and policymakers also do not give sufficient weight to the future benefits generated by restorative or protective environmental projects. As well, the important positive externalities that arise from forests, wetlands, and agriculture are unaccounted for, or otherwise hidden, because of practical difficulties around measuring and pricing these assets.<ref name="WAVES">[http://www.wavespartnership.org/waves/natural-capital-accounting?active=1 "Natural Capital Accounting"], "Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services", 2013</ref> Similarly, the impact that the [[depletion of natural resources]] or increases in [[pollution]] can and do have on the future productive capacity of a nation are unaccounted for in traditional GDP estimates.<ref name="WAVES" />
The need for a more comprehensive macroeconomic indicator is consistent with the conception of sustainable development as a desirable phenomenon.<ref>[http://www.sesric.org/files/article/52.pdf "Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Growth and Development with Special Reference to a System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA): The Indonesian Experience"], "Statistical, Economic and Social Research and Training Centre for Islamic Countries"</ref> GDP is mistakenly appropriated as a primary indicator of well-being, and as a result, it is used heavily in the analysis of political and economic policy. Green GDP would arguably be a more accurate indicator or measure of societal well-being. Therefore, the integration of [[environmental statistics]] into national accounts, and by extension, the generation of a green GDP figure, would improve countries' abilities to manage their economies and resources.
==History==
Many economists, scientists, and other scholars have theorized about adjusting [[macroeconomic]] [[economic indicator|indicator]]s to account for [[environmental change]]. The idea was developed early on through the work of Nordhaus and Tobin (1972), Ahmad et al. (1989), Repetto et al. (1989), and Hartwick (1990).<ref>John Asafu-Adjaye, [http://www.unescap.org/pdd/publications/dp25/dp25_ch4.pdf "Green National Accounting and the Measurement of Genuine (Extended) Saving"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811080135/http://www.unescap.org/pdd/publications/dp25/dp25_ch4.pdf |date=2007-08-11 }}, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 2004</ref>
In 1972, William Nordhaus and James Tobin introduced the first model to measure the annual real consumption of households, called the [[Measure of Economic Welfare]] (MEW).<ref name="MEW">William Nordhaus and James Tobin, [https://www.nber.org/chapters/c7620.pdf "Is Growth Obsolete?"], National Bureau of Economic Research, 1972</ref> MEW adjusts GDP to include the value of leisure time, unpaid work, and [[environmental damage]]s.<ref name="MEW" /> They also defined a sustainable MEW (MEW-S) value, and their work was the precursor to more sophisticated measures of sustainable development.
Repetto further explored the impact that the failure of resource-based economies to account for the depreciation of their natural capital could have, especially by distorting evaluations of macroeconomic relationships and performance.<ref name="Jeroen">Jeroen van den Bergh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=p6bwKkM1GC8C "Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development"], 1996</ref> He and his colleagues developed the concept of depreciation accounting, which factors environmental depreciation into "aggregate measures of economic performance".<ref name="Jeroen" />
In their seminal report, "Economic Accounting for Sustainable Development", Yusuf Ahmad, Salah El Serafy, and Ernst Lutz compiled papers from several [[UNEP]]-[[World Bank]] sponsored workshops, convened after 1983, on how to develop [[environmental accounting]] as a [[public policy]] tool.<ref name="WB">Edited by Yusuf J. Ahmad, Salah El Serafy and Ernst Lutz, [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/12/03/000178830_98101901491957/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf "Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Development"], The World Bank, 1989</ref> The central theme of all of the authors' arguments is that the [[system of national accounts]] (SNA), as it traditionally calculates income, omits important aspects of economic development that ought to be included.<ref name="WB" /> One important disagreement on environmentally adjusted indicators is presented by Anne Harrison and Salah El Serafy, in their respective chapters.<ref name="WB" /> Harrison argues that appropriate adjustments ought to be made within the existing SNA framework, while El Serafy suggests a redefinition of what constitutes intermediate and final demand.<ref name="WB" /> In his view, the SNA should not consider the sale of natural capital as generating value added, while at least part of the income generated from this sale should be excluded from GDP and net product.<ref name="WB" /> This would effectively allow GDP to continue to be used extensively.<ref name="WB" />
In "Natural Resources, National Accounting and Economic Depreciation", John Hartwick presents an accounting methodology to find NNP, inclusive of the depletion of natural resource stock, by representing the use of natural resources as "economic depreciation magnitudes".<ref>John Hartwick, [http://qed.econ.queensu.ca/working_papers/papers/qed_wp_771.pdf "Natural Resources, National Accounting and Economic Depreciation"], Queen's University, 1990</ref>
This method of accounting, which makes adjustments to the existing national account indicators, found traction in the [[System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting]] (SEEA), published by the [[United Nations]] as an appendix to the 1993 SNA.<ref name="Joy">Joy Hecht, [http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C13/E1-21-03-04.pdf "The Evolving System of Integrated Economic and Environmental Accounts"], Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, 2004</ref> The report offered five approaches, or versions, to developing environmental accounts.<ref name="Joy" /> Over the years, the SEEA has been expanded and revised in view of the increased sophistication of accounting methodologies and technology. This revision will be explored in greater detail in the "Global Initiatives" section. Ultimately, the importance of the SEEA with respect to the green [[GDP]] is that it is possible to create full-sequence accounts from which aggregates, such as green GDP, can be derived and compared internationally, and many countries have begun this process.<ref>London Group on Environmental Accounting, [http://www.beyond-gdp.eu/download/bgdp-ve-seea.pdf "Why We Need the SEEA"], ''Beyond GDP'', 25 October 2007</ref>
Several reports and initiatives after the SEEA-1993 have explored the possibility of expanding or changing the scope of environmentally-adjusted macroeconomic indicators. As the popularity of green GDP and other environmentally adjusted macroeconomic indicators grows, their construction will increasingly draw on this continuously developing body of research, especially with respect to the methodology associated with valuing non-market capital (e.g., services from natural capital which exist outside of traditional market settings).
In 1993, the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the official bookkeeper of the U.S. economy, began responding to concerns that the GDP needed retooling. The agency began working on a green accounting system called Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounts. These initial results, released in 1994, showed that GDP numbers were overstating the impact of mining companies to the nation's economic wealth. Mining companies did not like those results, and in 1995, Alan B. Mollohan, a Democratic House Representative from West Virginia's coal country, sponsored an amendment to the 1995 Appropriations Bill that stopped the Bureau of Economic Analysis from working on revising the GDP.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | title=Fixing GDP: Green Accounting in the United States | date=April 9, 2004 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602190235/http://gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | archivedate=2007-06-02}}</ref><ref>Stiglitz, Joseph (2008), presentation in New York, 5 Feb 2008, "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Q_PA_czIKM video from 3:18]"</ref>
Costanza et al. (1997) estimated the current economic value of 17 [[ecosystem services]] for 16 biomes.<ref name="Costanza">Costanza et al., [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v387/n6630/abs/387253a0.html "The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital"], ''Nature'', 1997</ref> The value of the entire biosphere, most of which exists outside of the market, is estimated conservatively to be between $16–54 trillion per year.<ref name="Costanza" /> By comparison, global GNP is approximately $18 trillion per year.<ref name="Costanza" /> The size of this figure demonstrates the significance of ecosystem services on human welfare and income generation, and the importance of identifying and recognizing this value. The valuation techniques used by the authors were often based on estimations of individuals' "willingness-to-pay" for ecosystem services.<ref name="Costanza" />
Kunte et al. (1998) use their paper "Estimating National Wealth: Methodology and Results" to demonstrate that expanding the national accounts to include natural capital is a "practical [and necessary] exercise".<ref name="Kunte">Kunte et al., [http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ceea/archive/Framework/Kunte_etal_1998.PDF "Estimating National Wealth"], The World Bank, 1998</ref> They estimate the total wealth of nations by including different components of wealth in their calculations, including natural capital. They place values on natural capital by using the concept of economic rent. "Economic rent is the return on a commodity in excess of the minimum required to bring forth its services. Rental value is therefore the difference between the market price and cost of production / extraction."<ref name="Kunte" /> Following this, and by adjusting calculations for (un)sustainable use patterns, they are able to determine the stock of natural capital in a country that more accurately reflects its wealth.<ref name="Kunte" />
"Nature's Numbers: Expanding the National Economic Accounts to Include the Environment," written by William Nordhaus and Edward Kokkelenberg and published in 1999, examined whether or not to broaden the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts (NIPA) to include natural resources and the environment.<ref name="Nordhaus">William Nordhaus and Edward Kokkelenberg, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3147043 "Nature's Numbers: Expanding the National Economic Accounts to Include the Environment"], National Academy Press, 1999</ref> The panel, which addressed this question, concluded that extending the NIPA and developing supplemental environmental accounts should be a high-priority goal for the U.S., because these would provide useful data on a variety of economic issues and government trends, which entailed both replenishing and extractive activities.<ref name="Nordhaus" /> One of the major findings of the report is that it is fundamentally necessary for green adjustments to account for instances when natural capital is discovered or replenished, along with general depletive activities.
===Green GDP in China===
As one of the fastest-growing countries in the world, China noticed the green [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] as early as 1997.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Vic |last2=Lang |first2=Graeme |date=2010-02-01 |title=China's "Green GDP" Experiment and the Struggle for Ecological Modernisation |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00472330903270346 |journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=44–62 |doi=10.1080/00472330903270346 |issn=0047-2336}}</ref> City authorities had conducted a survey based on Beijing's GDP, and the result showed that around 75% of the total GDP was constituted by Green GDP, and the rest of the 25% flowed away as pollution.<ref name=":1" /> Other cities also started the same calculation. For example, green GDP in Yaan reported 80% of the total GDP, while Datong reported only 60%.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Wen Jiabao (Cropped).jpg|thumb|Chinese Premier [[Wen Jiabao]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Office |first=Presidential Press and Information |title=Русский: С Премьером Государственного Совета КНР Вэнь Цзябао.English: With Premier of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China Wen Jiabao. |date=2010-09-27 |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wen_Jiabao_(Cropped).jpg |access-date=2023-05-04}}</ref>]]
In 2004, [[Wen Jiabao]], the Chinese premier, announced that the green GDP index would replace the Chinese GDP index itself as a performance measure for government and party officials at the highest levels. China’s State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA), together with the National Bureau of Statistics(NBS), the Chinese Academy for Environmental Planning(CAEP), and units from [[Renmin University of China|Renmin University]], investigated the nationwide Green GDP. The major environmental impacts in China were from air, water, and solid waste pollution.<ref name=":1" /> The first green GDP accounting report, for 2004, was published in September 2006. It showed that the financial loss caused by pollution was 511.8 billion yuan ($66.3 billion), or 3.05 percent of the nation's economy.<ref>Sun Xiaohua (2007) "[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-04/19/content_853917.htm Call for return to green accounting]", ''China Daily'', 19 April 2007.</ref>
As an experiment in national accounting, the Green GDP effort collapsed in failure in 2007, when it became clear that the adjustment for environmental damage had reduced the growth rate to politically unacceptable levels, nearly zero in some provinces. In the face of mounting evidence that environmental damage and [[resource depletion]] was far more costly than anticipated, the government withdrew its support for the Green GDP methodology and suppressed the 2005 report, which had been due out in March, 2007.<ref>Kahn, J. and Yardley, J. (2007) "[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html Choking on Growth: As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes]", ''The New York Times'', 26 Aug 2007.</ref> The failure of Green GDP in China is connected to the incongruity between central authorities and local government.<ref name=":0" /> Beijing was aware of the environmental costs of fast-growing GDP, and encouraged for cleaner or more efficient production. However, many local officials had direct connections with local businesses, and focused more on economic growth than damage by pollution.<ref name=":0" /> Another reason for the failure was due to the cost of data collection. It took both money and time to collect data and set them into databases. The Chinese government had a hard time collecting comprehensive environmental cost data.<ref name=":0" /> Only pollution and emission costs (air emissions, surface water pollution discards to land, and environmental accidents) were counted in, while social costs and natural resources depletion were missing.<ref name=":0" />
Lang and Li (2009) use their paper "China's 'Green GDP' Experiment and the Struggle for Ecological Modernisation" to conclude that the attempt to implement green GDP was a signal that the Chinese government paid attention to environmental impacts. However, the fast-growing economy was more prioritized than environmental accounting, and the failure of the experiment was inevitable.<ref name=":1" />
Independent estimates of the cost to China of environmental degradation and resource depletion have, for the last decade, ranged from 8 to 12 percentage points of GDP growth.<ref>Economy, Elizabeth (2007) "[https://www.pbs.org/kqed/chinainside/nature/greengdp.html Green GDP: Accounting for the Environment in China]", ''China from the Inside'', U.S. Public Broadcasting System.</ref> These estimates support the idea that, by this measure at least, the growth of the Chinese economy is close to zero.
The most promising national activity on the green GDP has been from India. The country's environmental minister, Jairam Ramesh, stated in 2009 that "It is possible for scientists to estimate green GDP. An exercise has started under the country's chief statistician [[Pronab Sen]] and by 2015, India's GDP numbers will be adjusted with economic costs of [[environmental degradation]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/India-to-release--green-GDP--data-from-2015/544338/|title=India to release green GDP data from 2015}}</ref>
==Organizations==
The [[Global Reporting Initiative]]'s (GRI) core goals include the mainstreaming of disclosure on environmental, social, and governance performance. Although the GRI is independent, it remains a collaborating centre of [[UNEP]] and works in cooperation with the [[United Nations Global Compact]]. It produces one of the world's most prevalent standards for sustainability reporting—also known as [[ecological footprint]] reporting, [[Environmental Social and Corporate Governance|environmental social governance]] (ESG) reporting, [[triple bottom line]] (TBL) reporting, and [[corporate social responsibility]] (CSR) reporting. It is working on a green GDP to be implemented worldwide.
==Current debate==
Some critics of environmentally adjusted aggregates, including GDP, point out that it may be difficult to assign values to some of the outputs that are quantified. This is a particular difficulty in cases where the environmental asset does not exist in a traditional market and is therefore non-tradable. Ecosystem services are one example of this type of resource. In the case that valuation is undertaken indirectly, there is a possibility that calculations may rely on speculation or hypothetical assumptions.
Supporters of adjusted aggregates may reply to this objection in one of two ways. First, that as our technological capabilities increase, more accurate methods of valuation have been and will continue to develop. Second, that while measurements may not be perfect in the cases of non-market natural assets, the adjustments they entail are still a preferable alternative to traditional GDP.
A second objection may be found in the Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress, when Stiglitz, Sen, and Fitoussi remark that:
<blockquote>"there is a more fundamental problem with green GDP, which also applies to Nordhaus and Tobin's SMEW and to the ISEW/GNI indices. None of these measures characterize sustainability per se. Green GDP just charges GDP for the depletion of or damage to environmental resources. This is only one part of the answer to the question of sustainability."<ref name="Fitoussi">Joseph Stiglitz, Amartya Sen and Jean-Paul Fitoussi, [http://templatelab.com/rapport-anglais/ "Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress"], "Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress", 2008</ref></blockquote>
== See also ==
*[[Environment of China]]
*[[Genuine progress indicator]] (GPI)
*[[Green national product]]
*[[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs)
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* [http://www.gov.cn/english/2006-09/11/content_384596.htm Green GDP Accounting Study Report 2004 issued] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406234712/http://www.gov.cn/english/2006-09/11/content_384596.htm |date=2015-04-06 }}.
* A brief explanation of [http://www.env-econ.net/2005/07/from_the_answer_1.html Green GDP].
* [http://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/show/single/en/355-China-issues-first-green-GDP-report China issues first 'green GDP' report] – article from China Dialogue
* [http://www.terradaily.com/2006/060907094049.z78gdn6u.html Environmental pollution costs China 64 billion dollars in 2004] – article from Terra Daily
* [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/choking_on_growth.html#story3 NYTimes documentary on China's Green GDP effort]
{{Environmental social science}}
[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]] |
Eco-industrial development | '''Eco-industrial development''' ('''EID''') is a framework for industry to develop while reducing its impact on the environment.<ref name=WhatIsP7>{{cite web|title=What is Eco-Industrial Development?|url=http://www.greenleaf-publishing.com/content/pdfs/eich1.pdf|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing|accessdate=23 April 2014|author=Cohen-Rosenthal, E|page=7|year=2003}}</ref> It uses a [[Circular economy|closed loop]] production cycle<ref>{{cite web|title=Eco-industrial development and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act: examining the barrier presumption|url=http://www.bc.edu/content/dam/files/schools/law/lawreviews/journals/bcealr/30_2/01_FMS.htm|publisher=Boston College|accessdate=23 April 2014}}</ref> to tackle a broad set of environmental challenges such as soil and [[water pollution]], [[desertification]], species preservation, energy management, by-product synergy, resource efficiency, [[air quality]], etc.<ref name=WhatIs>{{cite web|title=What is Eco-Industrial Development?|url=http://www.greenleaf-publishing.com/content/pdfs/eich1.pdf|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing|accessdate=23 April 2014|author=Cohen-Rosenthal, E|year=2003}}</ref>
Mutually beneficial connections among industry, natural systems, energy, material and local communities become central factors in designing industrial production processes.<ref name=HandBook>{{cite web|title=Handbook on Codes, Covenants, Conditions, and Restrictions for Eco-Industrial Parks |url=http://www.cfe.cornell.edu/wei/papers/codes_files/codes.htm |publisher=Cornell Center for the Environment |accessdate=23 April 2014 |author=Cohen-Rosenthal, E |year=1999 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011225060140/http://www.cfe.cornell.edu/wei/papers/codes_files/codes.htm |archivedate=December 25, 2001 }}</ref>
The approach itself is largely voluntary and market-driven but often pressed ahead by favorable government treatment or efforts of development co-operation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Qualitative Inquiry in Everyday Life: Working with Everyday Life Materials|last=Brinkmann|first=Svend|date=2012|publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd|isbn=9780857024763|location=London|doi = 10.4135/9781473913905|s2cid=147934729 }}</ref>
== History ==
Since the early 1990s the idea of EID evolved from biological [[symbiosis]]. This concept was adopted by industrial ecologists in the search for innovative approaches to solve problems of waste, energy shortage and degradation of the environment. A continuous approach towards improving both environmental and economic outcomes is used.<ref>Chung, B. (2007): The Limit and Merit of Taking Sustainable Buildings as a Catalyst for Eco-Industrial Development.</ref>
In 1992, the [[international community]] officially connected development co-operation to sustainable environmental protection for the first time. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ([[UNCED]]) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil nearly 180 states signed the conference's Rio Declaration. Although non-binding, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development laid out 27 principles that shall guide the increasing inter-connectedness of development cooperation and sustainability.<ref name=UN1992>{{cite web|title=REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm|publisher=United nations|accessdate=23 April 2014|year=1992}}</ref> Moreover, the documents drafting was accompanied by a presentation describing the idea of eco-industrial development for the first time.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
In the following years, EID became popular throughout the United States. The recently elected [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration installed a summit of business, labor, government and environmental protection representatives to further develop the approach. This summit established the idea of [[eco-industrial park]]s but soon realized that at first a more efficient management of raw materials, energy and waste has to be achieved.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
Since then, the broad goals and application principles of EID have hardly changed and only became adapted to the rapid technological progress.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deruty|first1=Emmanuel|last2=Tardieu|first2=Damien|date=2014-02-03|title=About Dynamic Processing in Mainstream Music|journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society|volume=62|issue=1/2|pages=42–55|doi=10.17743/jaes.2014.0001|issn=1549-4950}}</ref>
In 2012 the IGEP Foundation, for the promotion of trade,<ref name=IGEP>{{cite web|title=IGEP Foundation homepage|url=http://www.igep.org/|publisher=IGEP Foundation|accessdate=23 April 2014}}</ref> published a report called ''Pathway to Eco Industrial Development in India – Concepts and Cases''.<ref name=Pathway>{{cite web|title=Pathway to Eco Industrial Development in India – Concepts and Cases|url=http://www.igep.in/live/hrdpmp/hrdpmaster/igep/content/e48745/e50194/e50195/121004_Pathway_EID_ISOX3uncoated-1.pdf|publisher=IGEP Foundation|accessdate=23 April 2014|year=2012|archive-date=9 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909074547/http://www.igep.in/live/hrdpmp/hrdpmaster/igep/content/e48745/e50194/e50195/121004_Pathway_EID_ISOX3uncoated-1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The field is researched by the Nation Centre for Eco-Industrial Development, a joint project by the [[University of Southern California]] and [[Cornell University]].<ref name=usc>{{cite web|title=National Center for Eco-Industrial Development|url=http://www.usc.edu/schools/price/research/NCEID/|publisher=usc.edu|accessdate=29 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624221300/http://www.usc.edu/schools/price/research/NCEID/|archive-date=24 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== Goals and concepts ==
The primary goal of eco-industrial development is a significant and continuous improvement in both business and environmental performance. Herein, the notion of industry not only relates to private-sector manufacturing but also covers state-owned enterprises, the service sector as well as transportation. EID's twin guideline is reflected specifically in the "eco" of eco-industrial as it resembles ecology (decrease in pollution and waste) and economy (increase in commercial success) at the same time.<ref name="WhatIs" /> In order to build a framework of defining an enterprise's sustainable performance at the micro level, resource use optimization, minimization of waste, cleaner technologies and pollution limits are used in achieving a broad range of goals in EID:
* [[Resource efficiency]] minimizes the use of energy, materials, water and transportation. This, in turn, lowers production costs due to savings in virtually all areas of business.<ref name="Pathway"/>
* Cleaner production is a predominantly environmental measure, which aims at the reduction or even substitution of toxics, emissions-control or the re-use of residual material.
* [[Renewables]] in both energy and material use shall eliminate all pollution through fossil fuels.
* Greening of buildings or production sites installs high energy and environmental standards by relying on innovation in green architecture or engineering. Moreover, new facility and infrastructure design may also enhance the quality of life in neighboring communities significantly.
* Environmental management systems such as the [[ISO 14000]] ensure a continuous improvement through regular audits and the progressing establishment of environmental targets.
* Ecological site planning can then combine each of these aspects by developing a clear understanding of air, water and ground system capacities throughout the surrounding eco-system.
Eco-industrial development hence explores the possibility of improvement at the local level.<ref name="WhatIs" /> In unique case-to-case analyses, particular geography, human potential or business climate are investigated. In contrast to the widespread race for top-down governmental support such as tax cuts, EID emphasizes locally achievable success and room for improvement. As a result, purposeful enforcement of action plans can make a large difference by optimizing the interaction of business, community and ecological systems.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
== Instruments ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2014}}
Eco-industrial development includes and employs four major conceptual instruments. Each of the approaches intends to combine the seemingly antithetic processes of industrial development and bolstering sustainability.
# [[Industrial ecology]] focuses on both industrial as well as consumer behavior. By assessing flows of energy and material, the approach determines the flows influences on the environment. In turn, it explores ways and means of optimizing the whole production chain from flow and use of resources to their final transformation. During these analyses, influences of economic, political, regulatory and social factors are key.
# The concept of [[industrial symbiosis]] is based on mainly voluntary cooperation of different industries. By conglomerating complementary enterprises and by then adapting their respective production chains, the presence of each may increase viability and profitability of the others. Therefore, symbioses consider resource scarcity and environmental protection as crucial factors in developing sustainable industries and profits. Industrial Symbiosis often becomes manifest in [[Eco-industrial park]]s.
# [[Environmental management system]]s include a wide range of different environmental management approaches in order to ensure continual improvement in sustainability. In early stages, monitoring companies facilitates the identification of hazardous environmental aspects. Further on, objectives and targets are set under consideration of legal requirements. Finally, the establishment of regular audits and other reporting systems combined with continuous follow-up targets shall ensure a constant improvement towards greener industrial production.
# The [[Design for the Environment]] concept originated in engineering disciplines as well as from the product life-cycle analysis. It is a simple but all-encompassing assessment of a product's potential environmental impact—ranging from energy and materials used for packaging, transportation, consumer use and disposal.
== See also ==
* [[Economic growth]]
* [[Green economy]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.ecoindustrialparks.net/ Eco Industrial Development in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313093725/http://www.ecoindustrialparks.net/ |date=2018-03-13 }}
* [http://www.eco-industrial.net/ Eco-Industrial Development Network]
* [http://www.eco-industrial.org/ Eco-Industrial Development Institute]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130624221300/http://www.usc.edu/schools/price/research/NCEID/ National Center for Eco-Industrial Development (NCEID)]
* [http://wm.epa.gov.tw/estp/Document/EIP%20Overview%20Taiwan%202%204-07.ppt Principles of Eco-Industrial Development: Strategic Approaches and Best Practice for Sustainable Industrial Development - presentation by Andreas Koenig of ecoindustry.org]
* [http://www.greeneconomycoalition.org/ Green Economy Coalition]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150426005408/http://www2.hull.ac.uk/science/gees/research/environmentspacesgovernance/ecoindustrialdevelopment.aspx Industrial ecology: eco-industrial development and regional economic development (University of Hull)]
{{Industrial ecology}}
[[Category:Secondary sector of the economy]]
[[Category:Environmental economics]]
[[Category:Systems thinking]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Ecology]] |
Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016 | {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
|short_title = Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016
|parliament = Scottish Parliament
|type = Scottish Act
|long_title = An Act of the Scottish Parliament to make provision for a land rights and responsibilities statement; to establish the Scottish Land Commission, provide for its functions and the functions of the Land Commissioners and the Tenant Farming Commissioner; to make provision about access to, and provision of, information about owners and controllers of land; to make provision about engaging communities in decisions relating to land; to enable certain persons to buy land to further sustainable development; to make provision for non-domestic rates to be levied on shootings and deer forests; to make provision about the change of use of common good land; to make provision about the management of deer on land; to make provision about access rights to land; to amend the law on agricultural holdings to provide for new forms of agricultural tenancy, to remove the requirement to register before tenants of certain holdings can exercise a right to buy, to provide a new power of sale where a landlord is in breach of certain obligations, to provide about rent reviews, to expand the list of the persons to whom holdings can be assigned or bequeathed and to whom holdings can be transferred on intestacy and to make provision about landlords’ objections to such successor tenants, to provide for certain holdings to be relinquished where landlords agree or assigned to persons new to or progressing in farming, to provide for a 3 year amnesty period in relation to certain improvements carried out by tenants, and to provide for notice of certain improvements proposed by landlords; and for connected purposes.
|statute_book_chapter = 2016 asp 18
|introduced_by = [[Richard Lochhead]], [[Cabinet Secretary for Rural Affairs, Food and Environment]]
|territorial_extent = Scotland
|royal_assent = 22 April 2016
|commencement = 1 November 2016
|repeal_date =
|amendments =
|related_legislation = [[Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 1991]], [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]], [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]]
|repealing_legislation =
|status = Current
|original_text = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2016/18/enacted
|revised_text = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2016/18
|legislation_history = http://www.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/Bills/90675.aspx
|}}
The '''Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016''' is an [[Act of the Scottish Parliament]] which continues the process of [[land reform in Scotland]] following the [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]]. It is notable for granting [[Scottish ministers]] the power to force the sale of private land to community bodies to further [[sustainable development]] in the absence of a willing seller.
==Provisions==
Under the provisions of the Act there is to be a ‘Land Rights and Responsibilities Statement’, setting out the Scottish Government's objectives for [[Land reform in Scotland|land reform]], a [[Scottish Land Commission]] is to take forward the land reform process, preparing a strategic plan, for the approval of Scottish ministers. One of the new land commissioners is to be a Tenant Farming Commissioner who must be neither an agricultural landlord nor a tenant but who is to be responsible for reviewing issues relating to [[tenant farming]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Blair|first1=Mike|title=A Brief Guide to Land Reform in Scotland|url=http://www.gillespiemacandrew.co.uk/media/340813/land-reform-act-2016.pdf|publisher=Gillespie Macandrew LLP|accessdate=5 March 2017|date=April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306131212/http://www.gillespiemacandrew.co.uk/media/340813/land-reform-act-2016.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
A further provision is the creation of the Community Right to Buy for Sustainable Development. This permits Scottish ministers to approve the purchase of privately owned land by a community body with a registered interest. Unlike the Community Right to Buy established by the [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]] and extended by the [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]], the Community Right to Buy for Sustainable Development does not require a willing seller but allows ministers to compel landowners to sell if they decide that the sale will further sustainable development in the area. In this respect it is similar to the Crofting Community Right to Buy of the 2003 Act which allows [[crofting]] communities to purchase croft land and the Community Right to Buy abandoned or derelict land of the 2015 Act, neither of which require a willing seller.<ref>{{cite web|title=Community rights to buy in Scotland – which is which, and what are they for?|url=http://www.brodies.com/node/8185|website=Brodies|accessdate=5 March 2017|language=en}}</ref> Community bodies may also register an interest in allowing a 3rd party to purchase land on the same basis.
Other provisions of the act include new regulations to require persons who control land to be identified, with information obtained to appear in the Land Register of Scotland; the removal of sporting rights exemption from rates, which are to be re-valued; and further powers for [[Scottish Natural Heritage]] to control deer management. It also makes provision for notice and consultation where core paths are to be amended.<ref>{{cite web|title=Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2016|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2016/18/pdfs/asp_20160018_en.pdf|accessdate=5 March 2017}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Land Reform in Scotland]]
* [[Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015]]
* [[Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{UK legislation}}
[[Category:2016 in the environment]]
[[Category:Acts of the Scottish Parliament 2016]]
[[Category:Land reform in Scotland]]
[[Category:Culture of Scotland]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development | {{Infobox website
|name = Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development
|logo = IPFSD Cover.jpg
|logo_size = 200px
|screenshot =
|caption =
|url = [http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/ Investment Policy Hub]
|commercial =
|type =
|language = [[Official languages of the United Nations]]
|registration =
|owner =
|author = [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]]
|launch_date = July 2012
|current_status =
|revenue =
}}
The '''[http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/Upload/Documents/FINAL_WEB_POLICY_FRAMEWORK_30_NOV_2015.pdf Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development (IPFSD)]''' is a dynamic document created to help governments formulate sound investment policy, especially [[international investment agreement]]s (IIAs), that capitalize on [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI) for [[sustainable development]]. It was prepared by the Division on Investment and Enterprise (DIAE) of the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD). IPFSD is not a negotiated text or undertaking between States; but rather an initiative by the UNCTAD Secretariat that represents expert guidance while leaving domestic policy makers free to ''adapt and adopt.'' IPFSD is the result of numerous consultations with experts and is intended as a platform to provide for further consultation and discussion with all investment stakeholders. The main objective of the IPFSD is to create a balance between the rights and obligations of States and investors while maintaining attractive investment environments.
In the face of persistent global economic and social challenges, UNCTAD's IPFSD intends to:
*Promote a new generation of investment agreements by pursuing a broader development agenda; and
*Offer guidance to policymakers when formulating their national and international investment policies.
To that end, IPFSD defines eleven critical core principles. Flowing from these core principles IPFSD provides States guidelines and advice on formulating good investment policy including clause-by-clause options for negotiators to enhance the [[sustainable development]] value of domestic investment policies.
== Background to the IPFSD ==
IPFSD has grown out of a long precedent of [[UN]] Member States calling for sustainable economic development, an understanding that investment is a critical aspect of [[sustainable development]], and UNCTAD's three-and-a-half decades of experience in research and policy analysis.
The [[UN Charter]] promotes, ''inter alia'', the goal of economic and social progress. The [[UN Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs) call for a Global Partnership for Development. In particular, Goal 8 encourages the further development of an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system, which includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction, both nationally and internationally- concepts that apply equally to the investment system. The “Monterrey Consensus” of the UN Conference on Financing for Development 2002, acknowledges that countries need to continue their efforts to achieve a transparent, stable and predictable investment climate. The UN Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of September 2002, following up on the Rio Declaration, calls for the formulation and elaboration of national strategies for [[sustainable development]], which integrate economic, social and environmental aspects. The 4th UN Conference on [[Least Developed Countries]] (LDCs) in May 2011 adopted the Istanbul Programme of Action with a strong focus on productive capacity building and structural transformation as core elements to achieve more robust, balanced, equitable, and inclusive sustainable development. Finally, the 2012 UNCTAD XIII Conference recognized the role of FDI in sustainable development and [[inclusive growth]].
Several other international instruments inspired the core principles that make up the IPFSD. They comprise, in particular, the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and the [[UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights]], the Convention on the Establishment of the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, the [[World Bank]] Guidelines, the [[UN Global Compact]] and the ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and social policy and several [[WTO]]-related agreements, including the [[General Agreement on Trade in Services]], the [[TRIMs]] Agreement and the Agreement on Government Procurement.
== Structure and components of the IPFSD ==
[[File:IPFSD Structure.jpg|450px|thumbnail|right]]
The IPFSD consists of eleven core principles which aim to guide the investment policy underlying IIAs. Flowing from these core principles, the IPFSD provides states guidelines and advice on formulating good investment policies. The IPFSD proposes clause-by-clause options for negotiators to strengthen the [[sustainable development]] aspects of IIAs.
IPFSD also offers an interactive online platform giving stakeholders the opportunity to critically assess policy guidelines and recommend any appropriate changes.
=== The core principles ===
The eleven core principles of the IPFSD are:
# Investment for sustainable development
#
# Policy coherence
#
# Public governance and institutions
#
# Dynamic policymaking
#
# Balanced rights and obligations
#
# Right to regulate
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# Openness to investment
#
# Investment protection and treatment
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# Investment promotion and facilitation
#
# Corporate governance and responsibility
#
# International cooperation
=== National investment policy: guidelines ===
The national investment policy guidelines translate the core principles for investment policy making into concrete guidelines at the national level, with a view to addressing specific policy changes.
These guidelines are designed to ensure that investment policy is coherent with the overarching development strategy of countries, enhance the sustainable development impact of investment and promote responsible investment. The guidelines further aim to balance maximizing sustainable development outcomes while maintaining an attractive investment climate.
The national investment policy guidelines targets policy action at three levels:
*''Strategic'' – policymakers should ground investment policy in a broad roadmap for economic growth and sustainable development, such as those set out in formal economic or industrial development strategies in many countries.
*''Normative'' – by setting rules and regulations on investment and in a range of other policy areas, policymakers can promote and regulate investment that is geared towards sustainable development goals.
*''Administrative'' – through appropriate implementation and institutional mechanisms, policymakers can ensure continued relevance and effectiveness of investment policies.
=== International investment agreements (IIAs): policy options ===
The IPFSD aims to translate the core principles into concrete options for policymakers with a view to addressing today’s investment challenges by providing examples of how to draft IIAs that address sustainable development by strengthening development dimensions of IIAs, balancing the rights and obligations of States and investors, and managing the systematic complexity of the IIA regime. International investment policy must be addressed at three levels.
*''Strategic'' – this involves managing the interaction between IIAs and national policies, and those between IIAs and other international agreements e.g. human rights obligations. The overall objective is to ensure coherence between IIAs and sustainable development goals.
*''Designing provisions for sustainable development''– this concerns addressing the policy space and balancing rights and obligations between States and investors, and effective investment promotion.
*''Building multilateral consensus on investment policy'' – this goes toward helping address the systemic challenges that emerge from overlaps and inconsistencies in the IIA regime.
The IPFSD suggests, clause-by-clause, how the IPFSD's core principles can be converted into concrete provisions in an IIA. Governments can choose from these explicit policy options those that best suit their countries’ levels of development and respective policy objectives. Among others these include: adjustments of existing IIA provisions(e.g. making them more [[sustainable development]]-friendly through formulations that safeguard policy space and limit State liability); new provisions in IIAs (e.g. to balance investor rights and responsibilities and to promote responsible investment); and the introduction of Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) (e.g. clauses for less-developed Parties to calibrate the level of obligations to the country’s level of development).
Some specific clause-level recommendations include:
*Narrowing the scope-and-definition clause to exclude portfolio, short-term or speculative investments from treaty coverage;
*Formulating the fair and equitable treatment (FET) clause as an exhaustive list of State obligations (e.g. not to (i) deny justice; (ii) treat investors in a manifestly arbitrary manner; (iii) flagrantly violate due process);
*Clarifying the distinction between legitimate regulatory activity and regulatory takings giving rise to compensation (i.e. indirect expropriations);
*Limiting the Full Protection and Security (FPS) clause to establish that "physical" security and protection will only commensurate with the country's level of development;
*Limiting the scope of the transfer-of-funds clause by providing an exhaustive list of covered payments/transfers, including exceptions triggered by serious balance-of-payment difficulties, and stipulating that the investor's transfer rights are contingent on its compliance with the host State's fiscal and other transfer-related obligations;
*Including exceptions to protect human rights, health, core labour standards and the environment, along with a check-and-balance system that ensures there is enough policy space while avoiding abuse; and
*Including clauses designed to eliminate or make investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) the last resort (e.g. after the investor's exhaustion of local remedies and use of Alternative Dispute Resolution mechanisms).
== The new generation of investment policies ==
The IPFSD embodies the new generation of investment policies that seeks to create a more intricate development strategy that maintains a favorable investment climate. New generation investment policies seek to give investment policy a more prominent place in development strategies. The continuous need to respond to newly emerging challenges and trends make it necessary to review and modify these guidelines.
== Dynamic nature of IPFSD and The Investment Policy Hub ==
IPFSD has been designed with the intention of providing immediate technical assistance for the negotiation of investment agreements, while maintaining a dialog between investment policy stakeholders including the international development community, investors, business associations, labor unions, relevant NGOs and interest groups. The result of these ongoing multi-stakeholder consultations will be a dynamic document.
To that end, in concert with IPFSD, UNCTAD has provided a platform for further consultation and discussion with all investment stakeholders—the [http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/ Investment Policy Hub] which allows investment stakeholders to post comments regarding the content of the IPFSD. The combination then, of IPFSD and the Investment Policy Hub will enable IPFSD to remain a valuable resource for investment policy makers into the future.
== External links ==
*[http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/diaepcb2015d5_en.pdf Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development 2015]
*[http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/diaepcb2012d5_en.pdf Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development (IPFSD) 2012]
*[http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/ UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120184630/http://www.unctad.org/iia UNCTAD-International Investment Agreements]
*[[World Investment Forum]]
==See also==
*[[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]]
*[[United Nations]]
*[[International Investment Agreement]]s
*[[Foreign Direct Investment]]
*[[Sustainable Development]]
*[[Investment policy]]
*[[Developing country]]
*[[Bilateral Investment Treaty]]
[[Category:Investment]]
[[Category:Foreign direct investment]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Municipal wastewater treatment energy management | [[Sustainable energy]] management in the [[Sewage|wastewater]] sector applies the concept of [[sustainable management]] to the energy involved in the [[treatment of wastewater]]. The energy used by the wastewater sector is usually the largest portion of energy consumed by the urban water and wastewater utilities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DeHaas|first=David|date=November 2015|title=WASTEWATER TREATMENT ENERGY EFFICIENCY|url=http://www.watercentre.org/awa-journal-november-2015-article/|journal=Australian Water Association Journal|volume=November 2015|pages=53–58|via=International Water Centre}}</ref> The rising costs of electricity, the contribution to [[greenhouse gas emissions]] of the energy sector and the growing need to mitigate global warming, are driving wastewater utilities to rethink their energy management, adopting more energy efficient technologies and processes and investing in on-site renewable energy generation.
== Importance ==
Among the water and wastewater services of a city, wastewater treatment is usually the most energy intense process.<ref>Cook S., Hall M., Gregory A. (2012). Energy use in the provision and consumption of urban water in Australia: an update. CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship, Australia. Prepared for the Water Services Association of Australia. A. P. f. t. W. S. A. o. A. CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship, [[CSIRO]].</ref>
Wastewater treatment plants are designed with the purpose of treating the influent sewage to a set quality before discharging it back into a water body, without real concern for the [[energy consumption]] of the treating units of a plant. These facilities play the important role to protect not only the water systems but also the [[human health]], preventing the discharge of [[pathogen]]s normally present in the [[municipal sewage]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Resource Recovery|last=Metcalf & Eddy, Tchobanoglous G., Stensel H. D., Tsuchihashi R., Burton F. L.|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=2013}}</ref> Despite the key role of wastewater facilities, energy consumption can not be ignored anymore because of its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and the need to reduce the emissions to mitigate global warming, as established by the [[Kyoto Protocol]] in 1997 and most recently, by the [[Paris Agreement]].<ref>UNFCCC (2016). Paris Agreement. United Nations.</ref> Moreover, there is uncertainty concerning energy costs. Because for a wastewater utility energy costs represent the second highest cost after labour,<ref>Copeland, Claudia. (2017). ''Energy-Water Nexus: The Water Sector's Energy Use'', Congressional Research Service.</ref> an increase in energy rate would further increase the operational budget of a municipality, and consequently, the service rates for consumers.
Therefore, it is important for the wastewater sector to invest in strategies to limit the demand of energy from the grid in order to mitigate both costs and greenhouse gas emissions.
== Global challenges ==
[[Population growth]], [[Urbanization|urbanisation]], [[climate change]] and increasing demand for [[natural resource]]s are among the future biggest challenges for the urban wastewater sector.
=== Population growth and urbanisation ===
[[World population]] and [[population density]] in urban settlements are expected to grow by 32% and 66% by 2050, respectively.<ref>UN (2015). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, (ST/ESA/SER.A/366), United Nations.</ref><ref>UN (2015). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.241., United Nations.</ref> An increase in population is expected to increase the volume of wastewater and [[sewage sludge]] requiring treatment. To handle a higher volume of sewage and sewage sludge, it is necessary to upgrade the existing wastewater facilities and the collection networks to collect, store and treat the expected additional volume. Therefore, an increase in volume translates in high future investment costs for a sector that has a low cost recovery rate.<ref>World Bank. (2015). East Asia and Pacific Wastewater to Energy Processes: a Technical Note for Utility Managers in EAP countries, World bank.</ref> Moreover, as shown by Mizuta,<ref>Mizuta K., Shimada M. (2010). "Benchmarking energy consumption in municipal wastewater treatment plants in Japan." Water Science and Technology '''62'''(10): 2256-2262.</ref> there is a direct correlation between the volume of sewage treated and the energy consumption of a wastewater treatment plant. Hence, a rise in energy demand is expected with the upgrading of the existing wastewater facilities and the construction of new ones to cope with future population increase.
=== Climate change ===
Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities have almost doubled between 1970 and 2010.<ref name=":0" /> The increase in greenhouse gases is held responsible for the changes in climate that have caused impacts on natural systems across all continents and oceans.<ref name=":0">IPCC (2014). ''Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers''. IPCC Assessment Report. '''5'''.</ref> In particular, climate change has affected the [[water cycle]], increasing the precipitation intensity and variability, increasing in this way the risks of floods and droughts in many areas.<ref>Bates, B. C., Z. W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu and J. P. Palutikof, Eds., 2008: ''Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change'', IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp.</ref> The changes that have affected the water cycle have had substantial impacts on the aquatic ecosystems, increasing and worsening the stressors already affecting these systems. Nutrient loading represents one of those stressors as, with the change in precipitation patterns, it is expected a substantial increase in nutrients entering aquatic ecosystems due to increased erosion events and frequent sewage systems overflows. Because wastewater treatment plants discharge the treated wastewater in aquatic [[ecosystem]]s, the target [[Nutrient loading|nutrient load]] of these ecosystems affects the level of treatment that a wastewater treatment plant has to perform on the wastewater before being allowed to discharge it.<ref>Van DijK, A. (2015). "Water resources, climate change and energy". ''Climate, Energy and Water''. C. U. Press''':''' 6-27.</ref> Higher native levels of nutrients in the receiving water bodies force wastewater treatment plants to perform more stringent nutrients removal from the wastewater before dispose of it. In addition to stricter discharge limits, future standards for currently unregulated contaminants are most likely to be introduced.<ref>Stillwell A. S., Hoppock D. C., Webber M. E. (2010). "Energy recovery from wastewater treatment plants in the United States: A case study of the energy-water nexus." ''Sustainability'' '''2'''(4): 945-962.</ref> The combination of more stringent limits and new treatment requirements might further increase the already significant energy demand of these facilities.<ref>Venkatesh G., Brattebø H. (2011). "Analysis of chemicals and energy consumption in water and wastewater treatment, as cost components: Case study of Oslo, Norway." ''Urban Water Journal'' '''8'''(3): 189-202.</ref>
Population growth and climate change are increasing the energy needs of wastewater facilities. Because [[fossil fuel]]s are still the most diffused source of energy, providing more than half of the global energy needs,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3.|title=What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source?|date=2016|website=The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)}}</ref> the wastewater sector is still highly dependent on fossil fuel-based energy sources. Electricity, for example, is sourced from the electricity [[Grid energy storage|grid]] while gas and [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] are generally used on-site for heating and to run backup [[Engine-generator|generators]]. High consumption of [[Fossil fuel|fossil-fuel]] energy makes the wastewater sector an indirect contributor to greenhouse gas emissions since fossil fuels are one of the biggest emitters of greenhouse gases, contributing for 65% of the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions globally.<ref name=":0" />
=== Resource recovery ===
The pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] and the increasing demand for natural resources is compelling the wastewater sector to develop innovative and more efficient practices to operate. Wastewater contains energy, nutrients and other organic and inorganic resources that can be successfully recovered and used in a broad range of applications. Energy can be recovered as [[biogas]]<ref>Askari, Mohammad Bagher, Fatemeh, Golestanian, Saman, Motraz, Motamedi Mirhosseiny, Leili (2015). "Advantages and Disadvantages of Biogas Energy." ''Bulletin of Advanced Scientific Research'' (5): 132-135%V 131.</ref><ref>Kwaśny, J., Balcerzak, W.(2017). "Production logistics and participation of biogas in obtaining primary energy in Poland." ''Energy and Environment'' '''28'''(4): 425-436</ref> and heat.<ref>Funamizu N., Iida M., Sakakura Y., Takakuwa T.(2001). "Reuse of heat energy in wastewater: implementation examples in Japan." ''Water Science and Technology'' IWA Publishing '''43''': 277-285.</ref><ref>Kollmann, René, Neugebauer, Georg, Kretschmer, Florian, Truger, Barbara, Kindermann, Helene, Stoeglehner, Gernot, Ertl, Thomas, Narodoslawsky, Michael (2016). "Renewable energy from wastewater – Practical aspects of integrating a wastewater treatment plant into local energy supply concepts." ''Journal of Cleaner Production''</ref> Biogas is an energy source with a wide range of uses, whereas heat has proven valuable for heating and cooling applications of buildings. Among the nutrients, [[Phosphate mining in the United States|phosphate]] can be recovered as [[struvite]] for fertilisers, a very important application since phosphate resources are limited and depletable.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environmental-research.ox.ac.uk/lets-talk-phosphorus-depletion/.|title=Let's talk about phosphorus depletion|date=October 2017|website=www.environmental-research.ox.ac.uk}}</ref> Composted sewage sludge finds applications in agricultural setting and urban gardens as soil amendment.<ref>Cheng, Hefa, Xu, Weipu, Liu, Junliang, Zhao, Qingjian, He, Yanqing, Chen, Gang (2007). "Application of composted sewage sludge (CSS) as a soil amendment for turfgrass growth." ''Ecological Engineering'' '''29'''(1): 96-104.</ref> Besides energy and nutrients, the effluent from the wastewater treatment plants can be reused as quality irrigation water both in agricultural and landscape applications. The reuse of treated water is especially valuable in countries with limited rainfall events or long periods of [[drought]].<ref>Arlosoroff, Saul. (2007). "Wastewater Management, Treatment, and Reuse in Israel". ''Wastewater Reuse–Risk Assessment, Decision-Making and Environmental Security''. M. K. Zaidi. Dordrecht, Springer Netherlands''':''' 55-64.</ref> All these possibilities are changing the vision of wastewater management and the role of wastewater treatment plants. Wastewater treatment plants have the potential not only to treat the wastewater but also to become resource recovery facilities<ref>Römgens Ben, Kruizinga Eelco (2013). ''Wastewater management roadmap towards 2030: A sustainable approach to the collection and treatment of wastewater in the Netherlands''. A. o. N. M. Association of Regional Water Authorities, Agentschap NL and DNV.</ref>
== Energy ==
Effective strategies adopted by wastewater utilities to reduce energy consumption and dependence from fossil fuel-based energy sources include increasing [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] and generating renewable energy on site.
=== Energy efficiency ===
Since the recognition of anthropogenic causes of climate change in the late 1980s and the identification of the energy sector as one of the main contributors, there has been a global effort to investigate the energy consumption of human activities and their indirect contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. In Europe the energy analysis of the wastewater sector was conducted adopting mainly two strategies. Germany (MURL, 1999) and Switzerland (BUWAL, 1994), for example, developed energy management manuals for wastewater treatment plants and reduced their energy consumption by 38% and 50%, respectively.<ref name=":1">Wett B., Buchauer K., Fimml C. (2017). ''Energy-Water Nexus: The Water Sector's Energy Use'', Congressional Research Service.</ref> These manuals provided wastewater utilities with energy targets to achieve. On the other hand, in 1999 Austria promoted benchmarking that allowed annual comparison of wastewater treatment plants energy performances. This comparison stimulated a competition among the wastewater treatment plants and the aspiration to improve their efficiency, which led Austria to be one of the first countries in the world to achieve energy neutrality in the wastewater sector. The energy benchmarking process has allowed wastewater treatment plants to identify their most energy-consuming assets and possible inefficiencies, and target them to reduce their energy demand. For example, the inefficiency of the aeration process identified by multiple studies<ref>Belloir C., Stanford C., Soares A. (2015). "Energy benchmarking in wastewater treatment plants: the importance of site operation and layout." ''Environmental Technology'' '''36'''(2): 260-269.</ref><ref>Nowak, O., Keil, S., Fimml, C. (2011). "Examples of energy self-sufficient municipal nutrient removal plants." ''Water Science and Technology'' '''64'''(1): 1-6.</ref><ref name=":1" /> has allowed the development of more energy efficient oxidation units, with a possible energy saving of about 20% to 50% in some cases according to Frijns<ref>Frijns J., Middleton R., Uijterlinde C., Wheale G. (2012). "Energy efficiency in the European water industry: learning from best practices." ''Journal of Water and Climate Change'' '''3'''(1): 11-17.</ref> and an [[EPA Sustainability|EPA]]<ref>EPA (2013). ''Energy Efficiency in Water and Wastewater Facilities''. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
</ref> study.
=== Renewable energy generation ===
Increased energy efficiency has allowed wastewater treatment plants to comply with discharge limits reducing the energy demand even up to 50%<ref name=":1" /> without affecting treatment performances. However, energy efficiency strategies by themselves are not sufficient to achieve independence from the electricity grid and fossil fuel-based energy sources. To achieve energy neutrality, multiple studies have looked at the feasibility of integrating a variety of renewable energy sources into wastewater treatment plants. The wastewater itself is a carrier of energy and a theoretical calculation, based on the characteristic of the sewage, shows that the composition of the embedded energy is 80% thermal energy and 20% chemical energy.<ref>Steve Tarallo (2014). ''UTILITIES OF THE FUTURE ENERGY FINDINGS'', WERF.</ref> The thermal energy can be recovered as heat while the chemical energy is recovered as biogas.
Renewable energy generation on site, in addition to increased energy efficiency, has already allowed at least twelve plants worldwide not only to achieve energy neutrality but also to produce more energy than they need.<ref>Gu Y., Li Y., Li X., Luo P., Wang H., Robinson Z. P., Wang X., Wu J., Li F.(2017). "The feasibility and challenges of energy self-sufficient wastewater treatment plants." ''Applied Energy''</ref> Energy efficiency programs and renewable energy generation have proven successful in diminishing the dependence of the wastewater sector from the energy grid, reducing treatment costs and the environmental impact associated with the grid connection.
== Advantages of on-site renewable energy generation ==
The production and recovery of energy on-site offers numerous advantages contributing to operation and management cost reduction of the treatment processes, source of revenue, contribution to waste management and the cost associated with it and increased resilience in case of power shortage.
One of the main advantages of energy generation on site is the less stringent dependence from the electricity grid and the cost mitigation associated with it. Depending on the level of renewable energy generation, wastewater treatment plants can disconnect from the main grid when the electricity is the most expensive, usually during peak hours and simply avoid the more elevated price of these periods. When [[Feed-in tariff|feed in tariffs]] are in place, wastewater treatment plants can sell electricity to the grid and reduce costs through the cost recovery of the sold energy. In some cases, energy utilities offer [https://energy.gov/oe/activities/technology-development/grid-modernization-and-smart-grid/demand-response demand response programs], in which a wastewater utility is given a financial incentive if it disconnects when requested by the energy utility. This helps the energy utilities to mitigate energy peak demands reducing the risks of blackout, and it is source of revenue for the wastewater utilities.
In countries where a r[[Mandatory renewable energy target|renewable energy target]] has been introduced, the production of renewable energy allows the wastewater sector to get a certificate for every unit of power they produce. The certificates are then bought by the electricity retailers, that surrender them every year to comply with the renewable energy regulation.
Another advantage of renewable energy production, in specific of [[biogas]] from [[sewage sludge]], is the contribution to waste management. In fact the recovery of the chemical energy involves the reduction of the sewage sludge volume. A smaller volume of sewage sludge is cheaper to transport and dispose of, decreasing operational costs.
Moreover, a diversify portfolio of energy source can contribute to a more resilient response in case of energy shortage and grid problems.
== Barriers to on-site renewable energy generation ==
Despite the numerous advantages offered by on-site renewable energy generation, wastewater utilities are experiencing several difficulties in integrating renewables in their facilities.
From a survey conducted by Beca<ref>{{Cite journal|last=BECA|date=November 2015|title=OPPORTUNITIES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY IN THE AUSTRALIAN WATER SECTOR|url=https://arena.gov.au/assets/2016/01/Opportunities-for-renewable-energy-in-the-Australian-water-sector.pdf|journal=Arena}}</ref> it emerged that one of the biggest barrier is that energy generation is not core business for wastewater utilities and renewable energy projects come with technical challenges and high initial investment costs.
Moreover, each plant presents differences and it requires a customised solution for each situation, making it hard to generalise solution for the all sector. There is a lack of guidelines and roadmaps to follow, so each utility has to create specific solutions for their wastewater treatment plants.
The changing price of electricity connected with the fossil fuel price can affect the return time on the investment while the fast changing regulatory panorama increases the uncertainty of the investment and the financial value of it. This can create an unsustainable situation, where investments in renewables projects can happens only when there are subsidies given by the government.
In the specific situation of biogas production, poor management can increase the [[fugitive emission]] of greenhouse gas emissions, reducing the environmental benefits of renewable energy generation.
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Sewerage]]
[[Category:Energy efficiency]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Food for the Hungry | {{Short description|Christian international development organization}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo = Food for the Hungry FH logo.png
| logo_alt = Food for the Hungry logo
| type = International relief and development organization
| purpose = Together we follow God's call responding to human suffering and graduating communities from extreme poverty.
| name = Food for the Hungry
| founded_date = 1971
| founder = Larry Ward
| leader_title = CEO
| leader_name = Mark Viso
| location = [[Phoenix, Arizona]], United States
| area_served = 26 countries
| homepage = {{URL|https://www.fh.org|www.fh.org}}
| values = 1. We follow Jesus.
2. Our work is relational.
3. We invest wisely and focus on results.
4. We serve with humility.
5. We pursue beauty, goodness, and truth.
| vision = All forms of human poverty ended worldwide.
}}
{{Secondary|date=November 2022}}
'''Food for the Hungry''' (also known as FH) is a Christian international relief, development, and advocacy organization. Food for the Hungry was founded in 1971 by Larry Ward.<ref name="ECFA">{{cite web|url=http://www.ecfa.org/MemberProfile.aspx?ID=5160 |title=Food for the Hungry (Accredited Organization Profile) |publisher=ECFA.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> Food for the Hungry's stated mission for long-term development is to graduate communities of extreme poverty within 10–15 years. The organization also works in disaster relief and humanitarian response, including working with the [[Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh]] and Syrian refugees in Lebanon.
The organization's name "Food for the Hungry" was taken from [[Book of Psalms]] 146:7: "He upholds the cause of the oppressed and gives food to the hungry." Food for the Hungry is a charter member of the [[Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability]], since February 1, 1980.<ref name="ECFA" />
== History ==
Larry Ward founded the organization in 1971, with offices in [[Southern California]]. He moved the offices to [[Arizona]] in 1974. Early projects included helping [[refugees]] in war-torn [[Bangladesh]], victims of the [[1972 Nicaragua earthquake]], rescuing Vietnamese "[[boat people]]" from the [[South China Sea]], and helping hungry and needy people in [[Haiti]] and West Africa. The child sponsorship program was started in 1978. Hunger Corps, the people-sending division of Food for the Hungry, began in 1979.
Ward retired as president of both the U.S. fundraising office and the international implementation arm of Food for the Hungry in 1984. He was succeeded by [[Ted Yamamori]]. Yamamori retired in 2001, at which point two people were hired to replace him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.missionfrontiers.org/issue/article/feeding-the-hungry|title=Feeding the Hungry Dr. Tetsunao Yamamori & Food for the Hungry|publisher=Mission Frontiers|accessdate=3 June 2015}}</ref>
Randall Hoag was appointed president of Food for the Hungry International, and Benjamin K. Homan was appointed president of Food for the Hungry/U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://global.christianpost.com/news/food-for-the-hungry-phoenix-officials-assess-relief-programs-in-indonesia-15685/ |title=Food For The Hungry, Phoenix Officials Assess Relief Programs in Indonesia |publisher=Global.christianpost.com |date=2005-05-18 |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref>
Since 2006, FH has consolidated its U.S. and international operations. From 2014-2019, Gary Edmonds led as President/CEO. In the fall of 2018, Mike Meyers was named CEO of the organization, but stepped down in 2019 due to familial priorities. In early 2020, Mark Viso was announced as the new CEO and President.
=== Organizational structure ===
Food for the Hungry, Inc. (FH/US) was incorporated by Ward in the United States in 1971 and has existed continuously since then. Ward incorporated Food for the Hungry International (FHI) in [[Geneva]], Switzerland, in 1980. FHI is made of national organizations (NOs) or affiliates.
FH/US became a supporting NO for FHI, along with like NOs in Japan (established in 1981), [[Canada]] (established in 1988), [[Sweden]] (established in 1988), [[Switzerland]] (established in 1988), [[Korea]] (established in 1989), [[United Kingdom]] (established in 1989) and a second organization in the United States, Korea-American Food for the Hungry International (established in 2002).<ref name="Fex profile">{{cite web |date= |title=Food for the Hungry | ENN |url=http://fex.ennonline.net/5/agencyprofile |accessdate=2014-08-04 |publisher=Fex.ennonline.net}}</ref>
In 2006, FH restructured to align operations with NOs in Canada, Switzerland, Sweden, United Kingdom and United States as members of FH Association (FHA), which was registered in Switzerland in November 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpplatform.ch/pbguide/organisation/food-hungry-association-fh |title=Food for the Hungry Association (FH) | GPPlatform |publisher=Gpplatform.ch |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> Japan and Korea aligned as Food for the Hungry International Federation (FHF) and, though loosely affiliated as members of a larger FHI "family," operate separately from FHA.<ref>https://vocf.net/uploaded_project/fhifdir07.pdf{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
FH is the umbrella for all FHA NOs and relief and development fields. Field work occurs primarily in Asia, Africa, Central America, South America and the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fh.org/work/countries |title=Work | Countries | Food for the Hungry |publisher=Fh.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> NOs support this work by raising funds, supplying human resources and helping to design and evaluate field programs.
FH is governed by a unified Board of Directors providing direct oversight of FHA and FH/US<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fh.org/about/leadership/board |title=Food for the Hungry |publisher=Fh.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> and is led by board chair, Larry Jones.
== Biblical Holism ==
A [[Christian worldview|biblical worldview]] is both a foundation and umbrella for FH's work. Food for the Hungry's Statement of Faith<ref name="Vision">{{cite web|url=http://fh.org/about/vision |title=About | Vision and Mission | Food for the Hungry |publisher=Fh.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> corresponds to the Statement of Faith of the [[National Association of Evangelicals]] (NAE).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nae.net/about-us/statement-of-faith |title=Statement of Faith |publisher=Nae.net |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> FH is not affiliated with any specific church or denomination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/organizations/food-for-the-hungry |title=Food for the Hungry |publisher=Berkleycenter.georgetown.edu |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref>
== International work ==
=== Bangladesh ===
In 1972, FH began working in Bangladesh by distributing rice to the poor. Since then, FH has focused efforts on community development including livelihoods, micro-lending, health, education and disaster response resilience. Over the last 40 years, FH has partnered with Bangladeshi leaders and impoverished communities to create better living conditions.
Since more than 900,000 [[Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh|Rohingya people fled violence in Myanmar]] to seek refuge in Bangladesh since August 2017, FH/Bangladesh responded with [https://www.medicalteams.org/ Medical Teams International (MTI)] to provide critical health care and community health facilities to Rohingya refugees. The partnership is funded in part with grants from UNHCR, UNICEF, and others to provide psychosocial support and medical care with a special focus on vulnerable mothers and children.
=== Bolivia ===
In 1978, FH began working in Bolivia providing humanitarian aid in the high plains between the Andes Mountains ridge assisting with effects of El Niño. Since then, FH has focused efforts on community development including livelihoods, health, and education. Since Bolivia is vulnerable to natural disasters, much of FH's work there has also been in emergency response and relief aid.
Currently, FH Bolivia is developing 30 projects through a match from the municipal governments in some rural areas. The investment in the Poroma area in 2018 was $1,206,191, which includes funds for water projects, refurbishing classrooms, and establishing irrigation systems. In the Cochabamba region, FH is partnering with municipalities in 19 projects with an investment of $2,271,125 to improve community access to water and irrigation systems.
=== Cambodia ===
In 1990, FH began working in Cambodia by providing relief and aid to those living in refugee camps during the civil war. In 1992, they started to partner with poor communities in the Kampot Province to improve living conditions, and later expanded into northern Cambodia. Now, FH has focused efforts on community development and other areas of need to improve living conditions.
Since 2016, FH Cambodia has been fostering partnerships with education agencies and local organizations recognized by the Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MOEYS), to provide certification to preschool teachers after they finish modular early childhood teacher training courses. FH Cambodia has supported the training of more than 200 preschool teachers in accessing this opportunity to grow their skills and become equipped to teach children well.
=== Guatemala ===
FH started operating in Guatemala in 1976 in response to an earthquake that killed more than 23,000 people through the provision of clothing, food and plastic sheeting for temporary shelters. After officially establishing the office in 1981 to focus on child development, FH concentrated on meeting the needs of orphans and widows who had been affected by Guatemala's civil war. Today the work in Guatemala has expanded and deepened to focus on long-term community development, especially in the sector of child and infant health and nutrition.
In 2018, FH Guatemala used peer education through 104 Cascade Groups to spread messages to help reduce chronic malnutrition in 4,463 children. With the assistance of 1,269 volunteer mothers in Cascade Groups, new mothers have been taught how to breastfeed, recognize hunger and other cues from their babies, and how to properly respond to those cues for the health and development of their children.
=== Kenya ===
In 1976, FH began working in Kenya in response to a devastating drought by providing emergency supplies and relief in the Marsabit district. Since then, FH has focused efforts on long-term development work including livelihoods, sanitation, water, health, nutrition, child development, and HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment, care and support.
Alongside [https://www.usaid.gov/documents/1860/kenya-resilient-arid-lands-partnership-integrated-development The Kenya Resilient Arid Land Partnership for Integrated Development project], which benefits 70,000 people through a partnership with the Millennium Water Alliance and support from USAID and the Swiss Development Corporation, FH Kenya is implementing a program to increase access to water for people and livestock by strengthening the capacity of public, civil society, community, and private sector institutions. The program is also undertaking initiatives to rebuild a healthy rangeland ecosystem, thereby ensuring that access to water is sufficient for multiple uses and is sustained over time. This project began in 2015 and will continue until 2020.
=== Rwanda ===
In 1994, FH began responding to the serious humanitarian crisis caused by the [[Rwandan genocide|genocide]]. In the immediate years following, FH implemented emergency programs in tracing and unifying children with their families, agriculture interventions, emergency food and non-food item distributions and livelihoods support. Since 2001, FH has focused efforts on long-term development work including livelihoods, food and education.
In 2017, FH Rwanda supported more than 18,000 students with school supplies while over 35,000 students benefited from new and improved classrooms, desks, latrines, and water tanks. These resources are supporting education alongside training by FH Rwanda that prepares parents and teachers to monitor child attendance, learning, and teaching in schools and be active participants in children's education.
== Funding ==
FH is a charter member in good standing of the Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability (ECFA).<ref name="ECFA" /> Their audited financial statement for the fiscal year ending September 30, 2013 shows that 35 percent of funding came from the U.S. government, 62 percent from individuals, 3 percent from churches, businesses, and foundations. Of this funding, 83 percent was used on programs, 11 percent on fundraising and 6 percent on administrative costs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://issuu.com/fh_us/docs/2011_annual_report_sm?mode=window&backgroundColor=%23222222 |title=Food for the Hungry 2011 Annual Report by Food for the Hungry |publisher=ISSUU |date= |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref>
=== Financial transparency ===
As charter members of the [[Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability]], Food for the Hungry is in compliance with their Seven Standards of Responsible Stewardship.
In the past, the organization received [https://www.guidestar.org/profile/95-2680390 GuideStar's Platinum Seal of Transparency], but that has since been downgraded due to a greater percentage of funding spent on administration and fundraising.
Food for the Hungry currently has a 3/4 star ranking on [[Charity Navigator]], with an overall score of 87.34/100.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Charity Navigator - Rating for Food for the Hungry |url=https://www.charitynavigator.org/ein/952680390 |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=www.charitynavigator.org |language=en-US}}</ref> While the organization scored a 100 for accountability and transparency, it scored only an 82.11/100 in the financial category, for having a relatively high amount of funds spent on fundraising and administration.
== Controversies ==
=== IRS controversy ===
{{POV section|date=November 2022}}
In 2012, Food for the Hungry was one of hundreds of non-profits chosen by the [[IRS]] for a routine audit of their tax return for 2007. They cooperated fully with the IRS. A preliminary letter listed several issues that IRS wanted to clarify. That letter was illegally leaked to the media, launching a media controversy over unconfirmed facts.<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Gifts-in-Kind | Food for the Hungry |url=http://fh.org/gik |publisher=Fh.org |accessdate=2014-08-04}}</ref> In March 2014, Food for the Hungry received a letter from the IRS. The letter accepted the tax return as originally submitted, and acknowledged that Food for the Hungry had followed all laws and accepted accounting practices.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fh.org/images/general/docs/IRS_Audit_Closing_Release_final.pdf |website=www.fh.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505182100/https://www.fh.org/images/general/docs/IRS_Audit_Closing_Release_final.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-05}}</ref>
=== Criticism of child sponsorship ===
In 2018, then President/CEO of Food for the Hungry, Gary Edmonds, responded to a study funded by Grey Matter Research and Opinions4Good, which shared that 54% of child sponsorship donors believed it to be "mostly a gimmick to get donations," and that donations do not directly affect the sponsored child. The study said, "''“Three out of four donors believe that despite what sponsorship organizations claim, the money given doesn’t really help one child – instead, it is used for the charity’s overall programs. While the major sponsorship organizations all pool sponsor funds to assist a larger project or community in a way that also helps the individual sponsored child, there are varying levels of transparency about this. Some organizations openly promote this, while others barely mention it. This appears to be causing confusion for many donors''.”
Edmonds defended child sponsorship programs, saying “Sponsorship is more than (a gimmick). The big thing that sponsorship does is, yes, it helps donors to connect in personal, meaningful ways, but it has a major impact on the children and the families of those children where the children have been sponsored by somebody from another country or another context.”<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-29 |title=Food for the Hungry President Defends Child Sponsorship Programs |url=https://missionsbox.org/news/food-for-the-hungry-president-defends-child-sponsorship-programs/ |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=Missions Box |language=en-US}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Canadian Food for the Hungry]]
* [[Feed the Children]]
* [[Food for the Poor, Inc.]]
* [[Heart to Heart International]]
== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.fh.org/ Food for the Hungry home page]
[[Category:Charities based in Arizona]]
[[Category:Hunger relief organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Phoenix, Arizona]]
[[Category:International development organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Project Neptune (water distribution system) | '''Project Neptune''' is a water distribution project in the [[United Kingdom]] with the goal of establishing an optimized and more sustainable system for [[Water distribution system|water distribution]]. The project was officially announced in April 2007, and received a budget of £2.7 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-csd.eng.cam.ac.uk/themes0/water-1/project-neptune-delivering-sustainable-water-systems-by-optimising-existing-infrastructure|title=Project Neptune: Delivering sustainable water systems by optimising existing infrastructure|date=21 June 2011}}</ref>
In the UK, [[Water provider|water service providers]] (WSPs) are legally obligated to provide [[drinking water]] to all of their customers. The difficulty in optimizing this service involves the minimum water pressure and flow standards, as well as the strict regulations regarding water quality. The innovative technologies required to support the goal of Project Neptune are either partially evolved with no proven reliability or do not exist yet. The centre for [[Sustainable development|Sustainable Development]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] is heading the work on integrating [[artificial intelligence]] and mathematical simulation technologies to create an efficient online reporting and analyzing system for monitoring performance of the water distribution system.
== Research priority areas ==
In order to address the technological deficiencies of the project, research priority areas (RPA) have been identified by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. The RPA three key concentrations include “data and knowledge management, pressure management (including energy management), and the associated complex decision support systems on which to base interventions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Savic D. A.|last2=Boxall J. B.|last3=Ulanicki B.|last4=Kapelan Z.|last5=Makropoulos C.|last6=Fenner R.|last7=Soga K.|last8=Marshall I. W.|last9=Maksimovic C.|title=Project Neptune: Improved Operation of Water Distribution Networks|url=http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/41024(340)47|journal=Water Distribution Systems Analysis 2008|series=Proceedings|year=2009|pages=1–16|doi=10.1061/41024(340)47|hdl=2086/9282|isbn=9780784410240|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
The specific objectives of the RPA are focused on developing communication networks, [[sustainable technologies]], real time information feedback system, and optimal operations. The function of the communication network is to evaluate the performance and reliability of already implemented hardware and [[sensor]]s for collecting faraway data. In order to achieve a reduction in energy usage, sustainable technologies that develop innovative energy harvesting technology and reduce the necessity for constant battery replacement are necessary for the project.
Real time information relates to acquiring knowledge related to performance of the water distribution system. Optimal operations can be achieved through improvement in understanding and analyzing relevant data, which includes online models of [[hydraulics]]. The first round of RPA work is contributing to the initiative headed by [[Yorkshire Water|Yorkshire Water Services]] to install the first prototypes of Ground Penetrating Radar Systems (GPRS). The [[Yorkshire]] initiative aims to install around 490 prototypes that are connected to sensors that collect pressure and flow data on a half hourly basis.
== Development goals ==
Project Neptune's academic and industrial partners aim to address the tasks of developing: [[Energy conservation|energy saving]] options, online simulation model to provide an overlook of a full day's water distribution patterns, system to mitigate and manage leakage, automate system adjustments, [[power harvesting]] methods, and optimized system for reacting to incidents.
Staff involved in the system controls department of the project have the burden of handling large amounts of data received. The [[Decision support system|Decision Support System]] (DSS) was developed in order to alleviate this burden and aid the staff in decision making, prioritizing urgent incidents, and identifying faulty alarms. The DSS functions to combine these strategy and decision making outputs into one single and comprehensive presentation of data for the operator.
== Partners and funding ==
The project today receives funding from the UK's [[Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council]] (EPSRC) in order to further advance understanding and contribute knowledge about optimal and efficient water supply systems.
Industrial funding is also provided for the project, the main contributors include the [[United Utilities]] and Yorkshire Water Services. [[University of Exeter]] in the UK carries out research for the project in collaboration with seven other research universities located in the UK, including [[University of Cambridge]], the [[University of Sheffield]], [[Imperial College London]], [[De Montfort University]], [[Lancaster University]], [[University of Leicester]], and [[University of Sheffield]].
==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/41024%28340%2947 “Project Neptune: Improved Operation of Water Distribution Networks.” ''Water Distribution Systems Analysis 2008'', 2009, doi:10.1061/9780784410240.]
* [http://emps.exeter.ac.uk/engineering/research/cws/research/distribution/neptune/ ''Project NEPTUNE: Real Time Anomaly Management for Water Distribution Systems'']
* [https://www.dora.dmu.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/2086/9282/128.pdf?sequence=1 Savic, D. A., et al. “Project Neptune: Improved Operation of Water Distribution Networks.” ''Water Distribution Systems Analysis 2008'', 2009, doi:10.1061/41024(340)47.]{{-}}
[[Category:Water management authorities]]
[[Category:Decision support systems]]
[[Category:Research projects]]
[[Category:Conservation in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Water conservation]]
[[Category:Systems analysis]]
[[Category:Organisations associated with the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Ground radars]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs | {{Short description|Government organization in New York, United States}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox UN
| image =
| image_size =
| name = United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
| map = Logo for the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.png
| type = Department
| abbreviation = UN DESA
| headquarters = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| leader_title = Head
| leader_name = [[Liu Zhenmin]]
| status = Active
| formation = {{start date and age|1948}}
| website = {{Official URL}}
}}
The '''United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs''' ('''UN DESA''') is part of the [[United Nations Secretariat]] and is responsible for the follow-up to major United Nations Summits and Conferences, as well as services to the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] and the Second and Third Committees of the [[United Nations General Assembly]].<ref name="bio2007">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/ousg/#bioSection|title=About Mr. Wu Hongbo, Under-Secretary-General|access-date=2007-09-21|archive-date=10 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210013832/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/ousg/#bioSection|url-status=live}}</ref> UN DESA assists countries around the world in [[agenda-setting theory|agenda-setting]] and decision-making with the goal of meeting their economic, social and environmental challenges. It supports international cooperation to promote sustainable development for all, having as a foundation the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] ('''SDGs''') as adopted by the UN General Assembly on 25 September 2015. In providing a broad range of analytical products, policy advice, and technical assistance, UN DESA effectively translates global commitments in the economic, social and environmental spheres into national policies and actions and continues to play a key role in monitoring progress towards internationally agreed-upon development goals. It is also a member of the [[United Nations Development Group]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undg.org/index.cfm?P%3D13 |title=UNDG Members |access-date=15 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511144047/http://www.undg.org/index.cfm?P=13 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> Since 2007, leadership positions in UN DESA have been held by representatives from the [[China|People's Republic of China]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Lynch |first=Colum |date=2018-05-10 |title=China Enlists U.N. to Promote Its Belt and Road Project |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/05/10/china-enlists-u-n-to-promote-its-belt-and-road-project/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=[[Foreign Policy]] |language=en-US |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928101049/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/05/10/china-enlists-u-n-to-promote-its-belt-and-road-project/ |url-status=live }}</ref> UN DESA has been used to promote China's [[Belt and Road Initiative]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cheng-Chia |first=Tung |last2=Yang |first2=Alan H. |date=April 9, 2020 |title=How China Is Remaking the UN In Its Own Image |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/how-china-is-remaking-the-un-in-its-own-image/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=[[The Diplomat]] |language=en-US |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529020051/https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/how-china-is-remaking-the-un-in-its-own-image/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zhenmin |first=Liu |date=2020-04-18 |title=Statement High Level Symposium on the Belt and Road Initiative and 2030 Agenda {{!}} Under-Secretary-General Liu Zhenmin – United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/statements/mr-liu/2018/06/hl-on-belt-road-2030-agenda.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418044602/https://www.un.org/development/desa/statements/mr-liu/2018/06/hl-on-belt-road-2030-agenda.html |archive-date=April 18, 2020 |access-date= |website=[[United Nations]]}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]]
* [[Financing For Development|Financing for Development]]
* [[Human development (humanity)]]
* [[Indigenous intellectual property]]
* [[International Association of Homes and Services for the Aging]]
* [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]]
* [[United Nations Forum on Forests]]
* [[United Nations Project Office on Governance]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* Records of [https://search.archives.un.org/department-of-economic-and-social-affairs-desa-1955-present the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) (1955–present)] at the United Nations Archives
==External links==
* {{Official website}}
{{International human rights organizations}}
{{United Nations}}
{{authority control|state=expanded}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:United Nations Department Of Economic And Social Affairs}}
[[Category:Organizations established in 1948]]
[[Category:United Nations Development Group|*]]
[[Category:United Nations Secretariat]]
[[Category:United Nations organizations based in North America]]
[[Category:Population]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Development economics]] |
Great Transition | {{short description|Vision of a just and sustainable global future}}
{{Primary sources|date=April 2018}}
'''Great Transition''' is used by the Great Transition Initiative and its predecessor, the [[Global Scenario Group]] (GSG), to describe a vision of a just and sustainable global future. The term was originally coined by [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] in ''The Meaning of the 20th Century – The Great Transition'' (1964) and describes the shift from [[Pre-Modern|pre-modern]] to post-modern culture, and the four possible courses of action that these organizations believe will allow humanity to successfully manage the Great Transition.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=u8YSAAAACAAJ}}|title=The Meaning of the 20th Century: The Great Transition|last=Boulding|first=Kenneth Ewart|publisher=University Press of America|year=1988|isbn=978-0-8191-7102-3}}</ref>
Elements of the Great Transition vision include egalitarian social and ecological values, increased inter-human connectivity, improved [[quality of life]], and a healthy planet, as well as the absence of poverty, war, and environmental destruction. The Great Transition concept was cited by [[List of Prime Ministers of Bhutan|Prime Minister of Bhutan]] [[Jigme Thinley]],<ref>Jigme Thinly, [https://www.isecoeco.org/speech-to-isee-2012-by-prime-minister-of-bhutan/ "Address by the Prime Minister on Well-Being and Happiness,"] UN Headquarters, New York, April 2, 2012.</ref> Josh Ryan-Collins of the [[New Economics Foundation]],<ref>Josh Ryan-Collins, [https://neweconomics.org/2009/10/the-great-transition ''Great Transition''] (London: New Economics Foundation, 2009)</ref> and the Capital Institute.<ref>[https://capitalinstitute.org/blog/beyond-sustainability-road-regenerative-capitalism/ The Capital Institute Symposium: "Beyond Sustainability: The Road to Regenerative Capitalism] New York, June 20–21, 2013, </ref> It was used as a theme for the 2011 SmartCSOs conference on strategies for Civil Society Organisations in London.<ref>SmartCSOs, [https://www.socioeco.org/bdf_fiche-document-684_en.html ''Effective Change Strategies for the Great Transition: Five Leverage Points for Civil Society Organisations''] Berlin: Smart CSOs, 2011).</ref>
==History==
The Great Transition was first introduced by the [[Global Scenario Group]] (GSG), an international body of scientists convened in 1995 by the [[Tellus Institute]] and [[Stockholm Environment Institute]] to examine the requirements for a transition to a sustainable global society. The GSG set out to describe and analyze scenarios for the future of the earth as it entered a [[planetary phase of civilization]].<ref>See http://www.gsg.org/gsgpub.html and Paul Raskin, Tariq Banuri, Gilberto Gallopín, Pablo Gutman, Al Hammond, Robert Kates, and Rob Swart, [http://www.greattransition.org/gt-essay ''Great Transition: The Promise and Lure of the Times Ahead''] (Boston: Stockholm Environment Institute, 2002)</ref>
==See also==
* [[Anthropocene]]
* [[Global Citizens Movement]]
* [[Planetary boundaries]]
* [[Transition town]]
* [[Tellus Institute]]
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
==Publications==
{{refbegin}}
* Parris, Thomas. "Bytes of Note: A Crystal Ball for Sustainability." ''Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development''. 44, no. 7 (2002): 3-4. 10.1080/00139150209605799#.VZmxB0bLdyE http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00139150209605799#.VZmxB0bLdyE.
* Rajan, Chella, [http://www.tellus.org/pub/Global%20Politics%20and%20Institutions.pdf ''Global Politics and Institutions'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.
* Raskin, Paul. [http://www.tellus.org/pub/Global%20Politics%20and%20Institutions.pdf ''GT Today: A Report from the Future'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.
*Raskin, Paul. [http://www.greattransition.org/publication/journey-to-earthland ''Journey to Earthland: A Great Transition to Planetary Civilization'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2016.
* Revkin, Andy. [https://web.archive.org/web/20020907133247/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/09/0904_020904_wirimpact.html ''Human Impact on the Earth - How Do We Soften It?''] ''International Herald Tribune''. September 4, 2002.
* Stutz, John. [http://www.tellus.org/pub/The%20Role%20of%20Well-being%20in%20a%20Great%20Transition.pdf ''The Role of Well-Being in a Great Transition'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.
* White, Allen. [http://www.tellus.org/tellus/publication/transforming-the-corporation ''Transforming the Corporation'']. Boston: Tellus Institute, 2006.
{{refend}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.GTinitiative.org Great Transition Initiative]
* [http://www.gsg.org Global Scenario Group]
* [https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c4aa58f266c077ce184c992/t/5c4f4d06758d466ad39a08a7/1548700939842/ps-fourfutures.pdf Popular Science - Four Futures] - an article in Popular Science about the Great Transition and three other GSG scenarios, with infographics
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FS7o4g5kzMM Video - Visions of a Sustainable World] - a YouTube video with highlights from an interview with Dr. Paul Raskin of GSG and the Tellus Institute (from a speaker series at Yale University)
{{sustainability}}
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[Category:Environmental movements]] |
Agriculture and Rural Development Day | {{Short description|Annual event}}
Between 2009 and 2012, '''Agriculture and Rural Development Day''' ('''ARDD''') was an annual event co-organized by the [[CGIAR|Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research]] (CGIAR), the [[Earth System Science Partnership]] (ESSP), the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), the [[Global Forum on Agricultural Research]] (GFAR), the [[International Federation of Agricultural Producers]] (IFAP), and the [[International Food Policy Research Institute]] (IFPRI).
== History ==
The first three ARRDs were side events of the [[United Nations Climate Change conference|United Nations Climate Change Conference]] (COP15) held in [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2009]], [[2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2010]], and [[2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference|2011]] in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agricultureday.org/ARDDay2009/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day 2009 Website|website=www.agricultureday.org|access-date=2017-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116090114/http://agricultureday.org/ARDDay2009//|archive-date=2016-11-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Cancún]], [[Mexico]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agricultureday.org/ardday2010/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day 2010|website=www.agricultureday.org|access-date=2017-12-16}}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and [[Durban]], [[South Africa]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agricultureday.org/ardday2011/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day 2011|website=www.agricultureday.org|access-date=2017-12-16}}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> respectively. Over 500 people attended in 2011, where British population biologist [[John Beddington]] "presented key actions for avoiding a future in which weather extremes produce a succession of food crises".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Researchers outline food security, climate change road map|url=https://news.wisc.edu/researchers-outline-food-security-climate-change-road-map/|access-date=2021-09-23|website=news.wisc.edu}}</ref>
The fourth event took place at the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (UNCSD)—also called Rio 2012, Rio+20, or the Earth Summit 2012—in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]]. It was co-hosted by the [[Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation]] (Embrapa) and the CGIAR.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cgiar.org/consortium-events/2012/06/18/agriculture-and-rural-development-day/|title=Agriculture and Rural Development Day|work=CGIAR|access-date=2017-12-16|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216210126/https://www.cgiar.org/consortium-events/2012/06/18/agriculture-and-rural-development-day/|archive-date=2017-12-16|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The fifth and final ARDD, called Agriculture, Landscapes, and Livelihoods Day 5<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.agricultureday.org/about/index.html |title=Agriculture, Landscapes, and Livelihoods Day 5 |access-date=2017-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929171213/http://agricultureday.org/about/index.html |archive-date=2017-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>(ALL-5), took place alongside Forest Day on the sidelines of the [[2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] (COP18) in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://wle.cgiar.org/thrive/2012/12/05/story-agriculture-and-climate-change-road-we%E2%80%99ve-travelled|title=The Story of Agriculture and Climate Change: The Road We've Travelled|date=2012-12-05|work=Water, Land and Ecosystems|access-date=2017-12-16|language=en}}</ref>
In 2013, this event merged with [[Forest Day]] to become the [[Global Landscapes Forum]] (GLF).
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Environment-stub}}
{{Sustainability-stub}}
{{International-dev-stub}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:International development programs]] |
World Institute of Sustainable Development Planners | {{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|organization|date=March 2018}}
{{self-published|date=March 2018|reason=strongly tied to the website as to how the article is organized}}
{{advert|date=March 2018|reason=lots of verbiage that you would see on a brochure / website, including the section headers. Neutrality is suspect.}}
{{Technical|reason=full of jargon terms, making it very difficult to read|date=March 2018}}
}}
{{Infobox organization
|name = World Institute of Sustainable Development Planners
|abbreviation = WISDP
|latin_name =
|image_name = WISDP_Logo.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|established = Oct 2017
|type = Company limited by guarantee
|staff = 10
|president = Lee Ngok
|city = Hong Kong
|country = China
|location =
|affiliations =
|website = http://www.wisdp.org
}}
The '''Worldwide Institute of Sustainable Development Planners''' ('''WISDP''') was formed in October 2017 by a group of academics and professionals to further the UN Agenda 2030 and the United Nations' 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]]<ref>{{cite web |author= |date= |title=Sustainable Development Goals: 17 Goals to Transform Our World |url=http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ |accessdate=26 March 2018 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development}}</ref> It is supported by the [[UNESCO]] Hong Kong Association (UNESCO HK) and the Hong Kong Institute of Education for Sustainable Development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong Institute of Education for Sustainable Development |url=http://hiesd.org/wp/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>
WISDP is a world class learning and research institute which cooperates with the United Nations' [[sustainable development]] policy to promote sustainable development planning for individuals and organizations. It provides training, membership, and certification to businesses, industries, educational institutions, NGOs and government entities, as well as running courses for secondary schools students and teachers.
WISDP is also supported by UNESCO Office of Pacific States, UNESCO Chair in the Political Economy of Education, the UNESCO Chair in [[TVET (technical and vocational education and training)|TVET]] and [[Lifelong Learning]], Members of Working Groups of UNPRME (UN Principles for Responsibility of Management Education), Members of UN Global Compact, and Members of UNOSSC (UN Organization of South-South Cooperation).
== History ==
UNESCO Hong Kong Association (UNESCO HK)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.hk/index.php?charset=eng|title=UNESCO Hong Kong Association|website=www.unesco.hk}}</ref> is dedicated to facilitating and achieving UNESCO's mission, creating conditions for dialogue among nations, cultures and peoples based upon respect for commonly shared values. It is through this dialogue that the world can achieve global visions of [[sustainable development]] encompassing observance of human rights, mutual respect and the alleviation of poverty. It strives to work towards the building of peace and to facilitate the sustainable development of society, economy and environment through education, sciences and culture.
The United Nation 2030 Agenda<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication|title=Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development|author=|date=|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> for Sustainable Development was formed by 2015 and established 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (17 SDGs) and 169 work targets <ref>{{cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld|title=Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|author=|date=|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> to push the sustainable development for year 2030 worldwide. To push and support the sustainable development of United Nations, a partner of UNESCO HK, WISDP was established in October 2017 to cooperate with UNESCO HK to push and facilitate the development, planning and implementation of 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]]. WISDP is a worldwide study and [[research institute]] to drive the training and recognition of sustainable development to industries, business, education and public service.
WISDP was registered in Hong Kong with the company name WORLD INSTITUTE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PLANNERS LIMITED and was incorporated on 12 October 2017<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hkcompa.com/ny|title=- Hong Kong Business Directory|author=|date=|website=Hong Kong Business Directory|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> as a [[company limited by guarantee]]. WISDP was formally launched in February 2018 and partners with training institutes to provide different levels of sustainable development training to industries and business. WISDP also establishes memberships and certification processes to recognize the training, experiences and contributions of sustainable development for individuals and organizations.
==Learned Society of Sustainable Development==
The United Nations established the training and initiatives of sustainable development to keep the sustainability of the earth as well as the human development. Sustainable development implies economic growth together with the protection of environmental quality and social situation, each reinforcing the other. It is crucial to harmonize three core elements: economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection. The Earth is the home of human beings and we need to protect the sustainability of the Earth through sustainable development, culture, and planning.
WISDP is a [[Learned Society]] fostering and advocating UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development and the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] in accordance with the three components <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thwink.org/sustain/glossary/ThreePillarsOfSustainability.htm|title=The Three Pillars of Sustainability|author=|date=|website=www.thwink.org|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> of Environment, Society and Economy. Training is provided for professionals according to their needs and successful trainees are awarded professional membership from WISDP and UNESCO HK Association, and subject to adequate relevant work experience, they are entitled to become Certified Sustainable Development Planners (CSDP).<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.wisdp.org.hk/cert_csdp.htm|title=WISDP - Menu|author=|date=|website=www.wisdp.org.hk|accessdate=26 March 2018}}</ref> Opportunities are provided for awardees to apply for Fellowship status after a number of years of [[continuing professional development]] (CPD).
In 2018, WISDP Divisions<ref name=":0" /> launched training programmes and lead to professional memberships. The training programmes included Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Sustainable Finance and Investment, Health Society and [[Wellness (medicine)|Wellness]], Early Childhood Education, Sustainability in Engineering, and sustainable development in Insurance.
==Promotion and recognition of sustainable development==
WISDP partners with universities, training institutes and other professional bodies to promote and develop sustainable development planning in the business, industrial and education sectors. The study levels includes diploma, certificate and continuing professional development training.
WISDP also promotes sustainable development to business organizations. WISDP supports corporations to promote and implement sustainable leadership, processes, products, services as well as business strategies. Corporations may join the WISDP to cooperate with their sustainable development programs and WISDP will award the corporations that have contributed sustainable development to the industries and society.
WISDP is set up as a professional organization and membership<ref name=":0" /> for practicing sustainable development planning. Principally individuals who support and experienced sustainable development planners may join. WISDP offers various categories of membership to recognize different levels of sustainable development. WISDP is welcome to people who are not practicing but are interested in the profession or students who aspire to join the profession in the future.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.wisdp.org Worldwide Institute of Sustainable Development Planner (WISDP) Website]
[[Category:UNESCO]]
[[Category:2017 establishments in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Teachers Without Borders | {{short description|International organization based in the United States}}{{COI|date=March 2022}}[[File:TWB Logo Blue SQUARE.png|thumbnail|right]]
'''Teachers Without Borders''' ('''TWB''') is an international organization launched in 2000 with a mission to connect teachers to information and each other in order to close the education divide and based upon the premise that teachers are community change agents and key catalysts of global development priorities. The organization was founded by Dr. Fred Mednick, a former principal.
==Accomplishments==
Teachers Without Borders received the 2018 Luxembourg Peace Prize for Outstanding Peace Education, recognized for a free Peace Education program involving teachers from regions in conflict, for having embedded peace education into all TWB courses (see below), and its Voice of Teachers Radio Show in Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peace Education Initiative – Teachers Without Borders – 2018 Outstanding Peace Education — Luxembourg Peace Prize |url=https://luxembourgpeaceprize.org/laureates/outstanding-peace-education/2018-teachers-without-borders/ |access-date=2022-03-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>
Teachers Without Borders received the Champions of African Education Award (2010) for its use of radio and local educational capacity building to disseminate information about the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. In 2018, TWB's membership has reached 177 countries. Teachers Without Borders membership is free and enables local educators the opportunity to connect with colleagues globally.
Teachers Without Borders also received the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize]] for "outstanding work in the promotion of peace through efforts to convene teachers from regions in conflict, provide unfettered access to courses and networks devoted to teacher professional development, and to ensure that peace education is integrated into all initiatives.
==Approach==
Teachers Without Borders claims that teachers represent the largest professional community in the world (over 65 million); that teachers are uniquely suited as local leaders to recognize and help address development needs; that professional isolation and inconsequential or missing teacher professional development undermines social change; and that the transformation of pre-service and in-service teacher development can bring about more sustainable, equitable, democratic, and economically stable societies.
==Initiatives and Courses==
Teachers Without Borders' initiatives and courses are offered in various formats and settings: online, in schools, as community workshops, in books and journals, and on the radio. All programs have been conceived and led by Teachers Without Borders' members and partners around the world. Content of all TWB courses and workshop resources are free and governed by the least restrictive Creative Commons license. '''Initiatives''' include: education in emergencies, girls' education, peace and human rights education, Bullying, ICT in Education, and Child-Friendly Spaces. as well as several teacher pre-service and in-service professional development opportunities - including a five-course Certificate of Teaching Mastery program.
Most Teachers Without Borders initiatives are accompanied by courses offered independently, at universities such as [[Johns Hopkins University]]'s school of education (where TWB's founder is an assistant professor), and through the [[Canvas Network]], an online MOOC provider. Those courses include: ''Educating Girls''; ASAP: Education in Emergencies; Peace and Human Rights; the five course ''Certificate of Teaching Mastery''; a course on ICTs for educators entitled: ''High-Tech, High-Touch, High-Teach''; and ''Global Urban Education''.
==Flagship Programs==
===Education in Emergencies===
[[File:TWB ChinatoPakistan.jpg|thumbnail|right|TWB Disaster Risk attack]]
The ''Emergency Education Program'' works with teachers on preparedness and planning to avoid crises or lessen their impacts, education amidst emergencies, and in the reconstruction phase. Teachers Without Borders has also helped to launch Parsquake, a consortium of NGOs devoted to earthquake science and safety throughout Persian speaking countries particularly vulnerable and seismically active regions of the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teacherswithoutborders.org/eie/|title=Emergency Education {{!}} Teachers Without Borders|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-29}}</ref> This program was initiated after the [[2008 Sichuan earthquake|2008 earthquake]] in the [[Sichuan]] region of [[China]] and, in 2011, will engage and support teachers in Finland.The program also supports [[emergency relief]], reconstruction and recovery efforts in areas hit by [[natural disasters]], such as the [[2010 Pakistan floods|2010 floods]] in [[Pakistan]]. The online MOOC, entitled ASAP: Education in Emergencies, is available without cost.
===Peace and Human Rights Education===
[[File:Haiti Fenel wikipedia.jpg|thumbnail|right|TWB Peace sacrifice in Haiti]]
The Peace Education Initiative helps teachers promote peace in their classrooms and communities. Content of TWB's Peace Program is available without cost. The Peace Education course is available to the public as a MOOC and has been offered for Continuing Education Units at Johns Hopkins University.
===Girls' Education===
Teachers Without Borders' girls' education programs address four central themes: (1) access (2) education in emergencies (3) public health, and (4) empowerment. The organization addresses these four themes by connecting global educators to NGOs working in the field; offering a free and low-fee course: (Educating Girls) in partnership with Johns Hopkins University and through the Canvas Network; and by promoting a Girls' Quake Science and Safety Initiative - designed in partnership with [[United States Geological Survey]] to ensure access to earthquake science education for teachers and schools in seismically-vulnerable communities around the world.
===Certificate of Teaching Mastery===
Teachers Without Borders' ''Certificate of Teaching Mastery'' helped to pioneer global access to online teacher professional development through Rice University's "connexions" program, and is available without cost on the Canvas course platform.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://teacherswithoutborders.org/programs/core-programs/certificate-teaching-mastery |title=Certificate of Teaching Mastery | Teachers Without Borders | Our Programs |accessdate=2010-11-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130091538/http://teacherswithoutborders.org/programs/core-programs/certificate-teaching-mastery |archivedate=2010-11-30 }}</ref> It consists of five courses that help teachers improve their professional knowledge, classroom practice, and leadership skills. This program has been deployed throughout [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], as well as in [[Mexico]] and [[Peru]]
==Countries==
Teachers Without Borders programs and resources have been adopted by teachers and communities in 177 countries worldwide, including: [[Afghanistan]], Bangladesh, [[Brazil]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], China, [[Ghana]], Haiti, [[India]], [[Kenya]], [[Mexico]], Nigeria, Pakistan, [[Rwanda]], [[South Africa]], Suriname, [[Turkey]], [[Uganda]] and the [[United States of America]].
[[File:ChalkboardTWB drop (1).png|thumbnail|right]]
On May 15, 2017, the United States IRS automatically revoked the federal tax exemption status of Teachers Without Borders for "failure to file a Form 990-series return or notice for three consecutive years."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.summary&orgid=12775|title=Charity Navigator - CN Advisory of Teachers Without Borders|website=Charity Navigator|language=en|access-date=2019-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guidestar.org/profile/91-2023723|title=Teachers Without Borders - GuideStar Profile|website=www.guidestar.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-06}}</ref>
On March 4, 2020, the Office of the Secretary of State of Washington State reinstated Teachers Without Borders (UBI Number 602 008 785).
== See also ==
* [[Teachers Across Borders]]
== References ==
<!--- See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags which will then appear here automatically -->
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://teacherswithoutborders.org/ Teachers Without Borders]
* [https://teacherswithoutborders.org/burning/ Burning Issues Newsletter]
* [https://flipboard.com/@fredmed TWB Magazine: The Voice of Teachers]
{{Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize recipients}}
[[Category:International educational organizations]]
[[Category:International organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Peace organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Teacher training]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize]] |
Women Engage for a Common Future | {{advert|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox organization
| formation = 1994, Netherlands
| type = [[Non-governmental organisation]]
| headquarters = WECF International, Korte Elisabethstraat 6, 3511 JG Utrecht, Netherlands
| abbreviation = WECF
| staff = 20-50
| location = [[Utrecht]] (Netherlands), [[Munich]] (Germany), [[Annemasse]] (France), [[Geneva]] (Switzerland), [[Tbilisi]] (Georgia)
| website = [http://www.wecf.org/ www.wecf.org]
| membership = 150 partner organisations
}}'''Women Engage for a Common Future''' (WECF), formerly known as '''Women in Europe for a Common Future''', is a [[non-governmental organization]] created in 1994 following the [[Earth Summit (1992)|1992 Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The aim of the organization is to "achieve an equitable and [[Sustainability|sustainable]] healthy environment for all".<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wecf.eu/english/about-wecf/|title=Vision & Strategy|website=www.wecf.eu|access-date=2016-03-07}}</ref> WECF is a network of more than 150 women's and [[environmental organizations]] in 50 countries worldwide.<ref name="auto" /> WECF also works on national, [[European Union|European]], [[UN]] and international political levels with the aim to increase women's influence in political decision-making processes.
== History ==
WECF was registered as a foundation in 1994 in the Netherlands as Women in Europe for a Common Future. During the “Earth Summit” in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1992), women from the European region formed the network WECF. The organization officially changed its name from “Women in Europe for a Common Future” to “Women Engage for a Common Future” in 2016.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=About us|url=https://www.wecf.org/about-us/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref>
[[File:Women Engage for a Common Future (WECF).jpg|alt=WECF Germany|thumb|411x411px|The staff from WECF Germany posing in front of the #munich4Europe statue as part of the "make Europe sustainable for all" campaign 2018]]
== Global role and processes ==
WECF has observer status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations ([[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]]) and is an official partner of the United Nations Environment Program ([[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]]). WECF was also a member of the European Environment and Health Committee until it concluded in 2010 ([https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/pages/european-environment-and-health-process-ehp/governance/previous-ehp-governance-mechanisms/european-environment-and-health-committee-1994-2010 EEHC]).
'''WECF's Founding of the Women's Major Group at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992'''
The WECF is a founding member of the Women's Major Group (WMG).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-04-14|title=Women Engage for a Common Future (WECF)|url=https://womengenderclimate.org/member/women-in-europe-for-a-common-future-wecf/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Women & Gender Constituency|language=en-US}}</ref> This group was created in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, after governments recognized that women are one of the nine groups for achieving sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Women's Major Group|url=https://www.womensmajorgroup.org/|website=Women's Major Group}}</ref> As a result, the WMG is a participant in the United Nations initiatives for Sustainable Development.
'''WECF at The Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing'''
In 1995, more than 30,000 activists from around the world met in Beijing for the [[World Conference on Women, 1995|Fourth World Conference on Women]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/fwcwn.html|access-date=2021-10-25|website=www.un.org}}</ref> One of WECF's first large projects as an organization consisted of sending a delegation of women to attend the civil society forum in Beijing before the conference, where they would highlight the intersections between gender and the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Beijing+25 - World conference on women|url=https://www.wecf.org/beijing25-world-conference-on-women/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref>
'''Women and Gender Constituency'''
The WECF is also one of the founding members of the Women and Gender Constituency.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-04-14|title=Women Engage for a Common Future (WECF)|url=https://womengenderclimate.org/member/women-in-europe-for-a-common-future-wecf/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Women & Gender Constituency|language=en-US}}</ref> Founded in 2009, the Women and Gender constituency is one of nine groups that are a part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2014-04-13|title=About us|url=https://womengenderclimate.org/about-us/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Women & Gender Constituency|language=en-US}}</ref> The role of the 33 women's and environmental civil society organizations that are a part of this group is to ensure that women's voices and rights are central to all processes and results within the UNFCCC Framework. They also formalize the voice of the aforementioned organizations that are active within the UNFCCC, while developing, streamlining and advocating common positions.<ref name=":1" />
As a member of the Constituency, the WECF is present at each meeting of the UNFCCC. The WECF works alongside the UNFCCC Secretariat, governments, civil society observers and others.<ref name=":1" /> Overall, the WECF contributes to climate negotiations and ensures that grassroots women's organizations from within their networks participate in the policy meetings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Women & Gender Constituency|url=https://www.wecf.org/women-gender-constituency/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref>
'''WECF at the 2012 UN Rio+20 summit on sustainable development'''
More than 50,000 representatives of social movements and civil society organizations protested in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in June of 2012 against what they saw as unfair and unsustainable economic policies. At the same time, 30,000 participants of the United Nations [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|2012 Rio+20 conference]] created the document "The Future We Want"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/727The%20Future%20We%20Want%2019%20June%201230pm.pdf|title=The Future We Want|work=uncsd2012.org|accessdate=23 June 2015}}</ref> which set the path for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (replacing the [[Millennium Development Goals]]). WECF participated in the Rio+20 conference as co-facilitator of the Women's Major Group,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womenrio20.org/|title=Creating a just and sustainable future|work=womenrio20.org|accessdate=23 June 2015}}</ref> one of the nine groups of civil society that have a space in the UN policy process. WECF's role was to facilitate the 300 organizations through virtual and face-to-face meetings, created proposals for the negotiation text, organize meetings with country negotiators, as well as organizing events in which to present the priorities of women's organizations.
'''Beijing+25 and Generation Equality Forums'''
2020 marked the 25th anniversary of the fourth World Women's Conference, and UN Women has created the Generation Equality Forums in 2021 to build on the Beijing Platform for Action.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Beijing+25 - World conference on women|url=https://www.wecf.org/beijing25-world-conference-on-women/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref> The forums are convened by UN Women to set concrete actions to achieve progress for Gender Equality.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Generation Equality Forum|url=https://forum.generationequality.org/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Generation Equality Forum|language=en}}</ref> The WEFC's Executive Director Sascha Gabizon is a member of the Civil Society Advisory Group (CSAG), which supports the decision-making of the Core Group at these forums and ensures that civil society priorities are reflected in the outcomes of the Forum.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Generation Equality Forums|url=https://www.wecf.org/generation-equality-forums/|access-date=2021-10-25|website=WECF|language=en-GB}}</ref>
== Organization ==
The organization was founded by Marie Kranendonk in 1994. WECF now has five offices in the Netherlands, Germany, France, Switzerland and Georgia. WECF has a dual governance system. The executive directors and their team are formally supervised by the Board of Trustees (BOT). Their role is to approve the annual plans, budgets and reports, and supervise the work of WECF's directors. WECF's partners also have a say in their governance, through the International Advisory Board (IAB). The IAB's role is to give strategic advice to WECF's BOT and directors.
To achieve the organization's goals, WECF works through capacity-building, policy, and outreach. WECF provides training, expertise, and offers grants to organizations working for women and gender equality.<ref name=":0" />
WECF also advocates to policymakers locally and globally to ensure that women's perspectives and gender equality are included in both policies and implementing plans, by helping organizations participate in decision-making processes.<ref name=":0" /> Lastly, WECF discusses the importance of gender-just climate and environmental solutions using a variety of methods, from social media campaigns to public debates.<ref name=":0" />
The WECF's focus areas include sustainable development, climate action, and a toxin-free, healthy environment.<ref name=":0" /> The key issues that the organization works for include climate justice, energy solutions, gender equality, inclusive forest governance, international solidarity, menstruation matters, safe water and sanitation, stopping toxic chemicals and waste and women's rights in Agenda2030.<ref name=":0" />
==References==
{{Reflist}}
__FORCETOC__
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Women Engage for a Common Future}}
[[Category:International women's organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:International organisations based in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:International organizations based in Europe]]
[[Category:Environmental justice organizations]]
[[Category:Gender equality]]
[[Category:Ecofeminism]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Monitoring Education for Sustainable Development |
'''Monitoring [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] (ESD)''' refers to measuring progress in ESD learning compared to policy commitments, provision, institutional support, resources and others. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] is widely discussed in literature on [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]], including debates regarding methodology and strategies for interpreting the data.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tilbury|first=D.|date=2007|title=Monitoring and evaluation during the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development|journal=Journal of Education for Sustainable Development|volume=1|issue=2|pages=239–254|doi=10.1177/097340820700100214|s2cid=143828816}}</ref>
== Purposes and benefits of monitoring ESD ==
New information, analysis and predictions feed into ‘improve[d] decision making and action-taking’ to guide and reorient programmes. This process increases understanding about the elements necessary to promote [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] learning in a particular context, and can influence other stakeholders. The desired outcome is wider social learning and enhanced ESD knowledge and skills, potentially resulting in diverse activities that promote not just better learning but the ultimate goal of [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]]: [[sustainable living]] throughout life.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232555?posInSet=1&queryId=f33b6a27-0a3a-4c03-b24f-065db93c4927|title=Rethinking Education: Towards a Global Common Good?|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100088-1|location=Paris}}</ref>
A main requirement of effective M&E in [[education]] and learning is clear objectives, also called competencies, which stem from defined concepts in a subject. The more dynamic aspects of ESD cannot be boxed into a measurable definition because they centre on the unknown and the emergent: they revolve around new concepts and ideas produced by learners to help populations confront global issues such as [[climate change]]. It is not always possible to know what to monitor because learners are partially leading the process. Differentiating [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] from two subject areas is challenging because it is often lumped together with – its precursor, [[environmental education]] (EE), and [[global citizenship education]] (GCED), which runs complementarily.<ref name=":0" />
There is a governance and [[accountability]] angle to M&E of ESD. It involves verifying that all learners have access, that the process is inclusive and that the learning provided is suitable. At the national level, it is crucial that education authorities be in a position to account for how a significant share of public [[Expense|expenditure]] (supplemented by sizeable private investment) is ensuring the right of all children, youth and adults to basic educational opportunities that lead to effective and relevant learning. M&E also accounts ‘for ensuring equal opportunity for post-basic education and training’.<ref name=":0" />
Monitoring is not only concerned with learning, but effective learning for all, and therefore operates from a position of social justice. It helps to keep special interests and the marketization of education in check, by regulating the [[private sector]] to ‘ensure the application of standards adopted by education professionals working in both public and private sectors’. M&E aims to protect and uphold access to quality education for all people throughout life by reining in potentially dominant special interest forces.<ref name=":0" />
== Historical efforts in ESD monitoring ==
From 2005 to 2014, [[UNESCO]] worked on prioritizing and advancing ESD. Based on [[United Nations General Assembly]] Resolution 57/254, the UN Decade of [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] (DESD) was conceived as a way to foreground principles and practices of sustainability and marry them with education and learning. This marriage aimed to strengthen ESD worldwide with a view to effecting positive, sustainable change in the ways that people – in this case, learners – make choices and live their lives in relationship to others and their local environment, ultimately transforming broader [[Social behavior|social behaviour]] and its effects on the planet. The conclusion was that it was necessary to monitor efforts to observe the kind of progress being made. This information could be fed back into the [[process]] leading to changes and improvements resulting in better ESD learning. The common practice was to measure ESD through inputs, including the ‘development of strategies, plans, coordinating mechanisms and resources’. This approach reflected a more top-down approach to M&E often driven by national reporting to international agencies. It was also representative of a belief that inputs inevitably lead to outputs. However, the effect of inputs and throughputs on ESD learning proved difficult to see.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230514?posInSet=1&queryId=4e0893b8-6c61-4b5c-8217-223ddf872568|title=UNESCO Roadmap for Implementing the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|location=Paris}}</ref>
This suggested three things:
* equating inputs with outputs amounted to a leap of faith, and was not backed up by the evidence. Accordingly, different or a combination of M&E strategies were needed;
* D[[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] activities were not making an immediately observable difference on the ground; and
* more information was needed about the context, educational process and so on. Such input-output thinking often goes hand-in-hand with an overly focused conversation about indicators (which are sometimes presented as the solution in themselves).<ref name=":1" />
This mix reflects the balance and tension between translating global and local concerns into goals and targets, and having indicators that help collect information on activities that demonstrate progress towards them. Both are important, as the wider call for [[sustainable development]] is a response to overarching, multifaceted (global) problems, such as [[climate change]] and specific (local) manifestations and effects on different places for actual people. During the Decade, the DESD Monitoring and Evaluation Expert Group (MEEG) developed various ESD indicators as part of their Global Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. Early involvement of stakeholders and establishing agreed-upon goals will be vital to addressing this indicator development challenge’. Coordination between National Commissions and designated working groups led to various types of indicator development bodies each with different purposes. This strategy resulted in an open and connected process that was part of a larger M&E scheme.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000155283|title=Asia-Pacific guidelines for the development of national ESD indicators|publisher=UNESCO|year=2007|isbn=978-92-9223-121-7}}</ref>
An outcome from the Decade is that many M&E experts now believe in evaluating programmes and practices at multiple levels and stages of the educational process. Possible multipronged frameworks involve large-scale student assessments and country-level and lower assessments related to contextualized ESD aims and purposes. This may include evaluation of the learning environment focusing on [[pedagogy]] and learner engagement, and formative assessments to improve professional practice among teachers through peer engagement.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230514|title=UNESCO Roadmap for Implementing the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|location=Paris}}</ref>
== How countries monitor ESD ==
Finding data on how countries monitor [[Education for sustainable development|ESD]] has proven difficult. References in the literature to country approaches to M&E invariably follow the model of collecting and analysing policies, capacity-building efforts, [[implementation]], earning objectives, teacher and curriculum, partnerships and networks, and so on. There is little mention of holistic schemes or systems operating in unison. Some instances provide decontextualized discussions about indicators and assessments to evaluate [[Educational aims and objectives|learning outcomes]]. As these discussions are not part of a larger whole or anchored to country activities, they lose their concrete value and simply amount to a reiteration of oversimplified, input leads-to-output thinking without any information about what happens between inputs and [[Educational aims and objectives|learning outcomes]]. There are a few examples of studies where M&E of ESD within countries could have been inquired about and pointed to, but were not for some reason.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.ias.unu.edu/resource_ centre/TICADV-ESD-flyer-2p.pdf|title=Education for Sustainable Development (ESD): A Sound Investment to Accelerate African Development|date=2013|website=UNESDOC|access-date=20 February 2017}}</ref>
The [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE) Initiative on [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] includes an objective to ‘promote research on and development of ESD. However, the ten-year evaluation report on implementation does not provide examples of monitoring, and notes only that more and better practices are needed. The United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS) and the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) collaborated on a research project with the [[UNESCO]] Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education on M&E for ESD in 2011 to 2012. The study covered nine countries in North and [[Southeast Asia]] over two rounds of surveys using a mixed-methods approach (both quantitative and qualitative with a bridge connecting the two data sets). Similar to the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]] report, key input, content and process areas were examined. There is lengthy discussion in the final report about the benefits and deficiencies of monitoring, but an absence of country cases to illustrate these points. Examples of what is described and promoted as good practice can be useful.<ref name=":2" />
A publication developed by UNESCO in 2013 entitled National Journeys towards [[Education for sustainable development|Education for Sustainable Development]] offers some detail and analysis of M&E in countries within the five world regions, focusing on: Costa Rica, Morocco, South Africa, Sweden and Viet Nam. In the case of Costa Rica, monitoring is addressed but mostly in relation to sustainable human development through the annual report, State of the Nation. Further leadership is mentioned as a key concern – one that also impacts M&E. According to the report, Morocco does not appear to have a comprehensive ESD M&E approach in place, including indicators.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000221008|title=National Journeys towards Education for Sustainable Development: Reviewing National ESD Experiences from Costa Rica, Morocco, South Africa, Sweden, Vietnam|publisher=UNESCO|year=2013|location=Paris}}</ref>
Accordingly, the report advocates for using SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) to evaluate performance. Versions of this approach are also applied to other country profiles in the report. According to the publication, South Africa has a strong tradition of M&E in ESD, and implemented the National Environmental Education Project for General Education and Training (NEEP-GET). This is ‘one of the largest, most comprehensive formative monitoring and evaluation (FME) processes’, which focused on ‘contextual monitoring and longitudinal studies, as well as critical appraisals of key issues’. In Sweden, the Institute for Research in Education and Sustainable Development (IRESD) is ‘one of the most expansive and acclaimed research environments for education and sustainable development in Sweden’. However, the report does not provide information on how this links to monitoring ESD. According to the publication, Viet Nam's approach is focused on ‘project based mechanisms and indicators’. This includes manuals and guidelines for M&E of ESD, and relevant teacher training.<ref name=":3" />
Evidence shows that many countries are only getting started. The process of developing holistic, multipronged M&E systems for tracking ESD is still in the early stages. More needs to be done (and documented) with an emphasis on the driving reason for monitoring ESD in the first place: to gain information to make good decisions about policies, provision, institutional support, resources, and so on, that lead to better ESD learning and, ideally, broader sustainable behavior.<ref name=":3" />
== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Issues and trends in Education for Sustainable Development
| author =
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers =
| source =
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261445?posInSet=4&queryId=3a82a751-2b7e-455e-b7cd-3cbea3e35b7d
| license statement URL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261445?posInSet=4&queryId=3a82a751-2b7e-455e-b7cd-3cbea3e35b7d
| license = CC BY-SA
}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Drawdown (book) | {{short description|2017 Climate change solution book}}
<noinclude>[[File:Drawdown book.jpg|thumb]]</noinclude>
'''''Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming''''' is a 2017 book created, written, and edited by [[Paul Hawken]] about [[climate change mitigation]]. Other writers include [[Katharine Wilkinson]], and the foreword was written by ([[hardback]] edition) [[Tom Steyer]] and ([[paperback]]) [[Prince Charles]].
The book describes solutions arranged in order by broad categories: energy, food, women and girls, buildings and cities, land use, transport, materials, and "coming attractions".<ref name="Drawdown">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/drawdownmostcomp0000hawk|title=Drawdown: The most comprehensive plan ever proposed to reverse global warming|last1=Hawken|first1=Paul|date=2017|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=9780143130444|editor=Paul Hawken|location=New York, NY|url-access=registration}}</ref> The book provides a list of 100 potential solutions and ranks them by the potential amount of greenhouse gases each could cut, with cost estimates and short descriptions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/09/climate/drawdown-climate-solutions-quiz.html|title=How Much Do You Know About Solving Global Warming?|last=Schlossberg|first=Tatiana|date=2017-06-12|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|author-link=Tatiana Schlossberg}}</ref><ref name="Vox">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2017/5/10/15589038/top-100-solutions-climate-change-ranked|title=This book ranks the top 100 solutions to climate change. The results are surprising.|last=Roberts|first=David|date=2017-05-10|website=[[Vox Media|Vox]]|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref>
''[[The Guardian]]'' notes that the author has had influence in corporate sustainability efforts and that companies such as [[Interface, Inc.|Interface]] and [[Autodesk]] have backed the project. It was intended that the book be supplemented with an online database, ''[[Drawdown (climate)|Project Drawdown]]'', which was to compile the numerous types of solutions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2014/oct/22/first-look-environmental-entrepreneur-paul-hawkens-long-awaited-new-book|title=First look: environmental entrepreneur Paul Hawken's long-awaited new book|last=Gunther|first=Marc|date=2014-10-22|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-24|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
== Reception ==
''Drawdown'' has been a [[The New York Times|''New York Times'']] bestseller and has received favorable reviews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/549348/drawdown-by-edited-by-paul-hawken/9780143130444|title=Drawdown|date=2019|website=[[Penguin Random House]]|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/05/climate-change-global-warming-drawdown-hawken/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903142453/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/05/climate-change-global-warming-drawdown-hawken/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 3, 2019|title=100 Practical Ways to Reverse Climate Change|last=Worrall|first=Simon|date=2017-05-28|website=National Geographic News|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shelburnefarms.org/blog/drawdown-a-book-review|title=Drawdown - A Book Review|last=Brough|first=Holly|date=2017-11-17|website=Shelburne Farms|language=en|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://treezero.com/solution-climate-change-review-drawdown-paul-hawken/|title=Solutions to Climate Change: A Review of Drawdown edited by Paul Hawken|date=2017-06-20|website=TreeZero|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/stories/drawdown-100-achievable-climate-solutions-Paul-Hawken|title=In 'Drawdown,' Paul Hawken ditches the rhetoric to offer 100 practical climate solutions|last=Edelstein|first=Ken|date=May 4, 2017|website=MNN - Mother Nature Network|language=en|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://facadetectonics.org/news-articles/drawdown-paul-hawken-gets-real-climate-change-mic-patterson/|title=Drawdown: Paul Hawken Gets Real with Climate Change by Mic Patterson, PhD, LEED AP BD+C|date=January 13, 2018|website=Facade Tectonics Institute|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-date=2019-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924222933/https://facadetectonics.org/news-articles/drawdown-paul-hawken-gets-real-climate-change-mic-patterson/|url-status=dead}}</ref> For example, ''[[Kirkus Reviews]]'' called the book "an optimistic program for getting out of our current mess".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/paul-hawken/drawdown/|title=DRAWDOWN : The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming, edited by Paul Hawken|date=February 20, 2017|website=[[Kirkus Reviews]]|access-date=}}</ref>
An April 2017 video on [[C-SPAN]] described the book as "a collection of policies, plans, and active programs to reduce carbon emissions outside of the purview of the federal government".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?427029-2/drawdown|title=Drawdown|date=April 21, 2017|website=C-SPAN.org|language=en-us|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref> In the video, Mr. Hawken stated, "the reason we can say 'the most comprehensive plan ever proposed' is that no one's ever proposed a plan... which is sort of astonishing when you think about it."<ref name=":0" /> According to an article in [[Vox Media|Vox]], "until 2017, there was no real way for ordinary people to get an understanding of what they can do and what impact it can have".<ref name=Vox/>
== See also ==
* [[Drawdown (climate)]]{{snd}}analysis designed to operationalize themes found in the book
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{Cite web|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/paul-hawken-on-one-hundred-solutions-to-the-climate-crisis|title=Paul Hawken on One Hundred Solutions to the Climate Crisis|website=Yale E360|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-24}}
* {{url|https://www.drawdown.org}}, Project Drawdown headquartered in San Francisco, USA
* {{url|https://www.drawdowneurope.org}} the Drawdown Europe Research Association project headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands
[[Category:2017 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Climate change books]]
[[Category:2017 in the environment]]
[[Category:Penguin Books books]] |
Sustainable community | {{utopia}}
The term "sustainable communities" has various definitions, but in essence refers to communities planned, built, or modified to promote [[sustainable living]]. Sustainable communities tend to focus on environmental and economic [[sustainability]], urban infrastructure, social equity, and municipal government. The term is sometimes used synonymously with "green cities," "eco-communities," "livable cities" and "[[sustainable cities]]."
Different organizations have various understandings of sustainable communities; the term's definition is contested and still under construction. For example, [[Burlington, Vermont]]'s Principles of Sustainable Community Development <ref name="clinton2.nara.gov">"Appendix A: Definitions and Principles of Sustainable Communities" Sustainable Communities Task Force Report. Fall 1997. http://clinton2.nara.gov/PCSD/Publications/suscomm/suscoa.html</ref>
stress the importance of local control of natural resources and a thriving non-profit sector to a '''sustainable community'''. The [[Institute for Sustainable Communities]] outlines how political empowerment and social well-being are also part of the definition.<ref name="clinton2.nara.gov"/> Additionally, referring to communities in Shanghai and Singapore, geographer [[Lily Kong]] has paired concepts of [[cultural sustainability]] and [[social sustainability]] alongside [[environmental sustainability]] as aspects of sustainable communities.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Kong | first = Lily | title = Making Sustainable Creative/Cultural Space in Shanghai and Singapore| journal = Geographical Review | volume = 99| issue = 1 | pages = 1–22 | date = 21 April 2010 | doi =10.1111/j.1931-0846.2009.tb00415.x| s2cid = 144963064 | url = https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/1701 }}</ref> Meanwhile, the UK's 2003 [[Sustainable Communities Plan]] often abbreviates its definition of sustainable communities as "places where people want to live and work, now and in the future".<ref name="webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk">"What is a Sustainable Community?" The National Archives. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120919132719/http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1139866</ref> Addressing the scale of sustainable communities, political scientist Kent Portney points out that the term sustainable communities has been used to refer to a broad variety of places, ranging from neighborhoods to watersheds to cities to multi-state regions.<ref name=P1>{{cite book|last=Portney|first=Kent E.|title=Taking Sustainable Cities Seriously: A Comparative Analysis of Twenty-Three U.S. Cities|url=http://seg.fsu.edu/Library/portney-taking-sustainability-seriously-in-cities.pdf}}</ref>
Etymologically, the term "sustainable community" grew out of the related discourses of "sustainability" and "[[sustainable development]]" that gained widespread use among local, national, and international politicians and policymakers in NGOs starting in the late 1980s.<ref name="Agyeman">{{Citation | last = Agyeman | first = Julian | title = Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice| place = New York| publisher = NYU Press| year = 2005| isbn = 9780814707111 }}</ref> The term originally referred to environmental concerns and was later applied to cities.<ref name=Maliene >{{cite journal | last1 = Maliene | first1 = V | last2 = Howe | first2 = J | last3 = Malys | first3 = N |title = Sustainable Communities: Affordable Housing and Socio-Economic Relations. | journal = Local Economy | volume = 23| issue = 4 | pages = 267–276 | date = 21 April 2010 | doi = 10.1080/02690940802407989| s2cid = 153419157 }}</ref>
==Examples of Sustainable Community initiatives==
The best example of a real Sustainable Community is Saint Michael's Sustainable Community in Costa Rica. The community produces far more food and water than it needs. It uses [[regenerative agriculture]] as a base to live in harmony with nature.
Sustainable community initiatives have emerged in neighborhoods, cities, counties, [[Metropolitan area|metropolitan]] planning districts, and watershed districts at different scales pertaining to community needs. These initiatives are driven by various actor groups that have different methods of effectively planning out ways to create sustainable communities. Most often they are implemented by [[governments]] and [[non-profit organizations]], but they also involve community members, academics, and create partnerships and [[coalitions]]. While each community has its distinct needs, stakeholders generally evaluate the indicators of sustainability with regard to system performance, policy, and rapid feedback in order to keep or alter their sustainability programs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Innes |first1=Judith |last2=Booher |first2=David |title=Indicators for Sustainable Communities: A Strategy Building on Complexity Theory and Distributed Intelligence |date=2000 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=173-186}}</ref>
Nonprofit organizations help to cultivate local talents and skills, [[Empowerment|empowering]] people to become more powerful and more involved in their own communities. Many also offer plans and guidance on improving the [[sustainability]] of various practices, such as land use and community design, [[transportation]], [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]], [[waste reduction]], and climate friendly purchasing.
Some government groups will create partnerships where departments will work together using [[Grant (money)|grants]] to provide resources to communities like clean air and water, [[community planning]], [[economic development]], equity and [[environmental justice]], as well as [[housing]] and transportation choices.
[[Social movements]] have gathered momentum, spreading sustainable community ideas around the world, not only through example, but also by offering classes and training on [[sustainable living]], [[permaculture]], and [[local economics]].
== International initiatives==
===United Kingdom===
The [[Sustainable Communities Plan]] was launched in 2003 through the [[Office of the Deputy Prime Minister]]. Lacking an official national spatial development plan, the UK employed the Sustainable Communities Plan as a regional development plan targeted at the South East of England.<ref name="Raco">{{cite journal | last = Raco| first = Mike | title = A growth agenda without growth: English spatial policy, sustainable communities, and the death of the neo-liberal project | journal = GeoJournal | volume = 77| issue = 2 | pages = 153–165 | year = 2012 | doi = 10.1007/s10708-009-9327-0 | s2cid = 153538503 }}
</ref> Additionally, the plan created the [[Academy for Sustainable Communities]]. The £38 billion plan identifies four key growth areas for development and regeneration: the [[Thames Gateway]], [[Ashford, Kent]], [[London]]-Stansted-[[Cambridge]]-[[Peterborough]] (LSCP) and [[Milton Keynes]]/[[South Midlands]] (MKSM) <ref name="webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk"/>
. Designed during a period that projected sustained economic growth into the future, the plan's implementation has been slowed and disjointed, particularly since the [[2008 economic recession]]<ref name="Raco"/>
An [[affordable housing]] shortage in the UK has also challenged the Plan's implementation.<ref name= Maliene />
== National initiatives ==
The '''Partnership for Sustainable Communities''' is an interagency partnership between the [[Department of Transportation]], [[Environmental Protection Agency]], and the [[Department of Housing and Urban Development]]. These departments work together with a mission to “improve access to affordable housing, increase transportation options, and lower transportation costs while protecting the environment”.<ref name="sustainablecommunities.gov">"About Us" Partnership for Sustainable Communities. Retrieved 10 March 2014 http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/aboutUs.html</ref> All three bureaus offer funding opportunities to support communities in areas of clean air and water, community planning, economic development, energy efficiency, equity and environmental justice, as well as housing and transportation choices. The partnership incorporates six principles of livability into its grant-making and program development.:<ref name="sustainablecommunities.gov"/>
*Provide more transportation choices
*Promote equitable, affordable housing
*Enhance economic competitiveness
*Support existing communities
*Coordinate policies and leverage investment
*Value communities and neighborhoods
Along with working collaboratively, these government agencies also have their own initiatives.
The Department of Housing and Development has an ''Office of Sustainable Housing and Communities'' which features a Sustainable Housing Initiative, aiming at “supporting the construction and rehabilitation of [[green affordable housing]]”<ref>"Sustainable Housing Initiative" U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/sustainable_housing_communities/sustainable_housing_initiative</ref> and does this through programs that retrofit or construct energy efficient homes. They also work to standardize energy efficiency standards across federal agencies, as well as expand the availability of financing for home energy improvements and multifamily housing.
The Environmental Protection Agency has a ''Smart Growth Program'' which conducts research, publishes reports, showcases outstanding communities, and works with communities through grants and technical assistance.<ref>"Smart Growth" U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 9 March 2014. http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/index.htm</ref> They also have a Green Communities Program which provides communities with a tool kit of information to help them reach sustainable goals. The tool kit is arranged in a five-step program which allows communities to:<ref>"Basic Information" Green Communities, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 9 March 2014. http://www.epa.gov/greenkit/basicinformation.htm</ref>
*Develop '''community assessments''' of their current conditions
*Formulate '''trend analyses''' that answers the question “Where are we going?” in the face of no intervention
*Create '''vision statements''' of where the community sees itself in the future
*Establish '''action plans''' about what programs and initiatives will help the community reach its goals
*Access tools to '''implement''' action plans
The Department of Transportation has a ''Livability Initiative'' which issues “grants to eligible recipients for planning, vehicle purchases, facility construction, operations, and other purposes”,<ref>"Grants and Programs" U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://www.dot.gov/livability/grants-programs</ref> with numerous goals, including the improvement of surface transportation, providing public transit on Indian reservations, providing access to disadvantaged communities, etc.
===Case Studies from the Partnership for Sustainable Communities===
'''The Euclid Corridor in Cleveland'''
Once a thriving place of business and home to the wealthy and elite, Euclid Avenue in [[Cleveland]] had seen a decline in commerce following the [[Great Depression]]. During this economic downturn, Cleveland became a [[shrinking city]] as many of its residents moved and homes were turned into boarding houses or abandoned altogether.. After decades of work by city leaders and residents to revitalize this part of the city, the bus line [[HealthLine]] debuted in 2008. This bus line increased ridership and helped The Euclid Corridor begin to see the redevelopment of abandoned properties as well as investment in development of commerce, to the tune of $4.3 billion. This created thousands of square feet of retail space and thousands of jobs. The success of the revitalization of the Euclid Corridor is due in large part to engaged community leaders, community members, and NGO's like MidTown Cleveland who worked on ensuring that there was a variety of housing investments. EPA assisted with the redevelopment of abandoned space through their brownfield assessment grants and HUD provided mortgage insurance on properties to aid in the development of Euclid Avenue.<ref>"Transit as Transformation - The Euclid Corridor in Cleveland" Partnership for Sustainable Communities. June 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2014" http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/pdf/studies/cleveland-euclid-corridor.pdf</ref>
'''Greenville, South Carolina's Westside'''
Following a shift from the cotton production that once thrived in the west end of [[Greenville, South Carolina]], this part of the city began to see a flight of its residents and with it the abandonment and decay of its buildings and facilities, higher crime rates, and more low-income households. In 2010, HUD and DOT awarded the city $1.8 million to support a three-year planning initiative which sought to improve affordable housing, transportation, and increase economic development. The HUD provided a loan to encourage economic growth, specifically through the conversion of an old cotton warehouse into an area of retail shops, offices, and restaurants known as West End Market. The success of West End Market led to 230 building permits being issued around the area in a three-year period, resulting in a successful arts district that created jobs as well as drew tourists and locals. EPA assisted with the redevelopment of abandoned space through $200,000 in brownfield assessment grants which allowed for the city to facilitate clean up, or initiate redevelopment. The city also worked with the [[Federal Highway Administration]] in demolishing an unnecessary bridge which allowed for the development of a recreational area with a cross bridge, waterfalls, and walking paths, known as [[Falls Park on the Reedy]]. In 2005, a mixed-use development was constructed across from Falls Park with a hotel, apartments, restaurants, and retail and office spaces to help further spark economic growth in the area.<ref>"Revitalizing Greenville's Westside" Partnership for Sustainable Communities. December 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2014 http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/pdf/studies/greenville_sc.pdf</ref>
'''Seattle's South Lake Union Neighborhood'''
With investments in transportation, affordable housing, and green space, Seattle's South Lake Union has transformed from a place of freeway traffic, abandoned warehouses, and parking lots to an economically flourishing neighborhood. An integral part to this transformation was the creation of a street car service, partially funded by the [[Federal Transit Administration]]. The streetcar encouraged both Amazon.com and Microsoft to locate campuses in the South Lake Union neighborhood, bringing with it jobs and investment in residential space. The City of Seattle is proposing a zoning change to promote affordable housing and attract market rate development. HUD provided grants to fund building and support services for the chronically homeless, adults and veterans recovering from addiction, and homeless with mental health issues and substance abuse problems. HUD also supplied $5.7 million towards the construction of a senior housing facility. To address the problems with the neighborhoods freeways and lack of sidewalks and crosswalks, a $30 million grant was issued by the DOT to help build crosswalks over 12 intersections, widen sidewalks, add bicycle lanes, as well as beautify the space through the addition of landscaping and trees.<ref>"Seattle's South Lake Union Neighborhood" Partnership for Sustainable Communities. December 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://www.sustainablecommunities.gov/pdf/studies/seattle-south-lake-union.pdf</ref>
== State initiatives ==
===Maryland===
The state of Maryland passed a Sustainable Communities Act in 2010 with the goal of revitalizing and promoting reinvestment in Maryland's older communities as well working to promote “equitable, affordable housing by expanding energy-efficient housing choices for people of all ages, incomes, races, and ethnicity to increase mobility and lower the combined cost of housing and transportation”.<ref>"Sustainable Communities" Maryland Department of Planning. Retrieved 11 March 2014. [http://planning.maryland.gov/yourpart/sustainablecommunities.shtml]</ref> The law also created the Sustainable Communities Tax Credit Program which promotes private investment in the restoration and development of historic sites.<ref>"Maryland Sustainable Communities Tax Credit Program" Maryland Department of Planning, Maryland Historical Trust. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://mht.maryland.gov/taxCredits.shtml</ref> Thanks in part to the Sustainable Communities Tax Credit Program, the neighborhood of [[Remington, Baltimore]] was able to refurbish an old tin factory into a space for offices and residences, which led to the development of other properties as well as homes, which increased use and population for the neighborhood.<ref>"Remington Neighborhood Revitalization" Maryland Department of Planning. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://planning.maryland.gov/OurWork/spotlightComm_Remington.shtml</ref>
In 2013 the Maryland General Assembly passed the Sustainable Communities Tax Increment Financing Designation and Financing Law. This law allows for Maryland counties and municipalities to use funds generated from increased property tax values to fund improvement projects in sustainable communities. Sample projects include expanding sidewalks, the development of tree planting on streets and parks, as well as improvements to water and sewer infrastructure to help encourage economic growth and improve quality of life.<ref>"Sustainable Communities" Maryland Department of Planning. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://planning.maryland.gov/yourpart/sustainablecommunities.shtml</ref>
===California===
The state of California passed the [[Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008]], also known as SB 375. The law aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through transportation, housing, and land use planning. Under the SB 375, the state is broken up into Metropolitan Planning Organizations which are each responsible for developing Sustainable Community Strategies that will help the state reach its goal of reduced emissions. These strategies are then evaluated by the [[California Environmental Protection Agency]]'s Air Resources Board.<ref name= "nrdc.org">"Sustainable Communities" California Environmental Protection Agency - Air Resources Board. Retrieved 8 March 2014. http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/sb375.htm</ref> Under the Sustainable Community Strategy, the city of [[Sacramento]] plans to double transit service and increase bike lanes, offering more transportation choices and reducing vehicle emissions.<ref name="Eaken, Amanda 2012">Eaken, Amanda. Horner, Justin. Ohland, Gloria "A Bold Plan for Sustainable California Communities: A Report on the Implementation of Senate Bill 375" Natural Resources Defense Council. September 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2014. http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/sb375/implementation-report/files/implementation-report.pdf</ref> The city of [[San Diego]] also plans to increase funding towards more transportation choices as well as promote more multi-family housing near high transit areas.<ref name="Eaken, Amanda 2012"/> The Southern California Strategies include transit expansion, developing housing closer to public transportation, increasing funding for biking and pedestrians, and the creation of jobs, with most being near public transit.<ref name="Eaken, Amanda 2012"/>
==City government initiatives==
Cities are defined as [[jurisdictional]] units that have small divisions of government within them. These divisions of government have the authority to affect environmental and [[ecological]] results.<ref name="P1"/> Cities are especially important in initiating sustainable communities because they have [[local authorities]] that “have political power and credibility to take initiatives to access and deploy [[resources]] in ways reflecting local conditions that allows them the capacity to manage and lead [[urban development]] for the good of the environment.” <ref name=P1 /> It is also necessary to implement sustainable communities in countries that are [[industrialized]] because cities are where most environmental and [[social problems]] dwell.
When looking at and comparing sustainable cities certain indicators may be used:
*Does the city have any [[smart growth]] programs that are designed to “help manage growth and avoid and eliminate [[urban sprawl]]” and minimize impacts on [[physical environment]]? <ref name=P1 />
*Does the city have [[zoning]] plans that demonstrate goals for the city in a way that create [[Environmentally Sensitive Area|environmentally-sensitive]] areas and maintain them? <ref name=P1 />
*Does the city follow any legal [[policies]] that allow [[advocates]] and [[activists]] to create programs that would help the city become [[sustainable]]? <ref name=A1>{{cite book|last=Agyeman|first=Julian|title=Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice|pages=20}}</ref>
*How involved in the environmental and [[Social justice|social justice movement]] are programs within the city? <ref name=A2>{{cite book|last=Agyeman|first=Julian|title=Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice}}</ref>
*Is the [[transportation]] system of the city set up to encourage [[public transportation]] and not private to reduce [[pollution]]? <ref name=P1 />
*Are there pollution remediation programs in the city? <ref name=P1 />
*How [[Politically|politically involved]] are citizens where their voices are equally heard in order to create social justice and a [[just community]]? <ref name=A2 />
The 34 elements inside “Taking Sustainable Cities Seriously" can also be used to determine whether a city is considered sustainable or not.<ref name=P34>{{cite book|last=Portney|first=Kent E.|title=Taking Sustainable Cities Seriously: A Comparative Analysis of Twenty-Three U.S. Cities|page=34|url=http://seg.fsu.edu/Library/portney-taking-sustainability-seriously-in-cities.pdf}}</ref>
===City examples===
The city of [[San Francisco]] uses the [[Precautionary principal|Precautionary Principal]] as a framework to develop laws for a healthier and more just city.<ref name=A3>{{cite book|last=Agyeman|first=Julian|title=Sustainable Communities and the Challenge of Environmental Justice|page=21}}</ref> The precautionary principal gives more power to community members by allowing them to stand up against [[corporations]] in their neighborhoods and leaves the [[Burden of proof (law)|burden of proof]] to corporations instead of community members. Companies must prove that their endeavors are harmless to the community instead of the community having to prove they have been harmed by company endeavors.<ref name=A2 /> This allows for a sustainable community as [[environmental justice]] and social justice are created.
The city of [[Quebec]] to create a sustainable community through political involvement has dedicated studies to discovering why citizens are or are not politically active. Studies from Quebec have shown that citizens’ [[Political efficacy|internal and external efficacy]] is a large part in determining [[Participation (decision making)|participation]] in politics. When citizens lack the internal belief that one can make change in government and the external belief that the government will make changes according to citizen concerns, political participation dwindles as citizens believe no change will occur. When becoming politically active, a citizen takes into account the history of the city government, the government's actions, and government interactions with other citizens.<ref name=KC1>{{cite book|last=Kornberg and Clarke|first=Allan and Harold|title=Citizens and Community: Political Support in a Representative Democracy|page=60}}</ref>
After noting the city's sustainability level it is important to note what kinds of communities are targeted and how they are affected through these programs and what kinds of strategies are being used to try to create and transform sustainable communities.
==Non-Profit and NGO sector==
The [[Institute for Sustainable Communities]] created by former Vermont Governor, Madeleine M. Kunin, leads community based projects around the globe that address environmental, economic, and social issues.<ref>"What is a Sustainable Community?" Institute for Sustainable Communities. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://www.iscvt.org/what_we_do/sustainable_community/</ref> Many of these groups help to cultivate local talents and skills, empowering people to become more powerful and involved in their own communities. Many also offer plans and guidance on improving the sustainability of various practices, such as land use and community design, green transportation, energy efficiency, waste reduction, and climate friendly purchasing.<ref>"About Sustainable Communities" Sustainable Communities Online. Retrieved 11 March 2014. http://www.sustainable.org/about</ref>
The [[Global Integrity]] Project is focused on bringing together top scientists and thinkers from around the world in order to analyze the problems of inequality among humankind. These thinkers examine economic and ethical issues faced in protecting and enhancing our environments and make recommendations on restoration techniques that aid in promoting social justice. They also call for a major and imperative paradigm shift in order to ensure good quality of life for many future generations.<ref name=EI>{{cite book|last=Pimentel|first=David|title=Ecological Integrity: Integrating Environment, Conservation, and Health}}</ref>
[[Sustainable Seattle]] is a non-profit organization which has created regional indicators for sustainability through grassroots activism and has become a world leader in these sustainability indicators. Sustainable Seattle has printed newsletters on a wide range of sustainable community topics, from building to recycling and more, and they are believed to be the first “sustainable community” organization, founded in 1991. There are now hundreds of “sustainable community” organizations across the USA <ref>"Who we are" Sustainable Seattle. Retrieved 5 May 2014. http://www.sustainableseattle.org</ref>
==Social movement initiatives==
The Take Back Your Time Movement, led by John de Graaf, focuses on the concept of working fewer hours and devoting more time to living a healthy lifestyle. The movement suggests that allowing shorter work days and longer vacations would in turn help better distribute work, while also reducing stress and making for healthier living. Additionally, people would have more free time to make more rewarding and sustainable choices for themselves.<ref>Assadourian, Erik. "The Power of Social Movements" Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/contents/social-movements</ref>
The Voluntary Simplicity Movement or [[Simple Living]] movement emphasizes reducing one's material possessions and desires and increasing self-sufficiency through skills such as gardening and [[DIY]]. The Voluntary Simplicity Movement suggests that one should focus on cultivating their own best inner being rather than focus on making material gains and wealth. It also promotes activism within the community to create engaged, educated citizens.
The [[Degrowth]] movement is based on [[anti-consumerist]] and [[anti-capitalist]] ideas, focusing on reducing consumption and promoting happy, healthy lifestyles in non-consumptive fashions. Main aspects of Degrowth include more equal distribution of workload and sharing work, consuming less, and setting aside time for personal and cultural growth through the arts and creativity <ref>"About Us: Description" Degrowth.org Retrieved 9 March 2014. http://www.degrowth.org/</ref>
Movements such as [[ecovillage]]s are gathering momentum, spreading sustainable community ideas around the world, teaching through example and also offering classes and training on sustainable living, [[permaculture]], and local economics. Ecovillages seek to integrate themselves harmlessly into the ecosystem surrounding them, so as to live and interact in a way that is sustainable and supportive of the natural world <ref>"About Us" Ecovillage Farm Learning Center. Retrieved 10 March 2014. http://ecovillagefarm.org/</ref>
==Challenges and critiques==
Sustainable communities, both as individual projects and as a whole, have faced challenges impeding their development and have been met with criticism.
Sustainable communities projects have struggled to take hold for:
* poor economic conditions and inaccessible housing markets: in the UK's Sustainable Communities Plan, the economic downturn of 2008 has led to a general shortage of housing and affordable housing in particular, which run contrary to the plan's premises of livable communities.<ref name= Maliene/>
Projects have been critiqued for:
* lacking a well-developed [[environmental justice]] framework: urban and environmental policy planner [[Julian Agyeman]] has written about the "narrow focus" of civic environmentalism that does not take "social justice" into account, and the need for sustainable communities to be democratic and collaborate with the environmental justice movement.<ref name=Agyeman />
* promoting a securitization agenda: British geographer Mike Raco argues that the UK's Sustainable Communities Plan employs the discourse of sustainability as "a series of potentially repressive and counter-productive policy measures.".<ref>{{cite journal | last = Raco| first = Mike | title = Securing Sustainable Communities: Citizenship, Safety, and Sustainability in the New Urban Planning | journal = European Urban and Regional Studies | volume = 14| issue = 4 | pages = 305–320 | year = 2014| doi = 10.1177/0969776407081164 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.580.7478 | s2cid = 156269868 }}
</ref>
* accommodating to [[neoliberal]] economic systems instead of confronting them: while some rationales for sustainable communities conflict with market-driven agendas, economic growth characterizes the means and ends of some initiatives. Additionally, sustainable communities reject the notion that development itself is fundamentally socially divisive or environmentally destructive.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Raco| first = Mike | title = Sustainable Development, Rolled-Out Neoliberalism and Sustainable Communities | journal = Antipode | volume = 37| issue = 2 | pages = 324–347 | year = 2005| doi = 10.1111/j.0066-4812.2005.00495.x }}
</ref>
== Education ==
While there are a variety of graduate degrees at universities that touch on sustainability as it related to urban planning and environmental resources, only a few degree program programs exist that train students in the theory and practice of sustainable communities. The most notable examples are:
* [[Binghamton University]] offers a [https://www.binghamton.edu/sustainable-communities/ Masters of Arts (MA) and Masters of Science (MS) in Sustainable Communities].
* [[Northern Arizona University]] offers a [https://in.nau.edu/sustainable-communities/program/ Masters of Arts (MA) in Sustainable Communities].
* [[DNS The necessary teacher training college]] offers a [https://dns-Tvind.dk teacher training that focuses on the capacity to create a collective].
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Sustainable communities}}
[[Category:Planned communities]]
[[Category:Sustainable communities| ]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Jai Jagat 2020 | {{Orphan|date=December 2021}}
[[File:Jai Jagat 2020 Chambel river crossing.jpg|thumb|Jai Jagat 2020 crossing the Chambel river, Madhya Pradesh, India]]
'''Jai Jagat 2020''' is an international campaign for justice and peace initiated by [[Rajagopal P. V.]] and Jill Carr-Harris. The main action is a march from [[Raj Ghat and associated memorials|Rajghat]], [[New Delhi]], to the United Nations headquarters in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. It started on October 2, 2019, on the 150th anniversary of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. Around 50 people from at least 10 countries are walking 10,000 km during one year. It will arrive in Geneva on October 2, 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Luciano Cricchio |first1=Emilio |title=Jai Jagat March for Peace and Justice Arrives in Armenia |url=https://www.civilnet.am/news/2020/02/17/Jai-Jagat-March-for-Peace-and-Justice-Arrives-in-Armenia/376494 |website=Civilnet}}</ref> The march will cross 10 countries: [[India]], [[Iran]],<ref>[https://www.isna.ir/news/98112417865/%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%B1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3-%D9%88-%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%AD-%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3 Iranian Students News Agency]</ref> [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Italy]], and [[Switzerland]]. In addition, a small delegation is going to [[Pakistan]].<ref>[https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/615048-n-a The News International]</ref>
The objectives are based on the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] of the United Nations, especially eradication of poverty, reduction of discrimination, fight against climate change, and nonviolent conflict resolution.
In India, the march reached [[Sevagram]], in Maharashtra, where it arrived on January 30, 2020,<ref>[https://www.dailypioneer.com/2019/state-editions/jai-jagat-2020-yatra-arrives-in-mp.html The Daily Pioneer]</ref> after crossing Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh.
The march was stopped in Armenia on March 15, 2020, because of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several marches from Belgium, Sweden, Germany, France, and Spain were planned to converge to Geneva, but only small marches from France actually happened.
== Gallery ==
A few images of Jai Jagat in India
<gallery>
File:Walking on the road Jai Jagat.jpg|Walking on the road
File:Walking with the flag Jai Jagat 2020.jpg|Walking with the flag
File:Village meeting Jai Jagat.jpg|Village meeting
File:Tree Shade Meeting Jai Jagat.jpg|Tree shade meeting
File:School meeting Jai Jagat 2020.jpg|School meeting
File:Last day walking in India Jai Jagat.jpg|Last day walking in India
</gallery>
== References ==
<references />
== External links ==
* [https://www.jaijagat2020.org/ Jai Jagat 2020 official website]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Movements in Asia]] |
Blue justice | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
'''Blue Justice''' is a critical approach examining how [[coastal]] communities and [[Artisanal fishing|small-scale fisheries]] are affected by [[blue economy]] and "blue growth" initiatives undertaken by institutions and governments globally to promote [[sustainable]] ocean development. The blue economy is also rooted in the [[green economy]] and the [[Sustainable Development Goals|UN Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>Isaacs, M. (23 July 2019). Blue Justice for small-scale fisheries. Retrieved 26 July 2019, from Plaas website: https://www.plaas.org.za/blue-justice-for-small-scale-fisheries/</ref> Blue Justice acknowledges the historical rights of small-scale fishing communities to marine and inland resources and coastal space; in some cases, communities have used these resources for thousands of years. Thus, as a concept, it seeks to investigate pressures on small-scale fisheries from other ocean uses promoted in blue economy and blue growth agendas, including [[Fishing industry|industrial fisheries]], coastal and marine tourism, [[aquaculture]], and [[energy production]], and how they may compromise the rights and the well-being of small-scale fisheries and their communities.
==Definition==
There is no one definition of Blue Justice. Below are definitions of Blue Justice offered by recent academic literature.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Nathan|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341803577|title=Blue Growth and Blue Justice|last2=Blythe|first2=Jessica|last3=White|first3=Carole|last4=Campero|first4=Cecilia|date=1 June 2020}}</ref>
'''Moeniba Isaacs, PLAAS 2019''': Blue Justice has at its core a social justice principle that recognizes the need for small-scale fisheries to have equity, access, participation, and rights within the blue economy. The Blue Justice approach for small-scale fisheries, therefore, is to "critically examine the political, economic, and ecological processes of blue economy development initiatives."
'''Svein Jentoft, Life Above Water''':<ref>Jentoft, S. (2019). Life Above Water: Essays on Human Experiences of Small-Scale Fisheries. St. John’s, N.L.: TBTI Global.</ref> Blue Justice for small-scale fisheries in the blue economy agenda means inclusion for small-scale fishers and community members as stakeholders with an eye towards power imbalances and equity. The basic tenets of social justice address who has a stake in the issue, and they focus on what needs to be done to restore justice for past wrongs in the marginalization of small-scale fisheries.
'''Philippa Cohen et al., Securing a Just Space for Small-Scale Fisheries in the Blue Economy''':<ref name=":0">Cohen, P. J., Allison, E. H., Andrew, N. L., Cinner, J., Evans, L. S., Fabinyi, M., … Ratner, B. D. (2019). Securing a Just Space for Small-Scale Fisheries in the Blue Economy. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00171</ref> Securing a "just" space for small-scale fisheries in the blue economy means including human rights and the voices of the largest ocean users in the discussion. It also means that paying closer attention to the social dimensions of fisheries may allow for better governance in this arena.
==Origins==
To address these longstanding issues, international instruments that explicitly reference human-rights principles have been adopted. The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security and the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (SSF Guidelines) are instruments that have social justice backings with language that calls for "responsible governance of tenure because land, fisheries and forests are central for the realization of human rights..." (FAO 2012; Governance of Tenure, p. 6), and that "States should ensure that effective fisheries management systems are in place to prevent overexploitation driven by market demand that can threaten the sustainability of fisheries resources, food security, and nutrition." (FAO 2015; SSF Guidelines, p. 11). These instruments are necessary to secure the historical use rights and customary use rights of small-scale fisheries.
Blue Justice has [[social justice]] and human rights principles at its foundation, and it has connections to [[environmental justice]] and [[climate justice]] due to the focus of those movements on the unequal distribution of harm exerted on marginalized communities. Rawls (1999) outlined his ‘justice as fairness’ with two principles: that each person has the equal right to basic liberties, and that social and economic inequalities should be reasonable and attached to positions that are open to all.<ref>Rawls, J. (1999). A Theory of Justice (Revised). Harvard University Press.</ref>
Although the environmental justice movement has had difficulty in documenting disproportionate effects on marginalized people,<ref>Mohai, P., Pellow, D., & Roberts, J. T. (2009). Environmental Justice. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34(1), 405–430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348</ref> the injustices faced by small-scale fishers and the communities they support have been extensively documented in the past few decades,.<ref>Chuenpagdee, R., & Jentoft, S. (Eds.). (2019). Transdisciplinarity for Small-Scale Fisheries Governance: Analysis and Practice. Retrieved from https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783319949376</ref><ref>Bavinck, M., Jentoft, S., & Scholtens, J. (2018). Fisheries as social struggle: A reinvigorated social science research agenda. Marine Policy, (94), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.026</ref> In the blue economy context, they have faced particular pressures such as the implementation of rights-based fisheries, forms of ocean enclosure such as [[marine protected area]]s (MPAs) <ref>Said, A., Chuenpagdee, R., Aguilar-Perera, A., Arce-Ibarra, M., Gurung, T. B., Bishop, B., … Jentoft, S. (2019). The Principles of Transdisciplinary Research in Small-Scale Fisheries. In R. Chuenpagdee & S. Jentoft (Eds.), Transdisciplinarity for Small-Scale Fisheries Governance (Vol. 21, pp. 411–431). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94938-3_22</ref> and marine spatial planning (MSP), which lead fisheries to run the risk of being both forced in and out.<ref>Jentoft, S. (2019). Life Above Water: Essays on Human Experiences of Small-Scale Fisheries. St. John’s, N.L.: TBTI Global.</ref>
==Blue Justice in the Blue Economy==
Blue Justice is a social movement in response to the [[blue economy]] and blue growth agendas, which "frame the ocean as the new economic frontier"<ref name=":0" /> and center on the commodification of ocean resources including "entrepreneurship, technological innovation, multi-use offshore platforms, and new harvesting and cultivation strategies".<ref>Arbo, P., Knol, M., Linke, S., & Martin, K. S. (2018). The transformation of the oceans and the future of marine social science. Maritime Studies; Heidelberg, 17(3), 295–304. http://dx.doi.org.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/10.1007/s40152-018-0117-5</ref>
It has been argued that if the blue economy is to be sustainable in the truest sense of the word (i.e., be continued forever), then fisheries, and in particular small-scale fisheries, should be the focus. Pauly (2018) argues that small-scale fisheries have features that make them sustainable and less likely to be negatively influenced by global crises.<ref>Pauly, D. (2018). A vision for marine fisheries in a global blue economy. Marine Policy, 87, 371–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.11.010</ref> If small-scale fisheries are to be a central focus of the blue economy—which they currently are not<ref>Bennett, N. J. (2019). In Political Seas: Engaging with Political Ecology in the Ocean and Coastal Environment. Coastal Management, 47(1), 67–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2019.1540905</ref>—then they will require equitable access to marine resources.
==See also==
* [[Environmental justice]]
==References==
<references />
==External links==
*[https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/blue_growth_en European Commission Blue Growth initiatives]
*[https://www.fao.org/3/i7862e/i7862e.pdf Blue Growth Initiative] – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
*[https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/infographic/2017/06/06/blue-economy World Bank and UNEP 2017 document on potentials of the Blue Economy]
[[Category:Justice]]
[[Category:Social movements]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable fishery]] |
Shroffs Foundation Trust | {{Short description|Non-governmental organization}}
{{multiple issues|{{tone|date=July 2020}}
{{update|date=July 2020}}}}
'''Shroffs Foundation Trust''' (SFT) is a regional [[non-governmental organization]] primarily working in [[Vadodara district]] and a part of [[Kutch district]] in [[Gujarat|Gujarat, India]].<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 1. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}</ref>
It was established in 1980 under the Bombay Public Trust Act 1950<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE BOMBAY PUBLIC TRUSTS ACT, 1950 |url=https://charity.maharashtra.gov.in/Portals/0/Files/B.P.T.Act,1950.pdf}}</ref> to improve the lives of impoverished communities in the region through holistic [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission |title=The Foundation ? Who We Are |access-date=2012-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619220254/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission |archive-date=2013-06-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>"A Job on Their Hands: Spreading Work and Self-esteem." The Times of India. 20 Sept. 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120412191807/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-20/india/30179451_1_chhota-udepur-village-expert-panel] Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012</ref> SFT has been involved in provision of livelihood security, drudgery reduction, natural resource management, health and education.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 1. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref>
In the year 2010–11, SFT derived 45% of their funds from government grants, 28% from donations and 27% from other sources.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 83. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref>
== Livelihood ==
SFT has carried out various projects to help communities achieve greater economic independence through community organization and [[capacity building]].<ref>[http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619220254/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/foundation.htm#mission|date=2013-06-19}} Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012</ref>
Widows hold a vulnerable position in the conservative society of rural India, to make them self-sufficient SFT trained 269 young widows in various businesses such as artificial jewellery making, [[cleaning agent]] making, stitching and [[embroidery]].<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 46. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> After training, 66% of the widows became self-sufficient.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 47. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref>
Another similar initiative taken by SFT was establishing a sustainable [[handicraft]] business run by the tribal women [[artisan]]s.<ref name="shroffsfoundation.org">http://www.shroffsfoundation.org. Shroff Foundation Trust. Web. 23 Feb. 2012. <http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/viveka_brochure.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206145728/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/viveka_brochure.pdf |date=2011-02-06 }}>.</ref> After three successful years of business, today their earnings have increased from Rs 6 per hour to Rs 14 per hour.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 34. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> This [[cooperative]] setup aims to empower more and more women by helping them have a steady source of income.<ref name="shroffsfoundation.org"/>
Women in the region have begun the practice of dairy cooperatives allowing them to price milk higher via capacity building programs organized by Self Help Groups (SHG's) established by SFT.<ref name="ReferenceA">Bansal, Dr. Hema. “Self help group - NGO - Bank linkages program in India: a case study.” M.S. University of Baroda, India.</ref><ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 15. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> The co-operative has provided saving opportunities, which resulted in a profit accumulation of Rs 50,000 in one year.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Furthermore, SFT has acted as a surety for the [[microcredit]] loans undertaken by the women for purchasing milk cattle under the program.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Subsequently, the daily additional income of 348 families in the region linked to these co-operatives has increased to Rs 84,363.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 22. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> Nevertheless, the program had to counter [[illiteracy]] problems that barricaded the community from viewing the benefits of a cooperative and resulted in conflicts and thus, caused time lags in implementation.<ref>Integrated Tribal Development Project. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 25. Retrieved 21 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206145653/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf|date=2011-02-06}}</ref>
SFT established a [[vocational training]] center in 2008 in [[Chhota Udaipur State|Chhota Udepur]].<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 48. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 [http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf|date=2014-02-27}}</ref> The center aims to equip 8,900 youths living in the tribal belts of Gujarat with skills to employ them in back-end office operations in [[Outsourcing#Business process outsourcing|BPOs]].<ref name="Tribal youths get job offers in Vadodara">Tribal youths get job offers in Vadodara” The Times of India. 23 July 2011. [https://archive.today/20130103100754/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-23/vadodara/29807265_1_tribal-youths-vocational-training-tribal-development-department].</ref><ref name="The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt">The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt” The Indian Express. 12 Aug. 2008. http://www.indianexpress.comnews/the-flat-world-bpo-highway-reaches-gujarat-tribal-belt/347705/1{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Initially participation in the courses was challenged by factors such as unawareness of the community of outlets such as BPOs and the degree of difficulty involved in learning [[English language|English]] from the basics.<ref name="The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt"/> However, these were eventually resolved through continued effort of volunteers.<ref name="The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt"/> and to date 175 trainees have received successful placements and are earning an average income of Rs 5000 per month.<ref name="Annual Report 2010-11">Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 48. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}.</ref>
== Drudgery reduction ==
The uneducated community has been prone to drudgery in the domestic and agricultural fields. [[Farm mechanization]] and safe drinking water has reduced drudgery of women providing time for other income generation activities.<ref name="TOI Social Impact Awards: Helping them reap a richer harvest">“TOI Social Impact Awards: Helping them reap a richer harvest” The Times of India. 24 Sep. 2011 [https://archive.today/20130103112909/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-24/india/30198074_1_chhota-udepur-check-dams-sft].</ref> SFT addressed the issues of access to safe drinking water through the introduction of a water distribution system (watershed project.<ref name="TOI Social Impact Awards: Helping them reap a richer harvest"/>) in 127 villages in the region, thereby, reaching out to 25,000 households.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 45. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}.</ref>
In addition, SFT observed heavy reliance on labour-intensive means of farming which was tackled by the initiation of the Tool Bank Project in 2010.<ref name="Annual Report 2010-11"/> Women spent on an average 15 or 16 hours a day in farm related chores like [[sowing]] and [[winnowing]].<ref name="Annual Report 2010-11"/> To increase productivity, SFT introduced mechanization through tractors, maize shellers and mini mills, which benefited 1,050 farmers.<ref name="Annual Report 2010-11"/>
SFT has also provided means for farmers to avail agro-services through the promotion of [[social enterprise]]s such as Agrocel Industries Ltd in order to help increase their crop yields.<ref name="Agrocel Ind: A social enterprise in agriculture">“Agrocel Ind: A social enterprise in agriculture.” Business Line, The Hindu. 7 June 2010. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-corporate/article993650.ece.</ref> This has been executed through the free provision of skilled technical guidance by the enterprise and access to superior inputs at affordable prices.<ref name="Agrocel Ind: A social enterprise in agriculture"/> Consequently, this helped decrease the time and resources spent on menial work for around 2,000 farmers.<ref>Annual Report 2010-11. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 46. Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227233651/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/annual_report_2010_11.pdf |date=2014-02-27 }}.</ref>
== Constraints ==
Since the SFT's target group is the rural and tribal community, one of the biggest limitations faced by them was the internal conflict between groups due to entrenched attitudes of the people.<ref name="Integrated Tribal Development Project">Integrated Tribal Development Project. Shroff Foundation Trust. p. 25. Retrieved 21 Feb. 2012 http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206145653/http://www.shroffsfoundation.org/pdf/itdp_report.pdf |date=2011-02-06 }}.</ref><ref name="Tribal voice and violence">Devy, Ganesh. “Tribal voice and violence.” Society under Siege (Seminar). Retrieved 23 Feb. 2012 http://www.india-seminar.com/2002/513/513%20ganesh%20devy.htm.</ref> Moreover, political interference, extensive and burdensome government procedures, and administrative delays by state departments hindered the implementation of the NGO's programmes.<ref name="Integrated Tribal Development Project"/> Lastly, additional time lags were triggered by the unwillingness of the people to partake in the activities owing to their inability to understand the benefits of the programmes and disagreements on selection of sites or participants.<ref name="The flat world: BPO highway reaches Gujarat tribal belt"/><ref name="Integrated Tribal Development Project"/>
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Non-governmental organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Vadodara district]]
[[Category:Kutch district]]
[[Category:1980s establishments in Gujarat]] |
Slow fashion | {{short description|Fashion concept}}
[[File:Made Slow fashion show (28096808709).jpg|thumb|A 2018 slow fashion show in Ireland.]]
{{Clothing and the environment}}
{{Anti-consumerism}}
'''Slow fashion''' is an aspect of [[sustainable fashion]] and a concept describing the opposite to [[fast fashion]], part of the "[[Slow movement (culture)|slow movement]]" advocating for clothing and apparel manufacturing in respect to people, environment and animals. As such, contrary to the industrial practices of fast fashion conglomerates, slow fashion involves local [[artisan]]s and the use of [[eco-friendly]] materials, with the goal of preserving crafts and the environment which, ultimately, provides value to all, slow fashion brands, consumers and retailers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Staniforth|first=Sarah|date=2010|title=Slow Conservation|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27867120|access-date=September 30, 2020|journal=Studies in Conservation|volume=55|issue=2|pages=74–80|doi=10.1179/sic.2010.55.2.74|jstor=27867120|s2cid=198987730|language=en}}</ref>
==Principles==
=== Definition ===
Slow fashion is a way to "identify sustainable fashion solutions, based on the repositioning of strategies of design, production, consumption, use, and reuse, which are emerging alongside the global fashion system, and are posing a potential challenge to it."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Clark|first=Hazel|date=December 2008|title=SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future …?|journal=Fashion Theory|volume=12|issue=4|pages=427–446|doi=10.2752/175174108X346922|s2cid=194180788|issn=1362-704X}}</ref> In other words, slow fashion is about making conscious and sustainable choices when it comes to fashion, and challenging the fast fashion system that is often associated with negative impacts on people and the planet. It promotes the purchase of higher-quality clothes that will last longer, as well as equitable treatment of people, animals, and the environment.
It is an alternative to [[fast fashion]] because it promotes a more ethical and sustainable way of living and consuming.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Is Slow Fashion?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/|date=2018-11-09|website=Good On You|language=en|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> "It encompasses the whole range of 'sustainable,' 'eco,' 'green,' and 'ethical' fashion movement".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Ertekin|first1=Zeynep Ozdamar|last2=Atik|first2=Deniz|date=2014-05-19|title=Sustainable Markets: Motivating Factors, Barriers, and Remedies for Mobilization of Slow Fashion|journal=Journal of Macromarketing|doi=10.1177/0276146714535932|s2cid=154555245}}</ref> This movement is another [[business model]] focusing on slowing down [[consumerism]] and respecting the environment and ethics.<ref name="Jung 2016 410–421"/>
=== Fast and slow fashion ===
For a long time, slow fashion was defined in opposition to fast fashion.
Unlike [[fast fashion]], ''slow fashion'' production ensures quality manufacturing to lengthen the life of the garment or material. Slow fashion garment normally has a longer product life cycle, places stress on quality, is commonly more expensive, and demands increasing awareness from manufacturers and consumers to decrease production and consumption speed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=2010 |title=Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175693810x12774625387594 |journal=Fashion Practice |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.2752/175693810x12774625387594 |s2cid=110000414 |issn=1756-9370}}</ref> Developing a garment with a cultural and emotional connection is also pertinent to the purpose behind slow fashion: consumers will keep an article of clothing longer than one season if they feel emotionally or culturally connected to the article of clothing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kuusk|first1=Kristi|last2=Tomico|first2=Oscar|last3=Langereis|first3=Geert|last4=Wensveen|first4=Stephan|date=2012|title=Crafting smart textiles—a meaningful way towards societal sustainability in the fashion field?|url=http://bada.hb.se/handle/2320/12348|journal=The Nordic Textile Journal|volume=1|pages=6–15}}</ref> A taxation is in early stages of development{{by whomst|date=July 2023}} in order to deter fashion companies from purchasing or producing materials that are not made with recycled, organic, or re-purposed materials.<ref name="Choi2013">{{cite journal|last=Choi|first=Tsan-Ming|date=April 2013|title=Carbon footprint tax on fashion supply chain systems|journal=The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology|volume=68|issue=1–4|pages=835–847|doi=10.1007/s00170-013-4947-4|s2cid=110199159}}</ref> Utilizing materials already made will reduce the industry's [[carbon footprint]].<ref name="Choi2013" />
There is also an important movement{{among whom|date=July 2023}} toward companies being more transparent. Many sustainable fashion companies are transparent, from manufacturing to retailing clothes, with the aim of helping buyers to make more conscious purchasing decisions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Sustainable Fashion Matters|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ellevate/2019/10/07/why-sustainable-fashion-matters/|last=Ellevate|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> In accordance with the [[Slow movement (culture)#Fashion|slow movement]] there is a trend{{among whom|date=July 2023}} towards more conscious buying as well as companies attracting new consumers with their eco-friendly processes.
=== Authors ===
The idea of slow fashion became significant and grew after Elizabeth L. Cline published ''Overdressed: The Shockingly High Cost of Cheap Clothing''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Really, Anyone Can Shop Clothing Sustainably|url=https://www.thecut.com/2019/08/interview-elizabeth-cline-author-of-the-conscious-closet.html|last=Spellings|first=Sarah|date=2019-08-20|website=The Cut|language=en-us|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> and rose awareness regarding the detriments of the fast fashion industry. The term was used on blogs and the internet.<ref name="Štefko 2270"/> However, the term "slow clothes movement" was apparently coined by Angela Murrills, a fashion writer for Georgia Straight, a Vancouver-based online news magazine.<ref name=":0" />
However, the expression "slow fashion" was coined in a 2007 article by Kate Fletcher published in ''[[The Ecologist]]'', where she compared the eco/sustainable/ethical fashion industry to the slow food movement:<ref name="Valverde">{{cite web |last=Valverde |first=Yarina |url=https://fashionhedge.com/what-is-ethical-fashion/ |title=What is ethical fashion? |website=fashionhedge.com |access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|The concept of slow fashion borrows heavily from the Slow Food Movement. Founded by Carlo Petrini in Italy in 1986, Slow Food links pleasure and food with awareness and responsibility. It defends biodiversity in our food supply by opposing the standardisation of taste, defends the need for consumer information and protects cultural identities tied to food. It has spawned a wealth of other slow movements. Slow Cities, for example, design with slow values but within the context of a town or city and a commitment to improve its citizens' quality of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=September 2007 |title=Slow fashion |journal=[[The Ecologist]] |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=61 |url=http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/269245/slow_fashion.html}}</ref>}}
Slow Food Movement advocates the following principles:<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Slow Food International |url=https://www.slowfood.com/about-us/our-philosophy/ |title=Our Philosophy |access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>
* Good: quality, flavorsome and healthy food
* Clean: production that does not harm the environment
* Fair: accessible prices for consumers and fair conditions and pay for producers
The slow fashion movement has been studied by Kate Fletcher, a researcher, author, consultant, and design activist, and the author of ''Sustainable Fashion and Textiles''. Her writings integrated design thinking with fashion and textiles as a necessary way to move towards a more sustainable fashion industry.
Based on the three principles of [[slow design]] that were created in 2006 in Milan, Hazel Clark, in ''SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future…?''<ref name=":0" /> decided to define the principles of the Slow Fashion Movement:<ref name=":1" />
* taking a local approach
* having a transparent production system
* making sustainable and sensorial products
In 2019, [[Debapratim Purkayastha]] provided an example of how an operative in the slow fashion industry looks like with a [[case study]] of 7Weaves Social.<ref>{{Cite web|title=7WEAVES: Slow Fashion|url=https://www.thecasecentre.org/main/products/view?&id=163765|access-date=2020-06-17|website=thecasecentre.org|language=en}}</ref> The [[Assam]]-based [[social venture]] deals in sustainably sourced and manufactured [[Eri silk]] products by on one hand working with the forest-dependent [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous people]] in the region, while on the other hand working with global slow fashion brands in the West.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Purkayastha|first=Debapratim|date=September 2019|title=7Weaves: Slow Fashion|journal=Case Folio |volume=19 |issue=3|pages=25–34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=News-Desk|first=Apparel Resources|date=2019-02-14|title=Why these 12 Indian weavers and artisans are special! {{!}} Trades News India|url=https://apparelresources.com/business-news/trade/12-indian-weavers-artisans-special/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Apparel Resources|language=en-US}}</ref> Eri silk is manufactured without killing the silk worm and only natural dyes were used by 7Weaves in coloring the fabric.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-21|title=7Weaves - Seda sustentável empodera comunidades indígenas na Índia|url=https://www.fashionbubbles.com/historia-da-moda/7weaves-seda-sustentavel-india/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Fashion Bubbles|language=pt-BR}}</ref> [[Zero waste]]
The model provided [[sustainable livelihood]] to the artisan who had [[traditional knowledge]] in handloom and [[sericulture]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Handworked Eri Silk from Assam Cocoa and Jasmine— COCOA AND JASMINE Cocoa and Jasmine|url=https://www.cocoaandjasmine.com/zine/handworked-eri-silk-from-assam|access-date=2020-06-17|website=COCOA AND JASMINE|date=17 April 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref> 7Weaves provided guaranteed work for artisans at a fixed monthly emolument for the whole year, and redistributed 50 percent of its annual profits to the artisans and other players in the [[supply chain]].<ref name=":2" /> 7Weaves's focus was also to preserve the [[biodiversity]] of the biologically rich but ecologically fragile [[Brahmaputra Valley|Assam valley]] region.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Purkayastha|first=Debapratim|date=2019-01-07|title=Figure out how 7Weaves can scale up and go global|url=https://bloncampus.thehindubusinessline.com/case-studies/figure-out-how-7weaves-can-scale-up-and-go-global/article25933346.ece|access-date=2020-06-17|website=@businessline|language=en}}</ref> Slow fashion brands from countries including Germany, France, Belgium and Australia source garments and fabrics from 7Weaves. According, to the author, 7Weaves's focus on sustainably sourced [[fair trade]] fabrics that were long-lasting and locally produced, use of traditional values and know how, preservation of [[ecosystem]], source diversity, and responsible business practices emphasize its slow fashion credentials.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Purkayastha|first=Debapratim|date=2019-02-27|title=7Weaves, a promising model for ethical, slow fashion|url=https://bloncampus.thehindubusinessline.com/case-studies/7weaves-a-promising-model-for-ethical-slow-fashion/article26388043.ece|access-date=2020-06-17|website=@businessline|language=en}}</ref>
=== Context ===
In 2009, Vogue and The VOU Fashion Magazines traced the history of the context of the Slow Fashion Movement.<ref name=":1" />
{{Blockquote|In March 1990, the New York Times and Vogue published articles about the environmental trend in the fashion world. In the summer of 1990, British fashion designer Katharine Hamnett, who has been often recognized as one of the first designers to combine environmental activism with fashion, gave a speech about the environmental impacts of fashion at the United Nations. In 1995, Giorgio Armani began to use hemp in his Emporio Armani collection. In 2001, Natalie Chanin launched Project Alabama, a collection of 200 locally produced hand-sewn T-shirts that was well received at New York Fashion Week. The same year, Stella McCartney launched her own line, applying animal-friendly (no leather, no fur) policies.<ref name=":1" />}}In recent years, many companies have kick-started revolutions against fast fashion, such as [[Fashion Revolution|Fashion Revolution Day]] and Second Hand September campaigns. This has led to big fast fashion retailers such as [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]] and [[H&M]] to either pledge<ref>{{Cite news|last=Conlon|first=Scarlett|date=2019-07-17|title=Zara clothes to be made from 100% sustainable fabrics by 2025|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/jul/17/zara-collections-to-be-made-from-100-sustainable-fabrics|access-date=2020-05-15|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> or launch a clothing line<ref>{{Cite web|title=H&M Launches Conscious Collection|url=https://recyclenation.com/2011/05/hm-recycle-conscious-collection/|last=RecycleNation|date=2011-05-13|website=RecycleNation|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> dedicated to sustainable clothing.
== Marketing ==
Slow fashion has its own marketing strategies as it targets a certain type of consumers. Unlike fast fashion consumers, slow fashion consumers expect classic and timeless pieces of clothes, giving importance to versatility, low maintenance and a higher quality.<ref name="Jung 2016 410–421">{{Cite journal |last1=Jung |first1=Sojin |last2=Jin |first2=Byoungho |date=2016 |title=From quantity to quality: understanding slow fashion consumers for sustainability and consumer education |journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=410–421 |doi=10.1111/ijcs.12276 |issn=1470-6431}}</ref>
Marketing strategies concerning slow fashion often revolve around a more conscious consumption, focusing the advertising on environmentally and socially sustainable aspects on the clothes. Companies use several strategies in order to be less wasteful than other fast fashion brands<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buyapowa.com/blog/ethical-fashion-made-for-referral-marketing/|title=Why ethical fashion is made for referral marketing|last=Martin-Muir|first=Fiona|date=2018-09-28|website=Buyapowa's Expert Insight on Referral Marketing {{!}} Blog|access-date=2019-08-23}}</ref>
* changing their clothing lines less often
* producing and stocking less items
* paying attention to the material that they use
* ensuring ethical and non-exploitive methods of production
Slow fashion is also often associated with [[Charity shop|thrift shops]], to the extent that shrift shops offer clothes that are not produced within a [[Just-in-time manufacturing|just-in-time flow]].
== Global economy ==
Global economy has a market-driven aspect. This means that consumers are encourage to always buy more and producers are encourage to always produce more. Those two aspects mutually develop each other. The current economic model is said to be global because the production process is divided worldwide to maximize efficiency and profit. Slow fashion is more slow, local and quality-oriented. Therefore, it does not fit well in the [[World economy|global economy]] model.<ref name="Langdown 33–43">{{Cite journal|last=Langdown|first=Amanda|date=2014-06-01|title=Slow fashion as an alternative to mass production: A fashion practitioner's journey|journal=Social Business|volume=4|issue=1|pages=33–43|doi=10.1362/204440814x13948909253785|issn=2044-4087}}</ref> Several papers question the longevity of slow fashion in a market-driven society.<ref name=":0"/><ref name="Štefko 2270">{{Cite journal|last1=Štefko|first1=Róbert|last2=Steffek|first2=Vladimira|date=2018-07-02|title=Key Issues in Slow Fashion: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives|journal=Sustainability|volume=10|issue=7|pages=2270|doi=10.3390/su10072270|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Production ===
In slow fashion, each designer is encouraged to produce locally, using local workforce and resources.<ref name="Langdown 33–43"/> Quality is chosen over quantity, which means that slow fashion can reduce exploitation of resources or workers. The production chain is as transparent as possible. This redefines the hierarchy between designers, consumers and producers.<ref name=":0"/> Fashion is known to be ruled by trends that come and go quickly, encouraging consumption. The end products offered to clients are made to last longer and be timeless.
Slow fashion has a different cost of production and cannot produce as much in quantity. Slow fashion cannot compete with the mass produced products of fast fashion that use cheap labor and resources to maximize profits. Slow fashion is very local and used fair-trade materials and fabrics of high quality.<ref name="Štefko 2270"/> Moreover, slow fashion cannot produced as much as fast fashion due to the different production process.<ref name="Štefko 2270"/> Many academic papers have looked into the viability of this movement in an era of mass-production and mass-consumption.
By keeping the production in "productive communities", this process is more transparent. There is less intermediation and a greater cultural and material value to the consumer. This is one of the way Clarke presents to address the question of how slow fashion fit into the current economic model.<ref name=":0"/> Recently, a carbon footprint tax on fashion supply chains has been implemented to encourage the use of local supplies. The effect of that measures has been limited.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Choi|first=Tsan-Ming|date=September 2013|title=Carbon footprint tax on fashion supply chain systems|journal=The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology|volume=68|issue=1–4|pages=835–847|doi=10.1007/s00170-013-4947-4|s2cid=110199159|issn=0268-3768}}</ref>
=== Pricing ===
The pricing of slow fashion clothes varies a lot. Since the definition is so broad, a second-hand dress from a thrift shop worth five dollars and a designer dress costing 700 dollars can both be considered part of the slow fashion.<ref name="Štefko 2270"/>
The current economic system focuses on economic growth and quantity sold. However, research has shown that more parameters should be included due to a raising social conscience.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Architecture and design versus consumerism: how design activism confronts growth|last=Thorpe, Ann.|date=2012|publisher=Earthscan|isbn=9781849713559|location=Abingdon, Oxon|oclc=758394577}}</ref> People have said to be willing to pay more for clothes when they know that they have been produced in "sweat-free" manufacture.<ref name="Langdown 33–43"/>
== Impact ==
The slow fashion movement, part of the greater goal of sustainable fashion and thus, a cleaner world is gaining strength, driven by growing environmental concerns. In 2018, a third of fashion consumers bought clothing once a month, a decrease from 37% compared to 2016, whereas those buying clothes every two or three months or less rose from 64% to 67%, according to the market research firm [[Mintel]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/dec/29/fast-fashion-giving-way-sustainable-wardrobe|title=Is fast fashion giving way to the sustainable wardrobe?|last=Butler|first=Sarah|date=2018-12-29|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-08-24|issn=0029-7712}}</ref>
After the release of the documentaries ''[[The True Cost]]'' and ''[[RiverBlue]]'', there was attention drawn to companies that have fast fashion practices. Despite the spread movement, [[H&M]] had revenues amount to $25 billion in the fiscal year of 2016. However, as the movement has grown in popularity, H&M's stock and brand image has taken a hit as consumer awareness has spread of their environmentally unethical practices leading to a drop in sales.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Paton|first=Elizabeth|date=2018-03-27|title=H&M, a Fashion Giant, Has a Problem: $4.3 Billion in Unsold Clothes|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/27/business/hm-clothes-stock-sales.html|access-date=2020-05-16|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
The spread of the movement has resulted in two fast fashion giants, [[Zara (retailer)|Zara]] and [[H&M]], switching narratives to become advocates for ethical fashion practices. With collections aimed at sustainable fashions, the two companies have shifted towards more ethical practices.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Can fast fashion be green?|url=https://www.voguebusiness.com/technology/hm-fast-fashion-sustainability-recycling-hong-kong|website=Vogue Business| date=6 December 2018 |language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> Due to the audience that the movement against unethical fashion practices has accumulated, organizations such as the United States Fashion Industry Association have devoted some of their attention to ‘social compliance and sustainability’.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Compliance & Sustainability - the United States Fashion Industry Association|url=https://www.usfashionindustry.com/policy/social-compliance-sustainability|website=www.usfashionindustry.com|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref>
== Critics ==
Critics have called out against certain brands who have claimed to strive to follow slow fashion's principles. For example, Swedish brand [[H&M]] was accused of not being sustainable when reports found out that it burns its unsold clothes.
While H&M is striving to create sustainability to the best of their abilities, they are still overproducing mass amounts of clothing while hawking it as sustainable. H&M has a stated "sustainability strategy," and brands some items with green "Conscious" tags to signal that they contain "more sustainable materials".<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/the-problem-with-sustainable-fashion/index.html | title=The problem with 'sustainable fashion' | website=[[CNN]] | date=11 October 2019 }}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Ecodesign]]
*[[Empathic design]]
*[[Sustainable clothing]]
*[[Trashion]]
*[[Product tracing]] systems: allow to see source factory of a product
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Fashion}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Slow movement|Fashion]]
[[Category:2007 introductions]]
[[Category:Fashion aesthetics]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Clothing and the environment]] |
Bottom of the pyramid | {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{distinguish|Pyramid of Capitalist System}}
{{POV check|talk=Objective rewrite needed|date=April 2014}}
{{short description|Socio-economic group}}
[[File:Wealth pyramid.jpg|thumb|The wealth pyramid. As we move higher and higher up in wealth we find fewer and fewer people having that wealth and vice versa.]]
The '''bottom of the pyramid''', '''bottom of the wealth pyramid''', '''bottom of the income pyramid''' or the '''base of the pyramid''' is the largest, but [[poverty|poorest]] [[socio-economic group]]. In global terms, this is the 2.7 billion people who live on less than $2.50 a day.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=bottom-of-the-pyramid-(BOP) |title= Definition of bottom of the pyramid (BOP) |author= <!--Not stated--> |website= ft.com/lexicon |publisher= Nikkei |access-date= 2017-05-03 |quote= Technically, a member of the BOP is part of the largest but poorest groups of the world's population, who live with less than $2.50 a day and are excluded from the modernity of our globalised civilised societies, including consumption and choice as well as access to organised financial services. |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170505144805/http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=bottom-of-the-pyramid-(BOP) |archive-date= May 5, 2017 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation
| last = Malik
| first = Khalid
| author-link = Khalid Malik
| year = 2014
| title = Human Development Report: Sustaining Human Progress
| chapter = Chapter 1: Vulnerability and human development
| publisher = United Nations Development Programme
| place = New York
| page = 19
| isbn = 978-92-1-126368-8
| chapter-url = http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf
| access-date = 2017-05-03
| quote = Globally, 1.2 billion people (22 percent) live on less than $1.25 a day. Increasing the income poverty line to $2.50 a day raises the global income poverty rate to about 50 percent, or 2.7 billion people.
}}
</ref>
Management scholar [[C.K. Prahalad|CK Prahalad]] popularised the idea of this demographic as a profitable consumer base in his 2004 book ''[[The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid]],'' written alongside [[Stuart L. Hart|Stuart Hart]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/22/business/22prahalad.html |title= C. K. Prahalad, Proponent of Poor as Consumers, Dies at 68 |last= Bajaj |first= Vikas |date= April 21, 2010 |work= New York Times |access-date= 2017-05-03 |quote= C. K. Prahalad, a management professor and author who popularized the idea that companies could make money while helping to alleviate poverty, died Friday in the La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego. }}</ref>
==History==
U.S. president [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] used the term in his April 7, 1932 radio address, ''The Forgotten Man'', in which he said,
{{Quote|text=These unhappy times call for the building of plans that rest upon the forgotten, the unorganized but the indispensable units of economic power . . . that build from the bottom up and not from the top down, that put their faith once more in the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.}}
The more current usage refers to the billions of people living on less than $2.50 per day, the definition proposed in 1998 by C.K. Prahalad and [[Stuart L. Hart]]. It was subsequently expanded upon by both in their books: ''The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid'' by Prahalad in 2004<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131467506&rl=1 |title=Wharton School Publishing | InformIT |website=Whartonsp.com |date=April 17, 2016 |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-date=February 8, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208230205/http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131467506 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''Capitalism at the Crossroads'' by Hart in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131439871&rl=1 |title=Wharton School Publishing | InformIT |website=Whartonsp.com |date=April 17, 2016 |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-date=September 16, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916035046/http://www.whartonsp.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=0131439871 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Prahalad proposes that businesses, governments, and donor agencies stop thinking of the poor as victims and instead start seeing them as resilient and creative entrepreneurs as well as value-demanding consumers.<ref>*{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/677842 |title=Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity |author-link1=Markus Giesler |author-link2=Ela Veresiu|year=2014 |last1=Giesler |first1=Markus|last2=Veresiu |first2=Ela |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=41 |issue=October |pages=849–867}}</ref> He proposes that there are tremendous benefits to multi-national companies who choose to serve these markets in ways responsive to their needs. After all the poor of today are the [[middle class]] of tomorrow. There are also [[poverty]] reducing benefits if multi-nationals work with [[civil society]] organizations and local governments to create new local business models.
However, there is some debate over Prahalad's proposition. [[Aneel Karnani]], also of the [[Ross School of Business|Ross School]] at the University of Michigan, argued in a 2007 paper that there is no fortune at the bottom of the pyramid and that for most multinational companies the market is really very small.<ref name="autogenerated2006">{{cite web|ssrn=914518 |title=Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: A Mirage by Aneel G. Karnani |url=http://SSRN.com |date=July 14, 2006 |access-date=2016-07-24|last1=Karnani |first1=Aneel G. }}</ref> Karnani also suggests that the only way to alleviate poverty is to focus on the poor as producers, rather than as a market of consumers. Prahalad later provided a multi-page response to Karnani's article. Additional critiques of Prahalad's proposition have been gathered in "Advancing the 'Base of the Pyramid' Debate".
Meanwhile, Hart and his colleague Erik Simanis at Cornell University's [[Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise]] advance another approach, one that focuses on the poor as business partners and innovators, rather than just as potential producers or consumers. Hart and Simanis have led the development of the Base of the Pyramid Protocol, an entrepreneurial process that guides companies in developing business partnerships with income-poor communities in order to "co-create businesses and markets that mutually benefit the companies and the communities". This process has been adopted by the [[SC Johnson Company]]<ref name="Johnson (2007)"> {{Cite Q|Q104887783}}</ref> and the [[Solae (company)|Solae]] Company (a subsidiary of [[DuPont]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bop-protocol.org/projectbriefs/solaeindia.html |title=Base of the Pyramid Protocol - Projects - Solae in India |access-date=2012-03-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206061330/http://bop-protocol.org/projectbriefs/solaeindia.html |archive-date=February 6, 2012 }}</ref>
Furthermore, [[Ted London]] at the [[William Davidson Institute]] at the University of Michigan focuses on the [[poverty reduction|poverty alleviation]] implications of Base of the Pyramid ventures. He has created a ''BoP teaching module'' designed for integration into a wide variety of courses common at business schools that explain the current BoP thinking. He has identified the BoP Perspective as a unique market-based approach to poverty alleviation. London has also developed the BoP Impact Assessment Framework, a tool that provides a holistic and robust guide for BoP ventures to assess and enhance their poverty alleviation impacts. This framework, along with other tools and approaches, is outlined in London's ''Base of the Pyramid Promise'' and has been implemented by companies, non-profits, and development agencies in Latin America, Asia, and Africa.<ref name=mich1 />
Another recent focus of interest lies on the impact of successful BoP-approaches on [[sustainable development]]. Some of the most significant obstacles encountered when integrating sustainable development at the BoP are the limits to growth that restrict the extended development of the poor, especially when applying a resource-intensive Western way of living. Nevertheless, from a normative ethical perspective poverty alleviation is an integral part of sustainable development according to the notion of intragenerational justice (i.e. within the living generation) in the [[Brundtland Commission]]'s definition. Ongoing research addresses these aspects and widens the BoP approach also by integrating it into [[corporate social responsibility]] thinking.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
== What is the actual shape of the wealth pyramid? ==
[[File:Fifty percent one pyramid.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Approximate visualisation of the wealth pyramid when 1% population controls 50% of the wealth<ref name="creditsuisse">{{cite web|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/ch/en/about-us/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |title=Global Wealth Report 2015 |website=credit-suisse.com |access-date=2016-09-18}}</ref>]]
The pyramid is a graphical depiction of inverse relationship between two variables as one increases the other decreases. We find that the percent of world wealth and the percent of world population controlling it are related with each other in an inverse relation. If we plot the world wealth in percent terms along the vertical axis of a graph and the corresponding percent population having control on it on the horizontal axis of a graph and add the mirror image of this graph on the left side of the vertical axis we get a wealth pyramid and can see that as we move to higher and higher wealth brackets we find that fewer and fewer people have access to it, thus the figure has a wide bottom and a lean top similar to the pyramids of Egypt.
It has been reported that the gap between the ToP and BoP is widening over time in such a way that only 1% of the world population controls 50% of the wealth today, and the other 99% is having access to the remaining 50% only.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6/ref=sr_1_12?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1466701032&sr=1-12&keywords=fault+lines+how+hidden+fractures+still+threaten+the+world+economy |title=Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy |author=Raghuram G. Rajan |year=2012 |website=Amazon.com |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Jill Treanor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population – report |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> On the basis of this report the wealth pyramid would look like the one shown in the illustration.
==How low is the bottom?==
The standards and benchmarks developed – for example less than $2.5 a day – always tell us about the upper limit of what we call the BoP, and not actually about its ''base or bottom''. The fact is that the bottom or the base is much much lower. Even going by the official definition, for example in India the Rangarajan Committee after re-examining the issue of poverty defined the poverty line in 2011-12 at INR 47.00 ($0.69) per capita per day for urban areas and INR 32.00 ($0.47) per capita per day in rural areas (June 2016 conversion rate),<ref>Puri, V. K., & Misra, S. K. (2015). Indian Economy. New Delhi: Himalya Publishing House.</ref> obviously much less than the $2.5 per day benchmark. This again is the ''upper layer'' of the poor as defined by the Rangarajan Committee. Where is the actual bottom? and how low? This can perhaps only be visualised by observing the slums right in the hearts of the cities in the developing countries.
==Good business sense and the BoP markets==
Kash Rangan, John Quelch, and other faculty members at the Global Poverty Project at [[Harvard Business School]] "believe that in pursuing its own self-interest in opening and expanding the BoP market, business can make a profit while serving the poorest of consumers and contributing to development."<ref name="autogenerated2007">{{cite web|url=http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/the-business-of-global-poverty |title=The Business of Global Poverty – HBS Working Knowledge – Harvard Business School |website=Hbswk.hbs.edu |date=April 4, 2007 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> According to Rangan, "For business, the bulk of emerging markets worldwide is at the bottom of the pyramid so it makes good business sense – not a sense of do-gooding – to go after it."<ref name="autogenerated2007"/> But in the view of Friedman "the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits only, thus, it needs to be examined whether business in BoP markets is capable of achieving the dual objective of making a profit while serving the poorest of consumers and contributing to development?"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html# |title=Friedman, M. (1970, September 13). The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Its Profits. New York Times Magazine. |access-date=2016-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312125647/http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html# |archive-date=2008-03-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Erik Simanis has reported that the model has a fatal flaw. According to Simanis, "Despite achieving healthy penetration rates of 5% to 10% in four test markets, for instance, Procter & Gamble couldn’t generate a competitive return on its Pur water-purification powder after launching the product on a large scale in 2001...DuPont ran into similar problems with a venture piloted from 2006 to 2008 in Andhra Pradesh, India, by its subsidiary Solae, a global manufacturer of soy protein ... Because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins and price points aren't just a top-of-the-pyramid phenomenon; they’re also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Erik Simanis |url=https://hbr.org/2012/06/reality-check-at-the-bottom-of-the-pyramid |title=Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid |journal=Harvard Business Review |date=January 1, 1922 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> Marc Gunther states that, "The bottom-of-the-pyramid (BOP) market leader, arguably, is Unilever ... Its signature BOP product is Pureit, a countertop water-purification system sold in India, Africa and Latin America. It's saving lives, but it's not making money for shareholders."<ref>{{cite news|author=Marc Gunther |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/prahalad-base-bottom-pyramid-profit-poor |title=The base of the pyramid: will selling to the poor pay off? |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> Several consulting companies have modeled the profitability of accessing the bottom of pyramid by utilizing [[economies of scale]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Accessing the Bottom of Pyramid in India|url=http://www.slideshare.net/KimberleeLuce/the-rising-bottom-of-the-pyramid-in-india|work=Boston Analytics|date=June 22, 2016}}</ref>
==Examples of BoP business==
===Microcredit===
One example of "bottom of the pyramid" is the growing [[microcredit]] market in South Asia, particularly in [[Bangladesh]]. With technology being steadily cheaper and more ubiquitous, it is becoming economically efficient to "lend tiny amounts of money to people with even tinier assets". An Indian banking report argues that the microfinance network (called "Sa-Dhan" in India) "helps the poor" and "allows banks to 'increase their business'".<ref name="sadhan">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/4281076 |title=Helping themselves |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=August 11, 2005 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> However, formal lenders must avoid the phenomenon of informal intermediation: Some entrepreneurial borrowers become informal intermediaries between microfinance initiatives and poorer micro-entrepreneurs. Those who more easily qualify for microfinance split loans into smaller credit to even poorer borrowers. Informal intermediation ranges from casual intermediaries at the good or benign end of the spectrum to 'loan sharks' at the professional and sometimes criminal end of the spectrum.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Arp|first1=Frithjof|last2=Ardisa|first2=Alvin|last3=Ardisa|first3=Alviani|date=2017|title=Microfinance for poverty alleviation: Do transnational initiatives overlook fundamental questions of competition and intermediation?| doi = 10.18356/10695889-en|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320100413|journal=Transnational Corporations|publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|volume=24|issue=3|pages=103–117|s2cid=73558727|id=UNCTAD/DIAE/IA/2017D4A8|hdl=10419/170696|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
===Market-specific products===
One of many examples of products that are designed with needs of the very poor in mind is that of a shampoo that works best with cold water and is sold in small packets to reduce barriers of upfront costs for the poor. Such a product is marketed by Hindustan Unilever.
===Innovation===
There is a traditional view that BOP consumers do not want to adopt innovation easily. However, [[C. K. Prahalad]] (2005) claimed against this traditional view, positing that the BOP market is very eager to adopt innovations. For instance, BOP consumers are using PC kiosks, Mobile phone, Mobile banking etc. Relative advantage and Complexity attributes of an innovation suggested by [[Everett Rogers]] (2004) significantly influence the adoption of an innovation in the Bottom of pyramid market (Rahman, Hasan, and Floyd, 2013). Therefore, innovation developed for this market should focus on these two attributes (Relative advantage and Complexity).
===Venture capital===
Whereas Prahalad originally focused on corporations for developing BoP products and entering BoP markets, it is believed by many that Small to Medium Enterprises (SME) might even play a bigger role. For Limited Partners (LPs), this offers an opportunity to enter new venture capital markets. Although several [[Social venture capital|social venture funds]] are already active, true Venture Capital (VC) funds are now emerging.
===Brand===
There is a traditional view that BOP consumers are not brand conscious (Prahalad, 2005). However, [[C. K. Prahalad]] (2005) claimed against this traditional view, positing that the BOP market is brand conscious. For instance, brand influences the new product adoption in the bottom of pyramid market (Rahman, Hasan, and Floyd, 2013). Rahman et al. (2013) mentioned that brand may positively influence the relative advantage of an innovation and it leads to adoption of innovation in the BOP. In point of traditional view BOP market, people were not aware about brand concept. Sopan Kumbhar (2013)
===Business and community partnerships===
As ''Fortune'' reported on November 15, 2006, since 2005 the [[SC Johnson Company]] has been partnering with youth groups in the [[Kibera]] slum of [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]. Together SC Johnson and the groups have created a community-based waste management and cleaning company, providing home-cleaning, insect treatment, and waste disposal services for residents of the slum. SC Johnson's project was the first implementation of the "Base of the Pyramid Protocol".
==Conferences==
There have been a number of academic and professional conferences focused on the BoP. A sample of these conferences are listed below:
* ''Sankalp Conference''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sankalpforum.com |title=Sankalp Forum |publisher=Sankalp Forum |date=February 18, 2016 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> – May 2012 in Mumbai, India – hosted by the [[Intellecap]].
* ''Eradicating Poverty through Profit''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nextbillion.net/sfconference |title=Eradicating Poverty Through Profit | NextBillion.net - Development Through Enterprise |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122154904/http://www.nextbillion.net/sfconference |archive-date=January 22, 2009 }}</ref> – December 2004 in San Francisco, CA – hosted by the [[World Resources Institute|World Resources Institute (WRI)]].
* ''Business Opportunity and Innovation at the Base of the Pyramid''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nextbillion.net/brazil05conference |title=Brazil BOP Conference Proceedings | NextBillion.net - Development Through Enterprise |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210132829/http://www.nextbillion.net/brazil05conference |archive-date=February 10, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nextbillion.net/mexico05conference |title=Mexico BOP Conference Proceedings | NextBillion.net - Development Through Enterprise |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210134211/http://www.nextbillion.net/mexico05conference |archive-date=February 10, 2009 }}</ref> – August 2005 in São Paulo, Brazil, September 2005 in Mexico City, Mexico – two sister conferences co-hosted by WRI, the [[Multilateral Investment Fund]] and [[Ashoka: Innovators for the Public|Ashoka]].
* ''Research at the Base of the Pyramid''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wdi.umich.edu/NewsEvents/Conferences/BoPConf2006.aspx |title=Research at the Base of the Pyramid "Developing a New Perspective" - the William Davidson Institute |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211084436/http://www.wdi.umich.edu/NewsEvents/Conferences/BoPConf2006.aspx |archive-date=February 11, 2009 }}</ref> – May 2006 in Ann Arbor, MI – co-hosted by the [[William Davidson Institute|William Davidson Institute (WDI)]] and the [[Ross School of Business]] at the [[University of Michigan]].
* ''Business with Four Billion''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bop2007.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222113625/http://www.bop2007.org/ |archive-date=February 22, 2007 |title=Base of the Pyramid Conference 2007|date=February 22, 2007 |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> – September 2007 in Ann Arbor, MI – co-hosted by WDI and the [[Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise]] at [[Cornell University]].
* ''Sustainable Innovations at the Base of the Pyramid''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hse.fi/EN/research/programs/globalization/events/bop/ |title=HSE - BOP | Sustainable Innovations at the Base of the Pyramid |access-date=2009-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209042819/http://www.hse.fi/EN/research/programs/globalization/events/bop/ |archive-date=February 9, 2009 }}</ref> – September 2008 in Helsinki, Finland – hosted by the [[Helsinki School of Economics]].
* "The Bottom of the Pyramid in Practice"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/imtfi_bopworkshop |title="The Bottom of the Pyramid in Practice" Workshop | UCI IMTFI Institute for Money, Technology, and Financial Inclusion |access-date=2009-05-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802181737/http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/imtfi_bopworkshop |archive-date=August 2, 2012 }}</ref> – June 2009, hosted by the Institute for Money, Technology and Financial Inclusion at the University of California, Irvine, and sponsored by Intel Research, the UC Discovery program, and the Center for Research on Information Technology and Organizations at UC Irvine.
* "Impact of Base-of-the-Pyramid Ventures"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bopimpact.nl/ |title=Online Store | 2016 Vrouwen Jeans Verkopen |website=Bopimpact.nl |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409053645/http://www.bopimpact.nl/ |archive-date=April 9, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> – November 2009 in Delft, the Netherlands – hosted by the [[Delft University of Technology]].
* "BoP Summit 2013"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bop2013.org/ |title=BoP Summit 2013: Home Page |website=Bop2013.org |access-date=2016-07-24}}</ref> - October 2013, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA - hosted by the [[William Davidson Institute|William Davidson Institute (WDI)]].
* "BoP Global Network Summit 2015"[http://summit2015.bopglobalnetwork.org]-July 2015, Burlington, Vermont, USA - hosted by the BoP Global Network.
==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="mich1">#London, T. 2016.{{cite web |url=http://wdi.umich.edu/the-base-of-the-pyramid-promise-building-business-with-impact-and-scale/ |title=The Base of the Pyramid Promise |publisher=William Davidson Institute |website=Wdi.umich.edu |access-date=2016-07-24 |archive-date=July 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725162125/https://wdi.umich.edu/the-base-of-the-pyramid-promise-building-business-with-impact-and-scale/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
#Dalglish C. and M. Tonelli 2016. Entrepreneurship at the Bottom of the Pyramid. New York, U.S.A.: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-138-84655-5}}
#''Microcredit in India: Helping Themselves'' in ''The Economist'', August 11, 2005.
#{{cite web|last1=Fortune |first1=Marc Gunther| url=https://money.cnn.com/2006/11/14/magazines/fortune/guntherkenya.fortune/index.htm |title=SC Johnson funds startups in Africa: Chasing the base of the pyramid |website=Money.cnn.com |date=November 15, 2006 |access-date=2016-07-24}}
#[http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entry/developing_native_capability/ Hart, S. L. & London, T. 2005. Developing native capability: What multinational corporations can learn from the base of the pyramid. ''Stanford Social Innovation Review'', 3(2): 28-33.]
#''Profits – a penny at a time'' by David Ignatius in ''The Washington Post'', July 5, 2005.
#Karnani, Aneel G., ''Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: A Mirage'' . Ross School of Business Paper No. 1035
#{{cite journal| first1=Nancy E| last1=Landrum| title=Advancing the "Base of the Pyramid" Debate| journal=Strategic Management Review| volume=1| issue=1| date=2007| url=http://www.strategicmanagementreview.com/ojs/index.php/smr/article/viewFile/12/16| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009002252/http://www.strategicmanagementreview.com/ojs/index.php/smr/article/viewFile/12/16| archive-date=October 9, 2007| url-status=dead| access-date=June 24, 2007}}
#London, T. 2008. The base-of-the-pyramid perspective: A new approach to poverty alleviation. In G. T. Solomon (Ed.), ''Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings.''
#Prahalad, C K (2004) Fortune at the bottom of the pyramid: Eradicating poverty through profits. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
#{{cite journal|title=Brand Orientation as a Strategy That Influences the Adoption of Innovation in the Bottom of the Pyramid Market |date=May 20, 2013 |doi=10.1002/jsc.1935 |volume=22 |issue=3–4 |journal=Strategic Change |pages=225–239|last1 = Rahman|first1 = Mizan|last2=Hasan |first2=Md Rajibul |last3=Floyd |first3=David|url=https://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/15960/1/RH_brand.pdf }}
#''e-Choupal'' {{cite web |last=Rao |first=Sachin |url=http://indiamicrofinance.com/itcs-e-choupal-and-profits |title=Web-based information and procurement tools for Indian farmers |website=indiamicrofinance.com |date=August 1, 2003 |access-date=2017-01-12 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
#Rogers, E. M. ( 2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press.
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
#{{Cite book|title= Achieving Results: A Priority for Latin America and the Caribbean BoP Agenda|publisher= Inter-American Development Bank|date= February 2010|url= http://www.majoritymarkets.org/news/achieving-results-priority-latin-america-and-caribbean-bop-agenda|access-date= March 8, 2010|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100315211307/http://majoritymarkets.org/news/achieving-results-priority-latin-america-and-caribbean-bop-agenda|archive-date= March 15, 2010|url-status= dead}}
#{{Cite book|title=The Next Billions: Unleashing Business Potential in Untapped Markets|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=January 2009|page=44|url=http://www.weforum.org/pdf/BSSFP/NextBillionsUnleashingBusinessPotentialUntappedMarkets.pdf|access-date=May 3, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619104525/http://www.weforum.org/pdf/BSSFP/NextBillionsUnleashingBusinessPotentialUntappedMarkets.pdf|archive-date=June 19, 2013|url-status=dead}}
#{{Cite book|author1=Allen Hammond |author2=William J Kramer |author3=Julia Tran |author4=Rob Katz |author5=Courtland Walker |title=The Next 4 Billion: Market Size and Business Strategy at the Base of the Pyramid|publisher=World Resources Institute|date=March 2007|page=164|isbn=978-1-56973-625-8|url=http://www.wri.org/publication/the-next-4-billion}}
#Hart, S.L "Capitalism at the Crossroads" (Wharton School Publishing, 2005)
#{{cite web |url=http://www.johnson.cornell.edu/sge/research/bop_protocol.html |title=The Base of the Pyramid Protocol|access-date=2008-02-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503041424/http://www.johnson.cornell.edu/sge/research/bop_protocol.html |archive-date=May 3, 2008 }}
#Kandachar, P. and Halme, M. (Eds.) "Sustainability challenges and solutions at the base of the pyramid – Business, technology and the poor". [[Greenleaf Publishing Ltd]], Sheffield 2008
#Landrum, N. (2012). Unintended consequences of business with 4 billion: Lessons learned from first generation BOP strategies. In Wankel, C. & Malleck, S. (Eds.), ''Ethical Models and Applications of Globalization: Cultural, Socio-Political and Economic Perspectives''. Hershey PA: IGI Global, pp. 42-54.
#{{cite journal| first1=T| last1=London| first2=S L| last2=Hart| url=http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jibs/journal/v35/n5/abs/8400099a.html| title=Reinventing strategies for emerging markets: Beyond the transnational model| journal=Journal of International Business Studies| volume=35| issue=5| pages=350–370| date=2004| doi=10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400099| s2cid=167837827| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706062202/http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jibs/journal/v35/n5/abs/8400099a.html| archive-date=July 6, 2008| access-date=July 3, 2008}}
#London. T. 2007. A Base-of-the-Pyramid Perspective on Poverty Alleviation. Washington, DC: United Nations Development Program. ''Growing Inclusive Markets Working Paper Series''.
#Prahalad, C.K. and Hart, S.L [https://www.strategy-business.com/article/11518?gko=9a4ba ''The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid'']''[[Strategy+Business]]'' (2002).
#Prahalad, C.K "The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid" (Wharton School Publishing, 2004)
#{{Cite book |title=The fortune at the bottom of the pyramid: eradicating poverty through profits |last=Prahalad|first= Coimbatore Krishna |year= 2010|publisher= [[Wharton School]]|location= Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn= 978-0-13-700927-5|page=407}}
#Prahalad, Deepa. [https://www.strategy-business.com/article/The-New-Fortune-at-the-Bottom-of-the-Pyramid?gko=7cf21 ''The New Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid'']. ''[[Strategy+Business]]'' (2019).
#{{Cite book|title= The Base of Pyramid distribution challenge: Evaluating alternate distribution models of energy products for rural Base of Pyramid in India|author1= Sachin Shukla|author2= Sreyamsa Bairiganjan|year= 2011|publisher= Centre for Development Finance, IFMR|location= Chennai, India|isbn= 978-81-920986-0-9|page= 53|url= http://ifmr-cdf.in/pg/groups/3704/the-base-of-pyramid-distribution-challenge&type=Initiative&int=3704|access-date= June 13, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110818082048/http://ifmr-cdf.in/pg/groups/3704/the-base-of-pyramid-distribution-challenge%26type%3DInitiative%26int%3D3704|archive-date= August 18, 2011|url-status= dead}}
#{{Cite book |title=Power to the People: Investing in Clean Energy for the Base of the Pyramid in India |author1=Sreyamsa Bairiganjan |author2=Ray Cheung |author3=Ella Delio |author4=David Fuente |author5=Saurabh Lall |author6=Santosh Singh |year= 2010|publisher= Centre for Development Finance, IFMR|location= Chennai, India|isbn= 978-1-56973-754-5|page=74|url=http://www.wri.org/publication/power-to-the-people}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* [http://www.iroy.in/making-bottom-of-the-pyramid-marketing-work-in-nigeria Making Bottom of the Pyramid Marketing Work]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080225183033/http://www.wdi.umich.edu/ResearchInitiatives/BasePyramid/ Wdi.umich.edu]
* [http://brinq.com/about/bop.html Brinq.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828051231/http://lirneasia.net/projects/2006-07/bop-teleuse Telecom use at the Bottom of the Pyramid in Emerging Asia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081221230947/http://lirneasia.net/projects/2008-2010/bop-teleuse-3/ Lirneasia.net]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bottom Of The Pyramid}}
[[Category:Economic inequality]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Global Goals Week | {{short description|Event for awareness for Sustainable Development Goals}}
[[File:Global Goals Week Logo.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Global Goals Week Logo]]
'''[https://globalgoalsweek.org/ Global Goals Week]''' is a shared commitment between a coalition of over 160 partners across all industries, which mobilizes annually in September to bring together communities, demand urgency, and supercharge solutions for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs).<ref name=":1" /> It was founded in 2016 by the [[United Nations Foundation]], [https://www.project-everyone.org/ Project Everyone], and the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP). It is timed to coincide with the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] "High-Level Week" in New York. The week includes events, summits, conferences, forums, workshops, pledges, and other activations in New York, around the world, and online. It usually runs alongside [[Climate Week NYC]], the annual conference of [[Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation)]], [[Bloomberg Global Business Forum]] and many other high-level events.
==History==
[[File:Young delegates at the UN Youth Climate Summit 2019.jpg|thumb|Young delegates at the UN Youth Climate Summit 2019]]
[[File:UN Youth Envoy Jayathma Wickramanayake, Lilly Singh, and young leaders.jpg|thumb|UN Youth Envoy Jayathma Wickramanayake, Lilly Singh, and young leaders]]
[[File:Social Good Summit 2019.jpg|thumb|Social Good Summit 2019]]
[[File:Female leaders at Social Good Summit 2019.jpg|thumb|Female leaders at Social Good Summit 2019]]
[[File:The Global Goals Icon Color 18.png|thumb|The Global Goals Icon]]
Global Goals Week is an annual week of action that first took place in 2016. It was piloted by core partners Project Everyone, the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), and the [[United Nations Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2019|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/#:~:text=Global%20Goals%20Week%20was%20originally,with%20Climate%20Week%20NYC%202019.|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref> The core partners have now expanded to include the [[United Nations Department of Global Communications]], the UN SDG Strategy Hub, the UN SDG Action Campaign, and Action for Sustainable Development.
== Structure ==
Global Goals Week is scheduled to coincide with the main annual meetings that take place during the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]]. The week highlights a shared commitment between over 160 partners across civil society, business, academia, and the UN system, to accelerate action on the SDGs, particularly during the UN General Assembly High-Level Week. Together, all this helps to reinforce the importance of working together to solve global challenges and achieve the SDGs.
==Purpose==
The purpose is to organize "action, awareness, and accountability for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]]". It is also an opportunity to "speak out as one voice, share ideas and transformative solutions in the fight to build back better from global challenges".<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week - About|url=https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=United Nations Foundation}}</ref>
It aims to make "the SDG community come together".<ref name=":1" />
== Themes and Activities ==
=== 2022 ===
Global Goals Week 2022 took place from September 16 to 25. To allow partners more flexibility, the calendar was expanded to host events from September 1 to October 15.
The seventy-seventh session of the General Assembly opened on 13 September under the theme, “A watershed moment: transformative solutions to interlocking challenges.” The theme stems from the recognition that the world is at a critical moment in the history of the United Nations due to complex and interconnected crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine, humanitarian challenges of unprecedented nature, a tipping point in climate change as well as growing concerns about threats to the global economy.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/unga-high-level-week-2022/ | title=Highlights: United Nations General Assembly High-Level Week 2022 }}</ref>
=== 2021 ===
Global Goals Week 2021 took place from September 17 to 26. Due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the calendar was expanded to host events from September 1 to October 15. Events and activations in 2021 were mostly virtual, but also included some in-person events around the world, as well as hybrid ones.
Under the theme ‘Building Resilience through Hope’, and against the background of the COVID pandemic and global insecurity, the 2021 UN General Assembly’s opening underscored the need for greater urgency and ambition to end the pandemic and ensure an equitable and [[green recovery]] and accelerated implementation of the SDGs.
===2020===
Global Goals Week 2020 took place from September 18 to 26. It was completely virtual due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The goal was to "cultivate ideas, identify solutions, and build partnerships with the power to solve a wide range of complex global problems from inequality to [[Global warming|climate change]]".<ref name=":1" />
===2019===
Global Goals Week 2019 took place concurrently with [[Climate Week NYC]] 2019, from September 21 to 28. The theme was: "Action for People and Planet". There were 72 Global Goals Week events, 68 events from the SDG Action Zone, 351 events from Climate Week NYC, and 2981 actions, including events, from the SDG Action Campaign.<ref name=":0">UN Foundations (2019) [https://unfoundation.app.box.com/s/cds365m0nidugswtxxp0jwkaqqivl8bc Presentation about Global Goals Week in 2019], provided on [https://globalgoalsweek.org/about/ website about Global Goals Week].</ref> Around 107,000 people attended online and around 30,000 people attended in-person.<ref name=":0" />
The week included the events of the UN Summits Week, comprising the UN-Secretary-General's Climate Action Summit, a High-level Meeting on Universal Health Coverage; the SDG Summit; the 2019 High-level Dialogue on Financing for Development (FfD); and a High-level Review of Progress on SAMOA Pathway.<ref name=":0" />
Other events included:<ref name=":0" /><ref name="IISD2019">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2019|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2019/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>
* Youth Climate Summit
* Social Good Summit
* Global Week to Act for SDGs
* Private Sector Forum
* International Conference on Sustainable Development (ICSD)
* Sustainable Development Impact Summit
* Equator Prize 2019 Award Ceremony
* [[Bloomberg Global Business Forum]]
* SDG Business Forum
* UN Solutions Summit
* AI ([[artificial intelligence]]) Sustainable Development Summit.
A range of commitments were announced in 2019. These include financial commitments, partnerships, initiatives and activists.
Initiatives included:<ref name=":0" />
* The Rutgers Institute for Corporate Social Innovation supported the launch of the University Global Compact.
* [[World Food Programme|WFP]] and [[Alibaba Group]] unveiled “Hunger Map Live”, a digital map to track food-security issues across the globe.
* [[Open Government Partnership]]'s Acceleration Action on its recently launched coalition on justice.
* [[Google]] presented innovations in AI to advance the Global Goals and highlighted the work from their Impact Challenge grantees.
Activist events included:<ref name=":0" />
* Activists and leaders from across all sectors came together at the SDG Action Zone alongside UN Deputy Secretary-General [[Amina J. Mohammed]] to pledge their commitment to a super year of activism in 2020, to kickstart a Decade of Action for the SDGs.
* [[Trisha Shetty]] (SheSays) focused on empowering women and girls, ensuring no-one is left behind.
* [[Kennedy Odede]] (SHOFCO and World Poverty Forum) focused on tackling poverty and reducing inequality, looking ahead to the World Poverty Forum in January, to be held in Kibera, Kenya's biggest slum.
* [[Kumi Naidoo]] (Amnesty International) focused on grassroots civil activists whose lives are at risk worldwide.
* [[Nikolaj Coster-Waldau]] (actor and UNDP Goodwill Ambassador) focused on the power of stories to galvanize movements for change.
* SDG Advocates [[Alaa Murabit]] and [[Richard Curtis]] called on all sectors and citizens to mobilize in 2020 for the super year of activism ahead.
Examples of financial commitments:<ref name=":0" />
* [[UNICEF]] and the [[Islamic Development Bank]] (IsDB) launched an innovative fund that will open new opportunities for Muslim [[philanthropy]] to reach the millions of children currently in need of humanitarian support and help achieve the SDGs.
* [[Mastercard]]’s [[Michael Froman]] and [[The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria|Global Fund]] Chairman [[Donald Kaberuka]] reported on Mastercard’s new partnership with Step Up the Fight, a Global Fund initiative that proposes to raise $14 billion by 2023 for the fight against HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria. Of that $14 billion, the Global Fund is advocating for the private sector to mobilize at least $1 billion to expedite progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]] and universal health coverage.
* Colombian President [[Iván Duque Márquez|Iván Duque]] and [[Howard Graham Buffett|Howard G. Buffett]] discussed private capital and public policy levers that can support sustainable peace in Colombia, as well as how the [[Buffett Foundation|Howard G. Buffett Foundation]] is elevating its investments in Colombia’s agriculture industries in line with the country’s peace process.
=== 2018 ===
In 2018, Global Goals Week took place from September 22 to 29. It was termed "the biggest Global Goals Week yet".<ref name=":2" /> Its theme was "Let’s end poverty, fight inequality, and beat climate change''".''<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2018|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/ggw|access-date=4 August 2020|website=The Global Goals|archive-date=1 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701170335/https://www.globalgoals.org/ggw|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Events included:<ref name="IISD2018">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2018|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2018/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>
* Learning Revolutions: Creating Educational Environments for Empowerment and Inclusion
* Global People's Summit
* Social Good Summit
* [[United Nations Global Compact|UN Global Compact]] Leaders Summit
* World Economic Forum Sustainable Development Impact Summit
* SDG Philanthropy Platform Events
* 2018 Concordia Annual Summit
* [[Global Day of Action]]
* We the Future: Accelerating Sustainable Development Solutions 2018
*[[Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation)|Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Goalkeepers]]
* Sustainable Investment Forum North America
* [[Bloomberg Global Business Forum]]
* One Planet Summit
* International Conference on Sustainable Development
* The 8th Business Call to Action Annual Forum: Technological Disruption in the World of Inclusive Business
===2017===
Held from September 16 to 23, Global Goals Week 2017 events included:<ref name="IISD2017">{{Cite web|title=Global Goals Week 2017|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/events/global-goals-week-2017/|access-date=4 August 2020|publisher=IISD SDG Knowledge Hub}}</ref>
* [[Hult Prize]] Awards Ceremony
* Social Good Summit
* SDG Media Zone
* Solutions Summit
* UN Private Sector Forum
* Global Citizen LIVE!
* Concordia Annual Summit
* [[World Economic Forum]] Sustainable Development Impact Summit
* International Conference on Sustainable Development
* Global Citizen Movement Makers
* [[Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation)|Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Goalkeepers]]
* [[TED (conference)|TED Global]] NYC
* UN Global Compact Leaders Summit
* We the Future
* [[Global Citizen Festival]]
Climate Week took place at the same time.
Trends that emerged from the 2017 Global Goals Week included: "Development through the Trump prism, refugees and migration, humanitarian water-treading, putting business to work (for the SDGs), breaking down siloes, what’s next for development and new partnerships, United Nations reform."<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 September 2017|title=7 biggest trends to emerge from Global Goals Week|url=https://www.devex.com/news/7-biggest-trends-to-emerge-from-global-goals-week-91115|access-date=5 August 2020|website=Devex|publisher=By Elizabeth Dickinson, Michael Igoe, Catherine Cheney, Amy Lieberman}}</ref>
== Impacts ==
In 2020, Global Goals Week recorded the following impacts:
* 164 events registered, spanning September and October 2020
* 112 partners in the coalition
* 63 million people joined online
* 17.5 thousand people attended in-person
* 2.2 billion social media impressions
* Between September 18-26, 2020, Global Goals Week received 527,000 social media engagements
* The US, Japan, the UK and India were the top countries reached
For Global Goals Week 2019, the following impacts were reported in terms of [[social media]] metrics: Reach: 5.8 billion - defined as the total number of unique people who have seen the social media content.<ref name=":0" /> An analysis of [[Twitter]] data was done from 20 September to 2 October 2019 of over 50 different hashtags and Twitter handles. Around 10.8 million posts, shares, hashtags and mentions were tracked from 115 countries in 54 different languages.<ref name=":0" />
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [https://globalgoalsweek.org/ Official website]
{{Sustainable Development Goals}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]] |
Goalkeepers (Gates Foundation) | {{short description|Initiative of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation for the SDGs}}
{{Undisclosed paid|date=November 2019}}
[[File:GG logo-vertical.svg|180px|right]]
'''Goalkeepers''' is an initiative launched by the [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]] in 2017<ref>Donald G. McNeil Jr. (18 September 2017), [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/18/health/bill-melinda-gates-global-health-report-card.html Bill and Melinda Gates Grade the World’s Health] ''[[New York Times]]''.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/gates-foundation-goalkeepers-2018-report-ceo-sue-desmond-hellman-2018-9|title=The CEO of The Gates Foundation says we're approaching a dangerous tipping point in global poverty. We still have time to reverse it.|last=Brueck|first=Hilary|website=Business Insider|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref> to bring together leaders from around the world to accelerate progress toward achieving the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDG).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedrum.com/creative-works/project/bill-and-melinda-gates-foundation-we-are-the-goalkeepers|title=Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: We Are the Goalkeepers|website=The Drum|language=en|access-date=2019-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gatesfoundation.org/goalkeepers/what-is-goalkeepers|title=Goalkeepers 2018|website=www.gatesfoundation.org|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref> The initiative also provides reports and data flow charts over SDGs progress since 1990.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2018/09/18/gates-foundation-goalkeepers-war-on-poverty/|title=The Four Best Investments We Can Make in the Global War on Poverty|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2019-07-23}}</ref><ref>Andrew Jack (19 October 2017), [https://www.ft.com/content/340cd9f0-a9cb-11e7-ab66-21cc87a2edde Bill and Melinda Gates on the fight against global inequality] ''[[Financial Times]]''.</ref>
Its core event is the annual ''Goalkeepers Conference'' (which usually takes place during [[Global Goals Week]] and the [[UN General Assembly]]) at which the ''Changemaker Award'' is bestowed to 'extraordinary individuals who are driving progress in their communities and countries'. Invitations are issued to global leaders and aspiring personalities who have been personally selected by the board. Previous attendees include [[Barack Obama]], [[Emmanuel Macron]], [[Amina J. Mohammed]], [[Erna Solberg]], [[Malala Yousafzai]], and [[Trevor Noah]].<ref>Liz Ford (25 September 2017), [https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/sep/25/obama-the-world-has-never-been-healthier-wealthier-or-less-violent-united-nations-gates-foundation Obama: 'The world has never been healthier, wealthier or less violent'] ''[[The Guardian]]''.</ref> Past award winners have included [[Yusra Mardini]], [[Amika George]], [[Ria Sharma]], and [[Nadia Murad]], who later went on to win the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
== Conferences and awards ==
[[File:Bill_og_Melinda_Gates_2009-06-03_(bilde_01).JPG|thumb|Bill and Melinda Gates, founders of the Gates Foundation]]
===2022===
The fourth in-person Goalkeepers event was held in September 2022 at Jazz at Lincoln Center in New York City. Speakers included:
* [[Mia Mottley]], Prime Minister of Barbados<ref>Maria Pasquini (22September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|Peope]]''.</ref>
The winner of the Global Goalkeeper award was:
* [[Ursula von der Leyen]]<ref>Thalia Beaty (22 September 2022), [https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-science-health-philanthropy-covid-29f66b44d789e86684899e8edbb316fc Gates Foundation prods UN, honors inspiration as Goalkeepers] ''[[Associated Press]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
Further awards went to:
* [[Zahra Joya]]: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Thalia Beaty (22 September 2022), [https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-science-health-philanthropy-covid-29f66b44d789e86684899e8edbb316fc Gates Foundation prods UN, honors inspiration as Goalkeepers] ''[[Associated Press]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
* [[Vanessa Nakate]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>Thalia Beaty (22 September 2022), [https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-science-health-philanthropy-covid-29f66b44d789e86684899e8edbb316fc Gates Foundation prods UN, honors inspiration as Goalkeepers] ''[[Associated Press]]''.</ref><ref>Lucy Morgan (21 September 2022), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/vanessa-nakate-goalkeeper-interview Vanessa Nakate on the power (and challenges) of navigating climate activism as a young woman] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
* Radhika Batra: ''Progress Award''<ref>Lucy Morgan (21 September 2022), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/dr-radhika-batra-goalkeepers-award-interview ‘It’s never too late to make a difference': Dr Radhika Batra on working to eradicate preventable child blindness] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref><ref>Maria Pasquini (22 September 2022), [https://people.com/human-interest/bill-gates-melinda-french-gates-show-united-front-for-2022-goalkeepers-event/ Bill and Melinda Gates Reunite for Foundation 1 Year After Divorce: We're 'Completely Committed to This'] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
=== 2021 ===
The 2021 Goalkeepers conference could not take place physically, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], but had to be held virtually. The winner of the Global Goalkeeper award was:
* [[Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka]]<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref>
Further awards went to:
* Jenifer Colpas: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref>
* [[Satta Sheriff]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref>
* Fairooz Faizah: ''Progress Award''<ref>Francesca Specter (24 September 2021), [https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/melinda-gates-foundation-interview-2021 Melinda Gates on choosing the Gates Foundation's Annual Goalkeepers Awards Winners: ‘Women and girls need to be front and centre’] ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]''.</ref><ref>Tania Bryer (21 October 2021), [https://www.cnbc.com/video/2021/10/21/mental-health-awareness-in-bangladesh.html Finding Solutions: Mental health awareness in Bangladesh] ''[[CNBC]]''.</ref>
=== 2020 ===
[[File:Africa_CDC_Director_Dr._John_Nkengasong_(37892303376).jpg|thumb|150px|Winner of the 2020 Global Goalkeeper award [[John Nkengasong]]]]
The 2020 Goalkeepers conference could not take place physically, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], but had to be held virtually. The winner of the Global Goalkeeper award was:
* [[John Nkengasong]], Director of the [[Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention]] for being a "relentless proponent of global collaboration and evidence-based public health practices, and a champion for minimizing the social and economic consequences of COVID-19 across the African continent"<ref>John Muchangi (1 October 2020), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2020-10-01-bill-gates-recognises-kenyan-innovators/ Bill and Melinda Gates recognise Kenyan innovators] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref><ref>Noor Mahtani (7 October 2020), [https://brasil.elpais.com/internacional/2020-10-07/nosso-objetivo-e-imunizar-60-da-populacao-africana.html “Nosso objetivo é imunizar 60% da população africana”] ''[[El País]]''.</ref>
The Global Goals awards went to:
* [[Bonita Sharma]], co-founder and CEO of ''Social Changemakers and Innovators'' (SOCHAI) – a youth-led non-profit organization in Nepal<ref>John Muchangi (1 October 2020), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2020-10-01-bill-gates-recognises-kenyan-innovators/ Bill and Melinda Gates recognise Kenyan innovators] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>
* [[Hauwa Ojeifo]], founder of ''She Writes Woman'', a women-led movement giving mental health a voice in Nigeria<ref>John Muchangi (1 October 2020), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2020-10-01-bill-gates-recognises-kenyan-innovators/ Bill and Melinda Gates recognise Kenyan innovators] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>
* The ''MASH Project Foundation'', a youth led social enterprise based in India that develops and implements support systems for people who work for social causes through partnerships.<ref>{{Cite web|title=We Are Goalkeepers|url=https://www.gatesfoundation.org/goalkeepers/about-event/awards/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=www.gatesfoundation.org}}</ref>
=== 2019 ===
[[File:New_Zealand_Prime_Minister_Jacinda_Ardern_in_2018.jpg|thumb|150px|2019 Speaker, Prime Minister [[Jacinda Ardern]]]]
The third annual Goalkeepers event was held September 25–26, 2019, at Jazz at Lincoln Center in New York City. Speakers included:<ref>{{Cite web|title=We Are Goalkeepers|url=https://www.gatesfoundation.org/goalkeepers/about-event/past-events/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=www.gatesfoundation.org}}</ref>
* [[Jacinda Ardern]], Prime Minister of New Zealand<ref>Derek Cheng (25 September 2019), [https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/jacinda-ardern-in-new-york-only-five-countries-sign-up-for-nzs-trade-agreement-to-tackle-climate-change/ZOIJRUPOKQCRHZQTSVYIF2KZQY/ Jacinda Ardern in New York: Only five countries sign up for NZ's trade agreement to tackle climate change] ''[[The New Zealand Herald]]''.</ref>
* [[Pedro Sánchez]], Prime Minister of Spain<ref>[https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/presidente/news/Paginas/2019/20190925un-2030agenda.aspx Pedro Sánchez claims before United Nations that 2030 Agenda is roadmap for Government of Spain] [[Prime Minister of Spain]], press release of 25 September 2019.</ref>
* [[Jennifer Eberhardt]]
* [[Aliko Dangote]]
* [[Senjuti Saha]]
The Global Goalkeeper Award was given to:
[[File:Prime_Minister,_Shri_Narendra_Modi,_in_New_Delhi_on_August_08,_2019_(cropped).jpg|thumb|150px|Prime Minister Modi got the Global Goalkeepers award 2019]]
* [[Narendra Modi]], Prime Minister of India, for successfully implementing the [[Swachh Bharat Mission]], a cleanliness and sanitation project, including 110 million family and public toilets for poor and middle income families, reducing the Indian [[open defecation]] rate from 50% to almost 0% in 3 years.<ref name="love1">[https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/pm-modi-recieves-global-goalkeeper-award-for-swachh-bharat-abhiyan/article29506555.ece PM Modi {{sic|rec|ieves|nolink=y}} Global Goalkeeper award for Swachh Bharat Abhiyan], The Hindu, 25 Sept 2019.</ref> He personally makes cleaning initiatives - [[plogging]] along the roads and beaches - leading by example to promote mass fitness and cleanliness.<ref name="modiplogging1">[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-goes-plogging-on-tn-beach-gives-swachh-fit-india-drives-a-big-boost/articleshow/71561242.cms PM goes plogging on TN beach, gives Swachh & Fit India drives a big boost], Times of India, 13 October 2019.</ref><ref>Ayesha Venkataraman and Jeffrey Gettleman (20 September 2019), [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/20/world/asia/narendra-modi-bill-gates-foundation.html As Narendra Modi Heads to U.S., Controversy Follows Him] ''[[New York Times]]''.</ref>
Ahead of the ceremony, human rights groups and three Nobel Peace Prize winners – [[Shirin Ebadi]], [[Tawakkol Karman]] and [[Mairead Maguire]] – criticized in a letter to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation the decision to bestow an award upon Modi, stating that under his leadership, “India has descended into dangerous and deadly chaos that has consistently undermined human rights, democracy.’’<ref>Vidhi Doshi (12 September 2019), [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/12/bill-and-melinda-gates-foundation-under-fire-over-award-for-narendra-modi Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation under fire over award for Narendra Modi] ''[[The Guardian]]''.</ref><ref>Ayesha Venkataraman and Jeffrey Gettleman (20 September 2019), [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/20/world/asia/narendra-modi-bill-gates-foundation.html As Narendra Modi Heads to U.S., Controversy Follows Him] ''[[New York Times]]''.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/23/dismay-at-gates-foundation-prize-for-narendra-modi Dismay at Gates Foundation prize for Narendra Modi] ''[[The Guardian]]'', 23 September 2019.</ref>
The Global Goals awards went to:
* [[Payal Jangid]]: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Rachel DeSantis (2 October 2019), [https://people.com/human-interest/payal-jangid-child-marriage-goalkeepers-awards/ 17-Year-Old Is Fighting to End Child Marriage in India After Escaping It Herself] ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''.</ref>
* [[Aya Chebbi]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>John Muchangi (26 September 2019), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2019-09-26-what-modis-goalkeepers-award-means-for-kenya/ What Modi's Goalkeepers Award means for Kenya] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>
* Gregory Rockson: ''Progress Award''<ref>John Muchangi (26 September 2019), [https://www.the-star.co.ke/health/2019-09-26-what-modis-goalkeepers-award-means-for-kenya/ What Modi's Goalkeepers Award means for Kenya] ''[[The Star (Kenya)|The Star]]''.</ref>
=== 2018===
[[File:Emmanuel Macron (cropped).jpg|thumb|150px|Main speaker of the 2018 conference: President Emmanuel Macron]]
The second annual Goalkeepers event was held September 25–26, 2018, in New York City. Speakers included:<ref>{{Citation|last=GatesFoundation|title=Goalkeepers 2018 Livestream: Part 1|date=2018-09-26|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtrsuGSCreU|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Emmanuel Macron]], President of France<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/sep/26/education-family-planning-key-africa-future-emmanuel-macron-un-general-assembly|title=Emmanuel Macron: 'More choice would mean fewer children in Africa'|last=editor|first=Patrick Wintour Diplomatic|date=2018-09-26|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-03|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* [[Julius Maada Bio|Julius Maada]], President of Sierra Leone<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thepatrioticvanguard.com/president-julius-maada-bio-of-sierra-leone|title=President Julius Maada Bio and Bill Gates at Goalkeepers event|date=2018-09-29|website=The Patriotic Vanguard|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.switsalone.com/26355_sierra-leone-president-bio-bill-gates-david-sengeh-at-goalkeepers-2018/|title=Sierra Leone: President Bio, Bill Gates, David Sengeh at Goalkeepers 2018 {{!}} Sierra Leone News|last=News|first=Sierra Leone|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Erna Solberg]], Prime Minister of Norway<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/business/business/bill-and-melinda-gates-co-host-goalkeepers-2018-in-new-york-city201809271705070002/|title=Bill and Melinda Gates co-host Goalkeepers 2018 in New York City|website=www.aninews.in|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[King Kaka]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sde.co.ke/article/2001293119/king-kaka-to-share-stage-with-billionaire-bill-gates|title=King Kaka to share stage with billionaire Bill Gates|last=Samorai|first=Samora|website=Standard Digital News|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
The Global Goals awards went to:
* [[Nadia Murad]]: ''Changemaker Award''<ref>Aparna Alluri (23 September 2019), [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49738605 'Toilet trouble' for Narendra Modi and Bill Gates] ''[[BBC News]]''.</ref>
* [[Amika George]]: ''Campaign Award''<ref>Annalisa Merelli (27 September 2018), [https://qz.com/quartzy/1401383/amika-georges-freeperiods-campaign-wins-bill-and-melinda-gates-goalkeepers-award/ This teen advocate against “period poverty” is the feminist we should all grow up to be] ''[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]''.</ref>
* Dysnus Kisilu: ''Progress Award''
=== 2017===
The first annual Goalkeepers event was held September 25–26, 2017, at [[Jazz at Lincoln Center]] in [[New York City]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/goalkeepers|title=Goalkeepers|website=The Global Goals|language=en|access-date=2019-04-12}}</ref> Speakers included:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.project-everyone.org/case-studies/goalkeepers-2017/|title=Goalkeepers 2017 — Project Everyone|website=www.project-everyone.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Barack Obama]], President of the United States<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/sep/25/obama-the-world-has-never-been-healthier-wealthier-or-less-violent-united-nations-gates-foundation|title=Obama: 'The world has never been healthier, wealthier or less violent'|last=Ford|first=Liz|date=2017-09-25|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-03|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>Joseph Ax (20 September 2017), [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-gates-foundation-goalkeepers-idUSKCN1BV2W0 In rare public speech, Obama decries Republican healthcare bill] ''[[Reuters]]''.</ref>
* [[Justin Trudeau]], Prime Minister of Canada<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=http://time.com/4950653/justin-trudeau-chewbacca-socks/|title=Justin Trudeau's Socks Are Throwing the Internet for a Loop|magazine=Time|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Queen Rania of Jordan|Queen Rania]] of Jordan<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/news/local/queen-takes-part-goalkeepers-event-aimed-accelerating-global-development-agenda|title=Queen takes part in Goalkeepers event aimed at accelerating global development agenda|date=2017-09-21|website=Jordan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
*[[will.i.am]]
* [[Malala Yousafzai|Malala]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.local10.com/news/international/nobel-peace-prize-winner-malala-yousafzai-turns-21|title=Nobel Peace Prize winner Malala Yousafzai turns 21|date=2018-07-12|website=WPLG|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref>
* [[Stephen Fry]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/presidents-bio-macron-and-prime-minister-solberg-join-bill-and-melinda-gates-at-goalkeepers-2018/|title=Presidents Bio, Macron and prime minister Solberg join Bill and Melinda Gates at Goalkeepers 2018|last=Thomas|first=Abdul Rashid|date=2018-09-26|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref><ref>Andrew Jack (19 October 2017), [https://www.ft.com/content/340cd9f0-a9cb-11e7-ab66-21cc87a2edde Bill and Melinda Gates on the fight against global inequality] ''[[Financial Times]]''.</ref>
* [[George the Poet|George The Poet]]
<gallery>
President_Barack_Obama.jpg
Prime_Minister_Trudeau_-_2020_(cropped).jpg
Queen_Rania_of_Jordan_Official_Release_05_(cropped).jpg
Will.i.am_in_2018.jpg
Shinzō_Abe_and_Malala_Yousafzai_(1)_Cropped.jpg
Stephen_Fry_June_2016.jpg
</gallery>
== Advisory board ==
The Goalkeepers program is being advised by several individuals, including the following:
* [[Hervé Berville]] (since 2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2022/05/new-goalkeepers-advisors-appointed-to-help-meet-un-sdg Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints New Members to Goalkeepers Advisory Group to Accelerate Progress Toward Global Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 9 May 2022.</ref>
* [[Lukas Köhler]] (2019–2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2019/05/goalkeepers-advisory-board-to-accelerate-progress-on-un-sustainable-development-goals The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints Goalkeepers Advisory Board to Accelerate Progress on the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 22 May 2019.</ref>
* [[Prajakta Koli]] (since 2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2022/05/new-goalkeepers-advisors-appointed-to-help-meet-un-sdg Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints New Members to Goalkeepers Advisory Group to Accelerate Progress Toward Global Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 9 May 2022.</ref>
* [[Tlaleng Mofokeng]] (since 2022)<ref>[https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/media-center/press-releases/2022/05/new-goalkeepers-advisors-appointed-to-help-meet-un-sdg Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Appoints New Members to Goalkeepers Advisory Group to Accelerate Progress Toward Global Goals] [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], press release of 9 May 2022.</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators | {{Short description|None}}
This '''List of SDG targets and indicators''' provides a complete overview of all the targets and indicators for the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1])</ref>
<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> The global indicator framework for Sustainable Development Goals was developed by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) and agreed upon at the 48th session of the [[United Nations Statistical Commission]] held in March 2017. The official indicator list below includes all the refinements made {{As of|2020|03|lc=yes}}.
== Background ==
{{Excerpt|Sustainable development goals|Structure of goals, targets and indicators}}
== Targets and indicators for each SDG ==
This table is the global indicator framework for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development{{refn|group=n|As contained in the Annex of the resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313), annual refinements contained in E/CN.3/2018/2 (Annex II), E/CN.3/2019/2 (Annex II), and 2020 Comprehensive Review changes (Annex II) and annual refinements (Annex III) contained in E/CN.3/2020/2.}}<ref name=":17" /> The footnotes are updates from the indicator framework in 2020.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=SDG Indicators – Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=6 August 2020|website=United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD)}}</ref> Earlier in 2016, as stated in the UN Sustainability Development, the Member States have decided that the report should be produced once every four years to inform the SDG review deliberations; reported from 15 experts who all have representing backgrounds.<ref>{{cite web |last1=United |first1=Nations |title=Global Sustainable Development Report (GSDR) 2023 |url=https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr/gsdr2023 |website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Sustainable Development}}</ref> The official indicator list below includes all updates until the 51st session Statistical Commission in March 2020.<ref name=":0" /> Between 15 October 2018 and 17 April 2020, a range of changes have been made to the indicators.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=17 April 2020|title=SDG Indicator changes (15 October 2018 and onward) – current to 17 April 2020|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/List_of_changes_since_15_Oct_2018.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 September 2020|website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division}}</ref> Those are not yet reflected in the table below.
Sustainable Development Goal indicators should be disaggregated, where relevant, by [[income]], [[sex]], age, [[Race (human categorization)|race]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], [[Migrant worker|migratory status]], [[disability]] and geographic location, or other characteristics, in accordance with the Fundamental Principles of [[Official statistics|Official Statistics]].{{refn|group=n|Resolution 68/261}}
=== Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 1}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 01NoPoverty.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day
|1.1.1 Proportion of the population living below the international poverty line by sex, age, employment status and geographic location (urban/rural)
|C010101
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions
|1.2.1 Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by sex and age
|C010201
|-
|1.2.2 Proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions
|C010202
|-
|1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable
|1.3.1 Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems, by sex, distinguishing children, unemployed persons, older persons, persons with disabilities, pregnant women, newborns, work-injury victims and the poor and the vulnerable
|C010301
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance
|1.4.1 Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services
|C010401
|-
|1.4.2 Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land, (a) with legally recognized documentation, and (b) who perceive their rights to land as secure, by sex and type of tenure
|C010402
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="4" |1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters
|1.5.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
|C200303
|-
|1.5.2 Direct economic loss attributed to disasters in relation to global gross domestic product (GDP)
|C010502
|-
|1.5.3 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] 2015–2030
|C200304
|-
|1.5.4 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
|C200305
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |1.a Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions
|1.a.1 Total official development assistance grants from all donors that focus on poverty reduction as a share of the recipient country's gross national income
|C010a04
|-
|1.a.2 Proportion of total government spending on essential services (education, health and social protection)
|C010a02
|-
|1.b Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions
|1.b.1 Pro-poor public social spending
|C010b02
|}
=== Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 2}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 02ZeroHunger.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round
|2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment
|C020101
|-
|2.1.2 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
|C020102
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="3" |2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons
|2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age
|C020201
|-
|2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age, by type (wasting and overweight)
|C020202
|-
|2.2.3 Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status (percentage)
|C020203
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment
|2.3.1 Volume of production per labour unit by classes of farming/pastoral/forestry enterprise size
|C020301
|-
|2.3.2 Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status
|C020302
|-
|2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for [[climate change adaptation|adaptation to climate change]], extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
|2.4.1 Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture
|C020401
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed
|2.5.1 Number of plant and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture secured in either medium- or long-term conservation facilities
|C020501
|-
|2.5.2 Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk of extinction
|C020503
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |2.a Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries
|2.a.1 The agriculture orientation index for government expenditures
|C020a01
|-
|2.a.2 Total official flows (official development assistance plus other official flows) to the agriculture sector
|C020a02
|-
|2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round
|2.b.1 Agricultural export subsidies
|C020b02
|-
|2.c Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility
|2.c.1 Indicator of food price anomalies
|C020c01
|}
=== Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 3}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 03GoodHealth.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |3.1 By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births
|3.1.1 Maternal mortality ratio
|C030101
|-
|3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
|C030102
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under‑5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births
|3.2.1 Under‑5 mortality rate
|C030201
|-
|3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate
|C030202
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="5" |3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases
|3.3.1 Number of new HIV infections per 1,000 uninfected population, by sex, age and key populations
|C030301
|-
|3.3.2 Tuberculosis incidence per 100,000 population
|C030302
|-
|3.3.3 Malaria incidence per 1,000 population
|C030303
|-
|3.3.4 Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000 population
|C030304
|-
|3.3.5 Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases
|C030305
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |3.4 By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being
|3.4.1 Mortality rate attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic respiratory disease
|C030401
|-
|3.4.2 Suicide mortality rate
|C030402
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol
|3.5.1 Coverage of treatment interventions (pharmacological, psychosocial and rehabilitation and aftercare services) for substance use disorders
|C030501
|-
|3.5.2 Alcohol per capita consumption (aged 15 years and older) within a calendar year in litres of pure alcohol
|C030502
|-
|3.6 By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents
|3.6.1 Death rate due to road traffic injuries
|C030601
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |3.7 By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes
|3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15–49 years) who have their need for family planning satisfied with modern methods
|C030701
|-
|3.7.2 Adolescent birth rate (aged 10–14 years; aged 15–19 years) per 1,000 women in that age group
|C030702
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all
|3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services
|C030801
|-
|3.8.2 Proportion of population with large household expenditures on health as a share of total household expenditure or income
|C030802
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="3" |3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination
|3.9.1 Mortality rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution
|C030901
|-
|3.9.2 Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene (exposure to unsafe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All (WASH) services)
|C030902
|-
|3.9.3 Mortality rate attributed to unintentional poisoning
|C030903
|-
|3.a Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate
|3.a.1 Age-standardized prevalence of current tobacco use among persons aged 15 years and older
|C030a01
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="3" |3.b Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and non‑communicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to medicines for all
|3.b.1 Proportion of the target population covered by all vaccines included in their national programme
|C030b01
|-
|3.b.2 Total net official development assistance to medical research and basic health sectors
|C030b02
|-
|3.b.3 Proportion of health facilities that have a core set of relevant essential medicines available and affordable on a sustainable basis
|C030b03
|-
|3.c Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States
|3.c.1 Health worker density and distribution
|C030c01
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |3.d Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks
|3.d.1 International Health Regulations (IHR) capacity and health emergency preparedness
|C030d01
|-
|3.d.2 Percentage of bloodstream infections due to selected antimicrobial-resistant organisms{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C030d02
|}
=== Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 4}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 04QualityEducation.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes
|4.1.1 Proportion of children and young people (a) in grades 2/3; (b) at the end of primary; and (c) at the end of lower secondary achieving at least a minimum proficiency level in (i) reading and (ii) mathematics, by sex
|C040101
|-
|4.1.2 Completion rate (primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education)
|C040102
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre‑primary education so that they are ready for primary education
|4.2.1 Proportion of children aged 24–59 months who are developmentally on track in health, learning and psychosocial well-being, by sex {{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C040201
|-
|4.2.2 Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary entry age), by sex
|C040202
|-
|4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university
|4.3.1 Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, by sex
|C040301
|-
|4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship
|4.4.1 Proportion of youth and adults with information and communications technology (ICT) skills, by type of skill
|C040401
|-
|4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations
|4.5.1 Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated
|C040501
|-
|4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy
|4.6.1 Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex
|C040601
|-
|4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture's contribution to sustainable development
|4.7.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
|C200306
|-
|4.a Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all
|4.a.1 Proportion of schools offering basic services, by type of service
|C040a01
|-
|4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries
|4.b.1 Volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships by sector and type of study
|C040b01
|-
|4.c By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States
|4.c.1 Proportion of teachers with the minimum required qualifications, by education level{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C040c01
|}
=== Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 5}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 05GenderEquality.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
|5.1.1 Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non‑discrimination on the basis of sex
|C050101
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation
|5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age
|C050201
|-
|5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of occurrence
|C050202
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation
|5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18
|C050301
|-
|5.3.2 Proportion of girls and women aged 15–49 years who have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting, by age
|C050302
|-
|5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate
|5.4.1 Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and location
|C050401
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |5.5 Ensure women's full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life
|5.5.1 Proportion of seats held by women in (a) national parliaments and (b) local governments
|C050501
|-
|5.5.2 Proportion of women in managerial positions
|C050502
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences
|5.6.1 Proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care
|C050601
|-
|5.6.2 Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee full and equal access to women and men aged 15 years and older to sexual and reproductive health care, information and education
|C050602
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws
|5.a.1 (a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over agricultural land, by sex; and (b) share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure
|C050a01
|-
|5.a.2 Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law) guarantees women's equal rights to land ownership and/or control
|C050a02
|-
|5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women
|5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex
|C050b01
|-
|5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels
|5.c.1 Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender equality and women's empowerment
|C050c01
|}
=== Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 6}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 06CleanWaterSanitation.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
|6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services
|C060101
|-
|6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
|6.2.1 Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a [[hand washing]] facility with soap and water
|C060201
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
|6.3.1 Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated
|C060303
|-
|6.3.2 Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality
|C060302
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address [[water scarcity]] and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
|6.4.1 Change in water-use efficiency over time
|C060401
|-
|6.4.2 Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources
|C060402
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
|6.5.1 Degree of integrated water resources management
|C060501
|-
|6.5.2 Proportion of transboundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water cooperation
|C060502
|-
|6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
|6.6.1 Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time
|C060601
|-
|6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
|6.a.1 Amount of water- and sanitation-related official development assistance that is part of a government-coordinated spending plan
|C060a01
|-
|6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management
|6.b.1 Proportion of local administrative units with established and operational policies and procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management
|C060b01
|}
=== Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 7}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 07CleanEnergy.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services
|7.1.1 Proportion of population with access to electricity
|C070101
|-
|7.1.2 Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology
|C070102
|-
|7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global [[energy mix]]
|7.2.1 Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption
|C070201
|-
|7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency
|7.3.1 Energy intensity measured in terms of primary energy and GDP
|C070301
|-
|7.a By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology
|7.a.1 International financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy research and development and renewable energy production, including in hybrid systems
|C070a01
|-
|7.b By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support
|7.b.1 Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing countries (in watts per capita)
|C200208
|}
=== Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 8}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 08DecentWork.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|8.1 Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries
|8.1.1 Annual growth rate of real GDP per capita
|C080101
|-
|8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
|8.2.1 Annual growth rate of real GDP per employed person
|C080201
|-
|8.3 Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services
|8.3.1 Proportion of informal employment in total employment, by sector and sex
|C080302
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10‑Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, with developed countries taking the lead
|8.4.1 Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
|C200202
|-
|8.4.2 Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and domestic material consumption per GDP
|C200203
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |8.5 By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value
|8.5.1 Average hourly earnings of employees, by sex, age, occupation and persons with disabilities
|C080501
|-
|8.5.2 Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C080502
|-
|8.6 By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training
|8.6.1 Proportion of youth (aged 15–24 years) not in education, employment or training
|C080601
|-
|8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms
|8.7.1 Proportion and number of children aged 5–17 years engaged in child labour, by sex and age
|C080701
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |8.8 Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment
|8.8.1 Fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 workers, by sex and migrant status
|C080801
|-
|8.8.2 Level of national compliance with labour rights (freedom of association and collective bargaining) based on International Labour Organization (ILO) textual sources and national legislation, by sex and migrant status
|C080802
|-
|8.9 By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
|8.9.1 Tourism direct GDP as a proportion of total GDP and in growth rate
|C080901
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |8.10 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all
|8.10.1 (a) Number of commercial bank branches per 100,000 adults and (b) number of automated teller machines (ATMs) per 100,000 adults
|C081001
|-
|8.10.2 Proportion of adults (15 years and older) with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider
|C081002
|-
|8.a Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries
|8.a.1 Aid for Trade commitments and disbursements
|C080a01
|-
|8.b By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization
|8.b.1 Existence of a developed and operationalized national strategy for youth employment, as a distinct strategy or as part of a national employment strategy
|C080b01
|}
=== Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 9}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 09Industry.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |9.1 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all
|9.1.1 Proportion of the rural population who live within 2 km of an all-season road
|C090101
|-
|9.1.2 Passenger and freight volumes, by mode of transport
|C090102
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry's share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries
|9.2.1 Manufacturing value added as a proportion of GDP and per capita
|C090201
|-
|9.2.2 Manufacturing employment as a proportion of total employment
|C090202
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets
|9.3.1 Proportion of small-scale industries in total industry value added
|C090301
|-
|9.3.2 Proportion of small-scale industries with a loan or line of credit
|C090302
|-
|9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
|9.4.1 CO2 emission per unit of value added
|C090401
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |9.5 Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending
|9.5.1 Research and development expenditure as a proportion of GDP
|C090501
|-
|9.5.2 Researchers (in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitants
|C090502
|-
|9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States
|9.a.1 Total official international support (official development assistance plus other official flows) to infrastructure
|C090a01
|-
|9.b Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities
|9.b.1 Proportion of medium and high-tech industry value added in total value added
|C090b01
|-
|9.c Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020
|9.c.1 Proportion of population covered by a mobile network, by technology
|C090c01
|}
=== Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 10}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 10ReducedInequalities.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|10.1 By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the population at a rate higher than the national average
|10.1.1 Growth rates of household expenditure or income per capita among the bottom 40 per cent of the population and the total population
|C100101
|-
|10.2 By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status
|10.2.1 Proportion of people living below 50 per cent of median income, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C100201
|-
|10.3 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard
|10.3.1 Proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination prohibited under international human rights law
|C200204
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |10.4 Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively achieve greater equality
|10.4.1 Labour share of GDP
|C100401
|-
|10.4.2 Redistributive impact of fiscal policy{{refn|group=n|Taking into account ongoing [[World Trade Organization]] negotiations, the [[Doha Development Agenda]] and the Hong Kong ministerial mandate.}}
|C100402
|-
|10.5 Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and strengthen the implementation of such regulations
|10.5.1 Financial Soundness Indicators
|C100501
|-
|10.6 Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-making in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective, credible, accountable and legitimate institutions
|10.6.1 Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations
|C200205
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="4" |10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies
|10.7.1 Recruitment cost borne by employee as a proportion of monthly income earned in country of destination
|C100701
|-
|10.7.2 Number of countries with migration policies that facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people
|C100702
|-
|10.7.3 Number of people who died or disappeared in the process of migration towards an international destination{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C100703
|-
|10.7.4 Proportion of the population who are refugees, by country of origin
|C100704
|-
|10.a Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade Organization agreements
|10.a.1 Proportion of tariff lines applied to imports from least developed countries and developing countries with zero-tariff
|C100a01
|-
|10.b Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes
|10.b.1 Total resource flows for development, by recipient and donor countries and type of flow (e.g. official development assistance, foreign direct investment and other flows)
|C100b01
|-
|10.c By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent
|10.c.1 Remittance costs as a proportion of the amount remitted
|C100c01
|}
=== Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 11}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 11SustainableCities.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums
|11.1.1 Proportion of urban population living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing
|C110101
|-
|11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons
|11.2.1 Proportion of population that has convenient access to public transport, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C110201
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries
|11.3.1 Ratio of land consumption rate to population growth rate
|C110301
|-
|11.3.2 Proportion of cities with a direct participation structure of civil society in urban planning and management that operate regularly and democratically
|C110302
|-
|11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world's cultural and natural heritage
|11.4.1 Total per capita expenditure on the preservation, protection and conservation of all cultural and natural heritage, by source of funding (public, private), type of heritage (cultural, natural) and level of government (national, regional, and local/municipal)
|C110401
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations
|11.5.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
|C200303
|-
|11.5.2 Direct economic loss in relation to global GDP, damage to critical infrastructure and number of disruptions to basic services, attributed to disasters
|C110502
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management
|11.6.1 Proportion of municipal solid waste collected and managed in controlled facilities out of total municipal waste generated, by cities
|C110603
|-
|11.6.2 Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter (e.g. PM2.5 and PM10) in cities (population weighted)
|C110602
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities
|11.7.1 Average share of the built-up area of cities that is open space for public use for all, by sex, age and persons with disabilities
|C110701
|-
|11.7.2 Proportion of persons victim of physical or sexual harassment, by sex, age, disability status and place of occurrence, in the previous 12 months
|C110702
|-
|11.a Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning
|11.a.1 Number of countries that have national urban policies or regional development plans that (a) respond to population dynamics; (b) ensure balanced territorial development; and (c) increase local fiscal space
|C110a02
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] 2015–2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels
|11.b.1 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030
|C200304
|-
|11.b.2 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
|C200305
|-
|11.c Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials
|No suitable replacement indicator was proposed. The global statistical community is encouraged to work to develop an indicator that could be proposed for the 2025 comprehensive review. See E/CN.3/2020/2, paragraph 23.
|}
=== Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 12}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 12ResponsibleConsumption.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|12.1 Implement the 10‑Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries
|12.1.1 Number of countries developing, adopting or implementing policy instruments aimed at supporting the shift to sustainable consumption and production
|C120101
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
|12.2.1 Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP
|C200202
|-
|12.2.2 Domestic material consumption, domestic material consumption per capita, and domestic material consumption per GDP
|C200203
|-
|12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses
|12.3.1 (a) Food loss index and (b) food waste index
|C120301
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment
|12.4.1 Number of parties to international multilateral environmental agreements on hazardous waste, and other chemicals that meet their commitments and obligations in transmitting information as required by each relevant agreement
|C120401
|-
|12.4.2 (a) Hazardous waste generated per capita; and (b) proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment
|C120402
|-
|12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse
|12.5.1 National recycling rate, tons of material recycled
|C120501
|-
|12.6 Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle
|12.6.1 Number of companies publishing sustainability reports
|C120601
|-
|12.7 Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities
|12.7.1 Degree of sustainable public procurement policies and action plan implementation
|C120701
|-
|12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature
|12.8.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
|C200306
|-
|12.a Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production
|12.a.1 Installed renewable energy-generating capacity in developing countries (in watts per capita)
|C200208
|-
|12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
|12.b.1 Implementation of standard accounting tools to monitor the economic and environmental aspects of tourism sustainability
|C120b02
|-
|12.c Rationalize inefficient [[fossil fuel subsidies]] that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities
|12.c.1 Amount of fossil-fuel subsidies per unit of GDP (production and consumption){{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C120c01
|}
=== Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 13}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 13Climate.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''{{refn|group=n|Acknowledging that the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.}}
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="3" |13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries
|13.1.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population
|C200303
|-
|13.1.2 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] 2015–2030
|C200304
|-
|13.1.3 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies
|C200305
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning
|13.2.1 Number of countries with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans, strategies as reported in adaptation communications and national communications
|C130203
|-
|13.2.2 Total greenhouse gas emissions per year
|C130202
|-
|13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning
|13.3.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment
|C200306
|-
|13.a Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible
|13.a.1 Amounts provided and mobilized in United States dollars per year in relation to the continued existing collective mobilization goal of the $100 billion commitment through to 2025
|C130a02
|-
|13.b Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities
|13.b.1 Number of least developed countries and small island developing States with nationally determined contributions, long-term strategies, national adaptation plans, strategies as reported in adaptation communications and national communications
|C130b02
|}
=== Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 14}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 14LifeBelowWater.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including [[marine debris]] and nutrient pollution
|14.1.1 (a) Index of coastal eutrophication; and (b) plastic debris density{{refn|group=n|Refinement of the indicator name approved by the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) on 13 March and 2 April 2020. Final approval pending the 52nd session of the Statistical Commission in March 2021.}}
|C140101
|-
|14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans
|14.2.1 Number of countries using ecosystem-based approaches to managing marine areas
|C140201
|-
|14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels
|14.3.1 Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations
|C140301
|-
|14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics
|14.4.1 Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels
|C140401
|-
|14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information
|14.5.1 Coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areas
|C140501
|-
|14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation4
|14.6.1 Degree of implementation of international instruments aiming to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
|C140601
|-
|14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism
|14.7.1 Sustainable fisheries as a proportion of GDP in small island developing States, least developed countries and all countries
|C140701
|-
|14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries
|14.a.1 Proportion of total research budget allocated to research in the field of marine technology
|C140a01
|-
|14.b Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets
|14.b.1 Degree of application of a legal/regulatory/ policy/institutional framework which recognizes and protects access rights for small-scale fisheries
|C140b01
|-
|14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]], which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of "The future we want"
|14.c.1 Number of countries making progress in ratifying, accepting and implementing through legal, policy and institutional frameworks, ocean-related instruments that implement international law, as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans and their resources
|C140c01
|}
=== Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 15}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 15LifeOnLand.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
|15.1.1 Forest area as a proportion of total land area
|C150101
|-
|15.1.2 Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type
|C150102
|-
|15.2 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally
|15.2.1 Progress towards sustainable forest management
|C150201
|-
|15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a [[land degradation]]-neutral world
|15.3.1 Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area
|C150301
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development
|15.4.1 Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity
|C150401
|-
|15.4.2 Mountain Green Cover Index
|C150402
|-
|15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
|15.5.1 Red List Index
|C150501
|-
|15.6 Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed
|15.6.1 Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits
|C150601
|-
|15.7 Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products
|15.7.1 Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked
|C200206
|-
|15.8 By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species
|15.8.1 Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species
|C150801
|-
|15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts
|15.9.1 (a) Number of countries that have established national targets in accordance with or similar to Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 in their national biodiversity strategy and action plans and the progress reported towards these targets; and (b) integration of biodiversity into national accounting and reporting systems, defined as implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting
|C150902
|-
|15.a Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems
|15.a.1 (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
|C200210
|-
|15.b Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation
|15.b.1 (a) Official development assistance on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and (b) revenue generated and finance mobilized from biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
|C200210
|-
|15.c Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities
|15.c.1 Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked
|C200206
|}
=== Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 16}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 16PeaceJusticeInstitutions.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="4" |16.1 Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere
|16.1.1 Number of victims of intentional homicide per 100,000 population, by sex and age
|C160101
|-
|16.1.2 Conflict-related deaths per 100,000 population, by sex, age and cause
|C160102
|-
|16.1.3 Proportion of population subjected to (a) physical violence, (b) psychological violence and (c) sexual violence in the previous 12 months
|C160103
|-
|16.1.4 Proportion of population that feel safe walking alone around the area they live
|C160104
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="3" |16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children
|16.2.1 Proportion of children aged 1–17 years who experienced any physical punishment and/or psychological aggression by caregivers in the past month
|C160201
|-
|16.2.2 Number of victims of human trafficking per 100,000 population, by sex, age and form of exploitation
|C160202
|-
|16.2.3 Proportion of young women and men aged 18–29 years who experienced sexual violence by age 18
|C160203
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="3" |16.3 Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all
|16.3.1 Proportion of victims of violence in the previous 12 months who reported their victimization to competent authorities or other officially recognized conflict resolution mechanisms
|C160301
|-
|16.3.2 Unsentenced detainees as a proportion of overall prison population
|C160302
|-
|16.3.3 Proportion of the population who have experienced a dispute in the past two years and who accessed a formal or informal dispute resolution mechanism, by type of mechanism
|C160303
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |16.4 By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime
|16.4.1 Total value of inward and outward illicit financial flows (in current United States dollars)
|C160401
|-
|16.4.2 Proportion of seized, found or surrendered arms whose illicit origin or context has been traced or established by a competent authority in line with international instruments
|C160402
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |16.5 Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms
|16.5.1 Proportion of persons who had at least one contact with a public official and who paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials, during the previous 12 months
|C160501
|-
|16.5.2 Proportion of businesses that had at least one contact with a public official and that paid a bribe to a public official, or were asked for a bribe by those public officials during the previous 12 months
|C160502
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |16.6 Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels
|16.6.1 Primary government expenditures as a proportion of original approved budget, by sector (or by budget codes or similar)
|C160601
|-
|16.6.2 Proportion of population satisfied with their last experience of public services
|C160602
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |16.7 Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels
|16.7.1 Proportions of positions in national and local institutions, including (a) the legislatures; (b) the public service; and (c) the judiciary, compared to national distributions, by sex, age, persons with disabilities and population groups
|C160701
|-
|16.7.2 Proportion of population who believe decision-making is inclusive and responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group
|C160702
|-
|16.8 Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance
|16.8.1 Proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations
|C200205
|-
|16.9 By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration
|16.9.1 Proportion of children under 5 years of age whose births have been registered with a civil authority, by age
|C160901
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |16.10 Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements
|16.10.1 Number of verified cases of killing, kidnapping, enforced disappearance, arbitrary detention and torture of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists and human rights advocates in the previous 12 months
|C161001
|-
|16.10.2 Number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/or policy guarantees for public access to information
|C161002
|-
|16.a Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime
|16.a.1 Existence of independent national human rights institutions in compliance with the Paris Principles
|C160a01
|-
|16.b Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable development
|16.b.1 Proportion of population reporting having personally felt discriminated against or harassed in the previous 12 months on the basis of a ground of discrimination prohibited under international human rights law
|C200204
|}
=== Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development ===
{{Main|Sustainable Development Goal 17}}
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 17Partnerships.svg|left|80x80px]]
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Targets (from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development)'''
|'''Indicators (versions from March 2020)'''
|'''UNSD Indicator Codes''' {{refn|group=n|Indicator codes were developed by UNSD for data transfer, tracking and other statistical purposes.}}
|-
|'''Finance'''
|
|
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |17.1 Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection
|17.1.1 Total government revenue as a proportion of GDP, by source
|C170101
|-
|17.1.2 Proportion of domestic budget funded by domestic taxes
|C170102
|-
|17.2 Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income for official development assistance (ODA/GNI) to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries; ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries
|17.2.1 Net official development assistance, total and to least developed countries, as a proportion of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee donors’ gross national income (GNI)
|C170201
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |17.3 Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources
|17.3.1 Foreign direct investment, official development assistance and South-South cooperation as a proportion of gross national income
|C170303
|-
|17.3.2 Volume of remittances (in United States dollars) as a proportion of total GDP
|C170302
|-
|17.4 Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring, as appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress
|17.4.1 Debt service as a proportion of exports of goods and services
|C170401
|-
|17.5 Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries
|17.5.1 Number of countries that adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for developing countries, including the least developed countries
|C170502
|-
|'''Technology'''
|
|
|-
|17.6 Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge-sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism
|17.6.1 Fixed Internet broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, by speed{{refn|group=n|The current indicator 17.6.1 was previously listed as 17.6.2.}}
|C170602
|-
|17.7 Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed
|17.7.1 Total amount of funding for developing countries to promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies
|C170701
|-
|17.8 Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology
|17.8.1 Proportion of individuals using the Internet
|C170801
|-
|'''Capacity-building'''
|
|
|-
|17.9 Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-building in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the Sustainable Development Goals, including through north–south, South-South and triangular cooperation
|17.9.1 Dollar value of financial and technical assistance (including through north–south, South‑South and triangular cooperation) committed to developing countries
|C170901
|-
|'''Trade'''
|
|
|-
|17.10 Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non‑discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion of negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda
|17.10.1 Worldwide weighted tariff-average
|C171001
|-
|17.11 Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to doubling the least developed countries’ share of global exports by 2020
|17.11.1 Developing countries’ and least developed countries’ share of global exports
|C171101
|-
|17.12 Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization decisions, including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from least developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access
|17.12.1 Weighted average tariffs faced by developing countries, least developed countries and small island developing States
|C171201
|-
|'''Systemic issues'''
|
|
|-
|''Policy and institutional coherence''
|
|
|-
|17.13 Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and policy coherence
|17.13.1 Macroeconomic Dashboard
|C171301
|-
|17.14 Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development
|17.14.1 Number of countries with mechanisms in place to enhance policy coherence of sustainable development
|C171401
|-
|17.15 Respect each country's policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development
|17.15.1 Extent of use of country-owned results frameworks and planning tools by providers of development cooperation
|C171501
|-
|''Multi-stakeholder partnerships''
|
|
|-
|17.16 Enhance the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources, to support the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals in all countries, in particular developing countries
|17.16.1 Number of countries reporting progress in multi-stakeholder development effectiveness monitoring frameworks that support the achievement of the sustainable development goals
|C171601
|-
|17.17 Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships
|17.17.1 Amount in United States dollars committed to public-private partnerships for infrastructure
|C171702
|-
|''Data, monitoring and accountability''
|
|
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="3" |17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts
|17.18.1 Statistical capacity indicator for Sustainable Development Goal monitoring
|C171804
|-
|17.18.2 Number of countries that have national statistical legislation that complies with the Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics
|C171802
|-
|17.18.3 Number of countries with a national statistical plan that is fully funded and under implementation, by source of funding
|C171803
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |17.19 By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support statistical capacity-building in developing countries
|17.19.1 Dollar value of all resources made available to strengthen statistical capacity in developing countries
|C171901
|-
|17.19.2 Proportion of countries that (a) have conducted at least one population and housing census in the last 10 years; and (b) have achieved 100 per cent birth registration and 80 per cent death registration
|C171902
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |2 The Gini Coefficient will be reported as a second series in the database, as it is a component of this indicator.
|}
== Repeat indicators ==
Indicators in the global indicator framework that repeat are the following:<ref name=":17" />
* 7.b.1/12.a.1
* 8.4.1/12.2.1
* 8.4.2/12.2.2
* 10.3.1/16.b.1
* 10.6.1/16.8.1
* 13.2.1/13.b.1 (with a slight amendment)
* 15.7.1/15.c.1
* 15.a.1/15.b.1
* 1.5.1/11.5.1/13.1.1
* 1.5.3/11.b.1/13.1.2
* 1.5.4/11.b.2/13.1.3
* 4.7.1/12.8.1/13.3.1
== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=n}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Sustainable Development Goals}}
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]] |
High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development | {{Infobox United Nations
| image = Emblem of the United Nations.svg
| image_size = 120px
| name = United Nations High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development
| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| type = [[Intergovernmental organization]], [[Regulatory body]], [[Advisory board]]
| abbreviation = HLPF
| leader_title = Head
| leader_name =
| status = Active
| formation = {{start date and age|2013|07|09|df=yes}}
| headquarters = [[New York City|New York]], USA
| website = [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf HLPF on sustainabledevelopment.un.org]
| parent_organization = [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] <br /> [[United Nations General Assembly]]
| subsidiaries =
| footnotes = {{Portal-inline|Politics|size=tiny}}
}}
A subdivision of both the [[United Nations General Assembly]] and the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]], the '''United Nations High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development''' ('''HLPF''') is responsible for the entire organization's policy on [[sustainable development]].
It adopts negotiated declarations, reviews commitment and the progress of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]], SDGs or Global Goals).
The Forum replaced the [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] on the 24 September 2013 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1556 |title=High-level Political Forum |date=n.d. |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org |publisher=United Nations |access-date=14 November 2018 |quote=}}</ref> Meetings of the Forum are open to all Member States of the United Nations.
== Mandate and tasks ==
As the Forum is held under the authority of both the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|Economic and Social Council]] and the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]], the body hosts two different types of meetings:
* While under the auspices of the General Assembly: Once every four years at the level of Heads of State and Government for a period of two days.
* While under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council: Yearly, for a period of eight days, including a three-day ministerial segment.
The HLPF was created with the aim to strengthen sustainable development governance at the [[United Nations]]. It works to achieve this through its mandate, which states the following in respect to sustainable development:
Resolution A/RES/66/288:<ref name="66-288">{{UN doc|docid=A-RES-66-288|body=A|session=66|type=R|resolution_number=288|title=The Future We Want|date=27 July 2012|accessdate=14 November 2018}}</ref>{{unbulleted list
|(a) Provide political leadership, guidance and recommendations for sustainable development;
|(b) Enhance integration of the three dimensions of sustainable development...at all levels;
|(c) Provide a dynamic platform for regular dialogue...to advance sustainable development;
|(d) Ensuring the appropriate consideration of new and emerging sustainable development challenges;
|(e) Follow up and review progress in the implementation of previous United Nations sustainable development commitments;
|(g) Improve cooperation and coordination within the United Nations system on sustainable development programmes and policies;
|(i) Promote the sharing of best practices and experiences relating to the implementation of sustainable development;
|(j) Promote system-wide coherence and coordination of sustainable development policies;
}}Resolution A/RES/67/290:<ref name="67-290">{{UN doc|docid=A-RES-67-290|body=A|session=67|type=R|resolution_number=290|title=Format and Organizational Aspects of the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|date=9 July 2013|accessdate=14 November 2018}}</ref>{{unbulleted list
|(a) Provide political leadership, guidance and recommendations for sustainable development,
|(b) Follow up and review progress in the implementation of sustainable development commitments,
|(c) Enhance the integration of the three dimensions of sustainable development in a holistic and cross-sectoral manner at all levels;
|(d) Ensure the appropriate consideration of new and emerging sustainable development challenges;
|(e) Devote adequate time to the discussion of the sustainable development challenges facing developing countries;
}}
=== Sustainable Development Commitments Review ===
The Forum is responsible for the follow up and the review of progress of implementation of the following sustainable development commitments:<ref name="66-288" />
*[[Agenda 21]]
* Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
*[[Barbados Programme of Action]]
* Mauritius Strategy
*[[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Rio+20]]
* LDC-IV
As well as the relevant outcomes of other United Nations summits and conferences.
== Meeting themes ==
Every year since 2013, the HLPF has held a session. The meetings are held in July. Due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the forum took place virtually in 2020 for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=24 July 2020|title=A VIRTUAL AND INCLUSIVE HIGH-LEVEL POLITICAL FORUM|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/news/hlpf-2020|access-date=21 August 2020|website=Global Goals}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Auspices !! Dates !! Theme !! Ref
|-
|2021
|ECOSOC
|6-15 July 2021
|"Sustainable and resilient recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic that promotes the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development: building an inclusive and effective path for the achievement of the 2030 Agenda in the context of the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development"
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=High-level Political Forum 2021 under the Auspices of ECOSOC|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2021|access-date=9 July 2021|website=United Nations}}</ref>
|-
|2020
|ECOSOC
|7-16 July 2020
|"Accelerated action and transformative pathways: realizing the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development" (due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the forum took place virtually in 2020 for the first time).
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=HIGH-LEVEL POLITICAL FORUM 2020 UNDER THE AUSPICES OF ECOSOC|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2020|access-date=21 August 2020|website=United Nations}}</ref>
|-
| 2019 || GA || 24 Sep – 25 Sep || SDG Summit ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/summit2019 un.org - SDG Summit 2019]</ref>
|-
| 2019 || ECOSOC || 9 Jul – 18 Jul|| Empowering people and ensuring inclusiveness and equality ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2019 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2019]</ref>
|-
| 2018 || ECOSOC || 9 Jul – 18 Jul|| "Transformation towards sustainable and resilient societies"
The forum focused on six of the 17 goals: [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=11 July 2018|title=Achieving targets on energy helps meet other Global Goals, UN forum told|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2018/07/achieving-targets-on-energy-helps-meet-other-global-goals-un-forum-told-2/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=26 August 2020|website=United Nations Sustainable Development|language=en-US}}</ref>
|<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2018 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2018]</ref>
|-
| 2017 || ECOSOC || 10 Jul – 19 Jul || Eradicating poverty and promoting prosperity in a changing world ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2017 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2017]</ref>
|-
| 2016 || ECOSOC || 11 Jul - 20 Jul || Ensuring that no one is left behind ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2016 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2016]</ref>
|-
| 2015 || ECOSOC || 26 Jun – 8 Jul || Strengthening integration, implementation and review - the HLPF after 2015 ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2015 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2015]</ref>
|-
| 2014 || ECOSOC || 30 Jun - 9 Jul || Achieving the MDGs and charting the way for an ambitious post-2015 development agenda, including the SDGs ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2014 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2014]</ref>
|-
| 2013 || GA || 24 Sep || Building the future we want: from Rio+20 to the post-2015 development agenda ||<ref>[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf/2013 un.org - High-level Political Forum 2013]</ref>
|}
== History ==
The HLPF has its origin in the [[Commission on Sustainable Development]] (CSD), which was created in 1992 to ensure follow-up of the [[Earth Summit|Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED).<ref>{{cite web|date=n.d.|title=Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/intergovernmental/csd|access-date=November 14, 2018|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|publisher=United Nations|quote=}}</ref> This Commission met a total of 20 times, with its last session on 20 September 2013.
At the 2012 [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|Conference on Sustainable Development]], or Rio+20, it was decided that the Commission would be replaced by the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development'''.''' This new Forum would meet under the auspices of both the Economic and Social Council, as well as the General Assembly. The Forum was formally created by Resolution 67/290 on 9 July 2013.<ref name="67-290" />
==See also==
* [[Earth Summit]]
**[[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]]
* [[Durban III]] The conference opened on 22 September 2011
* [[Planetary boundaries#United Nations|Planetary boundaries]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf Official website of HLPF]
* [https://sdgs.un.org/ UN DESA - Division for Sustainable Development]
{{ECOSOC}}
[[Category:United Nations Economic and Social Council]]
[[Category:International sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental conferences]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]] |
World Business Council for Sustainable Development | {{Use British English|date=September 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo = The World business Council for Sustainable Development - WBCSD logo.jpg
| key_people = [[Peter Bakker]] (CEO & President)
| name = World Business Council for Sustainable Development
| founded_date = 1995
| founder = [[Stephan Schmidheiny]]
| location = [[Geneva, Switzerland]]
| origins =
| area_served = Global
| focus = [[Sustainable Development]]
| method =
| revenue =
| endowment =
| num_employees = 51–300
| owner =
| homepage = {{Official URL}}
}}
The '''World Business Council for Sustainable Development''' ('''WBCSD''') is a [[CEO]]-led organization of over 225 [[multinational company|international companies]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Overview/About-us|title=About us|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-19}}</ref> The council is also connected to 60 national and regional business councils and partner organizations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.geneve-int.ch/world-business-council-sustainable-development-wbcsd-0|title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development – WBCSD |website= Genève Internationale |language=en|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref>
Its origins date back to the Rio de Janeiro [[Earth Summit]] of 1992,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our history|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/history|access-date=2020-09-16|website=World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)|language=en-GB}}</ref> when [[Stephan Schmidheiny]], a Swiss business entrepreneur, was appointed chief adviser for business and industry to the secretary general of the [[United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED).<ref>{{cite news |title=Memo to Rio+20: 'green economy' doesn't mean monetising nature|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2012/may/29/rio-20-green-economy-monetising-nature|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=29 May 2012 |last1=Griffiths |first1=Hannah }}</ref> He created a forum called "Business Council for Sustainable Development", which went on to become ''Changing Course'', a book that coined the concept of [[eco-efficiency]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Eco-Efficiency|url=http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/business/ecoeffic.shtml|website=Smart Communities Network: Sustainable Business | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031959/http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/business/ecoeffic.shtml | archive-date=March 4, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
The WBCSD was created in 1995 as a merger of the '''Business Council for Sustainable Development''' and the '''World Industry Council for the Environment'''<ref>{{cite web |title= THE ICC & THE ENVIRONMENT|url=http://archive.corporateeurope.org/icc/icc_environment.html|website=archive.corporateeurope.org}}</ref> and is based at the [[Maison de la paix]] in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]],<ref>{{cite book |title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development|url=http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/globalwarming/n721.xml|date=2008 |doi=10.4135/9781412963893 |last1=Philander |first1=S. |isbn=9781412958783 }}</ref> with offices in New York and New Delhi.
==Operations==
The council works on a variety of issues related to sustainable development. It works to achieve the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) through the transformation of six economic systems: [[circular economy]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Circular-Economy|title=Circular Economy – World business council for sustainable development|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> cities and mobility,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Cities-and-Mobility|title=Cities and Mobility|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> climate and energy,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Climate-and-Energy|title=Energy & Circular Economy|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> food, land and water,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Food-Land-Water|title=Food, Land & Water|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> people<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/People|title=People|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> and redefining value.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Redefining-Value|title=Redefining Value|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref> Each system transformation is set up as a WBCSD Program with a number of supplementary Projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://docs.wbcsd.org/2018/11/Value.Impact.Voice.pdf |title=Value Impact Voice|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128210637/https://docs.wbcsd.org/2018/11/Value.Impact.Voice.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-28}}</ref>
==Impact and influence==
A 2003 [[World Bank]]/[[International Finance Corporation|IFC]] commissioned study identified the WBCSD as one of the "most influential forums" for companies on corporate social responsibility (CSR) issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.resourcesaver.org/|title=Cover Letter Template|website=Resourcesaver.org|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> A 2004 [[Globescan]] survey found the WBCSD as the second most effective SD research organization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://surveys.globescan.com/sdroleaders/sose04-2_resorg.pdf|title=2004 Globescan Survey of Sustainability Experts|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> The 2006 survey by the same company reports that 54% of all surveyed experts believe the WBCSD will play a "major role" in advancing sustainable development. Only the European Union received higher approval (69%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpi.cam.ac.uk/PDF/Aug%202006.pdf|title=Cambridge Sustainability Research Digest|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
In the [[Ethisphere Institute]]'s 2007 list of the 100 Most Influential People in Business Ethics, WBCSD President Bjoern Stigson was ranked ninth, which made him the second most influential NGO leader.<ref>[http://ethisphere.com/influential/ 100 Most Influential People in Business Ethics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210162230/http://ethisphere.com/influential/ |date=2012-02-10 }}</ref>
==Membership==
Membership of the WBCSD is by invitation of the executive committee to companies committed to [[sustainable development]]. WBCSD has over 180 members.<ref name="members">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbcsd.org/Overview/Our-members|title=Our members|website=World business council for sustainable development|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref>
===Forética===
Forética claims to be a global network of [[Spanish language|Spanish speaking]] businesses and professionals whose mission is to promote an ethical management and corporate social responsibility by the establishment of a National standard in Spain known as SGE-21, (sistema de gestión ética para el Siglo 21) which is also Annex 1 to [[ISO 26000]] and supported by [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]] Europe<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csr-supplychain.org/|title=Welcome to www.csr-supplychain.org|website=www.csr-supplychain.org|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
Membership is said to around 400 and includes companies of all sizes and sectors, as well as individual specialists, professionals, and academics and it was incorporated into WBCSD on 2 September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbcsd.org/Pages/eNews/eNewsDetails.aspx?ID=16293&NoSearchContextKey=true|title=Leading Spanish think-tank Forética joins WBCSD's Global Network|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
==Governance==
The WBCSD is a member-led organization governed by a Council composed of the Council Members of its member companies. The Council elects the executive committee, including the chairman and four Vice Chairmen. Past chairmen include:
* Rodney F. Chase – [[BP]] (1995)
* [[Livio D. DeSimone]] – [[3M]] (1996/97)
* [[Egil Myklebust]] – [[Norsk Hydro]] (1998/99)
* [[Charles O. Holliday]], Jr. – [[DuPont]] (2000/01)
* Sir [[Philip Watts]] KCMG – [[Royal Dutch Shell]] (2002/03)
* [[Bertrand Collomb]] – [[Lafarge (company)|Lafarge]] (2004/05)
* [[Travis Engen]] – [[Alcan]] (2006/07)
* [[Sam DiPiazza]] – [[PwC]] (2008/09)
* [[Paul Polman]] – [[Unilever]] (2012–17)
*Sunny Verghese – [[Olam International|Olam]] (2018–2020)
==Geographic balance==
Most of WBCSD's member companies are headquartered in Europe (47%). 22% member companies are headquartered in Asia, 22% in North America and 5% in Latin America. The geographically least represented regions are Africa, Australasia and the Middle East with 1% each.<ref name="members"/>
== Controversies ==
According to [[Greenpeace]] the ''World Business Council for Sustainable Development '' is among the key players responsible for holding back the world societies from tackling the [[climate change and energy]] management challenges for the past 20 years. The WBCSD Executive Committee was dominated by the largest non-renewable energy and [[emission intensity|carbon-intensive]] companies in the world at least until 2011. According to Greenpeace the WBCSD executive committee has been a 'Who's Who' of the world's largest carbon-intensive companies.<ref name=GP2010>[http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/publications/climate/2011/391%20-%20WhosHoldingUsBack.pdf Who's holding us back?Full report] November 23, 2011 page 9</ref>
The [[Sierra Club]] has collaborated with the World Business Council on a number of initiatives, as well as inviting its representatives to speak at Sierra Club events.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sierraclub.org/rocky-mountain-chapter/calendar-2 |title=Calendar | Sierra Club |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-date=10 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710183112/http://www.sierraclub.org/rocky-mountain-chapter/calendar-2 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.austineconetwork.com/content/austin-sierra-club-monthly-meeting |title=Austin Sierra Club monthly meeting | Austin EcoNetwork |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-date=14 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314100720/http://austineconetwork.com/content/austin-sierra-club-monthly-meeting |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Environmental Defense Fund]] recommends the World Business Council's auditing methods to companies seeking to reduce greenhouse emissions,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/GHG_roadmap_Final.pdf |title=www.edf.org }}</ref> and the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] has drawn upon WBCSD guidelines in drawing up their own guidelines for determining biofuels sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nrdc.org/energy/files/biofuels-sustainability-certification-report.pdf |title=Biofuel Sustainability Performance Guidelines |access-date=2015-11-12 }}</ref> The WBCSD's Vision 2050 report was highlighted by ''[[The Guardian]]'' as "the largest concerted corporate sustainability action plan to date – include reversing the damage done to ecosystems, addressing rising [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and ensuring societies move to sustainable agriculture."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainability-case-studies-world-business-council |title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development: Vision 2050 | Guardian Sustainable Business | The Guardian |newspaper=The Guardian |date=15 May 2014 |last1=Wills |first1=Jackie }}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{Official website}}
{{Portal bar|Politics|Switzerland}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:International sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:International organisations based in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Maison de la Paix]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Geneva]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1995]]
[[Category:1995 establishments in Switzerland]] |
Developing country | {{Short description|Nation with a lower living standard relative to more developed countries}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
[[File:IMF advanced economies and UN least developed countries.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|<!-- Map is up to date, despite the file name. -->
{{legend|#00b9fa|[[Developed country|Developed countries or cities]]}}
{{legend|#ffb219|Developing countries}}
{{legend|#ff562f|[[Least developed countries]]}}
{{legend|#b9b9b9|Data unavailable}}<br />The latest classifications sorted by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]<ref name="IMF1">{{cite web |title=World Economic and Financial Surveys World Economic Outlook Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2022/01/weodata/groups.htm |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=3 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303145301/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2022/01/weodata/groups.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[United Nations|UN]]<ref>[https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/ldc_list.pdf Least Developed Countries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517090756/http://www.unohrlls.org/en/ldc/related/62/ |date=17 May 2011 }} ([http://unohrlls.org/custom-content/uploads/2018/12/list-of-least-developed-countries-rev1.pdf 2018 list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221185727/http://unohrlls.org/custom-content/uploads/2018/12/list-of-least-developed-countries-rev1.pdf |date=21 December 2019 }})</ref>]]
[[File:2021-22 UN Human Development Report (multicolor).svg|thumb|World map representing [[Human Development Index]] categories (based on 2021 data, published in 2022){{legend-col
|{{Legend|#008c00ff|Very high}}
|{{Legend|#ffcc00ff|High}}
|{{Legend|#ff6600ff|Medium}}
|{{Legend|#d40000ff|Low}}
|{{Legend|#b9b9b9ff|No data}}
}}|upright=1.5|alt=World map]]
A '''developing country''' is a [[sovereign state]] with a less developed [[Industrial sector|industrial base]] and a lower [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) relative to other countries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Sullivan|first1=Arthur |author-link=Arthur O'Sullivan (economist)|first2=Steven M.|last2=Sheffrin | name-list-style = vanc |title=Economics: Principles in Action|url=https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul|url-access=limited|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2003|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|page=[https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul/page/n487 471]| isbn = 978-0-13-063085-8 }}</ref> However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category.<ref name="UN">{{cite web | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306024500/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm|archive-date=6 March 2010|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#ftnc | title = Composition of macro geographical (continental) region | publisher = United Nation s}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> The terms '''low and middle-income country''' ('''LMIC''') and '''newly emerging economy''' ('''NEE''') are often used interchangeably but refers only to the economy of the countries. The [[World Bank]] classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on [[gross national income]] per capita: high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low income countries. [[Least developed countries]], [[landlocked developing countries]] and [[Small Island Developing States|small island developing states]] are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income countries]] or [[Developed country|developed countries]].
There are controversies over the term's use, as some feel that it perpetuates an outdated concept of [[In-group and out-group|"us" and "them"]].<ref name="Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World - And Why Things Are Better Than You Think" /> In 2015, the World Bank declared that the "developing/developed world categorization" had become less relevant and that they will phase out the use of that descriptor. Instead, their reports will present data aggregations for regions and income groups.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> The term "[[Global South]]" is used by some as an alternative term to developing countries.
Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common often due to their histories or geographies. For example, they commonly have: lower levels of access to safe [[drinking water]], [[sanitation]] and [[hygiene]], [[energy poverty]], higher levels of [[pollution]] (e.g. [[air pollution]], [[littering]], [[water pollution]], [[open defecation]]), higher proportions of people with tropical and infectious diseases ([[neglected tropical diseases]]), more [[Traffic collision|road traffic accidents]], and generally poorer quality [[infrastructure]].
In addition, there are also often high [[unemployment]] rates, widespread [[poverty]], widespread [[hunger]], [[extreme poverty]], [[child labour]], [[malnutrition]], [[homelessness]], [[substance abuse]], [[prostitution]], [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]], [[civil disorder]], [[human capital flight]], a large [[informal economy]], high [[crime]] rates ([[extortion]], [[robbery]], [[burglary]], [[murder]], [[homicide]], [[arms trafficking]], [[sex trafficking]], [[Illegal drug trade|drug trafficking]], [[kidnapping]], [[rape]]), low [[education]] levels, [[economic inequality]], [[dropping out|school desertion]], inadequate access to [[family planning]] services, [[teenage pregnancy]], many [[Informal housing|informal settlements]] and [[slums]], [[corruption]] at all government levels, and political instability. Unlike developed countries, developing countries lack [[rule of law]].
Access to [[Health care|healthcare]] is often low.<ref name=":11" /> People in developing countries usually have lower [[life expectancy|life expectancies]] than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" /> The burden of infectious diseases,<ref name=":15" /> [[Maternal death|maternal mortality]],<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> [[child mortality]]<ref name=":18" /> and [[infant mortality]]<ref name="MPG" /><ref name="Molitoris" /> are typically substantially higher in those countries. The [[effects of climate change]] are expected to impact developing countries more than high-income countries, as most of them have a high [[Climate change vulnerability|climate vulnerability]] or low [[climate resilience]].<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |vauthors=Althor G, Watson JE, Fuller RA |date=February 2016 |title=Global mismatch between greenhouse gas emissions and the burden of climate change |journal=Scientific Reports |language=En |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=20281 |bibcode=2016NatSR...620281A |doi=10.1038/srep20281 |pmc=4742864 |pmid=26848052}}</ref>
Developing countries often have lower [[median age]]s than developed countries. [[Population aging]] is a global phenomenon, but population age has risen more slowly in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2014-05-27 |title=World population ageing 2013 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/30d0966c-en |journal=Statistical Papers – United Nations (Ser. A), Population and Vital Statistics Report |doi=10.18356/30d0966c-en |isbn=9789210566513 |issn=2412-138X}}</ref>
[[Development aid]] or development cooperation is financial [[aid]] given by foreign governments and other agencies to support developing countries' economic, environmental, social, and political [[International development|development]]. If the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] which were set up by the [[United Nations]] for the year 2030 are achieved, they would overcome many of these problems.
{{TOC limit|3}}
== Terms used to classify countries ==
There are several terms used to classify countries into rough levels of development. Classification of any given country differs across sources, and sometimes, these classifications or the specific terminology used is considered disparaging.
=== By income groups ===
[[File:High-income economies 2019.png|thumb|right|A map of World Bank high-income economies in 2019; high-income economies are indicated in blue, while former high-income economies are shown in teal. |alt=|upright=1.6]]
The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on [[gross national income]] per capita calculated using the [[Atlas method]], re-set each year on July 1:<ref name=":9">{{cite web|title=New country classifications by income level: 2019–2020|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/new-country-classifications-income-level-2019-2020|access-date=2021-02-12|publisher=World Bank Blogs |work=Data Blog |date=July 1, 2019 |language=en|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107201418/https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/new-country-classifications-income-level-2019-2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
# low-income countries
# lower-middle income countries
# upper-middle income countries
# [[World Bank high-income economy|high income countries]] (similar to [[Developed country|developed countries]])
The three groups that are not "high income" are together referred to as "low and middle income countries" (LMICs). For example, for the 2022 fiscal year, a low income country is defined as one with a GNI per capita less than 1,045 in current US$; a lower middle-income country is one with GNI per capita between 1,046 to 4,095 in current US$; an upper middle-income country is one with GNI per capita between 4,096 to 12,695 in current US$, and a high income country is one with GNI per capita of more than 12,696 in current US$.<ref name=CountriesByGNIperCapita>{{cite web |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |website=World Bank Data Help Desk | accessdate=January 10, 2022 | archive-date=28 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028223324/https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | url-status=live }}</ref> [[World Bank high-income economy#Historical thresholds|Historical thresholds]] are documented.
=== By markets and economic growth ===
The use of the term "market" instead of "country" usually indicates a specific focus on the characteristics of the countries' [[capital market]]s as opposed to the overall economy.
* [[Developed country|Developed countries]] and [[developed market]]s
* Developing countries include in decreasing order of economic growth or size of the capital market:
** [[Newly industrialized country|Newly industrialized countries]]<ref name="Globalization">{{cite book|title=Globalization and the Transformation of Foreign Economic Policy | first = Paweł | last = Bożyk | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7546-4638-9|chapter=Newly Industrialized Countries}}</ref><ref name="Limits">{{cite book|title=The Limits of Convergence| first = Mauro F. | last = Guillén | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-691-11633-4|chapter=Multinationals, Ideology, and Organized Labor|author-link=Mauro F. Guillén}}</ref><ref name="AIA">{{cite book|title=Geography, An Integrated Approach|last=Waugh|first=David | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Nelson Thornes Ltd.|year=2000|isbn=978-0-17-444706-1|edition= 3rd|pages=563, 576–579, 633, and 640|chapter=Manufacturing industries (chapter 19), World development (chapter 22)}}</ref><ref name="Principles">{{cite book|title=Principles of Economics|last=Mankiw|first=N. Gregory | name-list-style = vanc |year=2007|publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-324-22472-6|edition= 4th}}</ref>
** [[Emerging markets]]
** [[Frontier markets]]
** [[Least developed country|Least developed countries]] (also called less economically developed country)
Under other criteria, some countries are at an intermediate stage of development, or, as the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) put it, following the [[fall of the Soviet Union]], "countries in transition": all those of [[Central and Eastern Europe]] (including Central European countries that still belonged to the "Eastern Europe Group" in the UN institutions); the former [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) countries in Central Asia ([[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]); and [[Mongolia]]. By 2009, the IMF's [[World Economic Outlook]] classified countries as advanced, emerging, or developing, depending on "(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification—so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70% of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system".<ref>{{cite web|title=Q. How does the WEO categorize advanced versus emerging and developing economies?|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/faq.htm#q4b|access-date=20 July 2009|work=[[International Monetary Fund]]|archive-date=17 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417061830/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/faq.htm#q4b|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== By geography ===
Developing countries can also be categorized by geography:
* [[Small Island Developing States]] (a group of developing countries that are small [[island countries]] which tend to share similar [[sustainable development]] challenges: small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to [[natural disaster]]s, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on [[international trade]], and fragile environments).
* [[Landlocked developing countries|Landlocked Developing Countries]] ([[Landlocked country|landlocked countries]] often experience economic and other disadvantages)
=== By other parameters ===
* [[Heavily indebted poor countries]], a definition by a program of the IMF and World Bank
* [[Transition economy]], moving from a centrally planned to [[market-driven economy]]
* Multi-dimensional clustering system: with the understanding that different countries have different development priorities and levels of access to resources and institutional capacities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Svea|name-list-style=vanc|date=2015-06-01|title=From Poverty Reduction to Mutual Interests? The Debate on Differentiation in EU Development Policy|journal=Development Policy Review|volume=33|issue=4|pages=479–502|doi=10.1111/dpr.12119|hdl=10419/199382 |s2cid=53533671|issn=1467-7679|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and to offer a more nuanced understanding of developing countries and their characteristics, scholars have categorized them into five distinct groups based on factors such as levels of poverty and inequality, productivity and innovation, political constraints and dependence on external flows.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vázquez|first1=Sergio Tezanos|last2=Sumner|first2=Andy | name-list-style = vanc | date = December 2013 | title=Revisiting the Meaning of Development: A Multidimensional Taxonomy of Developing Countries|journal=The Journal of Development Studies|volume=49|issue=12|pages=1728–1745|doi=10.1080/00220388.2013.822071|s2cid=155046265}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Taeihagh | first = Araz | name-list-style = vanc | title = Crowdsourcing, Sharing Economies and Development | journal = Journal of Developing Societies | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | year = 2017 | pages = 191–222 |doi=10.1177/0169796x17710072 | arxiv = 1707.06603 | s2cid = 32008949 }}</ref>
=== By self declaration ===
In general, the WTO accepts any country's claim of itself being "developing". Certain countries that have become "developed" in the last 20 years by almost all economic metrics, still insist to be classified as "developing country", as it entitles them to a preferential treatment at the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], countries such as [[Brunei]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Kuwait]], [[Macao]], [[Qatar]], [[Singapore]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] have been cited and criticized for this self-declared status.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 July 2019|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|title=Memorandum on Reforming Developing-Country Status in the World Trade Organization.|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/memorandum-reforming-developing-country-status-world-trade-organization|access-date=1 March 2021|archive-date=16 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216200055/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/memorandum-reforming-developing-country-status-world-trade-organization/|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Measure and concept of development ==
[[File:Least Developed Countries.png|thumb|upright=1.6|
{{legend|#007f00|Least developed economies according to [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]]}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Least developed economies out of scope of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]]}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Graduated to developing economy}}<br />
{{when|date=June 2016}}{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
]]
[[File:Newly industrialized countries 2013.svg|thumb|[[Newly industrialized country|Newly industrialized countries]] {{as of|2013|lc=on}}]]
[[File:Map_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29_per_capita_in_2023.svg|thumb|Countries by 2023 [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|GDP (nominal) per capita]]]]
Development can be measured by economic or human factors. Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of [[industrialization]] relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low [[standard of living]]. There is an association between low income and high population growth.<ref name="Population and poverty">{{cite news|title=Population and poverty|url=https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|access-date=2018-09-21|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|language=en|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521093951/https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|url-status=live}}</ref> The development of a country is measured with statistical indices such as income [[per capita]] (per person), [[gross domestic product]] per capita, [[life expectancy]], the rate of literacy, freedom index and others. The UN has developed the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI), a compound indicator of some of the above statistics, to gauge the level of human development for countries where data is available. The UN had set [[Millennium Development Goals]] from a blueprint developed by all of the world's countries and leading development institutions, in order to evaluate growth.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Millennium Development Goals|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/|access-date=2018-03-28|website=www.un.org|archive-date=4 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504153515/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/|url-status=live}}</ref> These goals ended in 2015, to be superseded by the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].
The concept of the developing nation is found, under one term or another, in numerous theoretical systems having diverse orientations – for example, theories of [[decolonization]], [[liberation theology]], [[Marxism]], [[anti-imperialism]], [[Modernization theory|modernization]], [[social change]] and [[political economy]].
Another important indicator is the sectoral changes that have occurred since the stage of development of the country. On an average, countries with a 50% contribution from the [[secondary sector]] ([[manufacturing]]) have grown substantially. Similarly, countries with a [[tertiary sector]] stronghold also see a greater rate of [[economic development]].
== Associated theories ==
The term "developing countries" has many research theories associated with it (in chronological order):
* [[Modernization theory]] – to explain the process of modernization within societies
* [[Dependency theory]] – the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of [[Developed country|wealthy states]], enriching the latter at the expense of the former
* [[Development theory]] – a collection of [[Theory|theories]] about how desirable change in society is best achieved.
* [[Postdevelopment theory]] – holds that the whole concept and practice of [[International development|development]] is a reflection of Western-Northern hegemony over the rest of the world
== Criticisms of the term ==
{{Further|Development aid}}
There is criticism for using the term "developing country". The term could imply inferiority of this kind of country compared with a [[developed country]].<ref name=":7">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/01/04/372684438/if-you-shouldnt-call-it-the-third-world-what-should-you-call-it|title=If You Shouldn't Call It The Third World, What Should You Call It?|last=Silver|first=Marc|date=4 January 2015|website=NPR|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401165708/https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/01/04/372684438/if-you-shouldnt-call-it-the-third-world-what-should-you-call-it|url-status=live}}</ref> It could assume a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of [[economic development]] which a few countries, such as [[Cuba]] and [[Bhutan]], choose not to follow.{{clarification|date=July 2023}}<ref name="Karma Ura">{{cite book|url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2009/305/pdf/mono_1en_bt_dev_stry.pdf|title=The Bhutanese development story|last=Ura|first=Karma|year=2009|publisher=Heidelberg University Library|doi=10.11588/xarep.00000305|access-date=17 September 2012|name-list-style=vanc|archive-date=3 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203013407/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2009/305/pdf/mono_1en_bt_dev_stry.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Alternative measurements such as [[gross national happiness]] have been suggested as important indicators.
One of the early criticisms that questioned the use of the terms "developing" and "underdeveloped" countries was voiced in 1973 by prominent historian and academic [[Walter Rodney]] who compared the economic, social, and political parameters between the United States and countries in Africa and Asia.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://abahlali.org/files/3295358-walter-rodney.pdf|title=''How Europe Underdeveloped Africa''|last=Rodney|first=Walter|date=1973|publisher=Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London and Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-Es-Salaam|language=en|page=25|access-date=12 May 2019|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503095007/http://abahlali.org/files/3295358-walter-rodney.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{clarify|reason=What was his criticism? Why did he not like those terms?|date=April 2020}}
There is "no established convention" for defining "developing country".<ref name="unstated.un.org">{{cite web |title=Millennium Development Indicators: World and regional groupings |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/worldmillennium.htm |publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]] |date=2003 |at=Note b |access-date=13 May 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050210031555/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/worldmillennium.htm |archive-date=10 February 2005 }}</ref> According to [[economist]] [[Jeffrey Sachs]], the current divide between the [[developed country|developed]] and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century.<ref name="The End of Poverty">{{cite book | last = Sachs | first = Jeffrey | year = 2005 | title = The End of Poverty | publisher = The Penguin Press | location = New York, New York | isbn = 1-59420-045-9| title-link = The End of Poverty }}</ref>{{page needed|date=December 2019}} The late global health expert [[Hans Rosling]] has argued against the terms, calling the concept "outdated" since the terms are used under the prerequisite that the world is divided in rich and poor countries, while the fact is that the vast majority of countries are middle-income.<ref name="Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World - And Why Things Are Better Than You Think">{{cite book|last1=Rosling|first1=Hans|url=https://www.gapminder.org/factfulness-book/|title=Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World – And Why Things Are Better Than You Think|last2=Rosling|first2=Ola|last3=Rosling Rönnlund|first3=Anna|publisher=Sceptre|year=2018|isbn=978-1-250-10781-7|page=353|chapter=Chapter 1: The Gap Instinct|author-link=Hans Rosling|access-date=5 March 2020|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N94sDwAAQBAJ&q=Factfulness+(the+book)|archive-date=10 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410082631/https://www.gapminder.org/factfulness-book/|url-status=live}}</ref> Given the lack of a clear definition, sustainability expert [[Mathis Wackernagel]] and founder of [[Global Footprint Network]], emphasizes that the binary labeling of countries is "neither descriptive nor explanatory".<ref name="Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget">{{cite book|url=https://www.newsociety.com/Books/E/Ecological-Footprint|title=Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget|last1=Wackernagel|first1=Mathis|last2=Beyers|first2=Bert|publisher=New Society Publishers|year=2019|isbn=978-0865719118|location=Gabriola Island, BC, Canada|page=132|authorlink=Mathis Wackernagel|access-date=26 February 2021|archive-date=30 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230123431/https://www.newsociety.com/Books/E/Ecological-Footprint|url-status=live}}</ref> Wackernagel identifies these binary terms of "developing" vs. "developed" countries, or "North" vs. "South", as "a thoughtless and destructive endorsement of GDP fetish."<ref name="Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget" /> Wackernagel and Rosling both argue that in reality, there are not two types of countries, but over 200 countries, all faced with the same laws of nature, yet each with unique features.<ref name="Ecological Footprint: Managing Our Biocapacity Budget" /><ref name="Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World - And Why Things Are Better Than You Think" />
The term "developing" refers to a current situation and not a changing dynamic or expected direction of development. Since the late 1990s, countries identified by the UN as developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than those in the developed countries category.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Korotayev A, Zinkina J|date=2014|title=On the structure of the present-day convergence|url=https://www.academia.edu/30720894|journal=Campus-Wide Information Systems|volume=31|issue=2/3|pages=139–152|doi=10.1108/CWIS-11-2013-0064|access-date=10 January 2020|archive-date=8 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408054455/https://www.academia.edu/30720894|url-status=live}}</ref>
To moderate the [[euphemistic]] aspect of the word "developing", [[international organization]]s have started to use the term [[Least developed country|less economically developed country]] for the poorest nations – which can, in no sense, be regarded as developing. This highlights that the standard of living across the entire developing world varies greatly.
In 2015, the [[World Bank]] declared that the "developing / developed world categorization" had become less relevant, due to worldwide improvements in indices such as child mortality rates, fertility rates and extreme poverty rates.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/should-we-continue-use-term-developing-world|title=Should we continue to use the term "developing world"?|date=16 November 2015|website=World Bank blogs|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211131900/https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/should-we-continue-use-term-developing-world|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2016 edition of its [[World Development Indicators]] (WDI), the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between "developed" and "developing" countries in the presentation of its data, considering the two-category distinction outdated.<ref name="WB">{{cite web|last1=Fantom|first1=Neil|last2=Khokhar|first2=Tariq|last3=Purdie|first3=Edie|date=15 April 2016|title=The 2016 edition of World Development Indicators is out: three features you won't want to miss|url=http://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|access-date=October 22, 2016|work=The Data Blog|publisher=The World Bank|name-list-style=vanc|archive-date=18 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018053326/http://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|url-status=live}}</ref> Accordingly, World Bank is phasing out use of that descriptor. Instead, the reports by Worldbank (such as the WDI and the [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|Global Monitoring Report]]) now include data aggregations for the whole world, for regions, and for income groups – but not for the "developing world".<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|title=The 2016 edition of World Development Indicators is out: three features you won't want to miss|publisher=World Bank Blogs |work=Data Blog |first1=Neil |last1=Fantom |first2=Tariq |last2=Khokhar |first3=Edie |last3=Purdie |date=April 15, 2016 |language=en|access-date=2020-03-05|archive-date=6 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306194624/https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/2016-edition-world-development-indicators-out-three-features-you-won-t-want-miss|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Related terms ==
The term low and middle-income country (LMIC) is often used interchangeably with "developing country" but refers only to the economy of the countries. [[Least developed countries]], [[landlocked developing countries]] and [[Small Island Developing States|small island developing states]] are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income countries]] or [[Developed country|developed countries]].
=== Global South ===
{{Main|Global South}}
The term "[[Global South]]" began to be used more widely since about 2004.<ref name="concept">{{cite web |last1=Pagel |first1=Heikie |last2=Ranke |first2=Karen |last3=Hempel |first3=Fabian |last4=Köhler |first4=Jonas |date=11 July 2014 |title=The Use of the Concept 'Global South' in Social Science & Humanities |url=https://www.academia.edu/7917466 |access-date=2016-10-06 |publisher=[[Humboldt University of Berlin]] |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213073610/https://www.academia.edu/7917466 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mitlin |first1=Diana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYdeNdKrp8sC&pg=PA13 |title=Urban Poverty in the Global South: Scale and Nature |last2=Satterthwaite |first2=David |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415624664 |page=13 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> It can also include poorer "southern" regions of wealthy "northern" countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Braveboy-Wagner |first=Jacqueline Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3s7a39GHIEC&pg=PA11 |title=The Foreign Policies of the Global South: Rethinking Conceptual Frameworks |date=2003 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=9781588261755 |page=11}}</ref> The Global South refers to these countries' "interconnected histories of [[colonialism]], [[neo-imperialism]], and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained".<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Dados |first1=Nour |last2=Connell |first2=Raewyn |name-list-style=vanc |date=2012-01-01 |title=the global south |journal=Contexts |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=12–13 |doi=10.1177/1536504212436479 |jstor=41960738 |s2cid=60907088|doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{excerpt|Global North and Global South|paragraphs=1-2}}
=== Third World (outdated) ===
{{excerpt|Third World|paragraphs=1|file=no}}
== Common characteristics ==
=== Government, politics and administration ===
Many developing countries have only attained full [[self-determination]] and [[democracy]] after the second half of the 20th century. Many were governed by an imperial European power until [[decolonization]]. Political systems in developing countries are diverse, but most states had established some form of [[Democracy|democratic governments]] by the early 21st century, with varying degrees of success and [[political liberty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Palat|first1=Ravi Arvind|date=April 2010|title=World Turned Upside Down? Rise of the global South and the contemporary global financial turbulence|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=31|issue=3|pages=365–384|doi=10.1080/01436597.2010.488465|s2cid=56358607}}</ref> The inhabitants of developing countries were introduced to democratic systems later and more abruptly than their Northern counterparts and were sometimes targeted by governmental and non-governmental efforts to encourage participation. 'Effective [[citizenship]]' is defined by [[sociologist]] [[Patrick Heller]] as: "closing [the] gap between formal legal rights in the civil and political arena, and the actual capability to meaningfully practice those rights".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heller|first1=Patrick|date=October 2012|title=Democracy, Participatory Politics and Development: Some Comparative Lessons from Brazil, India and South Africa|journal=Polity|volume=44|issue=4|pages=643–665|doi=10.1057/pol.2012.19|s2cid=154320311}}</ref>
Beyond citizenship, the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in developing countries has also shed valuable light in [[Human migration|migration]] debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus on developed countries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haas|first1=Hein de|title=The age of migration: international population movements in the modern world|last2=Castles|first2=Stephen|last3=Miller|first3=Mark J|date=2020|isbn=978-1-352-00798-5|pages=96–123|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |oclc=1143614574}}</ref> Some political scientists identify a 'typology of nationalizing, developmental, and neoliberal migration management regimes' across developing countries.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adamson|first1=Fiona B.|last2=Tsourapas|first2=Gerasimos|date=24 October 2019|title=The Migration State in the Global South: Nationalizing, Developmental, and Neoliberal Models of Migration Management|journal=International Migration Review|volume=54|issue=3|pages=853–882|doi=10.1177/0197918319879057|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Economy ===
[[File:Worlds_regions_by_total_wealth(in_trillions_USD),_2018.jpg|thumb|World regions by total [[wealth]] (in trillions USD), 2018]]
Following [[independence]] and [[decolonization]] in the 20th century, most developing countries had dire need of new [[infrastructure]], [[Industry (economics)|industry]] and economic stimulation. Many relied on foreign investment. This funding focused on improving infrastructure and industry, but led to a system of systemic exploitation.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} They exported raw materials, such as [[rubber]], for a bargain. Companies based in the [[Western world]] have often used the cheaper labor in developing countries for production.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=Pallavi|date=2 July 2016|title=Economic growth, the UN and the Global South: an unfulfilled promise|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/22135/1/Roy%20Growth%20and%20Redistribution.pdf|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=37|issue=7|pages=1284–1297|doi=10.1080/01436597.2016.1154440|s2cid=156462246|access-date=23 September 2020|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813212020/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/22135/1/Roy%20Growth%20and%20Redistribution.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The West benefited significantly from this system, but left developing countries undeveloped.
This arrangement is sometimes called [[neocolonialism]], meaning a system in which less-developed countries are taken advantage of by developed countries. It does not necessarily mean that former colonies are still controlled by their former colonizer; it refers to colonial-like exploitation. Developing countries are often helping further develop rich countries, rather than being developed themselves.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hickel|first1=Jason|date=14 January 2017|title=Aid in reverse: how poor countries develop rich countries|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jan/14/aid-in-reverse-how-poor-countries-develop-rich-countries|access-date=17 March 2019|archive-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010231327/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jan/14/aid-in-reverse-how-poor-countries-develop-rich-countries|url-status=live}}</ref> Several institutions have been established with the goal of putting an end to this system.<ref>{{cite web|title=Neocolonialism|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism|access-date=2019-04-01|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725235643/https://www.britannica.com/topic/neocolonialism|url-status=live}}</ref> One of these institutions is the [[New International Economic Order]]. They have a 'no-strings-attached' policy that promotes developing countries remaining or becoming self-sufficient. More specifically, they advocate sovereignty over natural resources and industrialization.
[[Coalitions]] of developing nations, like the NIEO, frequently lobby for parity in the world stage. The rise of China might imply the rise of the [[BRIC|BRIC countries]].<ref name=":02" />
== Common challenges ==
{{Development economics sidebar}}
The [[global issues]] most often discussed by developing countries include [[globalisation]], global health governance, health, and prevention needs. This is contrasted by issues developed nations tend to address, such as innovations in science and technology.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ager|first1=Alastair|last2=Yu|first2=Gary|last3=Hermosilla|first3=Sabrina|date=September 2012|title=Mapping the key issues shaping the landscape of global public health|journal=Global Public Health|volume=7|issue=sup1|pages=S16–S28|doi=10.1080/17441692.2012.679741|pmid=22765282|s2cid=19407349}}</ref>
Most developing countries have these criteria in common:<ref name="UN2018">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html |title=Criteria For Identification Of LDCs |publisher=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]], Development Policy and Analysis Division |access-date=2018-03-02 |date=2010-03-04 |archive-date=20 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620211438/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Criteria">UN-OHRLLS [http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/ Criteria for Identification and Graduation of LDCs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725125957/http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/ |date=25 July 2019 }}.</ref>
* High levels of [[poverty]] – measured based on [[Gross national income|GNI]] per capita averaged over three years. For example, if the GNI per capita is less than US$1,025 (as of 2018) the country is regarded as a [[least developed country]].<ref name="Criteria" />
*[[Human resources|Human resource]] weakness (based on indicators of [[nutrition]], health, education and adult [[literacy]]).
*[[Economic Vulnerability Index|Economic vulnerability]] (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by [[natural disasters]]). Among other challenges, developing countries have a higher risk of suffering a balance of payments crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Camba-Crespo |first1=A. |last2=García-Solanes |first2=J. |last3=Torrejón-Flores |first3=F. |title=Current-account breaks and stability spells in a global perspective |journal=Applied Economic Analysis |date=7 July 2021 |volume=30 |issue=88 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1108/AEA-02-2021-0029 |s2cid=237827555 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Urban slums===
{{Main|Slum}}
According to [[United Nations Human Settlements Programme|UN-Habitat]], around 33% of the urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in [[slum]]s.<ref name="UNHABITATswcr1213">{{cite web|title=State of the World's Cities Report 2012/2013: Prosperity of Cities|publisher=UNHABITAT|url=http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/745habitat.pdf|access-date=4 October 2013|archive-date=4 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004233458/http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/745habitat.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, the proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (62%), followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%) and East Asia (28%).<ref name="UNHABITATswcr1213" />{{rp|127}}
The UN-Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries live in slums.<ref name=grhs2003>[http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/grhs.2003.key.pdf The challenge of slums – Global report on Human Settlements] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055009/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/grhs.2003.key.pdf |date=21 September 2013 }}, United Nations Habitat (2003)</ref>
Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many reasons. Causes include rapid [[Urbanization|rural-to-urban migration]], [[economic stagnation]] and depression, high [[unemployment]], poverty, [[Informal sector|informal economy]], forced or manipulated [[ghetto]]ization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and [[social conflict]]s.<ref name=whyslums>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/4625_51419_GC%2021%20What%20are%20slums.pdf | title =What are slums and why do they exist? | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206143558/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/4625_51419_GC%2021%20What%20are%20slums.pdf | archive-date = 2011-02-06 | publisher = UN-Habitat | location = Kenya | date = April 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Patton | first1 = Carl V. | name-list-style = vanc | title = Spontaneous Shelter: International Perspectives and Prospects | date=1988 |publisher=Temple University Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-87722-507-2 }}</ref><ref name=grhs2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS.2003.2.pdf | title = Assessing Slums in the Development Context | publisher = United Nations Habitat Group | year = 2011 | access-date = 16 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105025237/http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS.2003.2.pdf | archive-date = 5 January 2014 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> For example, as populations expand in poorer countries, rural people move to cities in extensive urban migration that results in the creation of slums.<ref name="Westra">{{cite journal | last = Westra | first = Richard | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2011 | title = Renewing Socialist Development in the Third World | journal = [[Journal of Contemporary Asia]] | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 519–543 | doi = 10.1080/00472336.2011.610612 | s2cid = 53972140 }}</ref>
In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called "slum cities".<ref>{{cite book|title=Slum Cities and Cities with Slums" States of the World's Cities 2008/2009|publisher=UN-Habitat}}</ref>
===Violence against women===
{{Main|Violence against women}}
[[File:A formation of human chain at India Gate by the women from different walks of life at the launch of a National Campaign on prevention of violence against women, in New Delhi on October 02, 2009.jpg|thumb|A formation of human chain at India Gate by the women from different walks of life at the launch of a National Campaign on prevention of violence against women, in New Delhi on 2 October 2009]]
Several forms of [[violence against women]] are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of the world. [[Acid throwing]] is associated with Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. [[Honor killing]] is associated with the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. [[Marriage by abduction]] is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of [[bride price]] (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.<ref>{{cite news | title = Papua New Guinea: police cite bride price major factor in marital violence | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218182845/http://www.violenceisnotourculture.org/News-and-Views/papua-new-guinea-police-cite-bride-price-major-factor-marital-violence | archive-date = 18 February 2015 |url=http://www.violenceisnotourculture.org/News-and-Views/papua-new-guinea-police-cite-bride-price-major-factor-marital-violence | work = Island Business |via=Violence is not our Culture |date=21 November 2011 |access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=An exploratory study of bride price and domestic violence in Bundibugyo District, Uganda |url=http://www.mrc.ac.za/gender/Bridepricedomesticviolence.pdf |publisher=Centre for Human Rights Advancement (CEHURA) and [[South African Medical Research Council]] |date=April 2012 |access-date=6 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717105205/http://www.mrc.ac.za/gender/Bridepricedomesticviolence.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[Female genital mutilation]] (FGM) is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Developing countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98% of women affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leone (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso (76%), and Ethiopia (74%).<ref name="unicef.org">{{cite book | last = UNICEF | author-link = UNICEF | title = Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf | publisher = [[UNICEF]] | date = 22 July 2013 | access-date = 18 November 2013 | archive-date = 5 April 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Due to [[globalization]] and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.<ref>{{cite book | last = Nussbaum | first = Martha | name-list-style = vanc | author-link = Martha Nussbaum | chapter = Judging other cultures: the case of genital mutilation | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=43U8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 | editor-last = Nussbaum | editor-first = Martha | editor-link = Martha Nussbaum | title = Sex & social justice | pages = [https://archive.org/details/sexsocialjustice00nuss/page/120 120–121] | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0195110326 | url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sexsocialjustice00nuss/page/120 }}</ref>
The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38).<ref>{{cite book | title = Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence |url=https://rm.coe.int/168046031c | date = 12 April 2011 | access-date = 8 October 2017 | archive-date = 26 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526172721/https://rm.coe.int/168046031c | url-status = live }}</ref> As of 2016, [[FGM]] has been legally banned in many African countries.<ref>''Citations'':
* {{cite news | last = Lyons | first = Kate | title = The Gambia bans female genital mutilation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | work = [[The Guardian]] | date = 24 November 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 4 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104210127/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }}
* {{cite news | last = Richards | first = Kimberly | title = History has been made: female genital mutilation banned in Nigeria |url=http://aplus.com/a/nigeria-bans-genital-mutilation | work = [[A Plus (aplus.com)|A Plus]] | date = 3 June 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 8 May 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508152355/http://aplus.com/a/nigeria-bans-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last = UNFPA | author-link = UNFPA | title = Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions |url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-frequently-asked-questions | publisher = [[United Nations Population Fund]] | date = December 2015 | access-date = 9 May 2016 | archive-date = 4 August 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804194439/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/nov/24/the-gambia-bans-female-genital-mutilation | url-status = live }}</ref>
[[File:Women who experienced violence by an intimate partner, OWID.svg|alt=An image showing statistics by percentage of share of women, older than 14 years old who experienced violence by an intimate partner.|thumb|239x239px|Percentage of women older than 14 who have experienced violence by an intimate partner]]
According to [[UN Women]] facts and figures on ending [[violence against women]],<ref name=":10" /> it is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and [[Intimate partner sexual violence|sexual violence by intimate partners]] or [[sexual violence]] by a non-partner (not including [[sexual harassment]]) at some point in their lives. Evidence shows women who have had experienced physical or sexual [[intimate partner violence]] report higher rates of depression, having an [[abortion]] and acquiring [[HIV]], compared to women who have not had experienced any physical or sexual violence.<ref name=":10" />
Data from the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]] shows that men who witnessed their fathers against their mothers, and men who experienced some form of violence as children, more likely have reported perpetrating intimate partner violence in their adult relationships.<ref name=":10">{{cite web|title=Facts and figures: Ending violence against women|url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures|access-date=2020-09-26|website=UN Women|language=en|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525050922/http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Healthcare and public health ===
The status of healthcare that the general public can access is substantially different between developing countries and developed countries.<ref name=":11">{{cite journal|last1=Alhaji|first1=Mohammed M.|last2=Alam|first2=Sartaj|date=21 March 2019|title=Health Policy and System Research in Global South: Bridging the Gap through Citizen Participation|url=http://ejournalsystem.net/index.php/jpmi/article/view/2474|journal=Journal of Postgraduate Medical Institute|volume=33|issue=1|access-date=23 September 2020|archive-date=Oct 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002001218/http://ejournalsystem.net/index.php/jpmi/article/view/2474|url-status=dead}}</ref> People in developing countries usually have a lower [[life expectancy]] than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |last1=Jetter |first1=Michael |last2=Laudage |first2=Sabine |last3=Stadelmann |first3=David |title=The Intimate Link Between Income Levels and Life Expectancy: Global Evidence from 213 Years* |journal=Social Science Quarterly |date=June 2019 |volume=100 |issue=4 |pages=1387–1403 |doi=10.1111/ssqu.12638 |s2cid=149648133 |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12638 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |issn=0038-4941|hdl=10419/145149 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=R. G. |last2=Wofford |first2=S. |title=Life expectancy in less developed countries: socioeconomic development or public health? |journal=Journal of Biosocial Science |date=April 1989 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=245–252 |doi=10.1017/s0021932000017934 |pmid=2722920 |s2cid=23505067 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2722920/ |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0021-9320 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414172358/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2722920/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Toby |last2=Gesesew |first2=Hailay Abrha |last3=Bambra |first3=Clare |last4=Giugliani |first4=Elsa Regina Justo |last5=Popay |first5=Jennie |last6=Sanders |first6=David |last7=Macinko |first7=James |last8=Musolino |first8=Connie |last9=Baum |first9=Fran |title=Why do some countries do better or worse in life expectancy relative to income? An analysis of Brazil, Ethiopia, and the United States of America |journal=International Journal for Equity in Health |date=10 November 2020 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=202 |doi=10.1186/s12939-020-01315-z |pmid=33168040 |pmc=7654592 |issn=1475-9276 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The burden of infectious diseases,<ref name=":15">{{cite journal |last1=Fauci |first1=A. S. |title=Infectious Diseases: Considerations for the 21st Century |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |date=1 March 2001 |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=675–685 |doi=10.1086/319235 |pmid=11229834 |s2cid=878968 |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/319235 |access-date=14 April 2022}}</ref> [[Maternal death|maternal mortality]],<ref name=":16">{{cite journal |last1=Declercq |first1=Eugene |last2=Zephyrin |first2=Laurie |title=Maternal Mortality in the United States: A Primer |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-brief-report/2020/dec/maternal-mortality-united-states-primer |website=Commonwealth Fund |date=December 16, 2020 |doi=10.26099/ta1q-mw24 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323202309/https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-brief-report/2020/dec/maternal-mortality-united-states-primer |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":17">{{cite journal |last1=Girum |first1=Tadele |last2=Wasie |first2=Abebaw |title=Correlates of maternal mortality in developing countries: an ecological study in 82 countries |journal=Maternal Health, Neonatology and Perinatology |date=7 November 2017 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=19 |doi=10.1186/s40748-017-0059-8 |pmid=29142757 |pmc=5674830 |issn=2054-958X |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[child mortality]]<ref name=":18">{{cite web |last1=Mohsin |first1=Nazzina |last2=Keenan |first2=Laura |last3=Guo |first3=Jing |title=Latest child mortality estimates reveal world remains off track to meeting Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/20/latest-child-mortality-estimates-reveal-world-remains-off-track-to-meeting-sustainable-development-goals |website=World Bank |date=December 20, 2021 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414172358/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/12/20/latest-child-mortality-estimates-reveal-world-remains-off-track-to-meeting-sustainable-development-goals |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[infant mortality]]<ref name="MPG">{{cite web |title=In poor countries birth spacing affects infant mortality |url=https://www.mpg.de/13691716/birth-spacing-affects-infant-mortality |website=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |date=July 5, 2019 |access-date=14 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=29 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629163139/https://www.mpg.de/13691716/birth-spacing-affects-infant-mortality |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Molitoris">{{cite journal |last1=Molitoris |first1=Joseph |last2=Barclay |first2=Kieron |last3=Kolk |first3=Martin |title=When and Where Birth Spacing Matters for Child Survival: An International Comparison Using the DHS |journal=Demography |date=3 July 2019 |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1349–1370 |doi=10.1007/s13524-019-00798-y |pmid=31270780 |pmc=6667399 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00798-y |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0070-3370}}</ref> are typically substantially higher in those countries. Developing countries also have less access to medical health services generally,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=David H. |last2=Garg |first2=Anu |last3=Bloom |first3=Gerry |last4=Walker |first4=Damian G. |last5=Brieger |first5=William R. |last6=Rahman |first6=M. Hafizur |title=Poverty and access to health care in developing countries |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=2008 |volume=1136 |issue=1 |pages=161–171 |doi=10.1196/annals.1425.011 |pmid=17954679 |bibcode=2008NYASA1136..161P |s2cid=24649523 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17954679/ |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0077-8923 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414172939/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17954679/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> and are less likely to have the resources to purchase, produce and administer [[vaccine]]s, even though [[vaccine equity]] worldwide is important to combatting [[pandemic]]s, such as the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="Hotez">{{cite journal |last1=Hotez |first1=Peter J. |last2=Bottazzi |first2=Maria Elena |title=Whole Inactivated Virus and Protein-Based COVID-19 Vaccines |journal=Annual Review of Medicine |date=27 January 2022 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=55–64 |doi=10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 |pmid=34637324 |s2cid=238747462 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 |access-date=14 April 2022 |issn=0066-4219 |archive-date=15 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415201948/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Hunger Map 2020 World Food Programme.svg|thumb|310px|Percentage of people with undernutrition by country, [[World Food Programme|World Food Program]], 2020<br />
{{Legend|#29b8c7|Under 2.5%}}
{{Legend|#16b484|2.5% – 5.0%}}
{{Legend|#fec960|5.0% – 14.9%}}
{{Legend|#f47846|15.0% – 24.9%}}
{{Legend|#f2203a|25.0% – 34.9%}}
{{Legend|#7f0928|Over 35.0%}}
{{Legend|#b5aba4|No data}}]]
[[Malnutrition|Undernutrition]] is more common in developing countries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4CGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|title=World Hunger Routledge Introductions to Development| first = Liz | last = Young | name-list-style = vanc |date=2002|isbn=9781134774944|page=20|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women – in particular while pregnant or [[breastfeeding]] – children under five years of age, and the elderly. [[Undernutrition in children|Malnutrition in children]] and [[stunted growth]] of children is the cause for more than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries not reaching their developmental potential.<ref>Grantham-McGregor, Sally et al., the International Child Development Steering Group. "Developmental Potential in the First 5 Years for Children in Developing Countries." Lancet 369.9555 (2007): 60–70. PMC. Web. 28 November 2014.</ref> About 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013.<ref name=Bh2013>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhutta ZA, Das JK, Rizvi A, Gaffey MF, Walker N, Horton S, Webb P, Lartey A, Black RE | title = Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: what can be done and at what cost? | journal = Lancet | volume = 382 | issue = 9890 | pages = 452–477 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23746776 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60996-4 | s2cid = 11748341 }}</ref> In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of [[obesity]] is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Progress For Children: A Report Card On Nutrition|url=http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/files/Progress_for_Children_-_No._4.pdf|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112154958/https://www.unicef.org/nutrition/files/Progress_for_Children_-_No._4.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The following list shows the further significant environmentally-related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en|title=Environment and health in developing countries|date=8 September 2016|website=Priority environment and health risks|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=4 October 2020|archive-date=14 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114002040/https://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Illness/[[disease]] ([[malaria]], [[tuberculosis]], [[AIDS]], etc.): Illness imposes high and regressive cost burdens on families in developing countries.<ref>Russel S. The economic burden of illness for households in developing countries: a review of studies focusing on malaria, tuberculosis, and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004</ref>
* Tropical and infectious diseases ([[neglected tropical diseases]])
* Unsafe [[drinking water]], poor [[sanitation]] and hygiene
* [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]]
* Pollution (e.g. [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]])
* Motor vehicle collisions
* Unintentional poisoning
* Non communicable diseases and weak [[Health care|healthcare]] systems
===Water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH)===
{{Further|WASH|Water issues in developing countries}}
Access to water, sanitation and hygiene ([[WASH]]) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimated that "1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities" while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp-2015-key-facts/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703230219/http://who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp-2015-key-facts/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 July 2015|title=Key facts from JMP 2015 report|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/jmp-report/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702063242/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/jmp-report/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 July 2015|title=WHO {{!}} Lack of sanitation for 2.4 billion people is undermining health improvements|website=www.who.int|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref> The estimate in 2017 by [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="JMP2017" /> The majority of these people live in developing countries.
About 892 million people or 12 percent of the global population, practiced [[open defecation]] instead of using toilets in 2016.<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725020452/https://washdata.org/reports |date=25 July 2019 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref> Seventy-six percent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> Countries with a high number of people openly defecating are India (348 million), followed by Nigeria (38.1 million), Indonesia (26.4 million), Ethiopia (23.1 million), Pakistan (19.7 million), Niger (14.6 million) and Sudan (9.7 million).<ref name="WBSTATS">{{cite web|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) – Indonesia, Nigeria, Niger, Ethiopia, Sudan, India, Pakistan|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?locations=ID-NG-NE-ET-SD-IN-PK|website=data.worldbank.org|publisher=[[The World Bank]]|access-date=15 October 2019|archive-date=15 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015122909/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS%3Flocations%3DID-NG-NE-ET-SD-IN-PK|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Sustainable Development Goal 6]] is one of 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] established by the UN in 2015. It calls for clean water and sanitation for all people. This is particularly relevant for people in developing countries.
===Energy===
[[File:Solar-Panel-Cooker-in-front-of-hut.jpg|thumb| [[Solar cooker]]s use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking.]]
{{Main|Energy poverty|Renewable energy in developing countries}}
In 2009, about 1.4 billion of people in the world lived without electricity. 2.7 billion relied on wood, charcoal, and dung ([[dry animal dung fuel]]) for home energy requirements. This lack of access to modern energy technology limits income generation, blunts efforts to escape poverty, affects people's health due to indoor air pollution, and contributes to global [[deforestation]] and [[climate change]]. Small-scale renewable energy technologies and [[distributed energy]] options, such as onsite solar power and improved cookstoves, offer rural households modern energy services.<ref name=verlaw>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sovacool BK | title = Energy. Deploying off-grid technology to eradicate energy poverty | journal = Science | volume = 338 | issue = 6103 | pages = 47–8 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23042871 | doi = 10.1126/science.1222307 | s2cid = 206541473 }}</ref>
[[Renewable energy in developing countries|Renewable energy]] can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from [[fossil fuels]] can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.<ref name=aus>[http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/renewable_energy.pdf Power for the People] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330120425/http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/renewable_energy.pdf |date=2012-03-30 }} p. 3.</ref>
Renewable energy can directly contribute to [[poverty alleviation]] by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting.<ref name=mdg>[http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/ren21-1.pdf Energy for Development: The Potential Role of Renewable Energy in Meeting the Millennium Development Goals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233918/http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/ren21-1.pdf |date=27 May 2008 }} pp. 7–9.</ref>
Kenya is the world leader in the number of [[solar power]] systems installed per capita.<ref name="en.ccchina.gov.cn">{{cite web |url=http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |title=China Climate Change Info-Net |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105071350/http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |archive-date=5 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== Pollution ===
==== Water pollution ====
[[File:Factory in China at Yangtze River.JPG|thumb|Factory in China at [[Yangtze|Yangtze River]] causing [[air pollution]]]]
[[File:Plastic Pollution in Ghana.jpg|thumb|[[Plastic pollution]] at a beach near [[Accra]], Ghana]]
[[Water pollution]] is a major problem in many developing countries. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision of [[water resource policy]] at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases,<ref name="death">{{cite news|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748 | last = Pink | first = Daniel H. | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Yahoo |title=Investing in Tomorrow's Liquid Gold |date=April 19, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423172532/https://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748 |archive-date=April 23, 2006 }}</ref><ref name="death2">{{cite news |url=http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm |last=West |first=Larry |name-list-style=vanc |publisher=About.com |title=World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water |date=2006-03-26 |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=27 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227153137/http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.<ref name="death2" />
India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution: An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness (including [[waterborne diseases]]) every day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inclentrust.org/uploadedbyfck/file/Diarrhoea-Pneumonia/Lecture%203_1%20Burden%20of%20diarrhea%20in%20children%20in%20India%20-12th%20dec.pdf |title=An overview of diarrhea, symptoms, diagnosis and the costs of morbidity |year=2010 |work=CHNRI |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512231350/http://www.inclentrust.org/uploadedbyfck/file/Diarrhoea-Pneumonia/Lecture%203_1%20Burden%20of%20diarrhea%20in%20children%20in%20India%20-12th%20dec.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2013 }}</ref> About 90 percent of the [[Water resources of China|water in the cities of China]] is polluted.<ref>"[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449451.htm China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630102454/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449451.htm |date=30 June 2017 }}". Chinadaily.com.cn. June 7, 2005.</ref> As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kahn |first1=Joseph |last2=Yardley |first2=Jim |name-list-style=vanc |date=2007-08-26 |title=As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=22 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722082111/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
However, after a series of reforms, China's environment began to demonstrate enormous improvements around the 2010s. Under the [[Xi Jinping Administration|leadership]] of [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]], a sizable fraction of high-pollution industries have been gradually phased out and many illegally polluting factories were sanctioned or closed. A considerable amount of effort went to enforce environmental regulations at regional levels and holding persons of malpractice accountable, including officials and firm managers. The slogan "[[Clear waters and green mountains|clear waters and green mountains are as valuable as gold and silver mountains]]" proposed by Chinese leader Xi Jinping in 2005<ref>{{cite web |title=习近平：绿水青山就是金山银山_新华网 |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/szzsyzt/lsqs2017/index.htm |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308215121/http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/szzsyzt/lsqs2017/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> signifies China's determination in amending environmental burdens created during industrialization while shifting to more sustainable modes of development and adopting high-end industries. Water bodies around the country are much cleaner than a decade ago and steadily approaching natural levels in pollutants.
In 2021, China introduced the "coal to gas" policy<ref>{{cite web |title="煤改气"是碳达峰的重要一环，需求有望超预期！ |url=http://www.fcgs.gov.cn/zrgs/dtxx/202105/t20210506_199603.html |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=12 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212032110/http://www.fcgs.gov.cn/zrgs/dtxx/202105/t20210506_199603.html |url-status=live }}</ref> as one of many policies directed towards achieving peak carbon emissions in 2060. Coal combustion in homes, power stations and production industries constitutes 60% of total energy consumption in China and is the main source of water and air pollution. It is speculated that pollution sources will be progressively eliminated as China reaches the upper tiers of developing countries.
Further details of water pollution in several countries, including many developing countries:
{{world topic|Water pollution in|title=Water pollution by country|noredlinks=yes|show=yes}}
====Indoor air pollution====
[[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]] is a major health hazard.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bruce N, Perez-Padilla R, Albalak R | title = Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 78 | issue = 9 | pages = 1078–92 | date = 2000 | pmid = 11019457 | pmc = 2560841 }}</ref> A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of [[biomass]]. Three billion people in developing countries across the globe rely on biomass in the form of wood, [[charcoal]], [[Manure|dung]], and [[crop residue]], as their domestic cooking fuel.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Duflo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R|year=2008|title=Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being|url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html|journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S|volume=1|issue=1|access-date=30 April 2018|archive-date=10 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110102416/http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks.
Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa.<ref name="WHO1">{{cite web|title=Burden of disease from Indoor Air Pollution for 2012|url=https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/FINAL_HAP_AAP_BoD_24March2014.pdf?ua=1|publisher=WHO|access-date=2014-03-28|date=2014-03-24|archive-date=5 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405141320/https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/FINAL_HAP_AAP_BoD_24March2014.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live}}</ref> An earlier estimate from 2000 put the death toll between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths.<ref name="Ezzati">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ezzati M, Kammen DM | title = The health impacts of exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels in developing countries: knowledge, gaps, and data needs | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 110 | issue = 11 | pages = 1057–68 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12417475 | pmc = 1241060 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.021101057 }}</ref>
Finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of indoor air pollution is complex. Strategies include improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Duflo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R |title=Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being |journal=S.A.P.I.EN.S |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2008 |url=http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html |access-date=30 April 2018 |archive-date=10 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110102416/http://sapiens.revues.org/index130.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Climate change{{anchor|Global_warming}}===
{{Further|Effects of climate change|Climate change in Africa|Climate change in South Asia}}
====Particular vulnerability to climate change====
[[File:Change in Average Temperature With Fahrenheit.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Surface air temperature change over the past 50 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (v4) |url=https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/index_v4.html |access-date=12 January 2024 |website=NASA}}</ref>]]
The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) has confirmed that warming of the climate system due to human intervention is 'unequivocal'.<ref name=":8">{{Citation|title=Near-term Climate Change: Projections and Predictability|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.023|work=Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis|year=2014|pages=953–1028|editor-last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781107415324.023|isbn=978-1-107-41532-4|access-date=2020-11-30|archive-date=1 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601235158/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/climate-change-2013-the-physical-science-basis/nearterm-climate-change-projections-and-predictability/279D68DA9F51A8F880E478B58146AD43|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[effects of climate change]] will be felt around the globe and will result in events such as [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]], droughts, floods, [[biodiversity loss]], disease and [[sea level rise]], which are dangerous for societies and the environment.<ref name=":0" />
Although 79% of carbon emissions are produced by developed countries,<ref>Center for Global Development, 18 August 2015 [https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically "Developed Countries Are Responsible for 79 Percent of Historical Carbon Emissions"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222050116/https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically |date=22 December 2020 }}</ref> and developing countries have not been the major cause of climate change,<ref name=":8" /> they are the most at risk from the effects of these changes and may face challenges in [[Climate change adaptation|adapting to climate change]] due to the intersecting issues of high climate vulnerability, low economic status,<ref>UK Government Official Documents, February 2021, [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf "The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520070152/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |date=20 May 2022 }} p. 2</ref> restricted access to technology, failing infrastructure and limited access to financial resources. Where a country is particularly [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] they are called "highly climate vulnerable"{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}. This applies to many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, [[fragile state]]s or [[failed state]]s like Afghanistan, Haiti, Myanmar, and Somalia, as well as to [[Small Island Developing States]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}. In the cases where developing countries produce only small quantities of greenhouse gas emissions per capita but are very vulnerable to the negative effects of global warming, the term "forced riders" as opposed to the "free riders" has been used as a descriptor.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3">{{cite web|title=Australia, the US and Europe are climate 'free-riders': it's time to step up|url=https://theconversation.com/australia-the-us-and-europe-are-climate-free-riders-its-time-to-step-up-53953|access-date=4 May 2018|work=The Conversation (Australia edition)|archive-date=4 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504155748/https://theconversation.com/australia-the-us-and-europe-are-climate-free-riders-its-time-to-step-up-53953|url-status=live}}</ref> Such countries include Comoros, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.<ref name=":3" />
Climate vulnerability has been quantified in the [[Climate Vulnerability Monitor]] reports of 2010 and 2012. Climate vulnerability in developing countries occurs in four impact areas: health, extreme weather, [[habitat loss]], and economic stress.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> A report by the Climate Vulnerability Monitor in 2012 estimated that climate change causes 400,000 deaths on average each year, mainly due to hunger and communicable diseases in developing countries.<ref name="CVM report 2012">{{Cite book|editor=Matthew McKinnon|title=Climate vulnerability monitor : a guide to the cold calculus of a hot planet|date=2012|publisher=DARA|others=DARA, Climate Vulnerable Forum|isbn=9788461605675|edition=2nd|location=Madrid|oclc=828337356}}</ref>{{Rp|17}} These effects are most severe for the world's poorest countries. Internationally there is recognition of the mismatch between those that have caused climate change and those which will suffer the most from climate change, termed "[[climate justice]]". It has been a topic for discussion at some of the [[United Nations Climate Change conference|United Nations Climate Change Conferences]] (COP).
"When we think about livelihoods at risk from climate change impacts, we know that people living in developing countries, and especially the least-developed countries and small island states, often have the least financial resources to adapt," says Nancy Saich, the [[European Investment Bank]]'s chief climate change expert.<ref>{{cite web|title=A plan for the long haul to contribute finance to the European Green Deal|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/climate-bank-roadmap|access-date=2021-06-10|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=19 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619233202/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/climate-bank-roadmap|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Impacts====
A changing climate also results in economic burdens. The economies in [[Least Developed Countries]] have lost an average of 7% of their [[gross domestic product]] for the year 2010, mainly due to reduced [[Workforce productivity|labor productivity]].<ref name="CVM report 2012" />{{Rp|14}} Rising sea levels cost 1% of GDP to the least developed countries in 2010 – 4% in the Pacific – with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the [[world economy]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=17016|title=Climate vulnerability monitor 2010: the state of the climate crisis – Documents & Publications – Professional Resources|publisher=PreventionWeb.net|access-date=2013-06-26|archive-date=11 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311074817/http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/publications/v.php?id=17016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another example is the impact on [[Fishery|fisheries]]: approximately 40 countries are acutely vulnerable to the impact of [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]] on fisheries. Developing countries with large fisheries sectors are particularly affected.<ref name="CVM report 2012" />{{Rp|279}} During the [[2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference|Cancún COP16 in 2010]], [[List of development aid country donors|donor countries]] promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the [[Green Climate Fund]] for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/climate-finance-terrible-sense-limbo-says-iied-expert-saleemul-huq|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012042541/http://www.dandc.eu/articles/220605/index.en.shtml|url-status = dead|title=Climate finance is in "a terrible sense of limbo", says IIED expert Saleemul Huq|archive-date=12 October 2012|website=D+C}}</ref><ref name="International_Adaptation_Finance">{{cite book|url=http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf|title=International Adaptation Finance: The Need for an Innovative and Strategic Approach 4 (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Working Paper)|last1=Müller|first1=Benito|date=2008|publisher=Oxford Institute for Energy Studies|isbn=978-1-901795-76-9|location=Oxford|name-list-style=vanc|access-date=11 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229175020/http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf|archive-date=29 February 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Emmanuel Macron]] ([[President of France]]) said at the [[2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in Bonn (COP 23): "Climate change adds further injustice to an already unfair world".<ref name="Carrington-2017.11.15">Damian Carrington, [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/15/climate-change-will-determine-humanitys-destiny-says-angela-merkel "Climate change will determine humanity's destiny, says Angela Merkel"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319095124/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/15/climate-change-will-determine-humanitys-destiny-says-angela-merkel |date=19 March 2018 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 15 November 2017 (page visited on 15 November 2017).</ref> [[Economic development]] and climate are inextricably linked, particularly around poverty, [[gender equality]], and energy.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|last1=Ansuategi, A|last2=Greño, P|last3=Houlden, V|display-authors=etal|date=May 2015|title=The impact of climate change on the achievement of the post-2015 sustainable development goals|url=http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Impact-of-climate-on-SDGs-technical-report-CDKN.pdf|access-date=20 May 2015|publisher=CDKN & HR Wallingford|archive-date=26 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926020447/http://cdkn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Impact-of-climate-on-SDGs-technical-report-CDKN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
Tackling climate change will only be possible if the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) are met, in particular [[Sustainable Development Goal 13]] on [[Individual and political action on climate change|climate action]].<ref name=":1" />
Climate stress is likely to add to existing [[Human migration|migration]] patterns in developing countries and beyond but is not expected to generate entirely new flows of people.<ref name="wdr migration">{{citation|title=Managing social risks: Empower communities to protect themselves|author=The World Bank|chapter=Part One: Chapter 2: Reducing Human Vulnerability: Helping People Help Themselves|chapter-url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2010/Resources/5287678-1226014527953/Chapter-2.pdf|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=7 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507173000/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2010/Resources/5287678-1226014527953/Chapter-2.pdf|url-status=live}}, p. 109, {{harvnb|WDR|2010}}.</ref>{{Rp|110|date=November 2012}} A report by the [[World Bank]] in 2018 estimated that around 143 million people in three regions (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America) could be forced to move within their own countries to escape the slow-onset impacts of climate change. They will migrate from less viable areas with lower water availability and [[Agricultural productivity|crop productivity]] and from areas affected by rising sea level and [[storm surge]]s.<ref>Rigaud, Kanta Kumari; de Sherbinin, Alex; Jones, Bryan; Bergmann, Jonas; Clement, Viviane; Ober, Kayly; Schewe, Jacob; Adamo, Susana; McCusker, Brent; Heuser, Silke; Midgley, Amelia. 2018. [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461 Groundswell : Preparing for Internal Climate Migration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322001911/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461 |date=22 March 2018 }}. World Bank, Washington, DC.</ref>
In spite of the cumulative stressors and challenges faced by developing countries in adapting to the effects of climate change, there are those that are world leaders in the field such as [[Bangladesh]]. Bangladesh created a national programme in 2009 focused on [[Climate change in Bangladesh|how the country would adapt to climate change]] (the first country to do so).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gilbert|first=Natasha|date=2008-09-11|title=Bangladesh launches climate change action plan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/news.2008.1103|journal=Nature|doi=10.1038/news.2008.1103|issn=0028-0836}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Haq|first=Naimul|date=9 July 2019|title=Bangladesh global leader in fighting climate change|work=Bangladesh Post|url=https://bangladeshpost.net/|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127172829/https://bangladeshpost.net/|url-status=live}}</ref> It established a fund to support these plans, spending on average $1 billion annually in this regard.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Star Report|date=10 July 2019|title=Hamid for active role in climate change adaptation|work=The Daily Star|url=https://thedailystar.net/|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130091058/https://www.thedailystar.net/|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Population growth===
{{See also|List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate}}
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|Map of countries and territories by [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] as of 2020]]
Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been driven by developing countries, which often have higher [[birth rate]]s (higher [[fecundity]] rate) than developed countries. According to the United Nations, [[family planning]] can help to slow population growth and decrease poverty in these countries.<ref name="Population and poverty"/>
The violent [[herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria]], the [[March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders]] in Mali, the [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts]] and other conflicts in the countries of the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, [[land degradation]], and [[population growth]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria |url=http://time.com/5324712/climate-change-nigeria/ |magazine=Time |date=28 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The battle on the frontline of climate change in Mali |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |work=BBC News |date=22 January 2019 |access-date=2 August 2019 |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009175946/https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Deadliest Conflict You've Never Heard of |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |date=23 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218125507/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard |archive-date=18 February 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Droughts and food shortages have been also linked to the [[Northern Mali conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|title=The Sahel in flames|date=2019-05-31|website=The New Humanitarian|language=en|access-date=2019-06-23|archive-date=13 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113161848/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Climate change, food shortages, and conflict in Mali |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/04/climate-change-food-shortages-conflict-mali-150426105617725.html |work=Al-Jazeera |date=27 April 2015 |access-date=2 August 2019 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505190659/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2015/4/27/climate-change-food-shortages-and-conflict-in-mali |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Poor governance ===
Many developing countries are considered flawed democracies or authoritarian regimes by [[democracy indices]] such as the [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] and [[Democracy Index|Democracy Index (The Economist)]]. Following decolonization and independence, elites have often had [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]] control of the government.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}
The establishment of a healthy democratic state has often been challenged by widespread [[corruption]] and [[nepotism]] and a low confidence and participation in democratic process. [[Political instability]] and [[political corruption]] are common problems.<ref>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Jeremy|date=1 July 2007|title=Political factors that affect development|url=https://earthbound.report/2007/07/01/political-factors-that-affect-development/|access-date=20 June 2020|archive-date=21 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621060902/https://earthbound.report/2007/07/01/political-factors-that-affect-development/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Edwards, S. "Trade Orientation, Distortions and Growth In Developing Countries." (n.d.): n. pag. 1–37</ref> To fully reach the goal of a low level of corruption, developing countries are usually using special steps for different establishments inside their territories, such as :
* Development or creation of a fair public administration system that is not partially based on corruption and is entirely based on the values and laws of the country
* Better investigation towards the sources of the corruption and probable causes of that particular action
* Publicly informing the residents about the source of corruption and negative influence on the country's economy
* Regulation of the official positions of an individual to not be the source of abuse for corruption.
* Creation of special laws dedicated to the corruption itself for specific establishments<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.am/files/docs/74.pdf |title=Republic of Armenia Anti-Corruption strategy and Implementation Action Plan |date=2003 |publisher=Republic of Armenia |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531195758/http://www.gov.am/files/docs/74.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Others ===
Other common challenges include: Increased and intensified industrial and agricultural production and emission of toxic chemicals directly into the soil, air, and water, unsustainable use of energy resources; high dependency on natural resources for livelihood, leading to unsustainable exploitation or depletion of those resources; [[child marriage]], [[indebtedness]] (see [[Debt of developing countries]]) and underperforming [[civil service]] (see [[Civil service reform in developing countries]]), [[food insecurity]], [[Literacy|illiteracy]] and [[unemployment]]. The economies of many developing nations are tried to primary products and a majority of their exports go to advanced nations. When advanced nations encounter economic downturns, they can quickly transmit to their developing country trading partners as seen in global economic downturn of 2008–2009.
== Opportunities ==
* Human Capital
* Trade Policy: Countries with more restrictive policies have not grown as fast as countries with open and less distorted trade policies.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal | last = Harrison | first = Ann | name-list-style = vanc | title = Openness and Growth: A Time-series, Cross-country Analysis for Developing Countries | journal = Journal of Development Economics | volume = 48 | issue = 2 | date = 1996 | pages = 419–47 | doi = 10.1016/0304-3878(95)00042-9 | s2cid = 53981521 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1165&context=mgmt_papers | access-date = 10 July 2019 | archive-date = 20 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720022150/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1165&context=mgmt_papers | url-status = live | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Investment: Investment has a positive effect on growth.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* Education<ref>{{cite journal | last = Verspoor | first = Adriaan | name-list-style = vanc | title = Pathways to Change: Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries | journal = World Bank Discussion Papers | volume = 53 }}</ref>
* [[Aid for Trade]]: Included in [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] under Target 8.a.1 Increase aid for trade is an initiative to help developing countries practice trade and benefit. Aid for trade is to assist developing countries in trade related programmes, prioritize trade and trade capacity, improve trade performance and reduce [[poverty]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Aid for Trade – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|url=http://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/|access-date=2020-09-24|website=www.oecd.org|language=en|archive-date=10 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910112200/https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Global partnership: A provision of [[Sustainable Development Goal 17]] which advocates for international investment and support to achieve innovative technological development, access to market, and fair trade for developing countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals|url=https://www.globalgoals.org/17-partnerships-for-the-goals|access-date=2020-09-25|website=The Global Goals|language=en|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927092335/https://www.globalgoals.org/17-partnerships-for-the-goals|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Country lists ==
=== Developing countries according to International Monetary Fund ===
The following are considered developing economies according to the [[International Monetary Fund]]'s World Economic Outlook Database, {{as of|April 2023|alt=April 2023}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/groups-and-aggregates |title=World Economic Outlook, Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information, April 2023 |access-date=2023-04-17 |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416224423/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/groups-and-aggregates |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*{{flagcountry|Islamic Republic of Afghanistan}}
*{{flag|Albania}}
*{{flag|Algeria}}
*{{flag|Angola}}
*{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
*{{flag|Argentina}}
*{{flag|Armenia}}
*{{flag|Azerbaijan}}
*{{flag|Bahamas}}
*{{flag|Bahrain}}
*{{flag|Bangladesh}}
*{{flag|Barbados}}
*{{flag|Belarus}}
*{{flag|Belize}}
*{{flag|Benin}}
*{{flag|Bhutan}}
*{{flag|Bolivia}}
*{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
*{{flag|Botswana}}
*{{flag|Brazil}}
*{{flag|Brunei}}
*{{flag|Bulgaria}}
*{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
*{{flag|Burundi}}
*{{flag|Cambodia}}
*{{flag|Cameroon}}
*{{flag|Cape Verde}}
*{{flag|Central African Republic}}
*{{flag|Chad}}
*{{flag|China}}
*{{flag|Chile}}
*{{flag|Colombia}}
*{{flag|Comoros}}
*{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
*{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
*{{flag|Costa Rica}}
*{{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}}
*{{flag|Djibouti}}
*{{flag|Dominica}}
*{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
*{{flag|Ecuador}}
*{{flag|Egypt}}
*{{flag|El Salvador}}
*{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
*{{flag|Eritrea}}
*{{flag|Eswatini|name=Eswatini (Swaziland)}}
*{{flag|Ethiopia}}
*{{flag|Fiji}}
*{{flag|Gabon}}
*{{flag|The Gambia}}
*{{flag|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia}}
*{{flag|Ghana}}
*{{flag|Grenada}}
*{{flag|Guatemala}}
*{{flag|Guinea}}
*{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
*{{flag|Guyana}}
*{{flag|Haiti}}
*{{flag|Honduras}}
*{{flag|Hungary}}
*{{flag|India}}
*{{flag|Indonesia}}
*{{flag|Iran}}
*{{flag|Iraq}}
*{{flag|Jamaica}}
*{{flag|Jordan}}
*{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
*{{flag|Kenya}}
*{{flag|Kiribati}}
*{{flag|Kuwait}}
*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
*{{flag|Laos}}
*{{flag|Lebanon}}
*{{flag|Lesotho}}
*{{flag|Liberia}}
*{{flag|Libya}}
*{{flag|Madagascar}}
*{{flag|Malawi}}
*{{flag|Malaysia}}
*{{flag|Maldives}}
*{{flag|Mali}}
*{{flag|Marshall Islands}}
*{{flag|Mauritania}}
*{{flag|Mauritius}}
*{{flag|Mexico}}
*{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
*{{flag|Moldova}}
*{{flag|Mongolia}}
*{{flag|Montenegro}}
*{{flag|Morocco}}
*{{flag|Mozambique}}
*{{flag|Myanmar}}
*{{flag|Namibia}}
*{{flag|Nauru}}
*{{flag|Nepal}}
*{{flag|Nicaragua}}
*{{flag|Niger}}
*{{flag|Nigeria}}
*{{flag|North Macedonia}}
*{{flag|Pakistan}}
*{{flag|Palau}}
*{{flag|Palestine}}
*{{flag|Panama}}
*{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
*{{flag|Paraguay}}
*{{flag|Peru}}
*{{flag|Poland}}
*{{flag|Philippines}}
*{{flag|Romania}}
*{{flag|Russia}}
*{{flag|Rwanda}}
*{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
*{{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
*{{flag|Saint Lucia}}
*{{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
*{{flag|Samoa}}
*{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
*{{flag|Senegal}}
*{{flag|Serbia}}
*{{flag|Seychelles}}
*{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
*{{flag|Solomon Islands}}
*{{flag|Somalia}}
*{{flag|South Africa}}
*{{flag|South Sudan}}
*{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
*{{flag|Sudan}}
*{{flag|Suriname}}
*{{flag|Syria}}
*{{flag|Tajikistan}}
*{{flag|Tanzania}}
*{{flag|Thailand}}
*{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
*{{flag|Togo}}
*{{flag|Tonga}}
*{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
*{{flag|Tunisia}}
*{{flag|Turkey}}
*{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
*{{flag|Tuvalu}}
*{{flag|Uganda}}
*{{flag|Ukraine}}
*{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
*{{flag|Uruguay}}
*{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
*{{flag|Vanuatu}}
*{{flag|Venezuela}}
*{{flag|Vietnam}}
*{{flag|Yemen}}
*{{flag|Zambia}}
*{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
{{div col end}}
'''Countries not listed by IMF'''
*{{flag|Abkhazia}}
*{{flag|Cuba}}
*{{flag|North Korea}}
*{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}}
*{{flag|South Ossetia}}
=== Upper middle income countries by World Bank ===
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* Albania<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/XT |title=Archived copy |access-date=25 May 2023 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525041102/https://data.worldbank.org/country/XT |url-status=live }}</ref>
* American Samoa
* Argentina
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belize
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Botswana
* Brazil
* Bulgaria
* China
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* Ecuador
* Equatorial Guinea
* Fiji
* Gabon
* Georgia
* Grenada
* Guatemala
* Guyana
* Indonesia
* Jamaica
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Kosovo
* Libya
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Marshall Islands
* Mauritius
* Mexico
* Moldova
* Montenegro
* Namibia
* North Macedonia
* Palau
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Russian Federation
* Serbia
* South Africa
* St. Lucia
* St. Vincent and the Grenadines
* Suriname
* Thailand
* Tonga
* Turkiye
* Turkmenistan
* Tuvalu
{{div col end}}
=== Lower middle income countries by World Bank ===
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* Algeria<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/XN |title=World Bank Open Data |access-date=25 May 2023 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525041113/https://data.worldbank.org/country/XN |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Angola
* Bangladesh
* Benin
* Bhutan
* Bolivia
* Cabo Verde
* Cambodia
* Cameroon
* Comoros
* Congo, Rep.
* Cote d'Ivoire
* Djibouti
* Egypt, Arab Rep.
* El Salvador
* Eswatini
* Ghana
* Haiti
* Honduras
* India
* Iraq
* Iran, Islamic Rep.
* Kenya
* Kiribati
* Kyrgyz Republic
* Lao PDR
* Lebanon
* Lesotho
* Mauritania
* Micronesia, Fed. Sts.
* Mongolia
* Morocco
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Nicaragua
* Nigeria
* Pakistan
* Papua New Guinea
* Philippines
* Samoa
* Sao Tome and Principe
* Senegal
* Solomon Islands
* Sri Lanka
* Tajikistan
* Tanzania
* Timor-Leste
* Tunisia
* Ukraine
* Uzbekistan
* Vanuatu
* Vietnam
* West Bank and Gaza
* Zimbabwe
{{div col end}}
===Countries and regions that are graduated developed economies ===
The following list, including the [[Four Asian Tigers]] and new [[Eurozone]] European Union countries (except for Czech Republic), were historically considered developing countries and regions until the 1990s, and are now listed as [[advanced economy|advanced economies]] (developed countries and regions) by the [[IMF]]. Time in brackets is the time to be listed as advanced economies.
*{{flag|Hong Kong}} (since 1997)<ref name="IMF 1997">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo0598/pdf/0598sta.pdf |title=IMF Advanced Economies List. World Economic Outlook, May 1998, p. 134 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=18 August 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000818233010/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo0598/pdf/0598sta.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Israel}} (since 1997)<ref name="IMF 1997"/>
*{{flag|Singapore}} (since 1997)<ref name="IMF 1997"/>
*{{flag|South Korea}} (since 1997)<ref name="IMF 1997"/>
*{{flag|Taiwan}} (since 1997)<ref name="IMF 1997"/><ref>The recognition of Taiwan is disputed; most UN-member states officially recognise the sovereignty of the [[People's Republic of China]] over Taiwan, however, some others maintain non-diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]]. See [[Foreign relations of Taiwan]].</ref>
*{{flag|Cyprus}} (since 2001)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2001/01/pdf/append.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2001, p.157 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=13 September 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010913073731/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2001/01/pdf/append.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (since 2007)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/01/pdf/statappx.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2007, p.204 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105062023/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/01/pdf/statappx.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Malta}} (since 2008)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2008, p.236 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516113641/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (since 2009,<ref name="IMF 2009">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2009, p.184 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=14 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114113955/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> since 2006 by [[World Bank]])<ref name="worldbank06">{{cite web| last = Velinger| first = Jan| title = World Bank Marks Czech Republic's Graduation to 'Developed' Status| publisher = Radio Prague|url=http://www.radio.cz/en/article/76314| date = 28 February 2006| access-date = 22 January 2007| archive-date = 12 January 2008| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112081601/http://www.radio.cz/en/article/76314| url-status = live}}</ref>
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (since 2009)<ref name="IMF 2009"/>
*{{flag|Estonia}} (since 2011)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2011, p.172 |access-date=2014-01-15 |archive-date=6 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506073614/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Latvia}} (since 2014)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/pdf/text.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2014, p.160 |access-date=2014-05-21 |archive-date=8 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408225045/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/pdf/text.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Lithuania}} (since 2015)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/pdf/text.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2015, p.48 |access-date=2015-04-11 |archive-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413200149/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/pdf/text.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Andorra}} (since 2021)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/data/changes.htm|title=World Economic Outlook Database – Changes to the Database|website=www.imf.org|access-date=2022-09-21|archive-date=29 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229080726/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/data/changes.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{flag|Croatia}} (since 2023)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/select-countries?grp=110&sg=All-countries/Advanced-economies|title=World Economic Outlook Database – Changes to the Database|website=www.imf.org|access-date=17 April 2023|archive-date=16 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416190103/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/select-countries?grp=110&sg=All-countries/Advanced-economies|url-status=live}}</ref>
Three economies lack data before being listed as advanced economies. However, because of the lack of data, it is difficult to judge whether they were advanced economies or developing economies before being listed as advanced economies.
*{{flag|San Marino}} (since 2012)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, October 2012, p.180 |access-date=2016-08-04 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020230354/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Macau}} (since 2016)<ref name="IMF 2016">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |title=World Economic Outlook, April 2016, p.148 |access-date=2016-06-25 |archive-date=17 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417162308/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/pdf/statapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{flag|Puerto Rico}} (since 2016)<ref name="IMF 2016"/>
===Newly industrialized countries===
Ten countries belong to the "[[newly industrialized country]]" classification. They are countries whose economies have not yet reached a developed country's status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts:
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*{{flag|Brazil}}
*{{flag|China}}
*{{flag|India}}
*{{flag|Indonesia}}
*{{flag|Malaysia}}
*{{flag|Mexico}}
*{{flag|Philippines}}
*{{flag|South Africa}}
*{{flag|Thailand}}
*{{flag|Turkey}}
{{div col end}}
===BRICS countries===
Five countries belong to the "[[emerging markets]]" groups and are together called the [[BRICS]] countries:
*{{flag|Brazil}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|Russia}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|India}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|China}} (since 2006)
*{{flag|South Africa}} (since 2010)
*{{flag|Egypt}} (since 2024)
*{{flag|Ethiopia}} (since 2024)
*{{flag|Iran}} (since 2024)
*{{flag|United Arab Emirates}} (since 2024)
== Society and culture ==
=== Media coverage ===
Western media tends to present a generalized view of developing countries through biased [[Media bias|media coverage]]; [[mass media]] outlets tend to focus disproportionately on [[poverty]] and other negative imagery. This common coverage has created a dominant stereotype of developing countries: "the '[[Global South|South]]' is characterized by [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] and political backwardness, measured against Western values and standards."<ref>{{cite web|title=Dependency Theory: A Useful Tool for Analyzing Global Inequalities Today?|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2016/11/23/dependency-theory-a-useful-tool-for-analyzing-global-inequalities-today/|access-date=2020-02-21|website=E-International Relations|date=23 November 2016|language=en-US|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002023728/https://www.e-ir.info/2016/11/23/dependency-theory-a-useful-tool-for-analyzing-global-inequalities-today/|url-status=live}}</ref> Mass media's role often compares the [[North–South divide in the World|Global South to the North]] and is thought to be an aid in the divide.
Mass media has also played a role in what information the people in developing countries receive. The news often covers developed countries and creates an imbalance of information flow.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philo |first1=Greg |title=An unseen world: How the media portrays the poor |journal=The UNESCO Courier |date=November 2001 |volume=54 |issue=11 |pages=44–46 |id={{ProQuest|207594362}} |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000124294.locale=en |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716164506/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000124294.locale=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The people in developing countries do not often receive coverage of the other developing countries but instead gets generous amounts of coverage about developed countries.
== See also ==
*[[Colonialism]]
*[[Economic miracle]]
*[[International development]]
*[[Land reform]]
*[[List of countries by wealth per adult]]
*[[Women migrant workers from developing countries]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
===Works cited===
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|WDR|2010}} |title=World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change |date=6 November 2009 |publisher=World Bank Publications |isbn=978-0-8213-7988-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGOJs900Q-MC |language=en}}
== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
{{Global economic classifications}}
{{South-South}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Economic globalization]]
[[Category:Geographical neologisms]]
[[Category:Economic country classifications]]
[[Category:International development|Country]]
[[Category:Economic geography]]
[[Category:Economic development|Country]]
[[Category:Euphemisms]]
[[Category:Human geography]]
[[Category:Political pejoratives]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Imperialism studies]] |
Sustainable Development Goals and Australia | {{short description|Set of 17 global development goals defined by the United Nations for the year 2030}}
[[File:Australia SDG artwork - Jordana Angus.png|thumb|upright=1.5|17 individual, yet interconnected, art strips symbolising each of the 17 interconnected Sustainable Development Goals in the shape of the Australian continent]]
The "'''Sustainable Development Goals and Australia'''" describe how Australia participates in the [[Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)]] process. The SDGs are a collection of 17 global goals designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all". The SDGs, set in 2015 by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] and intended to be achieved by the year 2030, are part of a [[United Nations General Assembly resolution|UN Resolution]] called "The 2030 Agenda".<ref>United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1])</ref> The targets and indicators for the SDGs are included in the UN Resolution adopted by the General Assembly two years later on 6 July 2017.<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref>
The [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] was one of the 193 countries that adopted the 2030 Agenda in September 2015. Implementation of the agenda is led by the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT)]] and the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (PM&C) with different federal government agencies responsible for each of the goals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cabinet |first=Prime Minister and |date=2018-02-20 |title=2030 Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.pmc.gov.au/news-centre/office-women/2030-sustainable-development-goals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064019/https://www.pmc.gov.au/news-centre/office-women/2030-sustainable-development-goals |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-09-14 |website=www.pmc.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>
In November 2020, the Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report stated that while Australia was performing well in health [[Sustainable Development Goal 3|(SDG 3]]) and education ([[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]) it was falling behind in the reduction of {{CO2}} emissions ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]), waste and [[environmental degradation]] ([[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]), and addressing economic inequality [[Sustainable Development Goal 10|(SDG 10]]).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Monash Sustainable Development Institute|date=19 November 2020|title=TRANSFORMING AUSTRALIA SDG PROGRESS REPORT - 2020 Update|url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/wp-content/uploads/MSDI_TA2020_Summary.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/|archive-date=1 February 2021|access-date=|website=SDG Transforming Australia}}</ref>
Australia is not on-track to achieve the SDGs by 2030.<ref name=":24">{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Cameron |last2=Metternicht |first2=Graciela |last3=Wiedmann |first3=Thomas |last4=Pedercini |first4=Matteo |date=November 2019 |title=Greater gains for Australia by tackling all SDGs but the last steps will be the most challenging |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=1041–1050 |doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0409-9 |s2cid=207990746}}</ref> Four modelled scenarios based on different development approaches found that the 'Sustainability Transition' scenario could deliver "rapid and balanced progress of 70% towards SDG targets by 2020, well ahead of the business-as-usual scenario (40%)".<ref name=":24" /> In 2020, Australia's overall performance in the SDG Index is ranked 37th out of 166 countries (down from 18th out of 34 countries in 2015).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Kroll|first=Christian|date=September 2015|title=Sustainable Development Goals: Are the rich countries ready? p6, The world's first SDG Index|url=https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/BSt/Publikationen/GrauePublikationen/Studie_NW_Sustainable-Development-Goals_Are-the-rich-countries-ready_2015.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Sustainable Development Report 2020 - Australia|url=https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/static/countries/profiles/Australia.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=24 September 2020|website=}}</ref>
== Background ==
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The 17 Sustainable Development Goals]]
=== Role in the SDGs creation ===
The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) led Australia's contribution to the development of the 2030 Agenda, which comprises the [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]] and the [[Addis Ababa Action Agenda]]. In its 2015-2016 Annual Report, DFAT said its actions successfully ensured that Australia's national interest and existing aid, trade and foreign policy priorities, and those of its development partners, were reflected in the outcome. DFAT was active in securing standalone SDGs for economic growth ([[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]), gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]) and peace and good governance ([[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]). In doing so, helps strengthen "existing international frameworks, such as the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade|first=Australian Government|date=12 September 2016|title=Annual Report 2015-16, page 138|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/corporate/annual-reports/Pages/annual-reports|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/DFAT-full-annual-report-2015-16.pdf|archive-date=15 September 2020|access-date=15 September 2020|website=DFAT}}</ref>
=== National co-ordination and governance ===
To co-ordinate Australia's domestic and international efforts to advance the 2030 Agenda, the Australian Government formed an Interdepartmental Committee (IDC) of senior officials. Co-chaired by [[Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)|PM&C]] and the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|DFAT]], the committee collaborates with domestic stakeholders to promote and monitor Australia's progress.
Responsibility for each goal is allocated to an Australian Government agency and each department is responsible for making the latest available data on the SDG data platform.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2020-09-21|title=Australian Government's Reporting Platform on the SDG Indicators|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/home|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-21|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Government agencies for domestic reporting on the Sustainable Development Goals for the Voluntary National Review <ref>{{Cite web|last=Senate Inquiry into the SDGs|first=DFAT, Submission 60, pp. 17–18.|date=|title=Table 1—Government agencies for domestic reporting on the Sustainable Development Goals for the Voluntary National Review|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report/c03|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Parliament of Australia}}</ref>
|'''Goal'''
|'''Lead Agency'''
|'''Supporting agencies'''
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]
|Social Services
|[[Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)|PM&C]];<ref>{{Cite web|last=PM&C|first=Australian Government|date=|title=PM&C SDGs website page|url=https://www.pmc.gov.au/news-centre/office-women/2030-sustainable-development-goals|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> Australian Bureau of Statistics;<ref>{{Cite web|last=ABS|first=Australian Government|date=|title=SDGs pages on ABS website|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/Home/2030+Agenda+on+Sustainable+Development|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> Home Affairs (EMA)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources
|[[Department of Health (Australia)|Health]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]
|[[Department of Health (Australia)|Health]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]
|[[Department of Education and Training (Australia)|Education and Training]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]
|[[Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australia)|PM&C]]
|DSS
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources
|Environment and Energy
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]
|Environment and Energy
|Industry, Innovation and Science
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]
|Treasury
|Jobs and Small Business, ABS
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]
|Infrastructure, Regional Development and Cities
|Industry, Innovation and Science; [[Department of Communications and the Arts (Australia)|Communications and the Arts]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]
|[[Treasury (Australia)|Treasury]]
|Social Services; Home Affairs
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]
|[[Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Cities and Regional Development|Infrastructure, Regional Development and Cities]]
|Communications and the Arts; Home Affairs (EMA)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources; Finance
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Home Affairs (EMA)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources; Home Affairs (Maritime Border Command); Infrastructure Regional Development and Cities (Australian Maritime Safety Authority)
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Environment and Energy]]
|Agriculture and Water Resources<ref>{{Cite web|last=Australian Government|first=Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment|date=|title=SDGs page on Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/about-us/international/2030-agenda|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]
|[[Attorney-General's Department (Australia)|Attorney-General's Department]]
|[[Department of Defence (Australia)|Defence]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]
|[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|DFAT]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Australian Government|first=DFAT|date=|title=SDGs page on DFAT website|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/aid/topics/development-issues/2030-agenda/Pages/default|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
|[[Treasury (Australia)|Treasury]]; AB
|}
== Reporting platforms ==
=== National Government's Data Reporting Platform on the SDG indicators ===
In June 2018, the Australian Government launched a data platform to centralise its available datasets on SDG Indicators and provide a single point of access for anyone interested in SDG data.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Goals|first=Sustainable Development|date=2020-09-20|title=Sustainable Development Goals|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/home|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>
The platform was part of a comprehensive package of reporting on SDG progress that included the VNR and the Australian SDGs website.<ref name=":0" />
In addition to providing the status of Australia's data collection against all 232 SDG indicators, as progress is made over time on identifying data-sets or the SDG indicators are refined, other datasets can be uploaded to the platform. It will also assist with streamlining SDG reporting for other purposes as it can interact with other reporting instruments like the [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction|Sendai Framework]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2018-06-26|title=Voluntary National Review, p111|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/about/voluntary-national-review|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>
The "data community" was interested in seeing what actions the Australian Government has taken to plug existing data gaps to monitor progress on the SDGs. The launch of a new platform for SDG data, in addition to the VNR, was very welcome. The platform provides an incentive to improve its ability to report and by taking on this task in 'its own right', Australia "is best able to support neighbouring countries to meet their own data challenges".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Australia presents first VNR to the UN and highlights data as key focus for tracking SDG progress|url=https://www.individualdeprivationmeasure.org/australia-presents-first-vnr-to-the-un-and-highlights-data-as-key-focus-for-tracking-sdg-progress/|access-date=2020-09-19|website=www.individualdeprivationmeasure.org|language=en-AU}}</ref>
=== National SDGs Website ===
In June 2018, the Global Compact Network Australia (GNCA) launched a website that allowed organisations to share their SDG aligned projects and activities in one location.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Australian SDGs website|url=https://sdgs.org.au/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
The Australian SDGs website was part of a comprehensive package of reporting on SDG progress to the that included the VNR and the Australian Government's Data Reporting Platform on the SDGs Indicators.<ref name=":0" />
With the support of the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT)]], the site was developed in response to industry and key stakeholders keen to have a centralised platform where knowledge and examples of action could be shared openly. Any organisation can upload a SDG action or case-study and interact with others on the website. The platform includes a resources section, a news and events feature, additional information on what the SDGs are and their contact within the Australian market.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=5 June 2018|title=New Australian SDGs Website Set to Launch {{!}} PBA|url=https://probonoaustralia.com.au/news/2018/06/new-australian-sdgs-website-set-launch/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Pro Bono Australia|language=en-US}}</ref>
Before the Australian SDGs website, the GCNA had established an online Australian SDGs Hub for Business. The Hub explained the relevance of each of the 17 SDGs to Australian business practices, and suggests ways that companies could contribute to achieving the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hub|first=IISD's SDG Knowledge|title=Australia Delivers VNR, Holds Senate Inquiry on SDG Implementation {{!}} News {{!}} SDG Knowledge Hub {{!}} IISD|url=https://sdg.iisd.org:443/news/australia-delivers-vnr-holds-senate-inquiry-on-sdg-implementation/|access-date=2020-09-20|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Performance ==
=== Voluntary National Reviews ===
==== Voluntary National Review in 2018 ====
In July 2018, the Australian Government released its first Voluntary National Review (VNR) of its SDG implementation to the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|UN High Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF).<ref>{{Cite web|title=High-level Political Forum .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/hlpf|access-date=2020-09-19|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> The VNR was part of a comprehensive package of reporting on SDG progress in that included the Australian Government's Data Reporting Platform on the SDGs Indicators and the Australian SDGs website.<ref name=":0" />
In the review's foreword, the Australian Prime Minister, [[Malcolm Turnbull]] said: "At the heart of the Goals is the belief in ‘a fair go for all’— nothing could be more Australian."<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2018-06-26|title=Voluntary National Review, page 2|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/about/voluntary-national-review|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-19|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>
Australia chose to take a narrative, case-study style approach to show the SDGs are a part of government policy and services delivery, and its broad support in the Australian community.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-25|title=What Australia's Voluntary National Review for SDG implementation shows|url=https://www.devex.com/news/sponsored/what-australia-s-voluntary-national-review-for-sdg-implementation-shows-92973|access-date=2020-09-19|website=Devex}}</ref>
On the SDGs Knowledge platform, Australia listed six key messages from its review.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Australia .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/australia|access-date=2020-09-19|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>
# The SDGs reflect Australia’s values and belief in a ‘fair go’.
# This is a ‘whole of Australia’ endeavour, across the whole Agenda.
# Australia is committed to the 2030 Agenda.
# Australia's response to the SDGs is shaped by the environment, governance systems, institutions, economy and society.
# The SDGs contain long-standing, complex policy challenges with no simple solutions. They require a joint effort.
# Australia has substantial expertise, innovation and experience to share.
At the domestic launch of the review, the Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs [[Julie Bishop]] highlighted four SDGs of particular importance to Australia: [[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]] (gender equality), [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] (decent work and economic growth), [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] (life below water) and [[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]] (peace, justice and strong institutions).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hub|first=IISD's SDG Knowledge|title=Australia Delivers VNR, Holds Senate Inquiry on SDG Implementation {{!}} News {{!}} SDG Knowledge Hub {{!}} IISD|url=http://sdg.iisd.org/news/australia-delivers-vnr-holds-senate-inquiry-on-sdg-implementation/|access-date=2020-09-19|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== SDG Progress Reports ===
In November 2020, the Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report stated that while Australia was performing well in health ([[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]) and education ([[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]) it was falling behind in the reduction of {{CO2}} emissions ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]), waste and environmental degradation ([[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG15]]), and addressing economic inequality [[Sustainable Development Goal 10|(SDG 10]]).<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Monash Sustainable Development Institute|date=|title=Transforming Australia SDG Progress Report - 2020 Update|url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-02-01|website=SDG Transforming Australia|page=3|language=en-US}}</ref>
Of the 56 SDG indicators applied in the report, 12 were considered on track to meet the 2030 targets, 23 were determined to be off track, 11 required a breakthrough and 10 need to improve.<ref name=":4" />
The 2020 report built on the targets and measures of progress developed in 2018, where that report scored Australia's overall performance at 6.5 out of 10 - an average of Australia's performance across all 17 goals.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=5 September 2018|title=Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report - Summary Dashboard|url=https://www.monash.edu/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/1471991/transforming-australia-sdg-progress-report-summary-dashboard-05092018.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/|archive-date=22 September 2020|access-date=|website=SDG Transforming Australia}}</ref>
=== SDG Index ===
In 2020, Australia's overall performance in the SDG Index is ranked 37th out of 166 countries (down from 18th out of 34 countries in 2015).<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Australia's SDG Index ratings (2015 - 2020)
|'''Year'''
|'''Ranking / No. of countries'''
|'''Score'''
|'''Reference'''
|-
|2015
|Equal 18th /34
|6.65 / 10
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|2016
|20/ 149
|74.5 / 100
|<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Durand-Delacre, D. and Teksoz, K. (2016): [https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2016/2016_sdg_index_and_dashboards_report.pdf SDG Index and Dashboards - Global Report]. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)</ref>
|-
|2017
|26 / 157
|75.9 / 100
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=July 2017|title=SDG Index and Dashboards Report 2017 - Global Responsibilities - International spillovers in achieving the goals, Table 1.5 {{!}} The SDG Index, p10|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2017/2017_sdg_index_and_dashboards_report.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
|-
|2018
|37 /156
|72.9 / 100
|<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2018): [https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2018/2018_sdg_index_and_dashboards_report.pdf SDG Index and Dashboards Report 2018]. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN)</ref>
|-
|2019
|38 / 162
|73.9 / 100
|<ref>Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G. (2019): [https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2019/2019_sustainable_development_report.pdf Sustainable Development Report 2019]. New York: Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN).</ref>
|-
|2020
|37 / 166
|74.9 / 100
|<ref name=":6" />
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Assessment in 2020 - SDG Dashboard<ref>{{Cite web|last=Australia|first=The Sustainable Development Goals and Covid-19|date=|title=Sustainable Development Report 2020|url=https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/static/countries/profiles/Australia.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
!SDG
!Status
!SDG Trends
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG 1]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]
|Major challenges
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]
|Achieved
|On track and maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]
|Significant challenges
|On track and maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]
|Major challenges
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]
|Significant challenges
|On track and maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]
|Significant challenges
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]
|Challenges remain
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]
|Major challenges
|Information unavailable
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]
|Major challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]
|Significant challenges
|Stagnating
|}
=== Reviews by academics ===
Australia is not on-track to achieve the SDGs by 2030.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Allen|first1=Cameron|last2=Metternicht|first2=Graciela|author-link2=Graciela Metternicht|last3=Wiedmann|first3=Thomas|last4=Pedercini|first4=Matteo|date=November 2019|title=Greater gains for Australia by tackling all SDGs but the last steps will be the most challenging|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0409-9|journal=Nature Sustainability|language=en|volume=2|issue=11|pages=1041–1050|doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0409-9|s2cid=207990746 |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> Four modelled scenarios based on different development approaches found that the 'Sustainability Transition' scenario could deliver "rapid and balanced progress of 70% towards SDG targets by 2020, well ahead of the business-as-usual scenario (40%)".<ref name=":3" />
=== Private sector ===
A review of corporate sustainability reports from the top 150 Australian public-listed companies ([[Australian Securities Exchange|ASX]]150) has found that while reporting on the SDGs is rising the quality of disclosure is lacking.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 2020|title=SDG Measurement and Disclosure 2.0: A study of ASX150 companies|url=https://www.unaa.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/UNAA-RMIT-ASX-150-SDG-Report.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> The [[RMIT University]]/[[United Nations Association of Australia]] report found 48% of companies mentioned the SDGs. While 45% of companies disclosed how they were prioritising selected SDGs, "very few companies link business goals and targets with the SDGs which makes assessing real progress towards achieving them difficult to determine".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Report from RMIT and UNAA finds Australian companies are lagging on transparent sustainability|url=https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/all-news/2020/aug/un-report-australian-companies-failing-sustainability|access-date=2020-09-20|website=www.rmit.edu.au|language=en}}</ref>
== Challenges ==
[[File:Flag of Australia (Brighter).svg|thumb|Australian flag]]
=== Senate inquiry and recommendations ===
In December 2017, The Australian Senate referred the SDGs to its Foreign Affairs, Defence and References Committee for a Senate Inquiry. Five public hearings were held and 164 written submissions were reviewed. A majority of the submissions focused on best practice.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=June 2020|title=No-one left behind: Implement the Sustainable Development Goals in Australia, p27|url=https://www.flipsnack.com/Whitlam/no-one-left-behind-implementing-the-sdgs-in-australia.html|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> The Committee released its report, with 18 recommendations, in February 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last=The Senate|first=Australian Government|date=19 February 2019|title=Inquiry into the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - Report|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> The report made a number of recommendations to strengthen SDG co-ordination and governance by establishing a national SDG secretariat to provide the IDC more support (Recommendation 4), the IDC regularly share resources on international best practice across government (Recommendation 7), undertakes a SDG literate review annually and updates links to its information resources and partners with stakeholders to develop and disseminate Australian information resources (Recommendation 8).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Senate Inquiry into the SDGs Report|first=Australian Government|date=19 February 2019|title=18 Recommendations.|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report/b01|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
Among the Committee recommendations are a national SDG implementation plan, the formation of a cross-sector consultation group to advise the Government's IDC on the SDGs and regular mandatory reporting of the country's performance against the goals.
The Senate report included a dissenting report from [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] Senators, concerned that many of the recommendations would create unnecessary bureaucracy, regulation and expense for no benefit. The Government's decision to mainstream the SDGs across its agencies and the create of inter-departmental committee from the very beginning, had already put in place the foundations needed to purse the goals. On this basis, the dissenting Senators "encouraged the Government to ignore the recommendations of the majority report".<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=19 February 2019|title=Senate Inquiry into the UN SDGs Report - Dissenting Report from Coalition Senators|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report/d01|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
The committee's first recommendation is the publication of a national SDG implementation plan that "includes national priorities and regular reports of Australia's performance against the goals".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee|first=Parliament of Australia, The Senate|date=14 February 2019|title=United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/SDGs/Report|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-14|website=www.aph.gov.au|language=en-AU}}</ref> More than a year after this recommendation was made, "the government is yet to release such a plan or indicate when such a roadmap will be presented".<ref>{{Cite web|title=The goals for Australia to do better|url=https://www.whitlam.org/publications/2020/6/24/the-goals-for-australia-to-do-better|access-date=2020-09-14|website=Whitlam Institute|language=en-AU}}</ref> As of June 2020, none of these recommendations have been implemented by the Government.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=17 June 2020|title=No One Left Behind: Implementing the Sustainable Development Goals in Australia|url=https://www.whitlam.org/publications/2020/6/17/no-one-left-behind-implementing-the-sustainable-development-goals-in-australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
==== Reception ====
In 2018, the [[Australian Council for International Development|Australian Council For International Development (ACFID)]] CEO, Marc Purcell, gave Australia a ''<nowiki/>'good effort, but must try harder''' mark for self-assessing its progress against international bench-marks. The Australian Government recognised shortcomings and championed good practice and it acknowledged the goals as 'the' blue print for a 'whole of Australia' collective response to shared global challenges. "With such goodwill and understanding", Marc Purcell asks, "why is Australia falling behind?".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Purcell|first=Marc|date=22 June 2018|title=Australia is risking a toxic legacy|url=https://acfid.asn.au/blog-post/australia-risking-toxic-legacy|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=24 September 2020|website=Australian Council For International Development (ACFID)}}</ref>
[[Sustainable Development Solutions Network|SDSN]] Australia, New Zealand & Pacific said the VNR was a significant step in Australia's affirmation in its commitment to the SDGs, however to meet the 2030 targets more urgency is required to move beyond “business as usual”.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-22|title=Australia's Voluntary National Review released|url=http://ap-unsdsn.org/australias-voluntary-national-review-released/|access-date=2020-09-19|website=SDSN Australia, New Zealand and Pacific|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Society and culture ==
=== Higher education ===
A number of Australian universities have established leading faculties and institutes with clear links to the SDG agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2018-06-26|title=Voluntary National Review, p16|url=https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/about/voluntary-national-review|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Sustainable Development Goals|language=en}}</ref>
In the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings|Times Higher Education]]’s second annual Impact Rankings, which ranks institutions contributions to the planet’s economic and social well-being, four Australian universities rank in the top 10 ([[University of Sydney]], [[Western Sydney University]], [[La Trobe University]], [[RMIT University]]), eight in the top 50 and 15 in the top 100. It is the only global performance table that assess universities against the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-04|title=Impact Ranking|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/rankings/impact/2020/overall|access-date=2020-09-20|website=Times Higher Education (THE)|language=en}}</ref>
=== COVID-19 pandemic response ===
A group of Australian businesses, industry groups, universities and civil society organisations has called on the Australian Government to use the SDGs as a framework for Australia's recovery from the economic impacts of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Australia|COVID-19 pandemic]]. In a letter to the Australian [[Scott Morrison|Prime Minister]], 52 organisations said the SDGs outline a path to 2030 that leaves no one behind and asked the Government to consider "building on the achievements that Australia has made against the United Nations Sustainability Development Goals".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Call on Federal Government to use the SDGs as a framework for economic recovery {{!}} Global Compact Network Australia|url=https://unglobalcompact.org.au/call-on-federal-government-to-use-the-sdgs-as-a-framework-for-economic-recovery/|access-date=2020-09-20|website=unglobalcompact.org.au}}</ref>
The Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report - Update 2020 included an evaluation of the effects of COVID-19 on Australia's capacity to achieve the SDGs. It reported that trends emerging before the pandemic - higher levels of unemployment, poverty and psychological distress - have been amplified and "could fracture Australian society".<ref name=":4" />
== See also ==
* [[Addis Ababa Action Agenda]]
*[[Climate change in Australia]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/ Australian Government's Reporting Platform on the SDG Indicators]
* [https://sdgs.org.au/ Australian SDGs website]
* [https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/ SDG Transforming Australia]
{{Sustainable Development Goals}}
[[Category:Foreign relations of Australia]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:International sustainable development]] |
Sustainable Development Goals and Lebanon | {{Short description|Plans towards the advancement of the Sustainable Development Goals in Lebanon}}
'''Sustainable Development Goals and Lebanon''' explains major contributions launched in Lebanon towards the advancement of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] SDGs and the 2030 agenda.
Lebanon adopted the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. It presented its first Voluntary National Review VNR in 2018 at the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|High Level Political Forum]] in New York. A national committee chaired by the Lebanese Prime Minister is leading the work on the SDGs in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebanon .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230064134/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon |archive-date=30 December 2020 |access-date=2020-10-04 |website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> In 2019, Lebanon's overall performance in the SDG Index ranked 6th out of 21 countries in the Arab region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luomi |first1=M. |url=https://www.sdgindex.org/reports/2019-arab-region-sdg-index-and-dashboards-report/ |title=Arab Region SDG Index and Dashboards Report 2019 |last2=Fuller |first2=G. |last3=Dahan |first3=L. |last4=Lisboa Båsund |first4=K. |last5=de la Mothe Karoubi |first5=E. |last6=Lafortune |first6=G. |publisher=SDG Centre of Excellence for the Arab Region/Emirates Diplomatic Academy and Sustainable Development Solutions Network |year=2019 |page=5}}</ref>
Multi-stakeholder forums were held by different UN agencies including the [[United Nations|UN]] Global Compact Network in Lebanon during the late 2010s for the advancement of Global Goals and their Impact on Businesses in Lebanon. The latest two were held on October 18, 2018 and October 2019 under the title of connecting the global goals to Local Businesses.<ref name=":26">{{Cite web |last=Global Compact Network Lebanon (GCNL) |date=2015 |title=Our Mission |url=https://www.globalcompact-lebanon.com/about/}}</ref>
== Background ==
[[File:Flag of Lebanon.svg|thumb|Flag of Lebanon]]
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.png|thumb|The 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]]]]
=== Sustainable Development Prioritized Goals ===
Lebanon has always faced different challenges in terms of creating a clear vision plan that would develop and advance policy to improve the SDG implementation strategy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Green Growth Knowledge Platform|url=https://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/|access-date=2021-01-02|website=Green Growth Knowledge Platform|language=en}}</ref> However, there are developmental attempts by The United Nations Global Compact to lead impactful initiatives to integrate best SDG practices on terms of advancing the private sector bto meet up with 2030 Agenda expectations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Impact Initiatives {{!}} UN Global Compact|url=https://www.unglobalcompact.org/take-action/globalimpactinitiatives|access-date=2021-01-02|website=www.unglobalcompact.org}}</ref>
=== Lebanese Contributions to SDG Agenda ===
Lebanon has been a lively participant in the process associated with the SDGs. Initially, it contributed to the report back presented in the UN Conference on Sustainable Development. Lebanon has also been part of the national consultations to produce inputs during the formulation of the SDGs, and so participated within the summits referring to sustainable development and therefore the SDGs. Lebanon endorsed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and also the SDGs in September 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SDGs in Lebanon|url=https://www.un.org.lb/english/sdgs-in-lebanon|access-date=2021-01-01|website=United Nations Lebanon|language=en}}</ref>
In 2015, there was a global call to advance leadership attention on poverty, inequality, and the climate change crisis. For this to happen, on 25 September 2015 world leaders assembled at the United Nations headquarters in New York, to adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development replacing MDGs.
In this 2030 Agenda, 17 new Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were listed to act as a guided path for the upcoming 15 years to make the world a better place for anyone, anywhere.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable Development Goals {{!}} UNDP in Lebanon|url=https://www.lb.undp.org/content/lebanon/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html|access-date=2021-01-01|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref>
Lebanon’s showed a complex performance indicator regarding MDGs. Hence, Lebanon has been a target for development challenges on all levels, social economical, and environmental. The Syrian crisis increased the severity of the challenges.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sustainable Development Goals|date=|title=Voluntary National Review 2018|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
There was no actual improvement on the level of bringing to light the need for a national developmental strategy to enhance SDG status in Lebanon all way through 2016. Adding to this, the originally found issue linked to the Syrian crisis impact on the wellbeing of the country prevented further infrastructure advancement.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The 2030 Agenda in Lebanon: Promotion of the private sector at the expense of obstructing sustainable development {{!}} Social Watch|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/node/17792|access-date=2021-01-01|website=www.socialwatch.org}}</ref> [[File:Beirut old.jpg|alt=|thumb|War Damaged Building in Beirut]]
=== Lebanon and the Millennium Development Goals ===
In 2000, the United Nations General Assembly embraced the [[United Nations Millennium Declaration|Millennium Declaration]], setting eight worldwide targets – the [[Millennium Development Goals]] to be achieved by 2015. The MDGs targeted different critical issues from poverty and education to the private sector's enrollment in the country's advancement.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=SDGs in Lebanon|url=https://www.un.org.lb/english/sdgs-in-lebanon|access-date=2020-09-24|website=United Nations Lebanon|language=en}}</ref> Lebanon submitted two reports on the [[Millennium Development Goals]], in 2003 and 2008 respectively. The second report made eight recommendations, which included the need to create a private-public partnership for health, the promotion of the ICT sector as an economy driver, promote development finance and facilitate favorable market access for Lebanese goods and WTO accession.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|date=2008|title=Millennium Development Goals|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/2008-Millenium-Development-Goals-Lebanon-Report.pdf|journal=Lebanon Report}}</ref>
Since then, Lebanon has been in turmoil following multiple events resulting in political and security instability. The 2006 war damaged infrastructure and public services and caused the contamination of agricultural lands, and the coastal sea due to a large oil spill. The hostilities resulted caused the death of 1200 civilians and injured around 5000 people, 15% of whom are now with permanent disabilities.<ref name=":6" /> The war's toll on the Lebanese economy, communities and human capital, impacted progress on the MDGs.
On June 5, 2012, leading up to the world summit, the President of the Republic of Lebanon addressed the people calling for a "conscience awakening". He acclaimed that the Rio+20 summit is a "milestone on the path that we took in re-placing Lebanon on the international map and stressing on its civilizational and cultural status in the world." His call to action was around making Lebanon a country of freedom and coexistence but most importantly, development.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2012|title=National Report To The United Nations Conference On Sustainable Development (Rio+20)|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/2012-National-Report-Lebanon-Rio20.pdf|journal=Sustainable Development in Lebanon: Status and Vision}}</ref>
Later on in 2013, 5 key priorities were identified during focus groups and national consultations. First, the country needed basic services mainly in the areas of health and education. Second, there was a major need for good governance and political reforms to tackle corruption and sectarian politics. It was also essential to advance structural reforms such as the secularization of the state and the adoption of a sound electoral law that secures the equitable representation of all the Lebanese and the creation of a culture of citizenship. The third major priority was around peace building and conflict prevention. The fourth one was about the enhancement of the infrastructure and public transportation and finally the fifth priority was about inclusive growth and job creation.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2013|title=The Lebanon We Want: Post 2015 National Consultations in Lebanon|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/Post-2015-Lebanon-Report-The-Lebanon-We-Want.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref>
=== Lebanon and the Sustainable Development Goals ===
The [[2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] was adopted by all United Nations Member States back in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs|url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals|access-date=2020-09-24|website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> The SDGs are a set of 17 global goals to transform our world. They are an urgent call for action addressed by and for all countries for a global partnership. The SDGs span across different developmental areas including poverty, equality, education, economic growth and more. The 2030 agenda has [[List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators|160 targets and 230 indicators.]]<ref>United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]]</ref>
In September 2015, Lebanon endorsed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the SDGs. A [[ESCWA]] report, prepared in cooperation with the Lebanese Ministry of Environment in early 2015, identified six sustainable development priorities for Lebanon.
* Achieve employment generating economic growth;
* Build institutional and administrative capacities and improve governance;
* Improve social protection systems for all groups and address inequalities;
* Achieve energy security;
* Develop infrastructure and sustainable cities;
* Protect natural habitats and biodiversity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|title=The Sustainable Development Framework in Lebanon: A National Assessment|url=http://www.databank.com.lb/docs/Sustainable%20Development-ESCWA-2015.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref>
The report noted that these priorities are aligned with the [[SDGs]], particularly [[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]] (energy), [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]] (growth and employment), [[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]] (infrastructure and cities), [[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]] (inequality), [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]] (ecosystems) and [[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]] (institutions).<ref name=":7" />
== Reporting Platforms ==
=== National Government's Data Reporting Platform on the SDG indicators ===
The Lebanese government established an institutional mechanism to give stakeholders the opportunity to participate in the SDG reporting process. There is also a national committee established by the council of ministers for the SDGs. This committee is chaired by the prime minister and includes more than 50 state officials.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2018|title=Voluntary National Review (VNR) On Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/19484Lebanon_VNR_2018.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref> The committee has launched a website dedicated to the present the progress of this national committee towards achieving the 2030 Agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SDGs in Lebanon|url=http://sdglebanon.pcm.gov.lb/|access-date=2020-09-24|website=sdglebanon.pcm.gov.lb}}</ref>
There is also a legislative institutional mechanism to monitor the SDGs within the Lebanese parliament. Ministries are also taking into consideration the integration of the SDGs within their planning such as the ministry of public health or industry.<ref name=":1" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Summary of some projects and initiatives led by the Lebanese Government to support the SDGs<ref>{{Cite web|last=Trade|first=Ministry of Economy and|title=Support to SMEs {{!}} Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) {{!}} Ministry Of Economy & Trade, Republic of Lebanon|url=http://www.economy.gov.lb//en/services/support-to-smes/sustainable-development-goals-sdgs|access-date=2020-09-25|website=www.economy.gov.lb|language=ar}}</ref>
!
!Representative Organization\Body
!Initiatives\Projects
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 1|SDG1]]
|The Ministry of Social Affairs
|National Poverty Targeting Program (NPTP) Project
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 2|SDG 2]]
|Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Economy and Trade
|
* Strategy 2015–2019<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ministry of Agricultural|date=2014|title=Ministry of Agricultural Strategy|url=http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/leb149670.pdf|journal=Ministry of Agriculture}}</ref> promoting principles of good governance
* The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon, IDAL<ref>{{Cite web|last=IDAL,invest in Lebanon|date=2020|title=Who We Are|url=https://investinlebanon.gov.lb/en/about_us}}</ref>
* Agricultural loans for farmers by the Central Bank
* Governmental monetary control over wheat bread prices
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 3|SDG 3]]
|Ministry of Public Health
|Integrating SDG targets and indicators within its structural framework
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 4|SDG 4]]
|Lebanese government
|Adopting the strategy of equal educational opportunities for all
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 5|SDG 5]]
|Lebanese Government
|
* NCLW's Strategy for Women's Affairs in Lebanon 2011–2021
* A ten–year strategy to empower women<ref>{{Cite journal|last=National Strategy for Women in Lebanon|date=2017–2019|title=National Action Plan (2017-2019)|url=https://womeninleadership.hivos.org/timeline/assets/2018/08/44-National-Strategy-for-Women-in-Lebanon-2011-2021-_-NCLW.pdf.pdf|journal=National Strategy for Women in Lebanon}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 6|SDG 6]]
|Lebanese Government
|Updating water resource supplies and protecting wastewater networks
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 7|SDG 7]]
|Council of Ministers
|A 5 Year strategy to enhance the electricity sector<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation (LCEC)|date=2016–2020|title=The National Renewable Energy Action Plan for the Republic of Lebanon 2016-2020|url=http://lcec.org.lb/Content/uploads/LCECOther/161214021429307~NREAP_DEC14.pdf|journal=Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation (LCEC)}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]]
|Ministry of Economy and Trade
|Lebanon SME Strategy: A roadmap to 2020<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ministry of Economy and Trade|date=2014|title=Lebanon SME Strategy: A roadmap to 2020|url=http://www.economy.gov.lb/media/10312/lebanon-sme-strategy-english-web.pdf|journal=UNDP Projects}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 9|SDG 9]]
|Ministry of Industry
|Integrating the vision of a better Lebanese industry by 2025
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]]
|Ministry of Public Health
Ministry of Labour
|
* Social protection policies and health insurance
* A five-year intensive strategy with the support of [[International Labour Organization|ILO]]
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 11|SDG 11]]
|The Ministry of State for Planning
|Improving a national urban Strategy and the ‘Habitat III National Report for Lebanon’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=The Council for Development and Reconstruction|date=2016|title=Habitat III National Report Final Report|url=https://www.un.org.lb/Library/Assets/habitaten.pdf|journal=Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR)}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 12|SDG 12]]
|The Ministries of Environment and Industry
|Lebanon's Action Plan for Sustainable Consumption and Production for the Industrial Sector in 2015<ref>{{Cite web|last=Switch Med|date=2015|title=Lebanon's Action Plan for Sustainable Consumption and Production for the Industrial Sector|url=https://switchmed.eu/resources/}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 13|SDG 13]]
|Council of Ministers
|Lebanon signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 which was under study until further time period
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 14|SDG 14]]
|Council for Development and Reconstruction
|National Physical Master Plan of the Lebanese Territory
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]
|Lebanese government
|
* National Action Plan to Combat Desertification
* National Afforestation and Reforestation Programme and the 40 Million Trees Programme
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 16|SDG 16]]
|Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Emigrants collaborating with EU
|Drafting a national counter terrorism strategy
|-
|[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]]
|Lebanese and French Governments
|Lebanon - CEDRE Conference (6 April 2018)<ref>{{Cite web|last=étrangères|first=Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires|title=Lebanon - CEDRE Conference (06.04.18)|url=https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/lebanon/news/article/lebanon-cedre-conference-06-04-18|access-date=2020-09-25|website=France Diplomacy - Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs|language=en}}</ref>
|}
== Performance ==
=== Voluntary National Reviews ===
==== 2018 Voluntary National Review ====
Lebanon presented its first Voluntary National Review (VNR) at the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development|UN High Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development]] (HLPF) in 2018.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Lebanon: Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/lebanon|access-date=2020-09-24|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref>
The VNR highlighted the importance of public-private-partnerships in the Lebanese economy and the need for SDG financing and private sector mobilization. The Syrian refugee crisis and its impact on public services and the economy has made the implementation of the 2030 Agenda very challenging.<ref name=":1" />
The VNR was prepared by an independent national committee chaired by the Prime Minister. Workshops, meetings, and consultation sessions were conducted with national stakeholders.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Haddad|first1=Dany|last2=Zoghaib|first2=Riwa|date=2018|title=Lebanon: Progress Towards SDGs 16: A Civil Society Report Report on SDG 16.4, 16.5, 16.6 and 16.10|url=https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/kproducts/SDG_Parallel-Report_2018_Lebanon.pdf|journal=The Lebanese Transparency Association|page=8}}</ref>
The VNR introduced the present conjuncture of the SDG implementation in Lebanon in the areas where the agreement with the 2030 agenda is still fragile or absent.
Lebanon used a certain methodology to write the VNR. The collection of data from primary resources, included extensive consultation with key ministries, parliament, and other state entities, was done as a first step. A survey consisting of short questions was also sent to all relevant public-sector administrations to gather facts and details on national policies and strategies related to the SDGs. Moreover, three workshops with government representatives, business sector, and civil society took place. Twenty-three interviews with individual stakeholders including academia were performed.<ref name=":1" /> The second step consisted of a review of secondary sources including sectoral strategies, ministry reports, plans and legislations. Thematic publications as well as reports by UN agencies and well-established international organizations were also used.
=== SDG Index ===
In 2020, Lebanon's overall performance in the SDG Index ranked 95th out of 166 countries. Lebanon scored 66.7<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=SDG Index|first=Lebanon|title=Sustainable Development Report 2020|url=https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/static/countries/profiles/Lebanon.pdf}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Assessment in 2020 - SDG Dashboard<ref name=":4" />
!SDG
!Status
!SDG Trends
|-
|SDG 1
|Achieved
|On track or maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|SDG 2
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 3
|Significant Challenges Remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 4
|Significant challenges remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 5
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 6
|Significant challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 7
|Challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 8
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 9
|Significant challenges remain
|Moderately improving
|-
|SDG 10
|Significant challenges remain
|Information unavailable
|-
|SDG 11
|Significant challenges remain
|Decreasing
|-
|SDG 12
|Significant Challenges Remain
|Information unavailable
|-
|SDG 13
|Challenges Remain
|On track or maintaining SDG achievement
|-
|SDG 14
|Major Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 15
|Significant Challenges remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 16
|Significant Challenges Remain
|Stagnating
|-
|SDG 17
|Significant challenges remain
|Decreasing
|}
=== Private Sector ===
==== SDGs implementation and the private sector ====
Notably, the private sector in Lebanon plays a vital contribution to the overall development of the country. As stated in “Together towards Sustainable Development” a project implemented by The UNDP Lebanon they reported that the private sector has that ability and power to advance the country's status towards SDG developmental initiatives that has a positive effect over all other SDGs mainly SDG9.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Watch {{!}} www.socialwatch.org|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/|access-date=2021-01-01|website=www.socialwatch.org}}</ref> The private sector represents 80 percent of Lebanon's GDP. The major contributing sections are baking and finance, construction, trade and tourism.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|date=2018|title=Promotion of the private sector at the expense of obstructing sustainable development|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/sites/default/files/2017-SR-LEBANON-eng.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref> As such, the private sector is a key player for the overall strategy of the Lebanese government by providing investments and reinforcing public services through partnerships with the private sector. In 2013, a draft law on [[Public–private partnership|public-private partnerships]] (PPPs) was launched by the Higher Council on Privatization.<ref name=":5" />
In 2012, UNDP launched the “Strategy for Working with the Private Sector”, to advance sustainable human development by engaging the private section and support "appropriate inclusive market-based solutions and approaches.”<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Private Sector Strategy|url=http://www.undp.org/content/dam/lebanon/docs/Operations/LegalFramework/UNDP%20Lebanon%20PS%20Strategy.pdf|journal=Report}}</ref> The strategy explains that UNDP will be working with the private on two different fronts. First, UNDP will "act as an incubator" for the development of private sector projects on national and regional levels, thus contributing to [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|SDG 8]], economic growth. Second, UNDP will promote private sector engagement advancing the 10 principles of the UN Global Compact. Examples of partnerships with the private sector include technical and financial assistance, resource transfer, facilitating innovative private investments and advocacy.
[[File:Making Global Goals Middle East - Lebanon .jpg|thumb|Making Global Goals Middle East Forum - Lebanon, 2019.]]
The main platform that groups corporate sustainability initiatives in Lebanon is the local chapter of the [[United Nations Global Compact|UN Global Compact]]. The compact advances the 10 principles of the UN Global Compact and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals at the country level. The main mission of the local network is to build a strong understanding of responsible business and highlight sustainability commitments and efforts of Lebanese businesses and other stakeholders such as NGOs, organizations and academia. The compact works on capacity building by mainstreaming a principle-based approach to the SDGs and provide good business practices to lead the way.
The UN Global Compact Network Lebanon advances the UN Global Compact initiatives, the Ten Principles, and the UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) at the country level. Its purpose is to build understanding of responsible business practices among Lebanese businesses and facilitate engagement with NGOs, government, academia and other businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About|url=https://www.globalcompact-lebanon.com/about/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=UN Global Compact Lebanon|language=en-US}}</ref> The compact organizes local workshops, conferences and forums around the 17 SDGs including Lebanon Collaboration for the SDGs and Making Global Goals Local Business Middle-East.
== Implementation and Progress ==
=== SDG 1: No Poverty ===
In [[Lebanon]], initiatives are implemented to support the poorest and most vulnerable communities. However, Lebanon is suffering regardless all the efforts being made. In this sense, many remain below the poverty line and risk being left behind. Considering some statistical facts, 27% of Lebanese are considered poor, spending less than $270 per month. In 2015, 70% of [[Syrians|Syrian]] refugees in Lebanon spent less than $120 a month, 65% of [[Palestinians|Palestine]] [[refugee]]s in Lebanon spent less than $210 a month and 90% of Palestine refugees from Syria spent less than $80 a month.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 2 : Zero Hunger ===
The issue in Lebanon regarding this goal is not about sufficiency of good food but the lack of its accessibility to everyone. For this, considering the statistical indicators, 16.5% of children under 5 years old in are stunted, meaning they are not developing properly due to [[malnutrition]]. About 11% of Lebanese, 93% of Syrian refugees, 62% of Palestine refugees in Lebanon, and 94% of Palestine refugees from Syria cannot meet their basic food needs.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 3: Good Health and Wellbeing ===
Lebanon has witnessed important advances that increased life expectancy and reducing some of the common killers such as coronary heart disease and respiratory diseases, and in improving access to quality health services. But, there are a lot of efforts in progress to improve the population’s health and ensure affordable health care for everyone.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 4: Quality Education ===
Lebanon has a significant increase in the rate of enrollment in primary education and that is a significant increase in the educational status of the youth.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Goal 4: Quality education {{!}} UNDP in Lebanon|url=https://www.lb.undp.org/content/lebanon/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html|access-date=2021-01-03|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref>
It is noted that Lebanese youth show significantly high literacy rates with a 90 percentage entrance rate in primary education. This high rate of enrollment is due to its mandatory and free aspect in public schools.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Voluntary National Review 2018|url=https://www.globalcompact-lebanon.com/library/voluntary-national-review-2018/|access-date=2021-01-03|website=UN Global Compact Lebanon|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== SDG 5: Gender Equality ===
It is important to note that Lebanon has proven solid achievements when it comes to equality and empowerment. Women are still suffering from inequality, on the social, political, legal and labor market aspects. In the 2016 municipal elections about 100 more women were elected than in the 2010 municipal elections, still women only represent 5.5% of the municipal council seats. Only 23.5% of women are part of the labor market, whereas the proportion of men is 70.3%. And, only 3 percent of national parliamentary seats are held by women.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation ===
Important improvements have been made on the level of implementing SDG 6. Most Lebanese have improved access to water supply yet the population experiences frequent water shortages. One of the issues faced is that in some Lebanese areas, the water is not safe to drink. Although, Lebanon has a relatively well established water and wastewater networks still a limited amount of water and wastewater is treated and managed safely. In this sense, up to 70% of natural water sources in Lebanon are bacterially contaminated. In 2012 Lebanon extracted 0.7 billion cubic meters of groundwater, but the groundwater is only replenished with 0.5 billion cubic meters each year.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy ===
It is vital aspect of Lebanese attempts in approaching SDG 7 by having a high potential to deviate away from oil as a main fuel for energy and depend more on renewable energy from resources such as sun, wind and water. Considerable efforts are needed to enhance greenhouse gas emissions and the affordability of energy. In Lebanon up to 4.5% of electricity comes from hydropower and up to 95.5% from oil. In 2012 Electricité du Liban (EDL) only met 63% of the demand for electricity in Lebanon. Around 53% of Lebanon’s total greenhouse gas emissions were from the energy sector in 2012.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth ===
Lebanon has witnessed immense struggle with respect to its growth rate. It is important to mention that regardless these struggles, the Lebanese economy has shown a high level of resilience in the face of regional instability, supported by sectors such as tourism and construction. It is a continuous challenge for Lebanon to generate sufficient jobs which shows that high unemployment rates, especially of women and youth, as well as high emigration of educated youth out of Lebanon. It is estimated that in Lebanon youth unemployment is 21.6% and is constantly rising.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ===
Lebanon is known for its youth entrepreneurial activities. This reputation of having a vibrant entrepreneurship atmosphere has helped small businesses to grow. A challenging aspect of Lebanese industry is related to the manufacturing exports rate that decreased by almost 30% from 2012 to 2015.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities ===
Inequalities have different faces in Lebanon that is related to income, consumption and social aspects, particularly between Beirut and rural areas. Geographical gaps exist and increased due to the manner of sending the funding directly to municipalities, particularly affecting municipalities in rural areas. Notably speaking the richest 20% in Lebanon account for 40% of all consumption, five times more than the poorest 20%. Lebanon does not have a civil code guaranteeing equal treatment for all in personal status matters such as marriage, custody and inheritance, but rather has 15 separate personal status laws that are linked to religious sects. Another important fact is that, the 244 most vulnerable municipalities host 87% of all displaced persons from Syria.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities ===
It is well known about Lebanon that it has a rich urban cultural heritage, with a number of the world’s oldest cities. However, huge demographic changes took place, like the increase in conflict urbanization and waves of external and internal displacements. This increased challenge makes it more difficult to sustain social coherence and ensure inclusion. Around 90% of the population in Lebanon live in urban areas and about 30% live in the Beirut metropolitan area alone. Adding to this, the majority of Syrian refugees live in urban areas, often in high density poor neighborhoods and sometimes in vulnerable conditions. More, 63% of Palestinian refugees in Lebanon and 55% of Palestinian refugees from Syria live inside camps, most of which are located in urban areas.<ref name=":0" />
=== SDG 12: Responsible Production and Consumption ===
As an attempt to reduce pollution, ever since 2000, Lebanon has implemented environmental legislation requiring industries to minimize their pollution.
But, environmental governance at municipal level and national level regulation and enforcement needs to be further strengthened for better recycling and waste management. In this sense, Lebanon was able to reduce consumption of CFC (a substance that depletes the ozone layer) from 928 tons to 0 tons in less than fifteen years. In 2010, 17% of household solid waste was recycled while 83% was sent to landfills or open dumps, including potentially hazardous forms of waste.
=== SDG 13: Climate Action ===
Lebanon has signed several conventions, such as the [[Paris Agreement on Climate Change|Paris Agreement on climate change]], and established several institutions dedicated to the protection of the environment. The country is vulnerable to extreme weather like winter floods and extended hot summer days.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} In this regard, it is expected that Lebanon can do more to reduce its contribution to climate change and increase the capacities of institutions working with environmental issues.<ref name=":0" /> Lebanon increased its greenhouse gas emissions, gases that are harmful to the environment and contribute to climate change, by nearly 5% annually between 1994 and 2012.{{Update inline|date=January 2021|reason=}} It is estimated that by 2040 rainfall in Lebanon will have decreased by 10-20%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebanon {{!}} Near East Network on Wildlands Forest Fire – NENFIRE {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/in-action/nenfire/projects/lebanon/en/#:~:text=By%202040,%20rainfall%20is%20projected,on%20plants%20and%20water%20shortages. |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> Currently, sea levels in Lebanon will rise with up to 60 cm in the next 30 years.<ref name=":0" />{{When|date=January 2021}}
=== SDG 14: Life below Water ===
=== SDG 15: Life on Land ===
=== SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions ===
=== SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals ===
== Challenges ==
On July 18, 2018: the Ministerial Meeting of the 2018 session of the UN High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) publicly shared the representation of 46 Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) for three days. Its purpose was to share the development and challenges faced by the participant countries when implementing the SDGS.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hub|first=IISD's SDG Knowledge|title=Final VNR Presenters Share SDG Progress, Constraints {{!}} News {{!}} SDG Knowledge Hub {{!}} IISD|url=https://sdg.iisd.org:443/news/final-vnr-presenters-share-sdg-progress-constraints/|access-date=2020-09-24|language=en-US}}</ref>
Critical challenges would disqualify Lebanon from implementing the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development Goals. These challenges include: political instability, refugee crisis, socioeconomic policy choices, social protection, taxes, lack of data, and lack of gender equality.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Ziad Abdel Samad|date=2016|title=Structural challenges and obstacles to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda|url=https://www.socialwatch.org/sites/default/files/2016-SR-Lebanon-eng.pdf|journal=Arab NGO Network for Development (ANND)|pages=8}}</ref>
The VNR included some challenges facing the implementation of the SDGs in Lebanon including the lack of strong statistical system and database for the SDG targets and indicators as well as a lack in capacity building. Public sector administration institutional capacities need to be reinforced with the help of UN bodies and international entities.<ref name=":1" />
=== Political obstacles ===
The political system in Lebanon is described by the agreed division of power leading to imbalanced structure of governance. This results in political conflicts affecting the economic and institutional performance of both the public and private sector. This ineffective distribution of power leads to weak fragile institutional strategic planning and the absence of transparency. Consequently, corruption prohibits investments and developmental global project implementation.<ref name=":3" /> The result of this political distribution represents a limitation in decision-making towards any project or advancement.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Christophersen|first=Mona|date=2017-05-08|title=Sustainable Institutions Critical for Lebanon's Sustainable Development|url=https://theglobalobservatory.org/2017/05/lebanon-sustainable-development-goals-inequality/|access-date=2020-09-25|website=IPI Global Observatory|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Refugees crisis ===
Lebanon has faced a complex approach regarding more than one million Syrians resorted to the country for shelter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janmyr|first=Maja|date=2018-03-16|title=UNHCR and the Syrian refugee response: negotiating status and registration in Lebanon|journal=The International Journal of Human Rights|volume=22|issue=3|pages=393–419|doi=10.1080/13642987.2017.1371140|issn=1364-2987|doi-access=free|hdl=1956/17996|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Lebanon was well known as the country that has integration of refugees within its population. This overpopulation of refugees affects the infrastructure negatively.<ref name=":3" /> This results in imbalanced distribution of developmental projects towards a better status of the country. Refugees, mainly Palestinians and Syrians, suffered for a long time from unequal policies for they are known as the nations who are left behind. As a report dating back to 2019, Lebanon and Jordan face the same increased crisis with 17% and 7% of the overall population respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Are Refugees Located Near Urban Job Opportunities?|url=https://www.cgdev.org/publication/are-refugees-located-near-urban-job-opportunities|access-date=2021-01-02|website=Center For Global Development|language=en}}</ref> The challenges faced by those communities were related to the need for mental health support, need for more advanced educational strategies and projects, and enhanced gender disparity status.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Samar Zebian|date=2018|title=MASHROU3 INSAN|url=https://www.aub.edu.lb/ifi/Documents/publications/research_reports/2017-2018/20180704_mashrou3_insan.pdf|journal=Issam Fares Institute Fo Public Policy and International Affairs|pages=34}}</ref>
In October 2014, a governmental change took place regarding the rearrangement of Syrian refugees. Its main goal was to reduce the total number of Syrian refugees and at the same time encourage them to return to Syria, it is still an ongoing target listed on the governmental agenda.
=== Socioeconomic policy choices ===
The economical structure in Lebanon depends on a focused model on banking and financial systems and sectors. The need for rebuilding the country post the civil war depended on over-borrowing from international bodies. This is done for an exchange rate from the donors increasing a public debt that the country can't face. This concentration of investments in specific sectors failed to improve the county's economic status and attract new advanced projects from investors that would have boosted all the goals targeted by the 2030 agenda.<ref name=":3" /> Poverty and unemployment rates have increased within the youth giving little space for growth enhancement and a sense of competitiveness.<ref>{{Cite web|last=ILO|date=2017–2020|title=Decent Work Country Programme For Lebanon 2017|url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---arabstates/robeirut/documents/genericdocument/wcms_656561.pdf}}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Sustainable Development Goals}}
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Politics of Lebanon]] |
Category:Sustainable urban planning | {{Commons}}
{{Cat main|Sustainable city}}
Articles related to [[sustainability|sustainable]] [[urban planning]]:
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Aid for Trade | [[File:Fourth Global Review of Aid for Trade 2002 (9240992540).jpg|thumb|right|Fourth Global Review of Aid for Trade, 2013]]
'''Aid for Trade''' is an initiative by the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), as well as a policy concept in international [[Economic development|economic]] and [[Trade and development|trade development]], concerned with helping [[developing countries]] and particularly the [[least developed countries]] build trade capacity and [[infrastructure]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=WTO {{!}} Development - Aid for Trade fact sheet|url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/a4t_e/a4t_factsheet_e.htm|access-date=2020-09-21|website=www.wto.org}}</ref><ref name="oecd" /><ref name="un" />
Aid for Trade is included in [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] concerning "decent work and economic growth", which is one of the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] which were established by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 2015. Target 8.a aims to "Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular, least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries."<ref name=":172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref>
In 2018, aid for trade commitments remained stable, at $58 billion, based on current prices.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=2020|title=United Nations World Economic Situation and Prospects|url=http://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/WESP2020_FullReport.pd|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-02|website=undocs.org}}</ref> [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]] received the highest share thereof (31.4 per cent), followed by [[sub-Saharan Africa]] (29.2 per cent).<ref name=":03"/> Lower-middle-income countries received 37.5 per cent of aid for trade, followed by least developed countries (36.8 per cent).<ref name=":03"/>
==Overview==
[[File:Aid for Trade Global Review 2017 – Day 1 (35486819660).jpg|thumb|Photos from the WTO Aid for Trade Global Review 2017 photo gallery may be reproduced provided attribution is given to the WTO and the WTO is informed. Photos: © WTO/Jay Louvion]]
Aid for Trade includes measures to help countries develop trade strategies, plans or projects and implementation, such as building [[road]]s, [[port]]s, and [[telecommunication]]s that link domestic and [[global markets]], or investing in [[Industry (economics)|industries]] and sectors to help diversify [[export]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WTO {{!}} Aid for Trade - gateway|url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/a4t_e/aid4trade_e.htm|access-date=2020-09-21|website=www.wto.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade |url=https://ustr.gov/issue-areas/trade-development/trade-capacity-building/aid-trade |website=USTR.gov |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref>
Many have credited Aid for Trade with economic improvements in developing countries,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adhikari |first1=Radhakar |title=Targeting Aid for Trade for Impactful Capacity-Building in the Least Developed Countries |journal=Global Policy |date=26 September 2019 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=408–412 |doi=10.1111/1758-5899.12705 |s2cid=204423461 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1758-5899.12705 |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hussain |first1=Zaidi |title=Aid for trade, and not merely trade, is what country needs |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1945737/aid-trade-not-merely-trade-country-needs |accessdate=22 September 2020 |publisher=Express Tribune |date=8 April 2019}}</ref> while others point out that not all trade initiatives are successful and some of the funding is lost to [[corruption]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Aid for trade – reducing the barriers and increasing the benefits |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2013/aug/16/aid-for-trade-development-infrastructure |accessdate=22 September 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=21 August 2013}}</ref>
The [[OECD]] and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] established an 'aid-for-trade monitoring framework' to track progress in implementing the Aid-for-Trade Initiative. It consists of the following elements:<ref name="oecd" />
* mainstreaming and prioritising trade (demand).
* mainstreaming and prioritising trade (demand)
* trade-related [[project]]s and programmes (response).
* enhanced capacity to [[trade]] (outcome).
* improved trade performance and reduced [[poverty]] (impact).
==Value of commitments==
[[File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by donor, OWID.svg|thumb|right|Total commitments by donor country, 2015]]
[[File:Total official flows commitments for Aid for Trade, by recipient, OWID.svg|thumb|right|Total commitments by recipient country, 2017]]
According to the [[United Nations|UN]], in 2017, the global total value of Aid for Trade disbursements exceeded USD 43 billion, with an additional {{circa}} USD 15 billion committed.<ref name="un">{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade |url=https://developmentfinance.un.org/aid-trade |website=UN.org |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref> Increasing Aid for Trade support is included as an objective in the United Nations [[Sustainable Development Goal 8|Sustainable development goal 8]] "decent work and economic growth" indicator 8.a.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8.a increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, particularly LDCs, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for LDCs – Indicators and a Monitoring Framework|url=https://indicators.report/targets/8-a/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=indicators.report}}</ref>
The [[European Union|EU]] and its member states are the largest contributor of Aid for Trade.<ref name="ec">{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade: Helping developing countries to achieve prosperity through trade and investment |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_4488 |website=European Commission |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref>
In 2018, aid for trade commitments remained stable, at $58 billion, based on current prices.<ref name=":03"/> [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]] received the highest share thereof (31.4 per cent), followed by [[sub-Saharan Africa]] (29.2 per cent).<ref name=":03" /> Lower-middle-income countries received 37.5 per cent of aid for trade, followed by least developed countries (36.8 per cent).<ref name=":03" />
==Origins and oversight==
The Aid for Trade initiative was launched at the [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 2005|World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference]] in December 2005,<ref>{{Cite web|title=WTO {{!}} Ministerial conferences - Hong Kong 6th Ministerial|url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min05_e/min05_e.htm|access-date=2020-09-21|website=www.wto.org}}</ref><ref name="oecd">{{cite web |title=Aid for Trade |url=http://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/ |website=OECD.org |accessdate=22 September 2020}}</ref> and in 2007, the WTO started implementation of its February 2006 recommendations of the Aid for Trade Task Force as it moved into its first stage.
The purpose of the Global Review is to provide strong monitoring and evaluation for the Aid for Trade agenda. Global Review events have been held under the themes of “Maintaining Momentum”, “Showing Results”, and “Connecting to Value Chains” in 2009, 2011 and 2013 respectively.
*First Global Review 2007
*Second Global Review 2009
*Third Global Review 2011
*Fourth Global Review 2013
*Fifth Global Review 2015
*Sixth Global Review 2017
*Seventh Global Review 2019
*Eighth Global Review 2022
== Sustainable development ==
Aid for Trade is included in the [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] about "decent work and economic growth" which is one of the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] which were established by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 2015. The official wording for Target 8.a is to "Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular, least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries."<ref name=":172" />
This target has one indicator. Indicator 8.a.1 is the "Aid for Trade commitments and disbursements".
The indicator 8.a.1 is measured as total Official Development Assistance (ODA) allocated to aid for trade in 2015 US$.
==See also==
* [[Development Assistance Committee]]
* [[OECD]]
*[[Sustainable Development Goal 8|Sustainable Development Goals]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2-what-is-aid-for-trade.pdf 'What is Aid for Trade?' (Australian government briefing paper)]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]
[[Category:Trade]]
[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Sport and sustainable development | {{Orphan|date=October 2020}}
'''Sport and sustainable development''' is the integrated principle for explaining how [[sport]] functions as a platform for [[sustainable development]] outcomes and how the concept of sustainable development applies to sport.<ref name="Lindsey, I., & Darby, P. (2019). Sport and the Sustainable Development Goals: Where is the policy coherence?. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 54(7), 793-812.">{{cite journal|last1=Lindsey|first1=I.|last2=Chapman|first2=T.|date=2017|title=Enhancing the contribution of sport to the sustainable development goals.|journal=Commonwealth Secretariat}}</ref>
== Pathways ==
The integration of sport with sustainable development reflects on two pathways.<ref name="Loland, S. (2006). Olympic sport and the ideal of sustainable development. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 33(2), 144-156.">{{cite journal|last=Lawson|first=H. A.|date=2005|title=Empowering people, facilitating community development, and contributing to sustainable development: The social work of sport, exercise, and physical education programs.|journal=Sport, Education and Society|volume=10|pages=135–160|doi=10.1080/1357332052000308800|s2cid=54868804}}</ref><ref name="Lawson, H. A. (2005). Empowering people, facilitating community development, and contributing to sustainable development: The social work of sport, exercise, and physical education programs. Sport, education and society, 10(1), 135-160.">{{cite journal|last=Loland|first=S.|date=2006|title=Olympic sport and the ideal of sustainable development|journal=Journal of the Philosophy of Sport|volume=33|issue=2|pages=144–156|doi=10.1080/00948705.2006.9714698|s2cid=145132682}}</ref>
* Promoting sustainable development of sport,
* Using sport for promoting sustainable development in society<ref name="Loland, S. (2006). Olympic sport and the ideal of sustainable development. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 33(2), 144-156." />
== Shared perspectives ==
The economic perspective focuses on the connection between sport and [[economic growth]] at the local, regional, national, and international levels, including sport finance and [[economics]], sustainable financial plans and strategies, and sport application.<ref>Lawson, H. A. (2005). Empowering people, facilitating community development, and contributing to sustainable development: The social work of sport, exercise, and physical education programs. ''Sport, education and society'', ''10''(1), 135-160.</ref>
The [[Ecology|ecological]] perspective examines the critical issue of the [[climate crisis]] and highlights climate action's need.<ref>Mallen, C., Stevens, J., & Adams, L. J. (2011). A content analysis of environmental sustainability research in a sport-related journal sample. ''Journal of Sport Management'', ''25''(3), 240-256.</ref>
The [[Technology|technological]] perspective discusses the technological innovations in sport and analyzes how sport-related technological advancements can enhance global sustainable development goals.<ref>Green Sport Alliance. (2020). ''Solar electric guide for your stadium or arena'' (2nd Edition). Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/stadium-solar-guide.pdf</ref>
The political perspective examines the sport's unique advantage of [[global governance]] through many international sport organizations, both for-profit and non-profit.<ref>Chatzigianni, E. (2018). Global Sport Governance: Globalizing Globalized. ''Sport in Society,'' 21(9), 1454-1482. {{doi|10.1080/17430437.2017.1390566}}</ref>
== United Nations ==
In practice, efforts have started to increase on the newly developed endeavor of sport and sustainable development. [[United Nations]] have recognized the importance of sport in implementing [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]] (SDGs).<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations|title=Sport and sustainable development goals|url=https://www.un.org/sport/sites/www.un.org.sport/files/ckfiles/files/Sport_for_SDGs_finalversion9.pdf}}</ref> According to 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development A/RES/70/1, paragraph 37, <blockquote>"Sport is also an important enabler of sustainable development. We recognize the grow- ing contribution of sport to the realization of development and peace in its promotion of tolerance and respect and the contributions it makes to the empowerment of women and of young people, individuals and communities as well as to health, education and social inclusion objectives." </blockquote>
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sports culture]] |
Official development assistance | {{Short description|Type of international aid}}
{{About|a particular category of international aid|more general aspects|Aid|and|Development aid}}
{{Image frame
| align=right
| caption=Annual overall quantity of ODA, 1970–2019 (data from OECD Statistics DAC Table 1)<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD Statistics |url=https://stats.oecd.org/ |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref>
| pos=bottom
| content = {{Graph:Chart
| width = 350
| height = 150
| type = stackedarea
| yAxisTitle = US$ billions (2018 prices)
| legend =
| y1Title=Non-DAC donors
| y2Title=DAC donors
| x = 1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
|xAxisAngle = -90
| y1 = 2,3,4,11,18,22,20,17,22,19,24,21,14,11,11,9,9,6,3,3,11,5,2,2,2,1,2,2,2,2,2,1,5,5,4,3,5,5,8,6,6,8,5,14,22,11,16,17,20,17
| y2 = 41,42,46,40,46,49,47,49,55,55,61,59,66,66,70,72,73,72,78,75,81,84,85,78,78,70,70,66,72,73,76,78,84,88,93,123,116,107,119,121,128,127,122,128,130,138,154,153,150,149
}}
}}
'''Official development assistance''' ('''ODA''') is a category used by the [[Development Assistance Committee]] (DAC) of the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) to measure [[aid|foreign aid]]. The DAC first adopted the concept in 1969. It is widely used as an indicator of international aid flow. It refers to material resources given by the governments of richer countries to promote the economic development of poorer countries and the welfare of their people. The donor government agency may disburse such resources to the government of the recipient country or through other organizations. Most ODA is in the form of [[Grant (money)|grants]], but some is measured as the concessional value in [[Soft loan|soft (low-interest) loans]].
In 2019, the annual amount of state donor aid counted as ODA was US$168 billion, of which US$152 billion came from DAC donors.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 spending helped to lift foreign aid to an all-time high in 2020: Detailed note|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/ODA-2020-detailed-summary.pdf|access-date=2021-04-15|website=OECD}}</ref>
==Concept and definition==
In order to co-ordinate and measure international aid effectively, the DAC needs its members to have agreed clear criteria for what is counted as aid. The precise type of aid to be counted was given the name of official development assistance (ODA) (where "official" indicates that the aid is public and from governments).
The full definition of ODA is:
{{Blockquote|Flows of official financing administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as the main objective, and which are concessional in character with a grant element of at least 25 percent (using a fixed 10 percent rate of discount). By convention, ODA flows comprise contributions of donor government agencies, at all levels, to developing countries ("bilateral ODA") and to multilateral institutions. ODA receipts comprise disbursements by bilateral donors and multilateral institutions. |OECD|Glossary of Statistical Terms<ref>[http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=6043 OECD Glossary of statistical terms, ''Official Development Assistance (ODA)'']</ref>}}
In other words, ODA needs to contain the three elements:
# undertaken by the <u>official sector</u> (official agencies, including state and local governments, or their executive agencies)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/investment/stats/34086975.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-06-05 |archive-date=2014-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606225836/http://www.oecd.org/investment/stats/34086975.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
# with promotion of economic <u>development</u> and welfare as the main objective; and
# at <u>concessional</u> financial terms (if a loan, having a grant element of at least 25 per cent).
This definition is used to exclude development aid from the two other categories of aid from DAC members:
* '''Official Aid''' (OA): Flows which meet conditions of eligibility for inclusion in Official Development Assistance (ODA), other than the fact that the recipients are on Part II of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) List of Aid Recipients.
* '''Other Official Flows''' (OOF): Transactions by the official sector with countries on the List of Aid Recipients which do not meet the conditions for eligibility as Official Development Assistance or Official Aid, either because they are not primarily aimed at development, or because they have a grant element of less than 25 percent.
For example:
* If a donor country accords a grant or a concessional loan to [[Afghanistan]] it is classified as '''ODA''', because it is on the Part I list.
* If a donor country accords a grant or a concessional loan to [[Bahrain]] it is classified as '''OA''', because it is on the Part II list.
* If a donor country gives military assistance to any other country or territory it is classified as '''OOF''', because it is not aimed at development.
=== Developments since inception ===
The concept of ODA was adopted by the OECD DAC in 1969, creating a standard of international aid based on "promoting the economic and social development of developing countries" in a way that was "intended to be concessional in character". This clarified previous conceptions of aid or development assistance; some grants and loans were now differently categorized as "other official flows (OOF)". It marked an advance on the effort to define aid that had been made in the DAC's 1962 "Directives for reporting aid and resource flows to developing countries". The establishment of ODA provided a basis for most DAC members to commit to the target, set by the United Nations General Assembly in 1970, that economically advanced countries should devote 0.7% of their national incomes to international aid.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Führer|first=Helmut|title=The story of official development assistance|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/1896816.pdf|access-date=2021-03-22|website=OECD|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=The DAC: 50 years, 50 highlights|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/47072129.pdf|access-date=2021-03-26|website=OECD}}</ref>
The definition of ODA was made firmer in 1972, specifying that qualifying loans should have a grant element of at least 25%. At the same time, donors (except Italy) adopted a target that at least 84% of their overall ODA should be grant, or count as grant element, rather than commercially repayable loan. This proportion was increased to 86% in 1978.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
The legitimacy of "tied aid" (aid dependent on the use of exports from the donor country) had been debated periodically in the DAC. In 1992 the DAC adopted rules for ODA restricting tied aid to lower-income countries and less "commercially viable" projects: restrictions that had been pushed by the U.S. to reduce protectionism in the world trading system. The DAC made a further recommendation on untying in 2001.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
In 2012 the DAC began a process of modernizing its statistical system and reforming some of the ways in which ODA is counted.<ref name=":2" /> In 2014 the DAC donors agreed that ODA should measure the "grant equivalent" of loans estimated at the time of the loan, rather than loan inflows and outflows as they occurred. It took five years, however, before this was implemented.<ref name=":2" /> Between 2016 and 2018 the rules were clarified for counting incidental developmental contributions by foreign military forces when deployed in underdeveloped countries for peace and security purposes. In this period there was also clarification of the criteria for counting some in-donor refugee costs as humanitarian assistance ODA. In 2019, the DAC switched its main reporting of ODA loans to the grant equivalent basis. But this approach creates problems for the accounting of debt relief within ODA, and donors only reached consensus on how to treat this in 2020.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Modernisation of the DAC statistical system|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/modernisation-dac-statistical-system.htm|access-date=2021-03-26|website=OECD}}</ref>
As of 2020, two major items remained as works in progress in the aid modernization agenda: the counting of aid provided through private sector instruments (PSIs), and the construction of a system for measuring broader contributions to global public goods in support of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The latter type of aid is expected to be recorded as Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (TOSSD), and will be a separate category from ODA.<ref name=":2" />
=== 0.7% target ===
The target of spending 0.7% of gross national income on ODA is the best known international aid target. It was formalised on 24 October 1970, when the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution which included the goal that "Each economically advanced country will progressively increase its official development assistance to the developing countries and will exert its best efforts to reach a minimum net amount of 0.7% of its gross national product at market prices by the middle of the Decade [by 1975]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=The 0.7% ODA/GNI target - a history - OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/the07odagnitarget-ahistory.htm |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=www.oecd.org}}</ref><ref>[https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/348/91/IMG/NR034891.pdf?OpenElement International Development Strategy for the Second United Nations Development Decade] (p. 5). [https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/25 Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly at its 25th session]. A/RES/2626(XXV), C.2, Agenda Item 42, A/PV.1883, 24 Oct. 1970, A/8124 and Add .2.</ref> Sweden and the Netherlands were the first countries to meet the target, in 1974, but it has been met by few other countries since.<ref name=":8" />
==Quantitative analysis ==
{{Image frame
| align=right
| caption='''Annual total ODA from DAC donors, 1960-2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
| pos=top
| content = {{Graph:Chart
| width = 350
| height = 150
| type = line
| yAxisTitle = US$ billions (2018 prices)
| x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
|xAxisAngle = -90
| y1 = 37,40,41,41,42,45,43,42,44,43,41,42,46,40,46,49,47,49,55,55,61,59,66,66,70,72,73,72,78,75,81,84,85,78,78,70,70,66,72,73,76,78,84,88,93,123,116,107,119,121,128,127,122,128,130,138,154,153,150,149
| y2 = 0
}}
}}
{{Image frame
| align=right
| caption='''Annual percentage of DAC donors' GNI given as ODA, 1960-2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
| pos=top
| content = {{Graph:Chart
| width = 350
| height = 150
| type = line
| yAxisTitle = % of combined GNI
| x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
|xAxisAngle = -90
| y1 = 0.51,0.54,0.53,0.51,0.48,0.48,0.44,0.41,0.41,0.37,0.33,0.32,0.34,0.27,0.32,0.34,0.31,0.31,0.33,0.33,0.35,0.32,0.36,0.34,0.34,0.33,0.34,0.33,0.34,0.31,0.32,0.32,0.32,0.29,0.29,0.26,0.24,0.22,0.23,0.22,0.22,0.21,0.23,0.24,0.25,0.32,0.30,0.27,0.30,0.31,0.31,0.31,0.28,0.30,0.30,0.30,0.32,0.31,,,
| y2 = 0
| colors = orange
}}
}}
{{Image frame
| align=right
| caption='''Annual ODA from five biggest donors and remainder, 1960-2019'''<ref>Although ODA was only officially instituted in 1969, the OECD provides data for ODA equivalent aid going back to 1960.</ref><br />Constant (2018) prices. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|pos=top
| content = {{Graph:Chart
| width = 290
| height = 150
| type = line
| yAxisTitle = US$ billions at 2018 prices
| legend=Donor
| x = 1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
|xAxisAngle = -45
| y1 = 4,4,4,4,4,5,6,7,7,8,9,10,11,11,12,14,14,15,16,17,18,19,21,20,23,23,26,25,27,28,27,28,30,28,28,26,26,26,28,28,29,31,33,33,34,42,41,43,47,45,47,46,43,43,44,49,51,49,48,48
| y2 = 18,20,22,23,23,25,23,19,22,18,16,15,18,12,15,15,15,15,17,13,19,14,18,17,18,19,19,18,19,14,20,19,19,16,16,11,14,10,13,13,14,16,18,22,26,35,29,26,31,34,34,35,34,34,35,33,36,36,34,32
| y3 = 2,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,4,5,4,5,6,6,6,5,6,8,8,8,8,9,8,9,8,8,8,9,9,10,10,9,9,8,9,8,7,8,8,8,8,9,9,11,12,12,13,12,13,13,13,14,16,20,27,27,26,25
| y4 = 4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,5,5,6,4,5,4,4,4,4,4,3,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,5,4,6,6,6,7,8,10,11,8,10,11,13,13,13,17,17,17,19,19,19,20
| y5 = 7,8,8,6,6,6,5,6,6,6,5,5,5,5,5,5,5,5,5,6,6,7,8,8,9,9,8,9,9,10,10,11,11,11,11,10,9,9,8,8,7,7,8,9,9,11,11,9,10,12,12,12,12,10,10,10,10,12,13,12
| y6 = 1,1,1,1,1,2,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,4,4,4,4,4,5,6,7,6,7,8,9,8,8,9,10,10,11,12,11,10,11,11,8,9,11,11,12,10,10,9,8,13,11,8,9,8,9,8,8,11,9,10,10,12,10,12
| y1Title=others
| y2Title=USA
| y3Title=Germany
| y4Title=UK
| y5Title=France
| y6Title=Japan
| colors=darkgreen,gold,black,red,blue,pink,
}}
}}
=== Overall quantity ===
In 2019, the annual amount of state donor aid counted as ODA was US$168 billion, of which US$152 billion came from DAC donors.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> In the decade 2010–2019, average annual ODA was US$151.5 billion (in 2018 prices).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Statistics on resource flows to developing countries: Table 6|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/statisticsonresourceflowstodevelopingcountries.htm|access-date=2021-03-30|website=OECD}}</ref>
Historically, the amount of ODA disbursed every year rose approximately four-fold in real terms during the 60 years from 1960. The level was rather stagnant up to 1973 (although inflation meant that it grew in nominal terms). It generally rose from 1973 to 1992, then declined to 1997, then increased again.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2021-04-15|title=OECD.Stat|url=https://stats.oecd.org/|access-date=2021-03-13|website=[[OECD]]}}</ref>
=== ODA as a proportion of donor national incomes ===
The proportion of their combined gross national income (GNI) spent by DAC donors on ODA decreased from over 0.5% in 1961 to less than 0.3% in 1973. After that, while donors' incomes continued to grow, the level of ODA remained around 0.3 - 0.35%, except when it dipped below that level in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The USA - the donor with the largest economy - spent more than 0.5% of its GNI on ODA prior to 1966, but this proportion gradually dropped, reaching a low point of 0.1% in the late 1990s, and standing at 0.15% in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=OECD.Stat|url=https://stats.oecd.org/|access-date=2021-03-13|website=[[OECD]]}}</ref>
===Quantities of ODA from leading donors===
{{main|List of development aid country donors}}
Since 1960 the five largest donors of ODA have been: the US, Germany, the UK, Japan and France. See chart on the right.
The top 10 donors of ODA (by absolute amount transferred) in 2019 were: United States, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Japan, Turkey, Netherlands, Sweden, Canada and Italy. See pie chart below. Of these, Turkey is the only non-member of the DAC. Turkey's large ODA contribution is associated with the great numbers of Syrian refugees in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=OECD.Stat|url=https://stats.oecd.org/#|publisher=OECD|access-date=2021-03-19}}</ref>
{{Image frame
| align=none
| caption='''ODA from the ten biggest donors, 2019'''<br />Numbers shown are US dollar billions (2019 prices). Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|pos=top
| content ={{Graph:Chart
| width=100
| height=100
| type=pie
| legend=Donor
| x=United States, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Japan, Turkey, Netherlands, Sweden, Canada, Italy, others
| y1=33.0, 24.1, 19.4, 12.0, 11.7, 8.7, 5.3, 5.2, 4.5, 4.3, 18.3
| showValues=
| colors=gold,black,red,darkblue,pink,green,orange,yellow,brown,blue,lightgray
}}
}}
=== Donor countries by percentage of gross national income ===
The OECD also lists countries by the amount of ODA they give as a percentage of their [[gross national income]]. In 2019 six countries met the longstanding UN target for an ODA/GNI ratio of 0.7%. The ratios of the five most generous donors in this sense, and the five highest-volume donors, are shown in the chart below.
In 2021, the UK reduced its annual aid budget from 0.7% of gross national income to 0.5%.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-08 |title=Foreign aid: Who will be hit by the UK government cuts? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/57362816 |access-date=2022-06-26}}</ref>
{{Image frame
| align=none
| caption='''ODA as % of GNI: the five most generous donors, and the five biggest donors in 2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
| pos=top
| content ={{Bar chart
| table_style = font-size:10px;
| title =
| label_type = Donor
| data_type = ODA as % of GNI in 2019
| bar_width = 50
| width_units = em
| data_max = 1.5
| label1 = {{flag|Turkey}} : 1.15% <ref>Turkey is not a member of the DAC. Its high standing is due to its support for the large number of Syrian refugees in the country.</ref>
| data1 = 1.15
| color1 =green
| label2 = {{flag|Norway}} : 1.03%
| data2 = 1.03
| color2 =purple
| label3 = {{flag|Luxembourg}} : 1.03%
| data3 = 1.03
| color3 =lightblue
| label4 = {{flag|Sweden}} : 0.96%
| data4 = 0.96
| color4 = yellow
| label5 = {{flag|Denmark}} : 0.72%
| data5 = 0.72
| color5 = grey
| label6 = {{flag|United Kingdom}} : 0.70%
| data6 = 0.70
| color6 = red
| label7 = {{flag|Germany}} : 0.61%
| data7 = 0.61
| color7 = black
| label8 = {{flag|France}} : 0.44%
| data8 = 0.44
| color8 = darkblue
| label9 = {{flag|Japan}} : 0.30%
| data9 = 0.30
| color9 = Pink
| label10 = {{flag|United States}} : 0.15%
| data10 = 0.15
| color10 = gold
}}
}}
===Quantities of ODA by recipient country===
{{Further|List of countries by Official Development Assistance received}}
In 2019, Syria was the focus of more ODA than any other country, at $10.3 billion. Next were Ethiopia ($4.8 billion), Bangladesh ($4.5 billion), Yemen ($4.4 billion) and Afghanistan ($4.3 billion). China, Indonesia and Thailand were negative recipients: their repayments of past ODA loans were higher than their new receipts.<ref name="OECD.Stat Table DAC1">{{cite web|title=OECD.Stat (Table DAC1)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/#|publisher=OECD|access-date=2021-03-19}}</ref> See choropleth map below.
{{Image frame
|align=none
|width=700
|pos=top
|caption='''ODA received in 2019 (US$ millions)'''<br />Note: Hover cursor over a country to see the amount of ODA it received. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|content=
{{Choropleth world map
| title=ODA received in 2019
| table=OdaReceived2019.tab
| column=oda_received
| columnName=ODA received
| year=2019
}}
}}
According to estimates that the OECD made in 2014, 28 countries with an aggregate population of around 2 billion people will cease to be ODA eligible by 2030. They include emerging markets such as China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Malaysia, Thailand and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Krempin|first1=Michael|title=Beyond the threshold|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/far-fewer-countries-will-be-eligible-receive-oda-future-means-problems-sdg-finance|website=D+C, Development and Cooperation|date=31 July 2019 }}</ref>
=== ODA by aid type (channel) ===
{{Image frame
|align=none
|pos=top
|caption='''ODA by aid type, 2019'''<br />Figures given are US$ billions. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|content= {{Graph:Chart
| width=100
| height=100
| type=pie
| legend=Aid type
| x=Budget support, Bilateral core contributions & pooled programmes & funds, Project-type interventions, Experts and other technical assistance, Scholarships and student costs in donor countries, Administrative costs not included elsewhere, Other in-donor expenditures, Private sector instruments, Multilateral ODA, other.
| y1=2.3, 24.5, 50.6, 5.5, 3.5, 8.4, 10.0, 3.7, 43.0, 0.1
| showValues=
}}
}}
=== Multilateral ODA ===
Most ODA is bilateral, meaning that its state donor is identifiable at the point of delivery to intended beneficiaries. Multilateral ODA, on the other hand, is aid given into a pool administered by some intermediate organisation, so that the delivered aid is no longer attributable to a particular original state donor. In 2019, 28% of all ODA was multilateral. The main organizations for multilateral ODA were the European Union, the IDA (the concessional lending branch of the World Bank), regional development banks and UN agencies.<ref name="OECD.Stat Table DAC1"/>
{{Image frame
|align=none
|pos=top
|caption='''ODA multilateral channels, 2019'''<br />Figures given are US$ billions. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 1
|content= {{Graph:Chart
| width=100
| height=100
| type=pie
| legend=Type of multilateral
| x=Bilateral, UN agencies, EU institutions, IDA and other World Bank, Regional development banks, other multilateral
| y1=108.7, 7.5, 15.5, 9.5, 3.8, 7.1
| showValues=
}}
}}
=== ODA use by sector ===
The breakdown given by OECD of sectors in which ODA was used in 2019 is shown in the chart below.
{{Image frame
| align=none
| caption='''ODA by sector in 2019'''<br /> Figures given are US$ billions. Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 5
| pos=top
| content = {{Graph:Chart
| width=100
| height=100
| type=pie
| legend=Sector
| x=Education, Health & population policies, Water supply & sanitation, Government & civil society, Economic infrastructure and services, Production sectors, Multi-sector / cross-cutting, Commodity aid / general program assistance, Humanitarian aid, Unallocated / unspecified / not allocable by sector
| y1=10.4, 12.7, 5.4, 16.3, 22.0, 9.3, 11.7, 2.4, 17.9, 43.6
| showValues=
}}
}}
=== Tied ODA ===
{{Image frame
| align=right
| caption='''Proportion of tied aid in bilateral ODA commitments, 1979-2019'''<br />Data from [https://stats.oecd.org OECD.Stat] DAC Table 7b
| pos=top
| content = {{Graph:Chart
| width = 260
| height = 150
| type = stackedarea
| yAxisTitle = %
| x = 1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019
|legend=
|y1Title=Untied
|y2Title=Partly untied
|y3Title=Tied
| y1 = 44,44,44,45,46,47,47,49,43,49,44,59,59,48,56,66,69,71,83,81,85,80,79,85,91,90,91,88,84,87,84,79,81,85,83,83,78,84,87,81,82
| y2 = 5,4,6,7,12,8,7,8,18,10,9,7,8,12,7,3,4,3,3,7,4,3,3,3,2,1,2,0,0,0,0,6,4,0,4,3,3,3,2,3,2
| y3 = 51,52,50,48,43,45,45,42,35,41,46,32,33,40,35,30,27,25,14,12,11,17,18,12,7,9,7,11,16,13,15,15,15,16,15,16,20,13,12,16,16
}}
}}
Tied aid is aid given on condition that the money is used to buy things from the donor country or a severely limited group of countries. The legitimacy of tied ODA has long been a point of contention within the DAC.<ref name=":0" /> Targets have been set to reduce tying: for example in the 2005 Paris Declaration<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|date=2012|title=Aid Effectiveness 2011: Progress in Implementing the Paris Declaration|url=https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/aid-effectiveness-2011_9789264125780-en|access-date=2021-04-21|website=OECD|page=}}</ref> and the DAC's "Recommendation" on untying, first agreed in 1998 and subsequently maintained in revised forms.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Revised DAC recommendation on untying ODA|url=https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD/DAC(2018)33/FINAL/en/pdf|access-date=2021-03-31|website=OECD}}</ref> Official monitoring of performance against these targets is, however, undermined by a discrepancy between what the OECD calls ''de jure'' and ''de facto'' rates of tying, i.e. what the donors report and what they do.<ref name=":3" /> A major review of the Paris Declaration targets found that, in 2009, 51% (by value) of contracts was spent in the country of the donor, even though donors were reporting only 14% of their aid as tied. The report pointed out that most DAC members failed to use a public bulletin board to advertise contract tenders.<ref name=":22" /> The OECD's 2020 report on tied aid found this failure was still widespread.<ref name=":6" /> Hence the official statistics on tied ODA must be treated with caution.
In 2019 five DAC members declared giving more than half of their ODA in the form of tied aid (Greece 100%, Hungary 78%, Poland 75%, Slovenia 74%, Austria 55%). The largest donor, the US, gave almost 40% of its ODA as tied aid, amounting to US$11.0 billion. Overall, DAC donors in 2019 reported US$22.1 billion – about 20% – of their ODA as tied aid.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Statistics on resource flows to developing countries: Tables 23 and 24|url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/statisticsonresourceflowstodevelopingcountries.htm|access-date=2021-03-31|website=OECD}}</ref> Historically, the reported proportion of tied aid dropped from about 50% in 1979 to less than 10% in 2003, but rose again, and fluctuated between 15 and 20% between 2007 and 2019 (see chart on the right). This was despite agreement by the donors in the 2005 Paris Declaration to further reduce their tying of aid.<ref name=":22" />
While the last paragraph refers to the proportion of tied aid in overall ODA, the DAC "Recommendation" on untying applies only to Low-Income Countries and a few other countries.<ref name=":3" /> In 2018, 87% of all DAC ODA to these countries was reported as being untied. While 19 of the 30 DAC members claimed to have untied more than 90% of their ODA to these countries, the average was dragged down mainly by the United States, which reported only 64% untied aid to these recipients. (The United States, however, was one of the few DAC countries that systematically posted open tenders for its untied aid on a public bulletin board.)<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=2021-03-12|title=2020 Report on the DAC Recommendation on Untying ODA|url=https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD/DAC(2020)54/FINAL/en/pdf|access-date=2021-03-15|website=OECD}}</ref>
== Problem areas and alternatives ==
{{For|broader criticisms of aid|Aid effectiveness|Aid|Development aid|Humanitarian aid}}
=== Problem areas ===
ODA is widely acknowledged to be an untidy and somewhat arbitrary category of aid, its definition having been agreed by the DAC members only with difficulty and awkward compromises. Arbitrariness is seen in the fixing of the qualifying rates of loan concessionality and the applied discount rates.<ref name=":7" /> While in the past these rates were set at 25% and 10% respectively, as of 2021 the rates are different for different kinds of recipient<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official development assistance – definition and coverage|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm|access-date=2021-04-17|website=OECD}}</ref> but may still be regarded as in some ways arbitrary.
The criterion that ODA must primarily serve "economic development and welfare" leads to dissatisfaction because these two things are often seen as different priorities, and there are differing views about what actions are effective in leading toward development. For example, some stakeholders are particularly interested in progress toward economic convergence of rich and poor countries, and for this purpose the inclusion of humanitarian aid within ODA can seem an interference.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web|last1=Severino|first1=Jean-Michel|last2=Olivier|first2=Ray|date=1999|title=The End of ODA: Death and Rebirth of a Global Public Policy|url=http://www.cosv.org/download/centrodocumentazione/End_of_ODA_FINAL.pdf|access-date=2021-04-15|website=Center for Global Development|page=18}}</ref>
Seen as a measure of donor countries' contribution to a common effort or to altruistic purposes, ODA is criticized for including expenditures that may mostly benefit the donor country or that are already included in that country's international legal obligations. Such types of spending include tied aid, administrative costs, imputed costs of education for foreign students in the donor country, subsistence of refugees inside donor countries, and "development awareness" programmes in donor countries.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Hynes|first1=William|last2=Scott|first2=Simon|date=2013-12-01|title=The Evolution of Official Development Assistance: Achievements, Criticisms and a Way Forward|url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/the-evolution-of-official-development-assistance_5k3v1dv3f024-en|journal=OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers|language=en|pages=8–10|doi=10.1787/5k3v1dv3f024-en|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The counting of loans in ODA is problematic. Until 2018, loan disbursements were counted in full as aid in the year they were given, and repayments were negative aid in the year they were returned. Some DAC members considered this method "did not reflect actual efforts by donor countries"<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 2021|title=What is ODA?|url=https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/What-is-ODA.pdf|access-date=2021-04-17|website=OECD}}</ref> (perhaps particularly when looking at an individual year). So in 2014 the DAC decided to record the "grant equivalent" of loans as ODA in the year the loan was agreed. This involves complex estimation: the exact methodology took years to finalize and was only first implemented in 2019. Even then, there was no agreement in the DAC on how to treat debt relief. When this agreement was reached, in 2020, it was criticized by commentators as producing a situation in which risky loans, subsequently defaulted, could count for as much ODA as simply giving a grant for the whole amount, yet cost less to the donor if some of the repayments have been made.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rivera|first=Jorge|date=2020-08-13|title=Why the DAC's latest move is bad for global development|url=https://www.one.org/international/blog/dac-latest-rules-bad-for-aid/|access-date=2021-04-17|website=One.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ritchie|first=Euan|date=2020-09-09|title=Measuring ODA: Four Strange Features of the New DAC Debt Relief Rules|url=https://www.cgdev.org/blog/measuring-oda-four-strange-features-new-dac-debt-relief-rules|access-date=2021-04-17|website=Center for Global Development}}</ref>
=== Alternatives ===
Recognizing that ODA does not capture all the expenditures that promote development, the International TOSSD Task Force started establishing a wider statistical framework called TOSSD (Total Official Support for Sustainable Development) that would count spending on "international public goods". The TOSSD data for 2020 shows more than US$355 billion disbursed to support for sustainable development, from almost 100 provider countries and institutions. In March 2022, TOSSD was adopted as a data source for indicator 17.3.1 of the SDGs global indicator framework to measure development support.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (TOSSD) - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |url=https://www.tossd.org/ |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=www.tossd.org |language=en}}</ref>
The [[Commitment to Development Index]] is an alternative measure that ranks the largest donors on a broad range of their "development friendly" policies, including: the quality of aid (for instance by giving countries fewer points for [[tied aid]]), and considering country policies on issues such as trade, migration and international security.
== Society and culture ==
=== Global goals ===
Several of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (to be achieved by 2030 at a global level) include ODA in their [[List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators|targets and indicators]].<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> This applies to [[Sustainable Development Goal 17|SDG 17]] which is to "Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development". Its second target is worded as "Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income for official development assistance (ODA/GNI) to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to [[least developed countries]]; ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries."<ref name=":17" />
[[Sustainable Development Goal 10|SDG 10]] (Reduce inequality within and among countries) also includes a target on ODA: "Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes."<ref name=":17" />
== See also ==
* [[Poverty reduction]]
* [[Aid for Trade]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.aiddata.org AidData: Tracking Development Finance]
*[http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/official-development-assistance.htm Official Development Assistance - ODA - OECD].
*[http://www.aidflows.org Aidflows]
[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:OECD]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
The Environment Trust (Tower Hamlets) | {{EngvarB|date=September 2019}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}{{Refimprove|date=April 2016}}
'''The Environment Trust''' was a [[registered charity]]<ref name="Charity Commission">{{Cite web |url=http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=289632&subid=0 |title=Tower Hamlets Environment Trust |publisher=[[Charity Commission for England and Wales]] |access-date=25 November 2018}}</ref> and development trust which, from 1979 until its closure in 2008, was based in the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]].<ref name="Remembers">{{cite web | url=https://www.londonremembers.com/subjects/tower-hamlets-environment-trust | title=Tower Hamlets Environment Trust | publisher=London Remembers | accessdate=22 March 2019}}</ref> It aimed to achieve [[sustainable development]] by improving the [[social]], [[economic]] and [[physical environment]] for [[community]] benefit.
The Environment Trust helped to establish Fair Finance, a [[community development financial institution]], which offered a range of financial packages to disadvantaged community members in the [[East End of London]].
The Trust researched and developed [[renewable energy]] schemes, including [[solar energy|solar]], [[wind energy|wind]], [[biofuels]], and [[tidal energy]], and offered educational workshops in schools around themes of [[biodiversity]], [[nature]] and [[gardening]]. Through organised events, it assisted people in becoming more involved in improving and using their local green spaces. It also worked with partners and communities to try to effect change in local and national government policy on public spaces and biodiversity.
The organisation provided affordable, environmentally [[sustainability|sustainable]] housing through its green homes schemes. It developed a practical approach to building [[Efficient energy use|energy efficient]] homes with low running costs, which were then sold at 70% of their market value.
The organisation also worked to increase the number of quality, affordable workspaces available to local social enterprises, by acquiring land and properties at discounted cost and transforming them into suitable workspace, which were then developed in line with the Green Homes Specification.
==See also==
*[[Environment Trust for Richmond upon Thames]], now Habitats & Heritage
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Environment Trust}}
[[Category:1979 establishments in England]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in England]]
[[Category:Charities based in London]]
[[Category:Community development organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental charities based in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in London]]
[[Category:Former organisations based in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Housing organisations based in London]]
[[Category:Renewable energy organizations]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Social Impact Incentives | {{short description|Blended finance instrument}}
The '''Social Impact Incentives''' ('''SIINC''') model is a [[blended finance]] instrument introduced for the first time in 2016.<ref name=interamerican2020>{{cite web |last1=Armeni |first1=Andrea |last2=Ferreyra de Bone |first2=Miguel |title=Innovations in Financing Structures for Impact Enterprises: Spotlight on Latin America |url=https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/Innovations-in-Financing-Structures-for-Impact-Enterprises-A-Spotlight-on-Latin-America.pdf |website=Inter-American Development Bank |publisher=IDB |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=1}}</ref> In the SIINC model, enterprises are provided with time-limited premium payments for achieving social impact,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lewis |first1=Rachel |title=Mexican clinic boosts low-income patients by monetising quality |url=https://www.healthcarebusinessinternational.com/policy-mexican-clinic-boosts-low-income-patients-by-monetising-quality/ |website=Healthcare Business International |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=2}}</ref> thus aligning profitability with their social impact and enabling them to attract growth capital.<ref name=nextbillion2020 /> The SIINC agreement is a bilateral contract between an outcome funder (e.g. a development agency or a philanthropic organization<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schwartz |first1=Alan |last2=Finighan |first2=Reuben |title=Impact Investing Won’t Save Capitalism |url=https://hbr.org/2020/07/impact-investing-wont-save-capitalism |website=Harvard Business Review |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=4}}</ref>) and an enterprise; an independent verifier assesses the impact performance and clears payments for disbursement;<ref name=roots2020>{{cite web |title=Social Impact Incentives (SIINC) Enabling High-impact Social Enterprises to Improve Profitability and Reach Scale |url=https://www.roots-of-impact.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Social-Impact-Incentives-SIINC-White-Paper-2016.pdf |website=Roots of Impact |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=5}}</ref> the investment between the enterprise and its investor is arranged via a separate contract.<ref>{{cite web |title=Innovative Finance Toolkit |url=https://www.sie-b.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Innovative-Finance-Toolkit-2020-Final.pdf |website=B-Briddhi |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=6}}</ref>
[[File:SIINC_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|The SIINC Model]]
== History ==
SIINC was co-created by Roots of Impact<ref>{{cite web |last1=Price |first1=Dennis |title=Root Capital chases ‘social impact incentives’ in loans to Latin America agribusinesses |url=https://impactalpha.com/root-capital-chases-social-impact-incentives-in-loans-to-latin-america-agribusinesses/ |website=Impact Alpha |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=7}}</ref> and the [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation]] in 2016<ref>{{cite web |last1=Struewer |first1=Bjoern |title=Making Subsidies Smarter: How to Create More ‘Bang for the Buck’ in Blended Finance |url=https://nextbillion.net/smarter-subsidies-in-blended-finance/ |website=Next Billion |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=8}}</ref> by exploring how to adapt pay-for-success models like impact bonds for market-based organizations.<ref name=devex2020>{{cite web |last1=Saldinger |first1=Adva |title=Social impact incentives? A new tool for supporting impact |url=https://www.devex.com/news/social-impact-incentives-a-new-tool-for-supporting-impact-94965 |website=Devex |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=9}}</ref> The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation funded a pilot program in Latin America and the Caribbean which launched in 2016, led by a collaborative with Roots of Impact, the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], [[New Ventures]], and [[Ashoka (non-profit organization)]].<ref name=nextbillion2020>{{cite web |last1=Struwer |first1=Bjoern |last2=Moehrle |first2=Christina |title=Social Impact Incentives: A New Solution for Blended Finance |url=https://nextbillion.net/social-impact-incentives-a-new-solution-for-blended-finance/ |website=Next Billion |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=10}}</ref>
== Structure ==
SIINC is a blended finance model that seeks to align the interests of development funders, enterprises, and investors around social impact.<ref name=nextbillion2020 /> A SIINC transaction can be understood as a pre-order for the impact made by a development funder with an enterprise.<ref name=interamerican2020 /> The enterprise uses this pre-order to secure investment,<ref name=roots2020 /> using that investment to expand operations and deliver the desired impact.<ref name=nextbillion2020 />
In the basic model, there is a time-limited payment agreement between the outcome payer and the social enterprise along with predefined social performance indicators.<ref name=interamerican2020 /> The investment contract between the social enterprise and the investor is structured individually to meet the specific needs of both.<ref name=thirds2020>{{cite web |last1=Schwartz |first1=Rodney |title=Rodney Schwartz: A German innovation I hope we don't overlook |url=https://www.thirdsector.co.uk/rodney-schwartz-german-innovation-i-hope-dont-overlook/social-enterprise/article/1391856 |website=Third Sector |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=17}}</ref> In the second step, an impact base-line is established, with payments triggered by organizational metrics directly related to the impact performance or externally generated impact metrics.<ref name=roots2020 /> Finally, the ongoing payments are structured and linked to impact, while an independent verification of the impact assessment system ensures that the results are as reliable as possible.<ref name=interamerican2020 />
A report from the [[Boston Consulting Group]] highlighted that SIINC is a form of Impact-Linked Finance as it fulfills the criteria of focusing on outcomes as opposed to outputs, and incentives are paid only to the value creator for additional impact.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Baic |first1=Alexander |last2=Struewer |first2=Bjoern |last3=Doerner |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Henderson |first4=Brad |last5=Maenning |first5=Max |last6=Kammerer |first6=Leopold |last7=Baffioni |first7=Patrizia |last8=Montgomery |first8=Benedicte |title=Accelerating Impact-Linked Finance |url=https://www.roots-of-impact.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Roots-of-Impact-BCG-Accelerating-Impact-Linked-Finance-2019.pdf |publisher=Boston Consulting Group, Roots of Impact |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=20}}</ref>
== Benefits and costs ==
SIINC has been described as an innovation due to the fact that the model is more streamlined than comparable approaches.<ref name=thirds2020 /> SIINC was developed for supporting market-based organizations (enterprises),<ref>{{cite web |title=Root Capital Launches Its First Pay-For-Impact Partnership |url=https://rootcapital.org/about-us/press-room/press/root-capital-launches-its-first-pay-for-impact-partnership/ |website=Root Capital |access-date=14 December 2020 |ref=22}}</ref> while comparable models such as the [[social impact bond]] (SIB) and [[development impact bond]] (DIB) were originally developed for non-profit interventions. The SIINC model can be utilized to catalyze investment into an enterprise in an impact-focused manner,<ref name=nextbillion2020 /> or it can lead to deeper levels of impact being generated.<ref name=devex2020 />
The need for independent verification of results has been singled out as a drawback, with the costs needing to be covered by potential savings in order to ensure a transaction is cost effective.<ref name=thirds2020 />
== Implementing organizations ==
To date, the SIINC model has been implemented by the German firm Roots of Impact, with funding from the [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation]], and in collaboration with the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], [[New Ventures]], and [[Ashoka (non-profit organization)|Ashoka]].<ref name=nextbillion2020 />
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Social impact]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Pat Yang | {{short description|Chinese-American rural education development expert}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Pat Kwei-Ping Yang
| native_name = {{nobold|杨贵平}}
| native_name_lang = zh-Hans
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1940}}
| birth_place = [[Guizhou]], China
| education = [[Columbia University]]
| known_for = [[Sustainable development]], [[Health care]], [[Basic education]]
}}
'''Pat Kwei-Ping Yang''' ({{zh|s=杨贵平 |t=楊貴平 |p=Yáng Guìpíng}}) is a Chinese-American rural education development expert,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinalink.tv/content/29256.html?fuid=0 |script-title=zh:中国滋根副秘书长杨贵平 |publisher=圆点直播 |date=2019-09-03 }}</ref>
dedicated to rural education and sustainable development in China,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jyj.gmw.cn/2018-08/14/content_30525448.htm |script-title=zh:扎根农村三十年，用教育滋养乡村 |publisher=教育杂志 |date=2018-08-14 }}</ref>
with emphasis on women's literacy and health.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lianquan.org/ProjectPlus_ProjectInfo?guid=4B3404AB5390CC3545E8F0179F4BE68EC06E42E0B36C13E4B77183F0C0964FBFF8D4549691DB74BEB78A1F040D2C1008 |script-title=zh:贫困农村青春期女童健康教育与性教育课程开发项目 |publisher=上海联劝公益基金会 |date=2018-06-25 }}</ref>
'''Pat Yang''' is founder of U.S.-based '''[[The Zigen Fund]]''' ({{zh|labels=no|c=滋根}}) and China-based '''China Zigen Association for Rural Education and Development''' ({{zh|labels=no|s=中国滋根乡村教育与发展促进会}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zigen.org.cn/|script-title=zh:中国滋根乡村教育与发展促进会|publisher=中国滋根网}}</ref>
==Recognitions==
* 2012: China News Weekly “'''Influencing China People of the Year'''” honoree<ref>{{cite web |url=http://event.inewsweek.cn/2/2017-04-07/2977.html |title=Influencing China People of the Year |publisher=China News Weekly |date=2017-04-07 }}</ref>
* 2019: China "'''Honour Book of Sustainable Development Education'''" honoree<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zigen.org.tw/page1.aspx?no=279068&step=1&newsno=73646 |title=China Zigen 2019 Newsletter 2019.04.29 |publisher=Taiwan Zigen |date=April 29, 2019 }}</ref>
==Documentaries==
Films produced by '''Pat Yang''' and directed by [[Christine Choy]]:
* 2003: ''Sparrow Village'' - young girls yearn for education in a rural village of southwestern China<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/en/publications/sparrow-village-a-film-directed-by-christine-choy-produced-by-the |title=Sparrow Village |publisher=New York University Research Institute |date=2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68961052 |title=Sparrow Village |publisher=WorldCat |date=2003 |oclc=68961052 }}</ref>
* 2007: ''No Fifth Grade'' - children in a village in [[Shanxi|Shanxi Province]] have to move to a bigger town to continue education of fifth grade and above<ref>{{cite web |url=https://asiasociety.org/hong-kong/christine-choy%E2%80%99s-no-fifth-grade |title=Christine Choy's 'No Fifth Grade' |publisher=Asia Society |date=April 16, 2012 }}</ref><ref name='chinanews'>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinanews.com/hr/hr-mzhrxw/news/2009/11-18/1970646.shtml |script-title=zh:吁侨界关注中国贫困地区 美侨团将放纪录片筹款 |publisher=中国新闻社 |date=Nov 18, 2009 }}</ref><ref name='sina'>{{cite web |url=http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2009-11-18/102116627667s.shtml |script-title=zh:吁侨界关注中国贫困地区 美侨团将放纪录片筹款 |publisher=SINA Corp |date=Nov 18, 2009 }}</ref>
* 2007: ''Miao Village Medicine'' - [[barefoot doctors]] and hygienists working in a remote [[Miao people|Miao]] village in [[Guizhou]]<ref name='haodoo'>{{cite web |url=http://www.haodoo.net/?M=anna&P=111 |script-title=zh:孟絲《兩部記錄片》 |publisher=好讀 |date=2013-12-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pttstudios.com/documentary/17rixJZ_ |script-title=zh:中國農村發展紀錄片放映活動 |publisher=PTT影音娛樂區 |access-date=Nov 21, 2020 }}</ref>
==Publications==
* 2017: ''Co-creating a Sustainable Village: Teacher Training Handbook''<ref>{{cite book |title=Co-creating a Sustainable Village: Teacher Training Handbook |last1=Wei |first1= Manhua |last2=Yang |first2=Kwei-Ping |author-link2=Pat Yang |language=Chinese |publisher=Beijing Normal University Press |date=April 1, 2017 |isbn=978-7303222667 }}</ref>
* 2018: ''Rural Revitalization: Sustainable Development Talent Training Handbook''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dy.163.com/article/DNGCNQBD0511CI4B.html |title=Rural Revitalization: Sustainable Development Talent Training Handbook |language=Chinese |publisher=网易公司 |via=引凤计划 |date=2018 }}</ref>
* 2018: ''Rural Adolescent Girls' Sexual Health Education Teacher Training Handbook''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lianquan.org/ProjectPlus_ProjectInfo?guid=4B3404AB5390CC3545E8F0179F4BE68EEBD1B48F76683861364581D17FD1A02F89D246DB9C31B5FFEDEF22A48B854EF3 |title=Rural Adolescent Girls' Sexual Health Education Teacher Training Handbook |language=Chinese |publisher=Shanghai United Foundation |date=2018 }}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://www.zigenfund.org The Zigen Fund website]
* [http://www.zigen.org.cn China Zigen website]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Yang, Pat}}
[[Category:Chinese expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Living people]] |
Inclusive wealth | {{short description|Aggregate value of all capital assets in a given region}}
'''Inclusive wealth''' is the aggregate value of all capital assets in a given region, including [[human capital]], [[social capital]], [[public capital]], and [[natural capital]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-101813-013253|doi-access=free|title=Inclusive Wealth as a Metric of Sustainable Development|year=2015|last1=Polasky|first1=Stephen|last2=Bryant|first2=Benjamin|last3=Hawthorne|first3=Peter|last4=Johnson|first4=Justin|last5=Keeler|first5=Bonnie|last6=Pennington|first6=Derric|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=40|pages=445–466}}</ref> Maximizing inclusive wealth is often a goal of [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-043621|doi-access=free|title=Sustainability Science: Toward a Synthesis|year=2020|last1=Clark|first1=William C.|last2=Harley|first2=Alicia G.|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=45|pages=331–386}}</ref> The Inclusive Wealth Index is a metric for inclusive wealth within countries: unlike [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), the Inclusive Wealth Index "provides a tool for countries to measure whether they are developing in a way that allows future generations to meet their own needs".<ref name="IWR 18"/>
The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) published reports in 2012, 2014, and 2018 on inclusive wealth. The 2018 "Inclusive Wealth Report" found that, of 140 countries analyzed, inclusive wealth increased by 44% from 1990 to 2014, implying an average annual growth rate of 1.8%. On a [[per capita]] basis, 89 of 140 countries had increased inclusive wealth per capita. 96 of 140 countries had increased inclusive wealth per capita when adjusted.<ref name="IWR 18">{{cite web|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/report/inclusive-wealth-report-2018| title=Inclusive Wealth Report 2018| date=November 2018| access-date=8 April 2021|website = United Nations Environment Programme}}</ref> Roughly 40% of analyzed countries had stagnant or declining inclusive wealth, sometimes despite increasing GDP. Many countries showed a decline in natural capital during this period, fueling an increase in human capital.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s12076-019-00229-x|title=Inclusive wealth in the twenty-first century: A summary and further discussion of Inclusive Wealth Report 2018|year=2019|last1=Yamaguchi|first1=Rintaro|last2=Islam|first2=Moinul|last3=Managi|first3=Shunsuke|journal=Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences|volume=12|issue=2|pages=101–111|s2cid=164461772|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Toclimit}}
== Inclusive Wealth Index ==
{{Infobox organization
| name = Inclusive Wealth Index (IWI)
| formation = 2012
| headquarters = United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya
| parent_organization = United Nations Environment Programme
| website = https://www.unep.org/resources/report/inclusive-wealth-report-2018
}}
The Inclusive Wealth Index (IWI)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=UNEP|date=21 November 2018|title=Inclusive Wealth Report|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/report/inclusive-wealth-report-2018}}</ref> was developed by UNEP<ref>{{Cite web|last=UNEP|title=United Nations Environment Programme|url=https://www.unep.org/}}</ref> in partnership with [[Kyushu University]]. The Index calculation is based on estimating stocks of human, natural and produced (manufactured) capital which make up the productive base of an economy. Biennial Inclusive Wealth Reports (IWR)<ref name=":0" /> track progress on sustainability across the world for 140 countries. The IWI is UNEP's metric for measuring intergenerational well-being. Implementing the IWI has been undertaken by many individual countries with UNEP support by a scientific panel headed by [[Partha Dasgupta|Sir Partha Dasgupta]] of [[Cambridge University]].
Inclusive wealth is complementary to [[Gross domestic product|Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP). In a 'stocks and flows' model, capital assets are stocks, and the goods and services provided by the assets are flows (GDP). A tree is a stock; its fruit is a flow, while its leaves provide a continuous flow of services by pulling [[carbon dioxide]] from the atmosphere to store as carbon. It is a multi-purpose indicator capable of measuring traditional stocks of wealth along with skill sets, health care, and environmental assets that underlie human progress.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351002080|title=Inclusive Wealth Report 2018|date=2018-07-18|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-00208-0|editor-last=Managi|editor-first=Shunsuke|doi=10.4324/9781351002080|s2cid=169571467 |editor-last2=Kumar|editor-first2=Pushpam}}</ref> The effective management of this capital supports the ultimate purpose of an economy – societal well-being.
=== Conceptual framework ===
[[File:Inclusive_Wealth_Per_capita.jpg|thumb|Trends in inclusive wealth, produced, human, and natural capital.]]
Produced capital (also referred to as manufactured capital) includes investment in roads, buildings, machines, equipment, and other physical infrastructure. Human capital comprises knowledge, education, skills, health and aptitude. Natural capital includes forests, [[fossil fuels]], fisheries, agricultural land, sub-soil resources, rivers and estuaries, oceans, the atmosphere and ecosystems, more generally. Social capital includes trust, the strength of community and institutions, and the ability of societies to overcome problems. An economy's institutions and politics determine the social value of its assets, because they influence what people are able to enjoy from them. IWI does not directly measure social capital, which is considered to be embedded in other capital types. Not all components of capital that are conceptually components of wealth are currently included in the Inclusive Wealth methodology. This is due to difficulties in measuring certain assets, as well as data availability and comparability constraints.
=== Methodology ===
Source:<ref name=":0" />
The conceptual framework looks at well-being at time ''t'' as:
<math>V(t)=\int_{t}^{\infty} U(C_\tau)e^{-\delta(\tau-t)} d\tau </math>
Denoting produced, human, and natural capital as 𝐾, 𝐻, and 𝑁, the change in inclusive wealth 𝑊 is expressed by:
<math>dW=(K,H,N,t)/dt= p_k (dK/dt) + p_H(DH/dt) + p_N (dN/dt) \delta V/\delta N </math>
where 𝑝<sub>𝐾</sub>, 𝑝<sub>𝐻</sub> and 𝑝<sub>N</sub> are the marginal [[Shadow price|shadow prices]] of produced, human, and natural capital, respectively. They are formally defined by,
<math>p_K \equiv \delta V/\delta K, p_H\equiv \delta V/ \delta H, p_N \equiv \delta V /\delta N </math>
given a forecast of how produced, human, and natural capitals, as well as other flow variables, evolve in the economy in question.
Practically, shadow prices act as a weight attached to each capital, resulting in the measure of wealth, or:
<math>IWI = p_K (K)+ p_H(H)+p_N(N) </math>
In practice, ''W'' and ''IWI'' can be used interchangeably, although they can differ in that IWI also uses shadow prices on the margin. In addition, the unit of IWI is monetary rather than utility.
This does not affect the sustainability assessment overall.
==== Natural capital ====
The components of natural capital include renewable resources (agricultural land, forests, and fisheries) and nonrenewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals).
The inclusion of fossil fuels within an indicator that tracks sustainability may appear counterintuitive because fossil fuels are often considered liabilities or stranded assets. The mechanism assumed in the IWI framework is the business-as-usual scenario of the imperfect economies that form the basis of our societies. The shadow price of any type of natural capital represents its marginal contribution towards social wellbeing. In this context, the potential benefit of fossil fuels for driving investment in other types of capital, outweighs the drawbacks of the [[Social cost of carbon|social costs of carbon]].
===== Non-renewable resources =====
Non-renewable natural capital resources are oil, coal, natural gas, minerals and metals. To measure a fossil fuel, data measures the stock and compared to data from other years, in order to develop a time-series that reflects accurate flows. The unit shadow price for non-renewables is the price net of extraction cost, also called the rental price. The rental rate of the total price is assumed constant.<ref name=":2">Narayanan, B., Aguiar, A. & McDougall, R. (2012). "Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 8 Data Base." Center for Global Trade Analysis, Purdue University. Retrieved from [http://www.gtap.agecon]. purdue.edu/databases/v8/v8_doco.asp.</ref> Ideally, the marginal cost of extraction should be used for corresponding remaining stock, but this is hard to obtain. The accounting for minerals is similar to that used for fossil fuels. For rental rates, the sectoral rental rates of different mineral industries<ref name=":2" /> are used, as well as [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]] data.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey. (2015). Mineral commodity summaries. Retrieved from [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/].</ref>
===== Renewable resources =====
====== Timber ======
Timber stocks included in IWI estimates are those that are commercially available. To calculate the quantity of timber available, the total forest area, excluding cultivated forest[3], is multiplied by the timber density per area and percentage of total volume that is commercially available. The exclusion of cultivated forest from this category is debatable, as it is regarded as contributing to timber and non-timber values. Forest cultivation is categorized as a production activity in the System of National Accounts.
Following the estimation of physical stocks, shadow prices are computed to convert the wealth into monetary terms. The [[World Bank]]'s approach<ref name=":3">World Bank. (2006). ''Where is the wealth of nations''? Washington, DC: World Bank.</ref> uses a weighted average price of two commodities for industrial roundwood and fuelwood. Country-specific GDP deflators are used to convert prices from current to constant units, and regional rental rates for timber<ref>Bolt, K., Matete, M., & Clemens, M. (2002). Manual for calculating adjusted net savings. Environment Department, World Bank, 1-23.</ref> are applied, which are assumed to be constant over time. To obtain the proxy value for the shadow price of timber, the average price over the study period (1990 to 2014) is taken. Wealth corresponding to timber value is taken as the product of quantity, price and average rental rate over time.
====== Non-timber forest benefits ======
Aside from the provisional [[ecosystem service]] of timber production, forests yield many other services. These additional ecosystem services are accounted for in the following manner: Non-cultivated forest area is retrieved from FAO (2015).<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2015). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 http://www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/explore-data/en/</ref> The fraction of the forest area that contributes to human well-being is assumed to be 10%.<ref name=":3" /> The unit benefit of non-timber forest to inter-temporal social well-being is obtained from the Ecosystem Service Valuation Database (ESVD) database.<ref>van der Ploeg, S. and de Groot R.S. (2010). The TEEB Valuation Database – a searchable database of 1310 estimates of monetary values of ecosystem services. Foundation for Sustainable Development, Wageningen, the Netherlands.</ref> This is expressed as USD/ha/year. Finally, to translate this benefit into capital asset value, we take its net present value, using the discount rate of 5%.
====== Fishery stocks ======
Fishery stocks cannot be estimated based on habitat area, unlike forest or agricultural lands. Marine fishery habitats often cross national borders. Global fish stocks are often assessed using trends in catch or harvest data.<ref>Pauly, D., Hilborn, R., & Branch, T. A. (2013). 'Fisheries: does catch reflect abundance?' ''Nature'', '''''494'''''(7437): 303-306.</ref> With a country's harvest and effort data, along with a catchability coefficient, stocks can be estimated using the Schefer production function.<ref>Yamaguchi, R., Sato, M., & Ueta, K. (2016). 'Measuring regional wealth and assessing sustainable development: An application to a disaster-torn region in Japan.' ''Social Indicators Research'', '''129'''(1), 365-389.</ref> For estimating fishery stocks in countries that lack sufficient effort data, a resource dynamic approach is taken.<ref>Martell, S., & Froese, R. (2013). "A simple method for estimating MSY from catch and resilience." ''Fish and Fisheries'', '''14'''(4): 504-514.</ref>
====== Agricultural land ======
Agricultural land is composed of cropland and pastureland. Data from [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (2015)<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2015). FAOSTAT. Retrieved from [http://faostat3.fao.org/download/Q/QC/E] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019111658/http://faostat3.fao.org/download/Q/QC/E|date=2016-10-19}}.</ref> is employed to quantify cropland and pastureland area. Market prices are often unavailable for agricultural land. A shadow price is computed as the net present value of the annual flow of services per hectare, in line with [[World Bank]] (2011).<ref>World Bank. (2011). ''The changing wealth of nations''. Washington, DC: World Bank.</ref> IWI assumes the shadow price of pastureland is equal to that of cropland.
==== Shadow price ====
Shadow prices are the estimated price of a good or a service that does not have a market price. The calculation of shadow prices is central to the IWI, particularly for natural capital. Various non-market valuation techniques provide estimates for these prices. The use of shadow prices for natural capital is controversial, mainly regarding the knowledge gap surrounding how to represent production functions of life-supporting ecosystems. Nevertheless, shadow prices based on willingness to pay measures are considered the best available approach for estimating their value.<ref>Dasgupta, P. and A. Duraiappah (2012). "Well-being and wealth. In: IHDPUNU- UNEP Inclusive Wealth Report 2012", ''Cambridge University Press''</ref><ref>Farley, J. (2012). "Ecosystem services: The economics debate." ''Ecosystem Services'' 1: 40-</ref>
==== Human capital ====
The main components of human capital are health and education, but also parenting, on-the-job training, informal education and migration.
Human health is affected by daily well-being, productivity and lifespans. The latter is computed as a proxy for health-related human capital, largely because the options for quantifying the others are limited. The shadow price of health capital is the value of a statistical life year (VSLY).<ref>Arrow, K. J., Dasgupta, P., Goulder, L. H., Mumford, K. J., & Oleson, K. (2012). 'Sustainability and the measurement of wealth.' ''Environment and Development Economics'', '''17'''(3): 317-353.</ref>
IWI methodology focuses on the return on formal education, acknowledging that non-formal education such as early childhood learning and vocational training also contribute to wealth. Using data from Barro and Lee (2013),<ref>Barro, R. & Lee, J. W. (2015). ''Education Matters: Global Schooling Gains from the 19th to the 21st Century.'' New York, NY: Oxford University Press.</ref> educational attainment is proxied by the average years of schooling per person. The rate of return on education is assumed to be 8.5%, and then multiplied by the educated population.
==== Produced capital ====
Produced capital, also referred to as manufactured capital, includes physical infrastructure, land, facilities of private firms, and dwelling places. IWI uses the [[perpetual inventory]] method (PIM), which is a simple summation of gross investment net of depreciation that occurs in each period.<ref>Harberger, A. (1978). 'Perspectives on Capital and Technology in Less Developed Countries.' In M. Artis & A. Nobay (Eds.). ''Contemporary Economic Analysis'', Croom Helm: London.</ref><ref>King, R.G. & Levine, R. (1994). 'Capital fundamentalism, economic development and economic growth.' ''Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy'', '''40:''' 259-292.</ref><ref>Feenstra, R., Inklaar, R. & Timmer, M. (2013). ''The Next Generation of the Penn World Table''. Retrieved from www.ggdc.net/pwt</ref>
==== Adjustments ====
Three adjustments influence wealth and social well-being, but are not covered by the official capital assets: carbon damage, oil capital gains, and total factor productivity.
Carbon damage can be regarded mostly as an exogenous change in social well-being. Calculation involves:
* Obtain global carbon emissions for the period under analysis (1990 to 2014);
* Derive global damage as a function of emissions; and
* Allocate global damage to countries according to their potential effect on global warming.
Oil prices are notorious for rapid fluctuations. Oil-rich nations benefit from spiking oil prices. Conversely, rising oil prices may result in reductions in social well-being for oil importing countries. An annual increase of 3% in the price of oil is assumed, corresponding to the annual average oil price increase during 1990–2014,<ref>BP. (2015). ''Statistical Review of World Energy 2015''. Retrieved from [http://www.bp.com/Statistical] review.</ref> implying that even if no oil is withdrawn, a nation can enjoy 3% growth in wealth.
[[Total factor productivity]] (TFP) measures residual contributions to social well-being.<ref name=":4">UNU-IHDP, & UNEP. (2012). Inclusive Wealth Report 2012: Measuring Progress toward Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> IWI includes TFP as an adjustment term. A non-parametric analysis called Malmquist productivity index is employed, which is based on the concept of data envelopment analysis.
== History ==
IWI was inaugurated in 2012 with the launch of the Inclusive Wealth Report (IWR) at the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] (Rio+20). IWR 2012 compared the relative change of natural capital against produced capital and human capital. The results showed that changes in natural capital can significantly impact a nation's well-being, and that it is therefore possible to trace changes in components of wealth by country and link these to economic progress.<ref name=":4" /> The 2014 and 2018 IWRs expanded scope to cover 140 countries. The main focus of IWR 2014<ref name=":5">UNU-IHDP, & UNEP. (2014). Inclusive Wealth Report 2014: Measuring Progress toward Sustainability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> was to estimate the education component of human capital. In IWR 2018,<ref name=":0" /> health was added to human capital, and fisheries were added to natural capital.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1" />
Changes in inclusive wealth are calculated using 25 year annual average growth rates. The results show that the growth of inclusive wealth is positive for many countries. Top performers include [[Republic of Korea]], [[Singapore]] and [[Malta]] among others. However, in many countries, the population is growing more quickly than the inclusive wealth. These places experienced negative per capita wealth growth. Some of the negative per capita growth of wealth occurred in countries that experienced absolute gains in wealth.
IWI looks at each country's assets and assesses the changing health of these assets over 25 years. IWR 2018 shows that 44 out of the 140 countries have suffered a decline in inclusive wealth per capita since 1992, even though GDP per capita increased in all but a handful of them. This statistic shows that their growth is unsustainably depleting resources.<ref name=":0" />
== Inclusive Wealth Index and Sustainable Development Goals ==
[[Sustainable Development Goal 17|Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 17]] calls for developing "measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement GDP." The inclusive wealth index is one way of measuring progress on the SDGs and positive development trajectories.
Infrastructure and industrialization can occur in line with sustainability considerations. On a global level, produced capital per capita has experienced the largest increase compared to human and natural capital, often at the expense of the latter. The IWI framework provides data and guidance in monitoring the trade-offs without compromising other development goals.
IWI provides governments a new and holistic guide. If inclusive wealth (adjusted for population and wealth distribution) increases as governments try to meet SDGs, the SDGs will be sustainable; if it declines, the SDGs will be unsustainable. It could be that the goals are reached, but are not sustainable because the development paths that nations choose to follow erode their productive capacities.
== 2018 Inclusive Wealth Index ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Table 1 Top performers on the basis of per capita inclusive wealth for 1992-2014
|'''IWI Ranking '''
|''' Country'''
|'''Average growth per capita 1992-2014'''
|-
|'''1'''
|Republic of Korea
|33.0%
|-
|'''2'''
|Singapore
|25.2%
|-
|'''3'''
|Malta
|18.9%
|-
|'''4'''
|Latvia
|17.9%
|-
|'''5'''
|Ireland
|17.1%
|-
|'''6'''
|Moldova
|17.0%
|-
|'''7'''
|Estonia
|16.0%
|-
|'''8'''
|Mauritius
|15.5%
|-
|'''9'''
|Lithuania
|15.2%
|-
|'''10'''
|Portugal
|13.9%
|}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Economic indicators]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]]
[[Category:United Nations Environment Programme]]
[[Category:Wealth]] |
Energy poverty and cooking | {{Short description|Issues involving access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking}}
[[File:Tortillera en Guatemala.jpg|thumb|alt=a 3-stone stove|A traditional wood-fired 3-stone stove in Guatemala, which causes [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations|indoor air pollution]]]]
One aspect of '''[[energy poverty]]''' is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for '''cooking'''. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in [[Developing country|developing countries]] routinely cook with fuels such as wood, [[Dry dung fuel|animal dung]], [[coal]], or [[kerosene]]. Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmful [[household air pollution]], resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.
A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable. Stoves and appliances that run on electricity, [[Liquefied petroleum gas|liquid petroleum gas]] (LPG), [[piped natural gas]] (PNG), [[biogas]], alcohol, and solar heat meet WHO guidelines for clean cooking. Universal access to clean cooking facilities would have large benefits for environmental protection and for [[gender equality]].
Stoves that burn wood and other [[solid fuel]]s more efficiently than traditional stoves are known as "improved cookstoves" or "clean cookstoves". With very few exceptions, these stoves deliver fewer health benefits than stoves that use liquid or gaseous fuels. However, they reduce fuel usage and thus help to prevent [[environmental degradation]]. Improved cookstoves are an important interim solution in areas where deploying cleaner technologies is less feasible.
Initiatives to encourage cleaner cooking practices have yielded limited success. For various practical, cultural, and economic reasons, it is common for families who adopt clean stoves and fuels to continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves.
==Issues with traditional cooking fuels==
[[File:Cooking Stoves, Tigray (14425218394).jpg|thumb|Traditional [[wood-burning stove]]s]]
=== Health impacts ===
{{Further|Household air pollution#Health impacts}}
As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=October 2020|title=Access to clean cooking – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking|access-date=2021-03-31|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> in developing countries rely on burning polluting [[Biomass|biomass fuels]] such as wood, [[Dry dung fuel|dry dung]], [[coal]], or [[kerosene]] for cooking, which causes harmful [[household air pollution]] and also contributes significantly to outdoor [[air pollution]].{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 May 2018|title=Household air pollution and health: fact sheet|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health|access-date=2020-11-21|website=WHO|language=en}}</ref> The [[Global Burden of Disease Study|Global Burden of Disease]] study estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|date=2019|title=Access to Energy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#indoor-air-pollution-is-one-of-the-leading-risk-factors-for-premature-death|access-date=1 April 2021|journal=Our World in Data|quote="According to the Global Burden of Disease study 1.6 million people died prematurely in 2017 as a result of indoor air pollution ... But it's worth noting that the WHO publishes a substantially larger number of indoor air pollution deaths.."}}</ref>
In traditional cooking facilities, smoke is typically vented into the home rather than out through a chimney. Solid fuel smoke contains thousands of substances, many of which are hazardous to human health. The most well understood of these substances are [[Carbon monoxide (data page)|carbon monoxide]] (CO); small [[particulates|particulate matter]]; [[nitrous oxide]]; [[sulfur oxide]]s; a range of [[volatile organic compound]]s, including [[formaldehyde]], [[benzene]] and [[1,3-Butadiene|1,3-butadiene]]; and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|polycyclic aromatic compounds]], such as [[Benzo(a)pyrene|benzo-a-pyrene]], which are thought to have both short and long term health consequences.<ref name=":10">Peabody, J. W., Riddell, T. J., Smith, K. R., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., Gong, J., ... & Sinton, J. E. (2005). Indoor air pollution in rural China: cooking fuels, stoves, and health status. Archives of environmental & occupational health, 60(2), 86-95.</ref>
Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) nearly doubles the risk of childhood [[pneumonia]] and is responsible for 45 percent of all pneumonia deaths in children under five years of age. Emerging evidence shows that HAP is also a risk factor for [[cataracts]], the leading cause of blindness in lower-middle-income countries, and low birth weight.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=17}} Cooking with open fires or unsafe stoves is a leading cause of [[burn]]s among women and children in developing countries.<ref name=WHO2016>{{cite web|title=Burns|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs365/en/|website=World Health Organization|access-date=1 August 2017|date=September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721132816/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs365/en/|archive-date=21 July 2017}}</ref>
=== Impacts on women and girls ===
Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} The work of gathering fuel exposes women and children to safety risks and often consumes 15 or more hours per week, constraining their available time for education, rest, and paid work.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} Women and girls must often walk long distances to obtain cooking fuel, and, as a result, face increased risk of physical and sexual violence.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=20}} Many children, particularly girls, may not attend school in order to help their mothers with firewood collection and food preparation.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=20}}
=== Environmental impacts ===
Traditional cooking facilities are highly inefficient, allowing heat to escape into the open air. The inefficiency of fuel burning results in more wood needing to be harvested and also causes emissions of [[black carbon]], a contributor to climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Timilsina |first1=Govinda R. |last2=Malla |first2=Sunil |date=2021-01-01 |title=Clean Cooking: Why is Adoption Slow Despite Large Health and Environmental Benefits? |url=http://www.iaee.org/en/publications/eeeparticle.aspx?id=356 |journal=Economics of Energy & Environmental Policy |language=en-US |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.5547/2160-5890.9.1.gtim |s2cid=219660388 |issn=2160-5882}}</ref> Serious local environmental damage, including [[desertification]], can be caused by excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material.{{sfn|Tester|2012|p=504}}
While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great majority of biomass clearing is due to [[agricultural expansion]] and land conversion.<ref name="Kammen1">[http://rael.berkeley.edu/old-site/Kammen-GatesGrandChal-stoves.doc Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the Global Environment], Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12 May 2007.</ref> Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results on [[soil quality]] and agricultural and livestock productivity as it means these materials are not available as soil conditioners, [[organic fertilizer]], and livestock [[fodder]].<ref name="VillagePdf">[http://www.ke.undp.org/KenyaEnrgyAtlasFinal-UN.pdf Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, Kenya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613071848/http://www.ke.undp.org/KenyaEnrgyAtlasFinal-UN.pdf|date=13 June 2007}}, UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007.</ref>
== Terminology ==
The term "clean cookstove" has often been used without defining what the term means.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vaidyanathan |first=Gayathri |title=Most of the world's poor continue to use unhealthy and polluting traditional cookstoves |url=https://scroll.in/pulse/903261/most-of-the-worlds-poor-continue-to-use-unhealthy-and-polluting-traditional-cookstoves |access-date=2021-09-26 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref> Organizations vary in how they define "clean":
* According to the WHO, cooking facilities are "clean" if their emissions of [[carbon monoxide]] and [[Fine Particulate Matter|fine particulate matter]] are below certain levels.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=11}}
* The [[Clean Cooking Alliance]] uses the term "clean cooking" more broadly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Onakomaiya |first1=Deborah |last2=Gyamfi |first2=Joyce |last3=Iwelunmor |first3=Juliet |last4=Opeyemi |first4=Jumoke |last5=Oluwasanmi |first5=Mofetoluwa |last6=Obiezu-Umeh |first6=Chisom |last7=Dalton |first7=Milena |last8=Nwaozuru |first8=Ucheoma |last9=Ojo |first9=Temitope |last10=Vieira |first10=Dorice |last11=Ogedegbe |first11=Gbenga |last12=Olopade |first12=Christopher |date=2019-05-14 |title=Implementation of clean cookstove interventions and its effects on blood pressure in low-income and middle-income countries: systematic review |journal=BMJ Open |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=e026517 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026517 |issn=2044-6055 |pmc=6530298 |pmid=31092656}}</ref> Its definition includes what the WHO refers to as "improved cookstoves", i.e. stoves that burn biomass fuel more efficiently than traditional stoves. As of 2020, the vast majority of stoves that burn biomass fuel do not qualify as clean under WHO standards even if they are more efficient than traditional stoves.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Gill-Wiehl |first1=A. |last2=Ray |first2=I. |last3=Kammen |first3=D. |date=2021-11-01 |title=Is clean cooking affordable? A review |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=151 |pages=111537 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.111537 |issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The WHO has criticized the marketing of biomass cookstoves as "improved" when they have not been tested against standards and their health benefits are unclear.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=11}}
== WHO-recommended clean cooking facilities ==
[[File:ALSOL.jpg|thumb|[[Solar cookers]] are nonpolluting and free to use, but require favourable weather and longer cooking times.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}]]
A high priority in global [[sustainable development]] is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=2018|title=Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|access-date=April 5, 2021|website=UN.org}}</ref>
According to the WHO, stoves and appliances that are powered by electricity, [[Liquefied petroleum gas|liquid petroleum gas]] (LPG), piped [[natural gas]] (PNG), [[biogas]], alcohol, and solar heat are "clean".{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}} Best-in-class [[fan gasifier]] stoves that burn [[biomass pellets]] can be classified as clean cooking facilities if they are correctly operated and the pellets have sufficiently low levels of moisture, but these stoves are not widely available.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=19}}
Electricity can be used to power appliances such as electric pressure cookers, [[rice cookers]], and highly efficient [[induction stove]]s, in addition to standard electric stoves. [[Induction cooking|Electric induction stoves]] are so efficient that they create less pollution than liquified petroleum gas (LPG) even when connected to coal power sources, and are sometimes cheaper.<ref name="Injury Prevention and Environmental Health">{{cite book |author=Nugent |first1=R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ |title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition |last2=Mock |first2=CN |last3=Kobusingye |first3=O |publisher=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank |year=2017 |chapter=Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/}}</ref> For stews, beans, rice and other foods that can be adapted to [[electric pressure cookers]], the savings are even greater.<ref>{{Cite web |title=eCookbooks |url=https://www.mecsplus.org/ecookbook |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=MECS Plus |language=en}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=October 2022}}. As of 2019, 770 million people do not have access to electricity,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Access to electricity – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity|access-date=2021-05-05|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> and for many others electricity is not affordable or reliable. Because [[access to electricity]] is also a high priority in global sustainable development, integrated planning for new and improved electricity infrastructure that includes both typical electric loads as well as cooking loads is beginning to gain momentum. Indeed, this kind of [[integrated resource planning]] for electricity systems may deliver faster and lower-cost solutions to both access to electricity and to clean cooking.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ESMAP.2020 |title=The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/937141600195758792/The-State-of-Access-to-Modern-Energy-Cooking-Services |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Electric cooking can improve health, reduce climate impacts, and boost business models for universal electrification. |url=https://www.earthsparkinternational.org/clean-cooking.html |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=EarthSpark International |language=en}}</ref>
[[Gas stove|Natural gas stoves]], which are widely used in richer countries, are not without health risks. They emit high levels of [[nitrogen dioxide]], an atmospheric pollutant that is linked to [[oxidative stress]] and acute reduction in lung function.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=Erika |last2=Rice |first2=Mary B |last3=Gold |first3=Diane R |date=July 2021 |title=Air pollution and lung function in children |journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2021.05.006 |issn=0091-6749 |pmc=8274324 |pmid=34238501}}</ref> Studies on the effects of indoor cooking with natural gas have yielded inconsistent results.<ref name=":4" /> According to a 2010 meta-analysis, the evidence suggests that the practice leads to small reductions in lung function in children, and that children with allergies may be more susceptible.<ref name=":4" />
[[Biogas]] digesters convert waste, such as human waste and animal dung, into a methane-rich gas that burns cleanly. Biogas systems are a promising technology in areas where each household has at least two large animals to provide dung, and a steady supply of water is also available.<ref name="Injury Prevention and Environmental Health2">{{cite book|last1=Nugent|first1=R|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ|title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition|last2=Mock|first2=C.N.|publisher=[[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] / The World Bank|year=2017|editor-last1=Kobusingye|editor-first1=O.|chapter=Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health|access-date=13 April 2021|display-editors=etal|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413111557/https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ|archive-date=13 April 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Solar cooker]]s collect and concentrate the sun's heat when sunshine is available.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}
==Improved cook stoves==
{{redirect|Biomass cooking stove|a kitchen cooker, stove, range, oven, or stove top|Kitchen stove}}
[[File:Clean Cooking in Refugee Settlement.jpg|thumb|Improved cook stoves, such as the ones shown here, burn biomass relatively efficiently but usually still emit toxic levels of pollutants.]]
[[File:Murhun gargajiya na dutse.jpg|thumb|A traditional three-stone fire in Nigeria. This is the cheapest stove to produce, requiring only three suitable stones of the same height on which a [[cooking pot]] can be balanced over a fire. ]]
Improved cook stoves (ICS), often marketed as "clean cookstoves",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-09-21 |title=How Hillary Clinton's clean stoves will help African women {{!}} Madeleine Bunting |url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/sep/21/hillary-clinton-clean-stove-initiative-africa |access-date=2023-01-08 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> are biomass stoves that generally burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves and open fires.
Compared to traditional cook stoves, ICS are usually more fuel-efficient and aim to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke.<ref name=":1a">{{cite journal |last1=Gall |first1=Elliott T. |last2=Carter |first2=Ellison M. |last3=Matt Earnest |first3=C. |last4=Stephens |first4=Brent |title=Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries: Research and Implementation Needs for Improvements in Global Public Health |journal=American Journal of Public Health |date=April 2013 |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=e67–e72 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300955 |pmid=23409891 |pmc=3673244 }}</ref> As of 2016, no widely-available biomass stoves meet the standards for clean cooking as defined by the WHO.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=88}} A 2020 review found only one biomass stove on the market that met WHO standards in field conditions.<ref name=":2" />
Despite their limitations, ICS are an important interim solution where deploying fully clean solutions that use electricity, gas, or alcohol is less feasible.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=12}} As of 2009, less than 30% of people who cook with some sort of biomass stove use ICS.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=Anita|last2=Johnson|first2=Michael|last3=Kay|first3=Ethan|last4=Pannu|first4=Raj|last5=Beltramo|first5=Theresa|last6=Derby|first6=Elisa|last7=Harrell|first7=Stephen|last8=Davis|first8=Curt|last9=Petach|first9=Helen|date=2014-07-22|title=Maximizing the benefits of improved cookstoves: moving from acquisition to correct and consistent use|journal=Global Health: Science and Practice|volume=2|issue=3|pages=268–274|doi=10.9745/GHSP-D-14-00060|issn=2169-575X|pmc=4168629|pmid=25276586}}</ref>
=== Benefits and limitations ===
Improved cookstoves are more efficient, meaning that the stove's users spend less time gathering wood or other fuels, while reducing deforestation and air pollution. However, a closed stove may result in production of more [[black carbon|soot]] and ultra-fine particles than an open fire would.<ref name=ClimateWire4513>{{cite news|title=Study finds improved cookstoves solve one emissions problem, but create another|url=http://www.eenews.net/public/climatewire/2013/04/05/1|access-date=April 5, 2013|newspaper=ClimateWire E & E Publishing|date=April 5, 2013|author=Umair Irfan}}</ref> Some designs also make the stove safer, preventing burns that often occur when children stumble into open fires.
The efficiency improvements of ICS do not necessarily translate into meaningful reductions in health risks{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=11–12}} because for certain conditions, such as childhood [[pneumonia]], the relationship between pollution levels and effects on the body has been shown to be [[Non-linear effects|non-linear]]. This means, for example, that a 50 percent reduction in exposure would not halve the health risk.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=19}} A 2020 [[systematic review]] found that ICS usage led to modest improvements in terms of blood pressure, shortness of breath, emissions of cancer-causing substances, and cardiovascular diseases, but no improvements in pregnancy outcomes or children's health.<ref name="Pratiti et al 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Pratiti |first1=Rebecca |last2=Vadala |first2=David |last3=Kalynych |first3=Zirka |last4=Sud |first4=Parul |date=July 2020 |title=Health effects of household air pollution related to biomass cook stoves in resource limited countries and its mitigation by improved cookstoves |journal=Environmental Research |volume=186 |pages=109574 |bibcode=2020ER....186j9574P |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2020.109574 |pmid=32668541 |s2cid=219033298}}</ref>
Substantial variations in emissions and fuel consumption have been observed across ranges of cookstove designs and between laboratory and field test conditions. At present, a standard testing mechanism does not exist to establish the true impact of alternative cookstove designs as well as descriptive language for exposure. Stove testing studies are not always consistent depending largely on the discipline of investigators and their scientific specialization.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Research and Evaluation |work=Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves |url=http://cleancookstoves.org/research-and-evaluation/ |access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref><ref name=":1a" />
The World Health Organization encourages further research to develop biomass stove technology that is low-emission, affordable, durable, and meets users' needs.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=88}}
==Non-technological interventions==
Behavioral change interventions, in reducing childhood household exposures, have the potential to reduce household air pollution exposure by 20–98%. Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) exposure can be greatly reduced by cooking outdoors, reducing time spent in the cooking area, keeping the kitchen door open while cooking, avoid leaning over the fire while attending to the meal preparation, staying away while carrying children when cooking and keeping the children away from the cooking area. Negative impacts can also be reduced by changes to the environment (e.g. use of a chimney), drying fuel wood before use, and using a lid during cooking.<ref name="WHO">[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/index.html Indoor air pollution and health] - [[World Health Organization]] fact sheet.</ref>
Opportunities to educate communities on reducing household indoor air pollution exposure include festival collaborations, religious meetings, and medical outreach clinics. Community health workers represent a significant resource for educating communities to help raise awareness regarding reducing the effects of indoor air pollution.<ref>Amegah, A. K., & Jaakkola, J. J. (2016). Household air pollution and the sustainable development goals. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 94(3), 215.</ref>
==Challenges==
[[File:Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking, OWID.svg|thumb|Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking.<ref>{{cite web |title=Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/access-to-clean-fuels-and-technologies-for-cooking |access-date=15 February 2020 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref>]]
Many users of clean stoves and fuels continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves, a phenomenon known as "fuel stacking" or "stove stacking".{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=42}} For instance, a recent study in [[Kenya]] found that households that are primary LPG users consume 42 percent as much [[charcoal]] as households that are primary charcoal users.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=42}}
When stacking is practiced, the introduction of clean cooking facilities may not reduce household air pollution enough to make a meaningful difference in health outcomes.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}} There are many reasons to continue to use traditional fuels and stoves, such as unreliable fuel supply, the cost of fuel, the ability of stoves to accommodate different types of pots and cooking techniques, and the need to travel long distances to repair stoves.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhodes |first1=Evelyn |last2=Dreibelbis |first2=Robert |last3=Klasen |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Naithani |first4=Neha |last5=Baliddawa |first5=Joyce |last6=Menya |first6=Diana |last7=Khatry |first7=Subarna |last8=Levy |first8=Stephanie |last9=Tielsch |first9=James |last10=Miranda |first10=J. |last11=Kennedy |first11=Caitlin |last12=Checkley |first12=William |date=3 October 2014 |title=Behavioral Attitudes and Preferences in Cooking Practices with Traditional Open-Fire Stoves in Peru, Nepal, and Kenya: Implications for Improved Cookstove Interventions |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=10310–10326 |doi=10.3390/ijerph111010310 |pmc=4210980 |pmid=25286166 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Research and implementation efforts are frequently pursued with insufficient coordination with supporting organizations, which, in many cases has led to widespread implementation of so called "improved" stoves that have sometimes failed to deliver on the promise of reducing indoor air pollution. Cookstove implementation efforts have often achieved mixed results because of technical and social complexities, such as the need to involve both women (who typically are responsible for cooking) and men (who typically control household spending).{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}
Efforts to improve access to clean cooking fuels and stoves have barely kept up with population growth, and current and planned policies would still leave 2.4 billion people without access in 2030.<ref name=":3" />
== Environmental and sustainable development effects ==
[[File:Bread Maker, Adigrat (11815897476).jpg|thumb|alt=Woman baking bread on an electric stove|A woman cooks with electricity, a clean energy source, in [[Ethiopia]].]]
Transitioning to cleaner cooking methods is expected to either slightly raise [[greenhouse gas emissions]] or decrease emissions, even if the replacement fuels are fossil fuels. There is evidence that switching to LPG and PNG has a smaller climate effect than the combustion of solid fuels, which emits [[methane]] and [[black carbon]].{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=75}} The burning of residential solid fuels accounts for up to 58 percent of global black carbon emissions.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=22}} The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] stated in 2018, "The costs of achieving nearly universal access to electricity and clean fuels for cooking and heating are projected to be between 72 and 95 billion USD per year until 2030 with minimal effects on GHG emissions."{{sfn|IPCC SR15 Ch5|2018|loc=SPM.5.1}}
Universal access to clean cooking is an element of the UN [[Sustainable Development Goal 7]], whose first target is: "By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services".<ref name=":172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Progress in clean cooking would facilitate progress in other Sustainable Development goals, such as eliminating poverty ([[Sustainable Development Goal 1|Goal 1]]), good health and well-being ([[Sustainable Development Goal 3|Goal 3]]), gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|Goal 5]]), and climate action ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|Goal 13]]).<ref name="auto"/> An indicator of Goal 7 is the proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting, using the WHO's definition of "clean".<ref name=":0">UN Statistics (2016) [https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/metadata-compilation/Metadata-Goal-7.pdf Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all] (Updated on 30 March 2016)</ref>
==See also==
{{portal|Cooking|Food}}
* [[Energy poverty]]
* [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations]]
* [[Sustainable energy]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Book sources===
* {{cite book|last =Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP)|year= 2020|title= The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services|ref={{harvid|ESMAP|2020}}|location=Washington, DC|publisher= World Bank|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy/publication/the-state-of-access-to-modern-energy-cooking-services}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by3}}
* {{cite book|last=Tester|first=Jefferson|title=Sustainable Energy : Choosing Among Options|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachutetts|pages=|year=2012|isbn=978-0-262-01747-3|oclc=892554374}}
* {{Cite book|last=World Health Organization|url=https://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124101534/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 24, 2017|title=Burning opportunity : clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children|year=2016|location=Geneva, Switzerland}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|IPCC SR15 Ch5|2018}} <!-- ipcc:20200312 -->
|year=2018
|chapter=Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities
|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter5_High_Res.pdf
|display-authors=4
|first1=J. |last1=Roy
|first2=P. |last2=Tschakert
|first3=H. |last3=Waisman
|first4=S. |last4=Abdul Halim
|first5=P. |last5=Antwi-Agyei
|first6=P. |last6=Dasgupta
|first7=B. |last7=Hayward
|first8=M. |last8=Kanninen
|first9=D. |last9=Liverman
|first10=C. |last10=Okereke
|first11=P. F. |last11=Pinho
|first12=K. |last12=Riahi
|first13=A. G. |last13=Suarez Rodriguez
|title=Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 °C
|pages=445–538
}}
[[Category:Sustainable energy]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Cooking]]
[[Category:Environmental health]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Women's health]] |
Sustainable energy | {{Short description|Energy that responsibly meets social, economic, and environmental needs}}
{{Redirect|Green power}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
<noinclude>{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 350
| image1 = Andasol Guadix 4.jpg
| alt1 = Concentrated solar power parabolic troughs in the distance arranged in rectangles shining on a flat plain with snowy mountains in the background
| image2 = Darling_Wind_Farm.jpg
| alt2 = Wind turbines beside a red dirt road
| image3 = Kawasaki c751 eunos.jpg
| alt3 = Mass rapid transit train
| image4 = Bread Maker, Adigrat (11815897476).jpg
| alt4 = Woman cooking bread on an electric stove
| footer = Sustainable energy examples: [[Concentrated solar power]] with [[Thermal energy storage#Molten salt technology|molten salt heat storage]] in Spain; [[wind energy]] in South Africa; electrified [[public transport]] in Singapore; and [[clean cooking]] in Ethiopia.
}}</noinclude>
[[Energy system|Energy]] is [[sustainability|sustainable]] if it "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of [[future generations]] to meet their own needs."{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=5–6}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Wei |last2=Li |first2=Binshuai |last3=Xue |first3=Rui |last4=Wang |first4=Chengcheng |last5=Cao |first5=Wei |title=A systematic bibliometric review of clean energy transition: Implications for low-carbon development |journal=[[PLOS One|PLOS ONE]] |date=2021 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=e0261091 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0261091 |pmid=34860855 |pmc=8641874 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1661091Z }}</ref> Most definitions of '''sustainable energy''' include considerations of environmental aspects such as [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and social and economic aspects such as [[energy poverty]]. [[Renewable energy]] sources such as [[wind power|wind]], [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]], [[solar energy|solar]], and [[geothermal energy]] are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources. However, some renewable energy projects, such as the clearing of forests to produce [[biofuels]], can cause severe environmental damage.
The role of non-renewable energy sources in sustainable energy has been controversial. [[Nuclear power]] is a [[Low-carbon power|low-carbon]] source whose historic mortality rates are comparable to those of wind and solar, but its [[sustainability]] has been debated because of concerns about [[radioactive waste]], [[nuclear proliferation]], and [[Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents|accidents]]. Switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower [[climate change|climate impact]], but may lead to a delay in switching to more sustainable options. [[Carbon capture and storage]] can be built into power plants to remove their [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented.
[[Fossil fuel]]s provide 85% of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 790 million people in [[Developing country|developing countries]] lack [[rural electrification|access to electricity]], and 2.6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions to levels consistent with the 2015 [[Paris Agreement]] will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed. The burning of [[fossil fuels]] and [[biomass]] is a major contributor to [[air pollution]], which causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year. Therefore, the transition to a low-carbon energy system would have strong [[Co-benefits of climate change mitigation|co-benefits]] for human health. Pathways exist to provide universal access to electricity and [[clean cooking]] in ways that are compatible with climate goals while bringing major health and economic benefits to developing countries.
[[Climate change mitigation]] pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to {{convert|2|C-change}}. These pathways include phasing out coal-fired power plants, producing more electricity from clean sources such as [[wind energy|wind]] and [[Solar power|solar]], and shifting towards using [[Electrification|electricity instead of fossil fuels]] in sectors such as transport and heating buildings. For some energy-intensive technologies and processes that are difficult to electrify, many pathways describe a growing role for [[Green hydrogen|hydrogen fuel]] produced from low-emission energy sources. To accommodate larger shares of [[variable renewable energy]], [[electrical grid]]s require flexibility through infrastructure such as [[grid energy storage|energy storage]]. To make deep reductions in emissions, infrastructure and technologies that use energy, such as buildings and transport systems, would need to be changed to use clean forms of energy and also [[Energy conservation|conserve energy]]. Some critical technologies for eliminating energy-related greenhouse gas emissions are not yet mature.
Wind and solar energy generated 8.5% of worldwide electricity in 2019. This share has grown rapidly while costs have fallen and are projected to continue falling. The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) estimates that 2.5% of world [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035 to limit global warming to {{convert|1.5|C-change}}. Well-designed government policies that promote energy system transformation can lower greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. In many cases, they also increase [[energy security]]. Policy approaches include [[Carbon price|carbon pricing]], [[renewable portfolio standard]]s, phase-outs of [[fossil fuel subsidies]], and the development of infrastructure to support electrification and sustainable transport. Funding the research, development, and demonstration of new clean energy technologies is also an important role of the government.
<noinclude>{{Sustainable energy}}</noinclude>
{{TOC limit|3}}
==Definitions and background==
{{quote box
| halign = left
| quote = "Energy is the golden thread that connects economic growth, increased social equity, and an environment that allows the world to thrive. Development is not possible without energy, and sustainable development is not possible without sustainable energy."
| author = UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]]{{sfn|United Nations Development Programme|2016|p=5}}
| width = 25%
}}
=== Definitions ===
The United Nations [[Brundtland Commission]] described the concept of [[sustainable development]], for which energy is a key component, in its 1987 report ''[[Our Common Future]]''. It defined sustainable development as meeting "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=5–6}} This description of sustainable development has since been referenced in many definitions and explanations of sustainable energy.{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=5–6}}<ref name=":OU">{{Cite web|publisher=[[The Open University]] |title=Definitions: energy, sustainability and the future |url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/nature-environment/environmental-studies/introduction-sustainable-energy/content-section-2|access-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127144447/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/nature-environment/environmental-studies/introduction-sustainable-energy/content-section-2|archive-date=27 January 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Golus̆in|Popov|Dodić|2013|p=8}}<ref name=":Galarraga">{{Citec|year=2011 |last1=Hammond|first1=Geoffrey P.|last2=Jones|first2=Craig I.|pages=21–47|in=Galarraga|in2=González-Eguino|in3=Markandya|chapter=Sustainability criteria for energy resources and technologies}}</ref>
There is no universally accepted interpretation of how the concept of [[sustainability]] applies to energy on a global scale.<ref name=":ECE" /> Working definitions of sustainable energy encompass multiple dimensions of sustainability such as environmental, economic, and social dimensions.<ref name=":Galarraga" /> Historically, the concept of sustainable energy development has focused on emissions and on [[energy security]]. Since the early 1990s, the concept has broadened to encompass wider social and economic issues.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gunnarsdottir|first1=I.|last2=Davidsdottir|first2=B.|last3=Worrel|first3=E. |last4=Sigurgeirsdottir|first4=S.|date=2021|title=Sustainable energy development: History of the concept and emerging themes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032121000654|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=141|pages=110770 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.110770 |s2cid=233585148|issn=1364-0321|access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815092522/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032121000654|url-status=live}}</ref>
The environmental dimension of sustainability includes [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]], impacts on [[biodiversity]] and ecosystems, hazardous waste and toxic emissions,<ref name=":ECE">{{harvnb|UNECE|2020|pp=3–4}}</ref> water consumption,{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=1–2}} and depletion of non-renewable resources.<ref name=":Galarraga" /> Energy sources with low environmental impact are sometimes called ''green energy'' or ''clean energy''. The economic dimension of sustainability covers economic development, efficient use of energy, and energy security to ensure that each country has constant access to sufficient energy.<ref name=":ECE" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vera |first1=Ivan |last2=Langlois |first2=Lucille |title=Energy indicators for sustainable development |journal=[[Energy (journal)|Energy]] |date=2007 |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=875–882 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2006.08.006 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544206002337 |issn=0360-5442 |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815113307/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544206002337 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=3–5}} Social issues include access to affordable and reliable energy for all people, [[workers rights|workers' rights]], and land rights.<ref name=":Galarraga" /><ref name=":ECE" />
===Environmental impacts===
<!--[[File:Global primary energy consumption, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Graph showing growth of energy technologies. Coal shrank slightly between 2014 and 2019, whereas oil and gas grew. Nuclear and hydro had a slow growth, in contrast to other renewables. |The use of modern [[renewable energy]] sources increased from 2000 to 2019 but coal, oil, and natural gas remain the most-used global energy sources.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global direct primary energy consumption|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-primary-energy|access-date=16 July 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513154003/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-primary-energy|url-status=live}}</ref>]]-->
[[File:Rajasthan carrying firewood.jpeg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a woman carrying firewood she has gathered on her head| A woman in rural [[Rajasthan]], India, collects firewood. The [[Energy poverty and cooking|use of wood and other polluting fuels for cooking]] causes millions of deaths each year from [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations|indoor]] and outdoor [[air pollution]].]]
The current energy system contributes to many environmental problems, including [[climate change]], [[air pollution]], [[biodiversity loss]], the release of toxins into the environment, and water scarcity. As of 2019, 85% of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=46}} Energy production and consumption are responsible for 76% of annual human-caused greenhouse gas emissions as of 2018.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=Global Historical Emissions |url=https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?breakBy=sector&chartType=percentage&end_year=2018§ors=total-including-lucf&start_year=1990 |access-date=19 August 2021 |website=[[Climate Watch (World Resources Institute)|Climate Watch]]|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604144234/https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?breakBy=sector&chartType=percentage&end_year=2018&start_year=1990|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ge |first1=Mengpin |last2=Friedrich |first2=Johannes |last3=Vigna |first3=Leandro |title=4 Charts Explain Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Countries and Sectors |url=https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors |access-date=19 August 2021 |date=August 2021 |publisher=[[World Resources Institute]] |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819011608/https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors |url-status=live }}</ref> The 2015 international [[Paris Agreement]] on climate change aims to limit global warming to well below {{convert|2|C-change}} and preferably to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F); achieving this goal will require that emissions be reduced as soon as possible and reach [[Net-zero emissions|net-zero]] by mid-century.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]|title=The Paris Agreement|url=https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319205057/https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement}}</ref>
The burning of fossil fuels and [[biomass]] is a major source of [[air pollution]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watts|first1=Nick|last2=Amann|first2=Markus|last3=Arnell|first3=Nigel|last4=Ayeb-Karlsson |first4=Sonja|last5=Beagley |first5=Jessica|last6=Belesova|first6=Kristine|last7=Boykoff|first7=Maxwell |last8=Byass|first8=Peter|last9=Cai|first9=Wenjia|last10=Campbell-Lendrum|first10=Diarmid|display-authors=4 |date=2021|title=The 2020 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: responding to converging crises|journal=[[The Lancet]]|volume=397|issue=10269|page=151|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32290-X |pmid=33278353|issn=0140-6736|doi-access=free|url=http://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/33779/1/33779_DOMINGUEZ%20SALAS_2020_report_of_the_Lancet_countdown.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=4 June 2019|title=Every breath you take: The staggering, true cost of air pollution|url=https://stories.undp.org/every-breath-you-take|url-status=live|access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420022524/https://stories.undp.org/every-breath-you-take |archive-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> which causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year, with the greatest attributable disease burden seen in low and middle-income countries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 September 2021|title=New WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines aim to save millions of lives from air pollution|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/22-09-2021-new-who-global-air-quality-guidelines-aim-to-save-millions-of-lives-from-air-pollution |url-status=live|access-date=16 October 2021|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|archive-date=23 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923021545/https://www.who.int/news/item/22-09-2021-new-who-global-air-quality-guidelines-aim-to-save-millions-of-lives-from-air-pollution}}</ref> Fossil-fuel burning in power plants, vehicles, and factories is the main source of emissions that combine with oxygen in the atmosphere to cause [[acid rain]].<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|title=Acid Rain and Water|url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/acid-rain-and-water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects|url-status=live|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627103228/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/acid-rain-and-water?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects}}</ref> Air pollution is the second-leading cause of death from non-infectious disease.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2018|p=16}} An estimated 99% of the world's population lives with levels of air pollution that exceed the [[World Health Organization]] recommended limits.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 September 2021 |title=Ambient (outdoor) air pollution|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health|access-date=22 October 2021|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008055940/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-%28outdoor%29-air-quality-and-health|archive-date=8 October 2021}}</ref>
[[Energy poverty and cooking|Cooking with polluting fuels]] such as wood, animal dung, coal, or [[kerosene]] is responsible for nearly all indoor air pollution, which causes an estimated 1.6 to 3.8 million deaths annually,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max |date=2019|title=Access to Energy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#indoor-air-pollution-is-one-of-the-leading-risk-factors-for-premature-death|access-date=1 April 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401122036/https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#indoor-air-pollution-is-one-of-the-leading-risk-factors-for-premature-death |archive-date=1 April 2021 |journal=[[Our World in Data]]}}</ref>{{sfn|World Health Organization|2018|p=16}} and also contributes significantly to outdoor air pollution.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=vii–xiv}} Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=vii–xiv}}
Environmental impacts extend beyond the by-products of combustion. [[Oil spill]]s at sea harm marine life and may cause fires which release toxic emissions.{{sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=118}} Around 10% of global water use goes to energy production, mainly for cooling in thermal energy plants. In dry regions, this contributes to [[water scarcity]]. Bioenergy production, coal mining and processing, and oil extraction also require large amounts of water.{{sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|pp=470–472}} Excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material for burning can cause serious local environmental damage, including [[desertification]].{{sfn|Tester|2012|p=504}}
In 2021, [[UNECE]] published a lifecycle analysis of the environmental impact of numerous electricity generation technologies, accounting for the following: resource use (minerals, metals); land use; resource use (fossils); water use; particulate matter; photochemical ozone formation; ozone depletion; human toxicity (non-cancer); ionising radiation; human toxicity (cancer); eutrophication (terrestrial, marine, freshwater); ecotoxicity (freshwater); acidification; climate change.<ref name=":9">{{Cite report|title=Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options|publisher=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]]|url=https://unece.org/sed/documents/2021/10/reports/life-cycle-assessment-electricity-generation-options|access-date=24 November 2021|page=59|date=|archive-date=15 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115074531/https://unece.org/sed/documents/2021/10/reports/life-cycle-assessment-electricity-generation-options|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Sustainable development goals ===
{{Further|Energy poverty|Energy poverty and cooking}}
[[File:People-without-electricity-country-2016.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Map of people with access to energy. Lack of access is most pronounced in India, Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia.|World map showing where people without access to electricity lived in 2016—mainly in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and the [[Indian subcontinent]]]]
Meeting existing and future energy demands in a sustainable way is a critical challenge for the global goal of limiting climate change while maintaining economic growth and enabling living standards to rise.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kessides|first1=Ioannis N.|last2=Toman|first2=Michael|date=28 July 2011|title=The Global Energy Challenge|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/the-global-energy-challenge|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725174744/http://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/the-global-energy-challenge|archive-date=25 July 2019|access-date=27 September 2019|url-status=live|publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Reliable and affordable energy, particularly electricity, is essential for health care, education, and economic development.{{sfn|Morris|Mensah-Kutin|Greene|Diam-valla|2015|pp=24–27}} As of 2020, 790 million people in developing countries do not have access to electricity, and around 2.6 billion rely on burning polluting fuels for cooking.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=October 2020 |title=Access to clean cooking|work=SDG7: Data and Projections |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking|access-date=31 March 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206163046/https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking|archive-date=6 December 2019|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|ref=none}}</ref>{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=167}}
Improving energy access in the [[Least developed countries|least-developed countries]] and making energy cleaner are key to achieving most of the United Nations 2030 [[Sustainable Development Goals]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sarkodie |first=Samuel Asumadu |date=20 July 2022 |title=Winners and losers of energy sustainability—Global assessment of the Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=831 |at=154945 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154945 |pmid=35367559 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.831o4945S |s2cid=247881708 |issn=0048-9697 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3023660 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> which cover issues ranging from [[Sustainable Development Goal 14|climate action]] to [[Sustainable Development Goal 5|gender equality]].<ref name="Welcome to the United Nations 2018">{{cite press release|author=Deputy Secretary-General|date=6 June 2018|title=Sustainable Development Goal 7 on Reliable, Modern Energy 'Golden Thread' Linking All Other Targets, Deputy-Secretary-General Tells High-Level Panel|publisher=[[United Nations]] |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/dsgsm1182.doc.htm|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517215032/https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/dsgsm1182.doc.htm|archive-date=17 May 2021}}</ref> [[Sustainable Development Goal 7]] calls for "access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all", including universal [[access to electricity]] and to [[Clean cooking|clean cooking facilities]] by 2030.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all|url=https://sdg-tracker.org/energy|work=SDG Tracker |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202044832/https://sdg-tracker.org/energy|archive-date=2 February 2021|access-date=12 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Energy conservation==
{{Main|Energy conservation|Efficient energy use}}
[[File:Energy use per person 2019 - OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Countries such as the US and Canada use twice as much energy per capita as Japan or western Europe, and 100 times as much commercial energy per capita as some African countries.|[[World energy consumption|Global energy usage]] is highly unequal. High income countries such as the United States and Canada use 100 times as much energy per capita as some of the [[least developed countries]] in Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Energy use per person|website=[[Our World in Data]] |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/per-capita-energy-use|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128155350/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/per-capita-energy-use |archive-date=28 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Energy efficiency—using less energy to deliver the same goods or services, or delivering comparable services with less goods—is a cornerstone of many sustainable energy strategies.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 February 2016|title=Europe 2030: Energy saving to become "first fuel" |url=https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/europe-2030-energy-saving-become-first-fuel|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|work=EU Science Hub|publisher=[[European Commission]]|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918213742/https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/europe-2030-energy-saving-become-first-fuel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Motherway|first=Brian|date=19 December 2019|title=Energy efficiency is the first fuel, and demand for it needs to grow|url=https://www.iea.org/commentaries/energy-efficiency-is-the-first-fuel-and-demand-for-it-needs-to-grow|url-status=live|access-date=18 September 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918213716/https://www.iea.org/commentaries/energy-efficiency-is-the-first-fuel-and-demand-for-it-needs-to-grow}}</ref> The [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) has estimated that increasing energy efficiency could achieve 40% of greenhouse gas emission reductions needed to fulfil the Paris Agreement's goals.<ref>{{Cite web| date=October 2018 |title=Energy Efficiency 2018: Analysis and outlooks to 2040|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2018|url-status=live|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929142015/https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2018}}</ref>
Energy can be conserved by increasing the technical efficiency of appliances, vehicles, industrial processes, and buildings.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 June 2021|title=Net zero by 2050 hinges on a global push to increase energy efficiency|url=https://www.iea.org/articles/net-zero-by-2050-hinges-on-a-global-push-to-increase-energy-efficiency|url-status=live|access-date=19 July 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|last1=Fernandez Pales |first1=Araceli|first2=Stéphanie|last2=Bouckaert|first3=Thibaut |last3=Abergel|first4=Timothy|last4=Goodson|archive-date=20 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720145913/https://www.iea.org/articles/net-zero-by-2050-hinges-on-a-global-push-to-increase-energy-efficiency}}</ref> Another approach is to use fewer materials whose production requires a lot of energy, for example through better building design and recycling. Behavioural changes such as using [[videoconferencing]] rather than business flights, or making urban trips by cycling, walking or public transport rather than by car, are another way to conserve energy.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=68–69}} Government policies to improve efficiency can include [[building codes]], [[Minimum energy performance standard|performance standards]], [[Carbon price|carbon pricing]], and the development of energy-efficient infrastructure to encourage [[modal shift|changes in transport modes]].{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=68–69}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mundaca|first1=Luis|last2=Ürge-Vorsatz|first2=Diana|author-link2=Diana Ürge-Vorsatz |last3=Wilson|first3=Charlie|date=2019|title=Demand-side approaches for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C|url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/files/49859700/Energy_Efficiency3.pdf|journal=[[Energy Efficiency (journal)|Energy Efficiency]] |volume=12|issue=2|pages=343–362 |doi=10.1007/s12053-018-9722-9|issn=1570-6478|doi-access=free|s2cid=52251308}}</ref>
The [[energy intensity]] of the global economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP)) is a rough indicator of the energy efficiency of economic production.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=12}} In 2010, global energy intensity was 5.6 megajoules (1.6 [[Kilowatt-hour|kWh]]) per US dollar of GDP.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=12}} United Nations goals call for energy intensity to decrease by 2.6% each year between 2010 and 2030.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=11}} In recent years this target has not been met. For instance, between 2017 and 2018, energy intensity decreased by only 1.1%.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|p=11}} Efficiency improvements often lead to a [[Jevons paradox|rebound effect]] in which consumers use the money they save to buy more energy-intensive goods and services.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brockway |first1=Paul |last2=Sorrell|first2=Steve|last3=Semieniuk|first3=Gregor|last4=Heun|first4=Matthew K.|last5=Court |first5=Victor|date=2021|display-authors=4|title=Energy efficiency and economy-wide rebound effects: A review of the evidence and its implications|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=141 |pages=110781|issn=1364-0321 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.110781|s2cid=233554220|doi-access=free|url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/171952/1/brockway%20sorrell%20et%20al%202021%20large%20rebound%20paper_2.pdf}}</ref> For example, recent technical efficiency improvements in transport and buildings have been largely offset by trends in [[consumer behaviour]], such as [[Autobesity|selecting larger vehicles]] and homes.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=November 2019|title=Energy Efficiency 2019 |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013050500/https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2019 |archive-date=13 October 2020|access-date=21 September 2020|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref>
==Sustainable energy sources==
===Renewable energy sources===
{{Main|Renewable energy}}
{{ multiple image | align = right | total_width =450
| image1= 2010- Fossil fuels vs Wind + Solar - electricity generation.svg |caption1=In 2023, electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30% by 2030.<ref name=RMI_20230613>{{cite web |last1=Bond |first1=Kingsmill |last2=Butler-Sloss |first2=Sam |last3=Lovins |first3=Amory |last4=Speelman |first4=Laurens |last5=Topping |first5=Nigel |title=Report / 2023 / X-Change: Electricity / On track for disruption |publisher=Rocky Mountain Institute |url=https://rmi.org/insight/x-change-electricity/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713171138/https://rmi.org/insight/x-change-electricity/ |archive-date=13 July 2023 |date=13 June 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image2=2011- Renewable energy capacity - International Energy Agency.svg| |alt=Graph showing the expansion of wind and solar renewable energy capacity from 2011 to 2020 |caption2=Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by [[Photovoltaic system|solar photovoltaic]] power.<ref name=IEA_202306>Source for data beginning in 2017: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711115355/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2023 |page=19 |date=June 2023 |quote=IEA. CC BY 4.0. |url-status=live}} ● Source for data through 2016: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update / Outlook for 2021 and 2022 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325084025/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2023 |page=8 |date=May 2021 |url-status=live |quote=IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0 }}</ref>
}}
[[File:2015- Clean energy vs fossil fuel investment - IEA.svg |thumb |Clean energy investment has benefited from post-pandemic economic recovery, a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices, and growing policy support across various nations.<ref name=IEA_20230525>{{cite web |title=World Energy Investment 2023 / Overview and key findings |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023/overview-and-key-findings |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531004551/https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023/overview-and-key-findings |archive-date=31 May 2023 |date=25 May 2023 |quote=Global energy investment in clean energy and in fossil fuels, 2015-2023 (chart) |url-status=live}} — From pages 8 and 12 of [https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf ''World Energy Investment 2023''] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20230531003621/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf archive]).</ref>]]
Renewable energy sources are essential to sustainable energy, as they generally strengthen energy security and emit far fewer greenhouse gases than [[fossil fuel]]s.{{sfn|IEA|2007|p=3}} Renewable energy projects sometimes raise significant sustainability concerns, such as risks to biodiversity when areas of high ecological value are converted to bioenergy production or wind or solar farms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santangeli|first1=Andrea|last2=Toivonen|first2=Tuuli|last3=Pouzols|first3=Federico Montesino |last4=Pogson|first4=Mark|last5=Hastings|first5=Astley|last6=Smith|first6=Pete|last7=Moilanen|first7=Atte |display-authors=4 |date=2016|title=Global change synergies and trade-offs between renewable energy and biodiversity|journal=[[GCB Bioenergy]]|volume=8|issue=5|pages=941–951|doi=10.1111/gcbb.12299|issn=1757-1707|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016GCBBi...8..941S |hdl=2164/6138|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rehbein|first1=Jose A.|last2=Watson|first2=James E.M. |last3=Lane|first3=Joe L.|last4=Sonter|first4=Laura J.|last5=Venter|first5=Oscar|last6=Atkinson |first6=Scott C.|last7=Allan|first7=James R.|display-authors=4 |date=2020|title=Renewable energy development threatens many globally important biodiversity areas|journal=[[Global Change Biology]] |volume=26|issue=5|pages=3040–3051|doi=10.1111/gcb.15067|pmid=32133726|bibcode=2020GCBio..26.3040R |s2cid=212418220|issn=1365-2486|url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:902f5a3/UQ902f5a3_OA.pdf}}</ref>
Hydropower is the largest source of renewable electricity while solar and wind energy are growing rapidly. [[Photovoltaic system|Photovoltaic solar]] and [[Wind power|onshore wind]] are the cheapest forms of new power generation capacity in most countries.<ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |title=Renewable Energy |website=[[Our World in Data]] |url=https://ourworldindata.org/renewable-energy |access-date=31 July 2020 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804120952/https://ourworldindata.org/renewable-energy}}</ref><ref name="IEA Renewables 2020">{{cite report |publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]] |year=2020 |ref=none| title=Renewables 2020 Analysis and forecast to 2025 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/1a24f1fe-c971-4c25-964a-57d0f31eb97b/Renewables_2020-PDF.pdf |url-status=live |page=12 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426063553/https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2020}}</ref> For more than half of the 770 million people who currently lack access to electricity, [[Distributed generation|decentralised renewable energy]] such as solar-powered mini-grids is likely the cheapest method of providing it by 2030.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2020|ref=none|title=Access to electricity|work=SDG7: Data and Projections|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513103128/https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity|archive-date=13 May 2021|access-date=5 May 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref> United Nations targets for 2030 include substantially increasing the proportion of renewable energy in the world's energy supply.<ref name=":5" /> According to the International Energy Agency, renewable energy sources like wind and solar power are now a commonplace source of electricity, making up 70% of all new investments made in the world's power generation.<ref name=":732">{{Cite web |title=Infrastructure Solutions: The power of purchase agreements |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/renewable-energy-power-purchase-agreements |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Renewable Power – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/renewable-power |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=Global Electricity Review 2022 |url=https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2022/ |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Ember |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Renewable Energy and Electricity {{!}} Sustainable Energy {{!}} Renewable Energy - World Nuclear Association |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/energy-and-the-environment/renewable-energy-and-electricity.aspx |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=world-nuclear.org}}</ref> The Agency expects renewables to become the primary energy source for electricity generation globally in the next three years, overtaking coal.<ref name=":24">IEA (2022), Renewables 2022, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022, License: CC BY 4.0</ref>
====Solar====
[[File:Renewable Energy Development in the California Desert 006.jpg|thumb|A [[photovoltaic power station]] in [[California]], United States|alt=long rows of dark panels, sloped about 45 degrees at the height of a person, stretch into the distance in bright sunshine]]
{{main|Solar power|Solar water heating}}
The Sun is Earth's primary source of energy, a clean and abundantly available resource in many regions.{{sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=406}} In 2019, solar power provided around 3% of global electricity,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Wind & Solar Share in Electricity Production Data|publisher=[[Enerdata]] |url=https://yearbook.enerdata.net/renewables/wind-solar-share-electricity-production.html|work=Global Energy Statistical Yearbook 2021|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=19 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719014426/https://yearbook.enerdata.net/renewables/wind-solar-share-electricity-production.html|url-status=live}}</ref> mostly through [[solar panels]] based on [[photovoltaic cells]] (PV). Solar PV is expected to be the electricity source with the largest installed capacity worldwide by 2027.<ref name=":24" /> The panels are mounted on top of buildings or installed in utility-scale [[photovoltaic power station|solar parks]]. Costs of solar photovoltaic cells have dropped rapidly, driving strong growth in worldwide capacity.{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|p=|pp=34–35}} The [[Cost of electricity by source|cost of electricity]] from new solar farms is competitive with, or in many places, cheaper than electricity from existing coal plants.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|date=19 October 2020|title=Levelized Cost of Energy and of Storage|url=http://www.lazard.com/perspective/levelized-cost-of-energy-and-levelized-cost-of-storage-2020/|url-status=live|access-date=26 February 2021|publisher=[[Lazard]]|archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225114950/https://www.lazard.com/perspective/levelized-cost-of-energy-and-levelized-cost-of-storage-2020/}}</ref> Various projections of future energy use identify solar PV as one of the main sources of energy generation in a sustainable mix.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021 |title=Solar photovoltaics is ready to power a sustainable future|journal=[[Joule (journal)|Joule]] |volume=5|issue=5|pages=1041–1056|doi=10.1016/j.joule.2021.03.005|first1=Marta|last1=Victoria|first2=Nancy |last2=Haegel|author2-link=Nancy Haegel|first3=Ian Marius|last3=Peters |first4=Ron|last4=Sinton|osti=1781630 |display-authors=etal|issn=2542-4351|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|IRENA|2021|pp=19, 22}}
Most components of solar panels can be easily recycled, but this is not always done in the absence of regulation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goetz|first1=Katelyn P.|last2=Taylor|first2=Alexander D. |last3=Hofstetter|first3=Yvonne J. |last4=Vaynzof|first4=Yana|date=2020|title=Sustainability in Perovskite Solar Cells|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acsami.0c17269|journal=[[ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces]]|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–17 |doi=10.1021/acsami.0c17269|pmid=33372760|s2cid=229714294 |issn=1944-8244}}</ref> Panels typically contain [[heavy metals]], so they pose environmental risks if put in [[landfill]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Yan|last2=Li |first2=Jinhui|last3=Tan|first3=Quanyin |last4=Peters|first4=Anesia Lauren|display-authors=etal|date=2018|title=Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review|journal=[[Waste Management (journal)|Waste Management]] |volume=75|pages=450–458 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956053X18300576|access-date=28 June 2021 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2018.01.036|pmid=29472153|bibcode=2018WaMan..75..450X |issn=0956-053X |archive-date=28 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628193335/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956053X18300576|url-status=live}}</ref> It takes fewer than two years for a solar panel to produce as much energy as was used for its production. Less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tian|first1=Xueyu|last2=Stranks|first2=Samuel D.|last3=You|first3=Fengqi |date=2020|title=Life cycle energy use and environmental implications of high-performance perovskite tandem solar cells|journal=[[Science Advances]]|volume=6|issue=31|pages=eabb0055 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb0055|pmc=7399695|issn=2375-2548|pmid=32937582|bibcode=2020SciA....6...55T|s2cid=220937730}}</ref>
In [[concentrated solar power]], solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. Electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a [[heat engine]]. Concentrated solar power can support [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable power generation]], as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed.{{Sfn|Kutscher|Milford|Kreith|2019|pp=35–36}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solar energy|publisher=[[International Renewable Energy Agency]]|url=https://www.irena.org/solar |access-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513154426/https://www.irena.org/solar |archive-date=13 May 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly; [[Solar thermal energy|solar thermal heating]] systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination.{{sfn|REN21|2020|p=124}}
====Wind power====
{{main|Wind power|Environmental impact of wind power}}
[[File:Wind_power_plants_in_Xinjiang,_China.jpg|thumb|Wind turbines in [[Xinjiang]], China|alt=Photograph of wind turbines against a hazy orange sky]]
Wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships.{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=366}} Modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6% of global electricity in 2019.<ref name=":4" /> Electricity from onshore [[wind farms]] is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear.<ref name=":10" /> Wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 May 2016|title=What are the advantages and disadvantages of offshore wind farms?|url=https://www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues/faq/what-are-advantages-and-disadvantages-offshore-wind-farms|access-date=18 September 2021|publisher=[[American Geosciences Institute]] |archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918215856/https://www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues/faq/what-are-advantages-and-disadvantages-offshore-wind-farms|url-status=live}}</ref>
Onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape.{{sfn|Szarka|2007|p=176}} While collisions with wind turbines kill both [[bat]]s and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and [[Overhead power line|transmission lines]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Shifeng|last2=Wang|first2=Sicong|date=2015 |title=Impacts of wind energy on environment: A review |journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=49|pages=437–443|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.137|issn=1364-0321 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032115004074|access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604062326/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032115004074|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=215}} The noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. Wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water.{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|p=213}} Little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Yu-Fong|last2=Gan|first2=Xing-Jia |last3=Chiueh|first3=Pei-Te |date=2017|title=Life cycle assessment and net energy analysis of offshore wind power systems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148116309156|journal=[[Renewable Energy (journal)|Renewable Energy]]|volume=102|pages=98–106|doi=10.1016/j.renene.2016.10.050|issn=0960-1481}}</ref> Turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier-to-recycle blades is ongoing.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Belton|first=Padraig|date=7 February 2020|title=What happens to all the old wind turbines?|publisher=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51325101|url-status=live|access-date=27 February 2021|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223042808/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51325101}}</ref>
====Hydropower====
{{Main|Hydroelectricity}}
[[File:Central Hidroeléctrica Simón Bolívar Represa de Guri Гідроелектростанція Симона Болівара - гребля Гурі 29.jpg|thumb|alt=a river flows smoothly from rectangular openings at the base of a high sloping concrete wall, with electricity wires above the river|[[Guri Dam]], a hydroelectric dam in [[Venezuela]]]]
[[Hydroelectricity|Hydroelectric plants]] convert the energy of moving water into electricity. In 2020, hydropower supplied 17% of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20% in the mid-to-late 20th century.{{sfn|Smil|2017b|p=286}}{{sfn|REN21|2021|p=21}}
In conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. Conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable]] electricity supply. They can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available.<ref name=":15" />
Compared to reservoir-based facilities, [[run-of-the-river hydroelectricity]] generally has less environmental impact. However, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. Reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and flexible electricity output while also providing security during drought for drinking water supply and irrigation.<ref>{{citec |last1=Kumar |first1=A.|first2=T.|last2=Schei|first3=A.|last3=Ahenkorah|first4=R. |last4=Caceres Rodriguez |first5=J.-M. |last5=Devernay |first6=M.|last6=Freitas|first7=D.|last7=Hall|first8=Å.|last8=Killingtveit|first9=Z.|last9=Liu |display-authors=4 |chapter=Hydropower|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/Chapter-5-Hydropower-1.pdf|pp=451, 462, 488|in=IPCC|year=2011
}}</ref>
Hydropower ranks among the energy sources with the lowest levels of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy produced, but levels of emissions vary enormously between projects.<ref name="AnnexIII_IPCC">{{citec |last1=Schlömer |first1=S.|first2=T.|last2=Bruckner|first3=L.|last3=Fulton|first4=E.|last4=Hertwich|display-authors=etal|year=2014|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf |chapter=Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters|in=IPCC|page=1335}}</ref> The highest emissions tend to occur with large dams in tropical regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida |first1=Rafael M.|last2=Shi|first2=Qinru|last3=Gomes-Selman|first3=Jonathan M.|last4=Wu|first4=Xiaojian |last5=Xue|first5=Yexiang|last6=Angarita|first6=Hector|last7=Barros|first7=Nathan|last8=Forsberg |first8=Bruce R.|last9=García-Villacorta|first9=Roosevelt|last10=Hamilton |first10=Stephen K.|last11=Melack |first11=John M.|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Reducing greenhouse gas emissions of Amazon hydropower with strategic dam planning|journal=Nature Communications|volume=10|issue=1|pages=4281 |issn=2041-1723 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.4281A|doi=10.1038/s41467-019-12179-5|pmc=6753097|pmid=31537792}}</ref> These emissions are produced when the biological matter that becomes submerged in the reservoir's flooding decomposes and releases carbon dioxide and methane. [[Deforestation]] and climate change can reduce energy generation from hydroelectric dams.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Moran|first1=Emilio F.|last2=Lopez |first2=Maria Claudia |last3=Moore|first3=Nathan|last4=Müller|first4=Norbert|last5=Hyndman|first5=David W. |display-authors=4|date=2018|title=Sustainable hydropower in the 21st century |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=115|issue=47|pages=11891–11898|doi=10.1073/pnas.1809426115|issn=0027-8424|pmc=6255148|pmid=30397145|bibcode=2018PNAS..11511891M |doi-access=free}}</ref> Depending on location, large dams can displace residents and cause significant local environmental damage; potential [[dam failure]] could place the surrounding population at risk.<ref name=":15" />
====Geothermal====
{{Main|Geothermal power|Geothermal heating}}
[[File:Larderello Cooling Towers.jpg|thumb|Cooling towers at a geothermal power plant in [[Larderello]], Italy|alt=3 enormous waisted vertical concrete cylinders, one emitting a wisp of steam, dwarf a building in the foreground]]
[[Geothermal energy]] is produced by tapping into deep underground heat<ref name="László 1981 248–249">{{cite journal|last=László|first=Erika|year=1981|title=Geothermal Energy: An Old Ally|journal=[[Ambio]]|volume=10|issue=5|pages=248–249|jstor=4312703}}</ref> and harnessing it to generate electricity or to heat water and buildings. The use of geothermal energy is concentrated in regions where heat extraction is economical: a combination is needed of high temperatures, heat flow, and [[Permeability (Earth sciences)|permeability]] (the ability of the rock to allow fluids to pass through).{{Sfn|REN21|2020|p=97}} Power is produced from the steam created in underground reservoirs.<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 October 2009|title=Geothermal Energy Information and Facts|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/geothermal-energy|url-status=dead|access-date=8 August 2021|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|archive-date=8 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808194416/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/geothermal-energy}}</ref> Geothermal energy provided less than 1% of [[global energy consumption]] in 2020.<ref name=":8" />
Geothermal energy is a renewable resource because thermal energy is constantly replenished from neighbouring hotter regions and the [[radioactive decay]] of [[Naturally occurring radioactive material|naturally occurring isotopes]].{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|pp=222, 228|2020}} On average, the greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal-based electricity are less than 5% that of coal-based electricity.<ref name='AnnexIII_IPCC'/> Geothermal energy carries a risk of inducing earthquakes, needs effective protection to avoid water pollution, and releases toxic emissions which can be captured.{{Sfn|Soysal|Soysal|2020|pp=228–229}}
====Bioenergy====
{{Main|Bioenergy}}
{{Further|Sustainable biofuel}}
[[File:Kenyan farmer with a biogas lamp provided by USAID 2013.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Man lighting a lamp hung from the ceiling|Kenyan dairy farmer lighting a biogas lamp. [[Biogas]] produced from [[biomass]] is a renewable energy source that can be burned for cooking or light.]]
[[File:Faz S Sofia canavial 090607 REFON.JPG|thumb|right|alt=A green field of plants looking like metre high grass, surrounded by woodland with urban buildings on the far horizon|A [[Sustainable biofuel#Sugarcane in Brazil|sugarcane plantation]] to produce [[Ethanol fuel|ethanol]] in Brazil]]
Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2021|title=Biomass explained|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biomass/|url-status=live|access-date=13 September 2021|publisher=[[US Energy Information Administration]]|archive-date=15 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915223913/https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biomass/}}</ref> It can either be burned to produce heat and electricity or be converted into [[biofuels]] such as [[biodiesel]] and ethanol, which can be used to power vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kopetz|first=Heinz|date=2013 |title=Build a biomass energy market|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=494|issue=7435|pages=29–31 |doi=10.1038/494029a|pmid=23389528|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Demirbas |first=Ayhan|date=2008|title=Biofuels sources, biofuel policy, biofuel economy and global biofuel projections|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890408000770|journal=[[Energy Conversion and Management]]|volume=49|issue=8|pages=2106–2116 |doi=10.1016/j.enconman.2008.02.020 |issn=0196-8904|access-date=11 February 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=18 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318032539/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890408000770}}</ref>
The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Correa|first1=Diego F.|last2=Beyer|first2=Hawthorne L. |last3=Fargione |first3=Joseph E.|last4=Hill|first4=Jason D.|last5=Possingham|first5=Hugh P.|last6=Thomas-Hall|first6=Skye R.|last7=Schenk|first7=Peer M.|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Towards the implementation of sustainable biofuel production systems|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=107|pages=250–263|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.005|s2cid=117472901|issn=1364-0321 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403211930139X |access-date=7 February 2021 |url-status=live|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132735/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S136403211930139X}}</ref> For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Daley |first=Jason|date=24 April 2018|title=The EPA Declared That Burning Wood Is Carbon Neutral. It's Actually a Lot More Complicated|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/epa-declares-burning-wood-carbon-neutral-180968880/|url-status=live|access-date=14 September 2021|website=[[Smithsonian Magazine]]|archive-date=30 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630153427/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/epa-declares-burning-wood-carbon-neutral-180968880/}}</ref> However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can [[Land use, land-use change, and forestry|displace natural ecosystems]], [[soil retrogression and degradation|degrade soils]], and consume water resources and synthetic fertilisers.{{sfn|Tester|2012|p=512}}{{sfn|Smil|2017a|p=162}} Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas is harvested unsustainably.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=73}} Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some cases, the impacts of [[Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels|land-use change]], cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels.{{sfn|Smil|2017a|p=162}}{{sfn|IPCC|2014|p=616}}
Use of farmland for growing biomass can result in [[food vs. fuel|less land being available for growing food]]. In the United States, around 10% of motor gasoline has been replaced by [[Corn ethanol|corn-based ethanol]], which requires a significant proportion of the harvest.<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 June 2020 |title=Biofuels explained: Ethanol|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biofuels/ethanol.php|access-date=16 May 2021|publisher=[[US Energy Information Administration]]|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514154634/https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biofuels/ethanol.php|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Foley|first=Jonathan |date=5 March 2013|title=It's Time to Rethink America's Corn System|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/|url-status=live |access-date=16 May 2021|website=[[Scientific American]]|archive-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103212244/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-to-rethink-corn/}}</ref> In Malaysia and Indonesia, clearing forests to produce [[palm oil]] for biodiesel has led to [[Social and environmental impact of palm oil|serious social and environmental effects]], as these forests are critical [[carbon sinks]] and [[habitat]]s for diverse species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ayompe |first1=Lacour M. |last2=Schaafsma|first2=M.|last3=Egoh|first3=Benis N.|date=1 January 2021|title=Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing |journal=[[Journal of Cleaner Production]]|volume=278|pages=123914|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123914|s2cid=224853908 |issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Lustgarten|first=Abrahm|date=20 November 2018|title=Palm Oil Was Supposed to Help Save the Planet. Instead It Unleashed a Catastrophe.|work=[[The New York Times]]|issn=0362-4331 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/20/magazine/palm-oil-borneo-climate-catastrophe.html |access-date=15 May 2019|url-status=live|archive-date=17 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517044504/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/20/magazine/palm-oil-borneo-climate-catastrophe.html}}</ref> Since [[photosynthesis]] captures only a small fraction of the energy in sunlight, producing a given amount of bioenergy requires a large amount of land compared to other renewable energy sources.{{sfn|Smil|2017a|p=161}}
[[Second-generation biofuels]] which are produced from non-food plants or waste reduce competition with food production, but may have other negative effects including trade-offs with conservation areas and local air pollution.<ref name=":0" /> Relatively sustainable sources of biomass include [[Algae fuel|algae]], waste, and crops grown on soil unsuitable for food production.<ref name=":0" />
[[Carbon capture and storage]] technology can be used to capture emissions from bioenergy power plants. This process is known as [[bioenergy with carbon capture and storage]] (BECCS) and can result in net [[carbon dioxide removal]] from the atmosphere. However, BECCS can also result in net positive emissions depending on how the biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported. Deployment of BECCS at scales described in some climate change mitigation pathways would require converting large amounts of cropland.{{sfn|National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|2019|p=3}}
====Marine energy====
{{Main|Marine energy}}
Marine energy has the smallest share of the energy market. It includes [[Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion|OTEC]], [[tidal power]], which is approaching maturity, and [[wave power]], which is earlier in its development. Two tidal barrage systems in France and in South Korea make up 90% of global production. While single marine energy devices pose little risk to the environment, the impacts of larger devices are less well known.{{Sfn|REN21|2021|pp=113–116}}
===Non-renewable energy sources===
====Fossil fuel switching and mitigation==== <!-- This section is transcribed to [[climate change mitigation]], please keep that in mind if you change the section heading -->
Switching from [[coal]] to [[natural gas]] has advantages in terms of [[sustainability]]. For a given unit of energy produced, the [[Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources|life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions]] of natural gas are around 40 times the emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat.<ref name="IEA gas">{{cite web|date=July 2019|title=The Role of Gas: Key Findings|url=https://www.iea.org/publications/roleofgas/|access-date=4 October 2019|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|url-status=live|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901022422/https://www.iea.org/publications/roleofgas/}}</ref> Natural gas combustion also produces less air pollution than coal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Natural gas and the environment |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/natural-gas-and-the-environment.php|url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021|publisher=[[US Energy Information Administration]]|archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402225017/https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/natural-gas-and-the-environment.php}}</ref> However, natural gas is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and [[Fugitive gas emissions|leaks during extraction and transportation]] can negate the advantages of switching away from coal.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web |last=Storrow |first=Benjamin |title=Methane Leaks Erase Some of the Climate Benefits of Natural Gas |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/methane-leaks-erase-some-of-the-climate-benefits-of-natural-gas/ |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref> The technology to curb [[methane leaks]] is widely available but it is not always used.<ref name=":27" />
Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to [[climate change mitigation]]. However, in the long term it does not provide a path to [[net-zero emissions]]. Developing natural gas infrastructure risks [[carbon lock-in]] and [[stranded assets]], where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit.<ref name="nytimes coal fades">{{cite web |last=Plumer|first=Brad|date=26 June 2019|title=As Coal Fades in the U.S., Natural Gas Becomes the Climate Battleground|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/26/climate/natural-gas-renewables-fight.html |access-date=4 October 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]|archive-date=23 September 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923092305/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/26/climate/natural-gas-renewables-fight.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gürsan|first1=C.|last2=de Gooyert|first2=V. |date=2021|title=The systemic impact of a transition fuel: Does natural gas help or hinder the energy transition?|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=138|pages=110552|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110552|s2cid=228885573 |issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free|hdl=2066/228782|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
The greenhouse gas emissions of fossil fuel and biomass power plants can be significantly reduced through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Most studies use a working assumption that CCS can capture 85–90% of the [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) emissions from a power plant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Budinis|first=Sarah |date=1 November 2018|title=An assessment of CCS costs, barriers and potential|journal=[[Energy Strategy Reviews]]|volume=22|pages=61–81 |doi=10.1016/j.esr.2018.08.003|issn=2211-467X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 January 2021|title=Zero-emission carbon capture and storage in power plants using higher capture rates |url=https://www.iea.org/articles/zero-emission-carbon-capture-and-storage-in-power-plants-using-higher-capture-rates|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330093543/https://www.iea.org/articles/zero-emission-carbon-capture-and-storage-in-power-plants-using-higher-capture-rates|archive-date=30 March 2021}}</ref> Even if 90% of emitted {{CO2}} is captured from a coal-fired power plant, its uncaptured emissions would still be many times greater than the emissions of nuclear, solar or wind energy per unit of electricity produced.<ref name=cleanest>{{Cite web|last=Ritchie |first=Hannah|date=10 February 2020|title=What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?|url=https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129205209/https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Evans|first=Simon|date=8 December 2017|title=Solar, wind and nuclear have 'amazingly low' carbon footprints, study finds|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/solar-wind-nuclear-amazingly-low-carbon-footprints|url-status=live|access-date=15 March 2021|work=[[Carbon Brief]]|archive-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316102518/https://www.carbonbrief.org/solar-wind-nuclear-amazingly-low-carbon-footprints}}</ref> Since coal plants using CCS would be less efficient, they would require more coal and thus increase the pollution associated with mining and transporting coal.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=5.4.1.2}} The CCS process is expensive, with costs depending considerably on the location's proximity to suitable geology for [[Carbon sequestration|carbon dioxide storage]].<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Evans|first=Simon|date=27 August 2020|title=Wind and solar are 30–50% cheaper than thought, admits UK government|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/wind-and-solar-are-30-50-cheaper-than-thought-admits-uk-government|access-date=30 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923025247/https://www.carbonbrief.org/wind-and-solar-are-30-50-cheaper-than-thought-admits-uk-government|website=[[Carbon Brief]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Malischek |first=Raimund|title=CCUS in Power|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/about-ccus|access-date=30 September 2020|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref> Deployment of this technology is still very limited, with only 21 large-scale CCS plants in operation worldwide as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deign|first=Jason|date=7 December 2020|title=Carbon Capture: Silver Bullet or Mirage?|website=[[Greentech Media]]|url=https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/no-clearer-if-carbon-capture-is-silver-bullet-or-mirage|access-date=14 February 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119013833/https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/no-clearer-if-carbon-capture-is-silver-bullet-or-mirage|archive-date=19 January 2021}}</ref>
====Nuclear power====
{{Main|Nuclear power debate|Nuclear renaissance}}
[[File:Elec-fossil-nuclear-renewables.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Chart showing the proportion of electricity produced by fossil fuels, nuclear, and renewables from 1985 to 2020|Since 1985, the proportion of electricity generated from low-carbon sources has increased only slightly. Advances in deploying renewables have been mostly offset by declining shares of nuclear power.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roser |first=Max|date=10 December 2020|title=The world's energy problem|url=https://ourworldindata.org/worlds-energy-problem |url-status=live|access-date=21 July 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-date=21 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721202510/https://ourworldindata.org/worlds-energy-problem}}</ref>]]
[[Nuclear power]] has been used since the 1950s as a low-carbon source of [[Base load|baseload]] electricity.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rhodes|first=Richard|date=19 July 2018|title=Why Nuclear Power Must Be Part of the Energy Solution |website=[[Yale Environment 360]]|publisher=[[Yale School of the Environment]] |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-nuclear-power-must-be-part-of-the-energy-solution-environmentalists-climate|url-status=live|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809182424/https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-nuclear-power-must-be-part-of-the-energy-solution-environmentalists-climate}}</ref> Nuclear power plants in over 30 countries generate about 10% of global electricity.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=June 2021|title=Nuclear Power in the World Today|publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]]|url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716094103/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx|archive-date=16 July 2021|access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref> As of 2019, nuclear generated over a quarter of all [[low-carbon power|low-carbon energy]], making it the second largest source after hydropower.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal|url=https://ourworldindata.org/energy-mix |last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|title=Energy mix|year=2020|journal=[[Our World in Data]]|url-status=live|access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-date=2 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702082157/https://ourworldindata.org/energy-mix}}</ref>
Nuclear power's lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions—including the mining and processing of [[uranium]]—are similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources.<ref name="AnnexIII_IPCC"/> Nuclear power uses little [[Surface power density|land per unit of energy]] produced, compared to the major renewables. Additionally, Nuclear power does not create local air pollution.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Ronald |date=10 May 2023 |title=New study: Nuclear power is humanity's greenest energy option |url=https://reason.com/2023/05/10/new-study-nuclear-power-is-humanitys-greenest-energy-option/ |access-date=22 May 2023 |website=Reason.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Nuclear Energy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/nuclear-energy |last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|access-date=19 July 2021|year=2020|journal=[[Our World in Data]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720063014/https://ourworldindata.org/nuclear-energy |archive-date=20 July 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Although the [[uranium ore]] used to fuel nuclear fission plants is a non-renewable resource, enough exists to provide a supply for hundreds to thousands of years.{{sfn|MacKay|2008|p=[https://withouthotair.com/c24/page_162.shtml 162]}}<ref>{{Citec|last1=Gill |first1=Matthew|last2=Livens |first2=Francis|last3=Peakman|first3=Aiden|in=Letcher|year=2020 |chapter=Nuclear Fission|page=135}}</ref> However, uranium resources that can be accessed in an economically feasible manner, at the present state, are limited and uranium production could hardly keep up during the expansion phase.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nikolaus|last1=Muellner|first2=Nikolaus|last2=Arnold |first3=Klaus|last3=Gufler|first4=Wolfgang|last4=Kromp|first5=Wolfgang |last5=Renneberg|first6=Wolfgang |last6=Liebert|date=2021|journal=Energy Policy|volume=155|at=112363|title=Nuclear energy - The solution to climate change?|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112363|s2cid=236254316|doi-access=free}}</ref> Climate change mitigation pathways consistent with ambitious goals typically see an increase in power supply from nuclear.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=2.4.2.1}}
There is controversy over whether nuclear power is sustainable, in part due to concerns around [[nuclear waste]], [[nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapon proliferation]], and [[Nuclear accident|accidents]].<ref name=":14" /> Radioactive nuclear waste must be managed for thousands of years<ref name=":14">{{Citec |last1=Gill|first1=Matthew|last2=Livens|first2=Francis|last3=Peakman|first3=Aiden|in=Letcher|year=2020|pages=147–149|chapter=Nuclear Fission}}</ref> and nuclear power plants create [[fissile material]] that can be used for weapons.<ref name=":14" /> For each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy has caused far fewer [[Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents|accidental]] and pollution-related deaths than fossil fuels, and the historic fatality rate of nuclear is comparable to renewable sources.<ref name=cleanest/> [[Public opinion on nuclear issues|Public opposition to nuclear energy]] often makes nuclear plants politically difficult to implement.<ref name=":14" />
Reducing the time and the cost of building new nuclear plants have been goals for decades but [[Economics of nuclear power plants|costs remain high]] and timescales long.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Timmer|first1=John |date=21 November 2020|title=Why are nuclear plants so expensive? Safety's only part of the story|website=[[Ars Technica]]|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/11/why-are-nuclear-plants-so-expensive-safetys-only-part-of-the-story/|access-date=17 March 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428140032/https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/11/why-are-nuclear-plants-so-expensive-safetys-only-part-of-the-story/}}</ref> Various new forms of nuclear energy are in development, hoping to address the drawbacks of conventional plants. [[Fast breeder]] reactors are capable of [[Nuclear reprocessing|recycling nuclear waste]] and therefore can significantly reduce the amount of waste that requires [[Deep geological repository|geological disposal]], but have not yet been deployed on a large-scale commercial basis.<ref>{{Cite report|title=Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation') |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/documents/210329-jrc-report-nuclear-energy-assessment_en.pdf|publisher=[[European Commission Joint Research Centre]] |date=2021|page=53|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426095255/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/documents/210329-jrc-report-nuclear-energy-assessment_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Thorium-based nuclear power|Nuclear power based on thorium]] (rather than uranium) may be able to provide higher energy security for countries that do not have a large supply of uranium.<ref>{{Citec |last1=Gill|first1=Matthew|last2=Livens |first2=Francis|last3=Peakman|first3=Aiden|in=Letcher|year=2020 |pages=146–147|chapter=Nuclear Fission}}</ref> [[Small modular reactors]] may have several advantages over current large reactors: It should be possible to build them faster and their modularization would allow for cost reductions via [[learning-by-doing]].<ref>{{citec|last1=Locatelli|first1=Giorgio|last2=Mignacca |first2=Benito|chapter=Small Modular Nuclear Reactors|year=2020|in=Letcher |pages=151–169 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081028865000086}}</ref>
Several countries are attempting to develop [[Fusion power|nuclear fusion]] reactors, which would generate small amounts of waste and no risk of explosions.<ref>{{Cite news|last=McGrath|first=Matt|date=6 November 2019|title=Nuclear fusion is 'a question of when, not if'|publisher=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50267017|url-status=live|access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125083144/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50267017|archive-date=25 January 2021}}</ref> Although fusion power has taken steps forward in the lab, the multi-decade timescale needed to bring it to commercialization and then scale means it will not contribute to a 2050 net zero goal for [[climate change mitigation]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=9 February 2022|title=Major breakthrough on nuclear fusion energy|publisher=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60312633|url-status=live|access-date=10 February 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301030807/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60312633}}</ref>
==Energy system transformation==
{{Main|Energy transition}}
[[File:2018- Energy transition investment versus fossil fuel investment.svg|thumb|[[Bloomberg L.P.#New Energy Finance|Bloomberg NEF]] reported that in 2022, global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time.<ref name=BloombergNEF_20230210>{{cite news |title=Energy Transition Investment Now On Par with Fossil Fuel |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/energy-transition-investment-now-on-par-with-fossil-fuel/ |publisher=Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance) |date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327065546/https://about.bnef.com/blog/energy-transition-investment-now-on-par-with-fossil-fuel/ |archive-date=27 March 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2{{Nbsp}}°C will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=46}} For a society to replace one form of energy with another, multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change. For example, transitioning from oil to solar power as the energy source for cars requires the generation of solar electricity, modifications to the electrical grid to accommodate fluctuations in solar panel output or the introduction of variable battery chargers and higher overall demand, adoption of [[electric cars]], and networks of [[Electric vehicle charging network|electric vehicle charging]] facilities and repair shops.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/renewables-have-won/F64DF99C3ED79CEA29C6EE2A59E71AB3/core-reader Chapter 11 – "Renewables Have Won"]|pp=202–203}}
Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system:
* The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity
* [[Electrification]] – that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels
* Accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}}
Some energy-intensive technologies and processes are difficult to electrify, including aviation, shipping, and steelmaking. There are several options for reducing the emissions from these sectors: biofuels and synthetic [[carbon-neutral fuels]] can power many vehicles that are designed to burn fossil fuels, however biofuels cannot be sustainably produced in the quantities needed and synthetic fuels are currently very expensive.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=106–110}} For some applications, the most prominent alternative to electrification is to develop a system based on sustainably-produced [[hydrogen fuel]].<ref name=":18" />
Full decarbonisation of the global energy system is expected to take several decades and can mostly be achieved with existing technologies.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/renewables-have-won/F64DF99C3ED79CEA29C6EE2A59E71AB3/core-reader Chapter 11 – "Renewables Have Won"]|p=203}} The IEA states that further innovation in the energy sector, such as in battery technologies and carbon-neutral fuels, is needed to reach net-zero emissions by 2050.{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=15}} Developing new technologies requires research and development, [[technology demonstration|demonstration]], and [[experience curve|cost reductions via deployment]].{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=15}} The transition to a zero-carbon energy system will bring strong [[Co-benefits of climate change mitigation|co-benefits]] for human health: The [[World Health Organization]] estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions of lives each year from reductions to air pollution alone.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2018|loc=Executive Summary}}<ref name="Vandyck_et_al_2018">{{cite journal|last1=Vandyck|first1=T.|last2=Keramidas|first2=K.|last3=Kitous|first3=A.|last4=Spadaro|first4=J.V.|display-authors=etal|year=2018|title=Air quality co-benefits for human health and agriculture counterbalance costs to meet Paris Agreement pledges.|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=9|issue=1|pages=4939|doi=10.1038/s41467-018-06885-9|pmc=6250710|pmid=30467311|bibcode=2018NatCo...9.4939V}}</ref> With good planning and management, pathways exist to provide universal [[Rural electrification|access to electricity]] and [[clean cooking]] by 2030 in ways that are consistent with climate goals.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}}<ref>{{harvnb|IPCC|2018|p=97}}</ref> Historically, several countries have made rapid economic gains through coal usage.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}} However, there remains a window of opportunity for many poor countries and regions to "[[Leapfrogging|leapfrog]]" fossil fuel dependency by developing their energy systems based on renewables, given adequate international investment and knowledge transfer.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}}
===Integrating variable energy sources===
[[File:SoSie+SoSchiff Ansicht.jpg|thumb|alt=Short terraces of houses, with their entire sloping roofs covered with solar panels| Buildings in the [[Solar Settlement at Schlierberg]], Germany, produce more energy than they consume. They incorporate rooftop solar panels and are built for maximum energy efficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hopwood|first=David|date=2007|title=Blueprint for sustainability?: What lessons can we learn from Freiburg's inclusive approach to sustainable development?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471084607700689|journal=[[Refocus]]|volume=8|issue=3|pages=54–57|doi=10.1016/S1471-0846(07)70068-9|issn=1471-0846|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102023331/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1471084607700689|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
To deliver reliable electricity from [[variable renewable energy]] sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems require flexibility.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=47}} Most [[electrical grid]]s were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introduction to System Integration of Renewables |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/introduction-to-system-integration-of-renewables|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=15 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515213454/https://www.iea.org/reports/introduction-to-system-integration-of-renewables|url-status=dead}}</ref> As larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, changes have to be made to the energy system to ensure that the supply of electricity is matched to demand.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Blanco|first1=Herib|last2=Faaij|first2=André|date=2018|title=A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=81|pages=1049–1086|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.062|issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/47678895/A_review_at_the_role_of_storage_in_energy_systems.pdf}}</ref> In 2019, these sources generated 8.5% of worldwide electricity, a share that has grown rapidly.<ref name=":4" />
There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale: there is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low.<ref name=":13" /> Linking different geographical regions through [[High-voltage direct current|long-distance transmission lines]] allows for further cancelling out of variability.{{Sfn|REN21|2020|p=177}} Energy demand can be shifted in time through [[energy demand management]] and the use of [[smart grids]], matching the times when variable energy production is highest. With [[grid energy storage]], energy produced in excess can be released when needed.<ref name=":13" /> Further flexibility could be provided from [[sector coupling]], that is coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via [[power-to-heat]]-systems and electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bloess|first1=Andreas|last2=Schill|first2=Wolf-Peter|last3=Zerrahn|first3=Alexander|date=2018|title=Power-to-heat for renewable energy integration: A review of technologies, modeling approaches, and flexibility potentials|journal=[[Applied Energy]]|volume=212|pages=1611–1626|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.073|s2cid=116132198 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018ApEn..212.1611B |hdl=10419/200120|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
Building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure that enough electricity is produced even during poor weather. In optimal weather, energy generation may have to be [[Curtailment (electricity)|curtailed]] if excess electricity cannot be used or stored. The final demand-supply mismatch may be covered by using [[Dispatchable generation|dispatchable energy sources]] such as hydropower, bioenergy, or natural gas.{{Sfn|IEA|2020|p=109}}
====Energy storage====
{{Main|Energy storage|Grid energy storage}}
[[File:1 MW 4 MWh Turner Energy Storage Project in Pullman, WA.jpg|thumb|Battery storage facility|alt=Photo with a set of white containers]]Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy and is an important aspect of a sustainable energy system.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last1=Koohi-Fayegh|first1=S.|last2=Rosen|first2=M.A.|date=2020|title=A review of energy storage types, applications and recent developments|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X19306012|journal=[[Journal of Energy Storage]]|volume=27|pages=101047|doi=10.1016/j.est.2019.101047|s2cid=210616155|issn=2352-152X|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132743/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352152X19306012|url-status=live}}</ref> The most commonly used and available storage method is [[pumped-storage hydroelectricity]], which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water.<ref name=":16" /> [[Battery storage|Batteries]], especially [[Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], are also deployed widely.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Katz|first=Cheryl|date=17 December 2020|title=The batteries that could make fossil fuels obsolete|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201217-renewable-power-the-worlds-largest-battery|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111075439/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201217-renewable-power-the-worlds-largest-battery|archive-date=11 January 2021|access-date=10 January 2021|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Batteries typically store electricity for short periods; research is ongoing into technology with sufficient capacity to last through seasons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Herib|first1=Blanco|last2=André|first2=Faaij|date=2018|title=A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=81|pages=1049–1086|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.062|issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/47678895/A_review_at_the_role_of_storage_in_energy_systems.pdf}}</ref> Costs of utility-scale batteries in the US have fallen by around 70% since 2015, however the cost and low [[energy density]] of batteries makes them impractical for the very large energy storage needed to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|date=19 May 2021|title=Climate change: science and solutions|url=https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/|chapter=Climate change and batteries: the search for future power storage solutions|chapter-url=https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/climate-science-solutions-batteries.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=15 October 2021|publisher=[[The Royal Society]]|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016023551/https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/}}</ref> Pumped hydro storage and [[power-to-gas]] (converting electricity to gas and back) with capacity for multi-month usage has been implemented in some locations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hunt|first1=Julian D.|last2=Byers|first2=Edward|last3=Wada|first3=Yoshihide|last4=Parkinson|first4=Simon|last5=Gernaat|first5=David E. H. J.|last6=Langan|first6=Simon|last7=van Vuuren|first7=Detlef P.|last8=Riahi|first8=Keywan|display-authors=4|date=2020|title=Global resource potential of seasonal pumped hydropower storage for energy and water storage|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=11|issue=1|pages=947|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-14555-y|pmid=32075965|pmc=7031375|bibcode=2020NatCo..11..947H|issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Balaraman|first=Kavya|date=12 October 2020|title=To batteries and beyond: With seasonal storage potential, hydrogen offers 'a different ballgame entirely'|url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/to-batteries-and-beyond-with-seasonal-storage-potential-hydrogen-offers/584959/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118052735/https://www.utilitydive.com/news/to-batteries-and-beyond-with-seasonal-storage-potential-hydrogen-offers/584959/|archive-date=18 January 2021|access-date=10 January 2021|website=Utility Dive}}</ref>
=== Electrification ===
{{main|Electrification}}
[[File:Heat Pump.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph two fans, the outdoor section of a heat pump|The outdoor section of a [[heat pump]]. In contrast to oil and gas boilers, they use electricity and are highly efficient. As such, electrification of heating can significantly reduce emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cole|first=Laura|date=15 November 2020|title=How to cut carbon out of your heating|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201116-climate-change-how-to-cut-the-carbon-emissions-from-heating|url-status=live|access-date=31 August 2021|publisher=[[BBC]]|archive-date=27 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827063629/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201116-climate-change-how-to-cut-the-carbon-emissions-from-heating}}</ref> ]]
Compared to the rest of the energy system, emissions can be reduced much faster in the electricity sector.{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}} As of 2019, 37% of global electricity is produced from low-carbon sources (renewables and nuclear energy). Fossil fuels, primarily coal, produce the rest of the electricity supply.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|date=2020|title=Electricity Mix |url=https://ourworldindata.org/electricity-mix|journal=[[Our World in Data]]|access-date=16 October 2021|archive-date=13 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013212634/https://ourworldindata.org/electricity-mix|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the easiest and fastest ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is to phase out coal-fired power plants and increase renewable electricity generation.{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}}
Climate change mitigation pathways envision extensive electrification—the use of electricity as a substitute for the direct burning of fossil fuels for heating buildings and for transport.{{sfn|IPCC|2014|loc=7.11.3}} Ambitious climate policy would see a doubling of energy share consumed as electricity by 2050, from 20% in 2020.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=2.4.2.2}}
One of the challenges in providing universal access to electricity is distributing power to rural areas. Off-grid and [[Mini-grids|mini-grid]] systems based on renewable energy, such as small solar PV installations that generate and store enough electricity for a village, are important solutions.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=167–169}} Wider access to reliable electricity would lead to less use of [[kerosene lighting]] and diesel generators, which are currently common in the developing world.{{sfn|United Nations Development Programme|2016|p=30}}
Infrastructure for generating and storing renewable electricity requires minerals and metals, such as [[cobalt]] and [[lithium]] for batteries and [[copper]] for solar panels.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Herrington|first=Richard|date=2021|title=Mining our green future|journal=[[Nature Reviews Materials]]|volume=6|issue=6|pages=456–458|bibcode=2021NatRM...6..456H|doi=10.1038/s41578-021-00325-9|issn=2058-8437|doi-access=free}}</ref> Recycling can meet some of this demand if product lifecycles are well-designed, however achieving net zero emissions would still require major increases in mining for 17 types of metals and minerals.<ref name=":19" /> A small group of countries or companies sometimes dominate the markets for these commodities, raising geopolitical concerns.<ref name=":20">{{Citec|last=Mudd|first=Gavin M.|year=2020|in=Letcher|pp=723–724|chapter=Metals and Elements Needed to Support Future Energy Systems}}</ref> Most of the world's cobalt, for instance, is [[Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]], a politically unstable region where mining is often associated with human rights risks.<ref name=":19" /> More diverse geographical sourcing may ensure a more flexible and less brittle [[supply chain]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Babbitt|first=Callie W.|date=2020|title=Sustainability perspectives on lithium-ion batteries|journal=[[Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy]]|volume=22|issue=6|pages=1213–1214|doi=10.1007/s10098-020-01890-3|issn=1618-9558|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020CTEP...22.1213B |s2cid=220351269}}</ref>
===Hydrogen===
{{Main|Hydrogen economy}}
Hydrogen gas is widely discussed in the context of energy, as an energy carrier with potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.{{sfn|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022|pp=91-92}}<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Evans |first1=Simon |last2=Gabbatiss |first2=Josh |date=30 November 2020 |title=In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change? |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201155033/https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change |archive-date=1 December 2020 |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=[[Carbon Brief]]}}</ref> This requires hydrogen to be produced cleanly, in quantities to supply in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient [[Climate change mitigation|mitigation]] alternatives are limited. These applications include heavy industry and long-distance transport.{{sfn|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022|pp=91-92}}
Hydrogen can be deployed as an energy source in [[fuel cells]] to produce electricity, or via combustion to generate heat.<ref name=":0422">{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Alastair C. |date=10 June 2021 |title=Optimising air quality co-benefits in a hydrogen economy: a case for hydrogen-specific standards for NO x emissions |journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=201–207 |doi=10.1039/D1EA00037C|doi-access=free }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by3|url=|authors=|vrt=|from this source=yes}}</ref> When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapour.<ref name=":0422" /> Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful [[NOx|nitrogen oxides]].<ref name=":0422" /> The overall lifecycle emissions of hydrogen depend on how it is produced. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Reed|first1=Stanley|last2=Ewing|first2=Jack|date=13 July 2021|title=Hydrogen Is One Answer to Climate Change. Getting It Is the Hard Part.|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/13/business/hydrogen-climate-change.html|access-date=14 July 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714190628/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/13/business/hydrogen-climate-change.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|IRENA|2019|p=9}}.</ref> The main method is [[steam methane reforming]], in which hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and [[methane]], the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last1=Bonheure|first1=Mike|last2=Vandewalle|first2=Laurien A.|last3=Marin|first3=Guy B.|last4=Van Geem|first4=Kevin M.|date=March 2021|title=Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries|url=https://www.aiche-cep.com/cepmagazine/march_2021/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1663852|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132733/https://www.aiche-cep.com/cepmagazine/march_2021/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1663852|archive-date=17 July 2021|access-date=6 July 2021|website=CEP Magazine|publisher=[[American Institute of Chemical Engineers]]}}</ref> While [[carbon capture and storage]] (CCS) could remove a large fraction of these emissions, the overall carbon footprint of hydrogen from natural gas is difficult to assess {{As of|2021|lc=y}}, in part because of emissions (including [[Gas venting|vented]] and [[Fugitive gas emissions|fugitive]] [[methane]]) created in the production of the natural gas itself.<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|date=2021|title=Industrial decarbonization via hydrogen: A critical and systematic review of developments, socio-technical systems and policy options|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/108187/1/Griffiths-IDRIC-Hydrogen-Manuscript-REV1_v1.1_tracked-BKS%5B90%5D.pdf|journal=[[Energy Research & Social Science]]|volume=80|page=39|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2021.102208|issn=2214-6296|first1=Steve|last1=Griffiths|first2=Benjamin K.|last2=Sovacool|first3=Jinsoo|last3=Kim|first4=Morgan|last4=Bazilian|first5=Joao M.|last5=Uratani|display-authors=4|access-date=11 September 2021|url-access=}}</ref>
Electricity can be used to split water molecules, producing sustainable hydrogen provided the electricity was generated sustainably. However, this [[electrolysis]] process is currently financially more expensive than creating hydrogen from methane without CCS and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last1=Evans|first1=Simon|last2=Gabbatiss|first2=Josh|date=30 November 2020|title=In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change|access-date=1 December 2020|website=[[Carbon Brief]]|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201155033/https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-does-the-world-need-hydrogen-to-solve-climate-change|url-status=live}}</ref> Hydrogen can be produced when there is a surplus of [[Variable renewable energy|variable renewable electricity]], then stored and used to generate heat or to re-generate electricity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Palys|first1=Matthew J.|last2=Daoutidis|first2=Prodromos|date=2020|title=Using hydrogen and ammonia for renewable energy storage: A geographically comprehensive techno-economic study|journal=[[Computers & Chemical Engineering]]|volume=136|pages=106785|doi=10.1016/j.compchemeng.2020.106785|osti=1616471 |issn=0098-1354|doi-access=free}}</ref> It can be further transformed into liquid fuels such as [[green ammonia]] and [[green methanol]].{{Sfn|IRENA|2021|pp=12, 22}} Innovation in [[Electrolysis of water|hydrogen electrolysers]] could make large-scale production of hydrogen from electricity [[Hydrogen economy#Costs|more cost-competitive]].{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=15, 75–76}}
Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as [[electric arc furnace]]s for steelmaking.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kjellberg-Motton |first=Brendan |date=7 February 2022 |title=Steel decarbonisation gathers speed {{!}} Argus Media |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en//news/2299399-steel-decarbonisation-gathers-speed |access-date=7 September 2023 |website=www.argusmedia.com |language=en}}</ref> For steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean energy carrier and simultaneously as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived [[coke (fuel)|coke]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Blank|first1=Thomas|last2=Molly|first2=Patrick|date=January 2020|title=Hydrogen's Decarbonization Impact for Industry|url=https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf|pages=2, 7, 8|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922115313/https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf|archive-date=22 September 2020|access-date=|publisher=[[Rocky Mountain Institute]]}}</ref> Hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles.{{sfn|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022|pp=91–92}} For light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen is far behind other [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s, especially compared with the rate of adoption of [[battery electric vehicles]], and may not play a significant role in future.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Plötz |first=Patrick |date=31 January 2022 |title=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-021-00706-6 |journal=Nature Electronics |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 |s2cid=246465284 |issn=2520-1131}}</ref>
Disadvantages of hydrogen as an energy carrier include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle.<ref name=":25" />
=== Energy usage technologies ===
====Transport====
[[File:Hornby Street Separated Bike Lane.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Group of cyclists using a bike lane in Vancouver, Canada|[[Utility cycling]] infrastructure, such as this [[bike lane]] in [[Vancouver]], encourages sustainable transport.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fraser |first1=Simon D.S. |last2=Lock |first2=Karen |title=Cycling for transport and public health: a systematic review of the effect of the environment on cycling |journal=[[European Journal of Public Health]] |date=December 2011 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=738–743 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckq145 |pmid=20929903 |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]
{{main|Sustainable transport}}
Transport accounts for 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions,<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 January 2016|title=Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data|access-date=15 October 2021|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]|archive-date=5 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205123907/https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data|url-status=live}}</ref> but there are multiple ways to make transport more sustainable. [[Public transport]] typically emits fewer greenhouse gases per passenger than personal vehicles, since trains and buses can carry many more passengers at once.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bigazzi|first=Alexander|date=2019|title=Comparison of marginal and average emission factors for passenger transportation modes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030626191930580X|journal=[[Applied Energy]]|volume=242|pages=1460–1466|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.03.172|bibcode=2019ApEn..242.1460B |s2cid=115682591|issn=0306-2619|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132723/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030626191930580X|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schäfer|first1=Andreas W.|last2=Yeh|first2=Sonia|date=2020|title=A holistic analysis of passenger travel energy and greenhouse gas intensities|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10096557/1/Energy%26GHG_Intensity.pdf|journal=[[Nature Sustainability]]|volume=3|issue=6|pages=459–462|doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0514-9|bibcode=2020NatSu...3..459S |s2cid=216032098|issn=2398-9629|via=|url-access=}}</ref> Short-distance flights can be replaced by [[high-speed rail]], which is more efficient, especially when electrified.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2020|p=xxv}}{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=137}} Promoting non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling, particularly in cities, can make transport cleaner and healthier.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pucher|first1=John|last2=Buehler|first2=Ralph|date=2017|title=Cycling towards a more sustainable transport future|journal=[[Transport Reviews]]|volume=37|issue=6|pages=689–694|doi=10.1080/01441647.2017.1340234|issn=0144-1647|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Smith|first=John|date=22 September 2016|title=Sustainable transport|url=https://transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-themes/sustainable-transport_en|access-date=22 October 2021|publisher=[[European Commission]]|url-status=live|archive-date=22 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022074150/https://transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-themes/sustainable-transport_en}}</ref>
The [[Energy efficiency in transport|energy efficiency of cars]] has increased over time,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knobloch|first1=Florian|last2=Hanssen|first2=Steef V.|last3=Lam|first3=Aileen|last4=Pollitt|first4=Hector |last5=Salas|first5=Pablo|last6=Chewpreecha|first6=Unnada |last7=Huijbregts|first7=Mark A. J.|last8=Mercure|first8=Jean-Francois|display-authors=4 |date=2020|title=Net emission reductions from electric cars and heat pumps in 59 world regions over time|journal=[[Nature Sustainability]]|volume=3|issue=6|pages=437–447|doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0488-7|pmid=32572385|issn=2398-9629|pmc=7308170|bibcode=2020NatSu...3..437K }}</ref> but shifting to [[electric vehicle]]s is an important further step towards decarbonising transport and reducing air pollution.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last1=Bogdanov|first1=Dmitrii|last2=Farfan|first2=Javier|last3=Sadovskaia|first3=Kristina|last4=Aghahosseini|first4=Arman|last5=Child|first5=Michael|last6=Gulagi|first6=Ashish|last7=Oyewo|first7=Ayobami Solomon|last8=de Souza Noel Simas Barbosa|first8=Larissa|last9=Breyer|first9=Christian|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Radical transformation pathway towards sustainable electricity via evolutionary steps|url=|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=10|issue=1|pages=1077|bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1077B|doi=10.1038/s41467-019-08855-1|issn=|pmc=6403340|pmid=30842423}}</ref> A large proportion of traffic-related air pollution consists of particulate matter from road dust and the wearing-down of tyres and brake pads.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Martini|first1=Giorgio|url=https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC89231|title=Non-exhaust traffic related emissions – Brake and tyre wear PM. EUR 26648.|last2=Grigoratos|first2=Theodoros|date=2014|publisher=[[Publications Office of the European Union]]|isbn=978-92-79-38303-8|pages=42|oclc=1044281650|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730193639/https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC89231|url-status=live}}</ref> Substantially reducing pollution from these [[Non-tailpipe emissions|non-tailpipe]] sources cannot be achieved by electrification; it requires measures such as making vehicles lighter and driving them less.<ref>{{Cite book| url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/non-exhaust-particulate-emissions-from-road-transport_4a4dc6ca-en|title=Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport: An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge|date=2020|publisher=[[OECD]] Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-45244-2|pages=8–9|chapter=Executive Summary|doi=10.1787/4a4dc6ca-en|s2cid=136987659|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730195154/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/non-exhaust-particulate-emissions-from-road-transport_4a4dc6ca-en|url-status=live}}</ref> Light-duty cars in particular are a prime candidate for decarbonization using [[Electric battery|battery technology]]. 25% of the world's [[Carbon dioxide|{{CO2}}]] emissions still originate from the transportation sector.<ref>{{Cite web |title={{CO2}} performance of new passenger cars in Europe |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/co2-performance-of-new-passenger |access-date=19 October 2022 |website=www.eea.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>
Long-distance freight transport and aviation are difficult sectors to electrify with current technologies, mostly because of the weight of [[Electric vehicle battery|batteries]] needed for long-distance travel, battery recharging times, and limited battery lifespans.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=133–137}}<ref name=":2" /> Where available, freight transport by ship [[Rail freight transport|and rail]] is generally more sustainable than by air and by road.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rail and waterborne – best for low-carbon motorised transport|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/rail-and-waterborne-transport|access-date=15 October 2021|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009064539/https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/rail-and-waterborne-transport|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Hydrogen vehicles]] may be an option for larger vehicles such as lorries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Miller|first=Joe|date=9 September 2020|title=Hydrogen takes a back seat to electric for passenger vehicles|url=https://www.ft.com/content/98a386ee-1a04-40fd-b6a4-8cf13ff1d0da|access-date=9 September 2020|website=[[Financial Times]]|archive-date=20 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920154027/https://www.ft.com/content/98a386ee-1a04-40fd-b6a4-8cf13ff1d0da|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the techniques needed to lower emissions from shipping and aviation are still early in their development, with [[ammonia]] (produced from hydrogen) a promising candidate for shipping fuel.{{Sfn|IEA|2021|pp=136, 139}} [[Aviation biofuel]] may be one of the better uses of bioenergy if emissions are captured and stored during manufacture of the fuel.<ref name="Biomass in a low-carbon economy">{{Cite report|url=https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/biomass-in-a-low-carbon-economy/|title=Biomass in a low-carbon economy|date=November 2018|publisher=UK [[Committee on Climate Change]]|page=18|access-date=28 December 2019|archive-date=28 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228191428/https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/biomass-in-a-low-carbon-economy/|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Buildings and cooking====
{{Further|Renewable heat|Green building|Energy poverty and cooking}}
[[File:Aghazade mansion.jpg|thumb|alt=Building with windcatcher towers|[[Passive cooling]] features, such as these [[windcatcher]] towers in Iran, bring cool air into buildings without any use of energy.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Abdolhamidi|first=Shervin|date=27 September 2018|title=An ancient engineering feat that harnessed the wind|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180926-an-ancient-engineering-feat-that-harnessed-the-wind|url-status=live|access-date=12 August 2021|publisher=[[BBC]]|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812203754/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180926-an-ancient-engineering-feat-that-harnessed-the-wind}}</ref>]]
[[File:Kookplaat inductie.JPG|thumb|alt=Electric induction oven|For cooking, [[Induction cooking|electric induction stoves]] are one of the most energy-efficient and safest options.{{sfn|Smith|Pillarisetti |2017|pp=145–146}}<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]]|date=16 January 2013|title=Cooking appliances|url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-efficiency/products/product-information/appliances-for-residential-use/cooking-appliances/13987|url-status=live|access-date=30 July 2021|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730185801/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-efficiency/products/product-information/appliances-for-residential-use/cooking-appliances/13987}}</ref>]]
Over one-third of energy use is in buildings and their construction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Buildings|url=https://www.iea.org/topics/buildings|access-date=15 October 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]|archive-date=14 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014223318/https://www.iea.org/topics/buildings|url-status=live}}</ref> To heat buildings, alternatives to burning fossil fuels and biomass include electrification through [[heat pumps]] or [[Electric resistance heater|electric heaters]], [[Geothermal heating|geothermal energy]], [[central solar heating]], reuse of [[waste heat]], and [[seasonal thermal energy storage]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mortensen|first1=Anders Winther|last2=Mathiesen|first2=Brian Vad|last3=Hansen|first3=Anders Bavnhøj|last4=Pedersen|first4=Sigurd Lauge|last5=Grandal|first5=Rune Duban|last6=Wenzel|first6=Henrik|display-authors=4|date=2020|title=The role of electrification and hydrogen in breaking the biomass bottleneck of the renewable energy system – A study on the Danish energy system|journal=[[Applied Energy]]|volume=275|pages=115331|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115331|issn=0306-2619|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020ApEn..27515331M |url=https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/files/172072129/1_s2.0_S0306261920308436_main.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Knobloch|first1=Florian|last2=Pollitt|first2=Hector|last3=Chewpreecha|first3=Unnada|last4=Daioglou|first4=Vassilis|last5=Mercure|first5=Jean-Francois |display-authors=4|date=2019|title=Simulating the deep decarbonisation of residential heating for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C|journal=[[Energy Efficiency (journal)|Energy Efficiency]] |volume=12|issue=2|pages=521–550|doi=10.1007/s12053-018-9710-0|issn=1570-6478|doi-access=free|s2cid=52830709|url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/375922/Knobloch2019_Article_SimulatingTheDeepDecarbonisati.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alva|first1=Guruprasad|last2=Lin|first2=Yaxue|last3=Fang|first3=Guiyin|date=2018|title=An overview of thermal energy storage systems|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036054421732056X|url-status=live|journal=[[Energy (journal)|Energy]]|volume=144|pages=341–378|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2017.12.037|issn=0360-5442|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717132734/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S036054421732056X}}</ref> Heat pumps provide both heat and air conditioning through a single appliance.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Plumer|first=Brad|date=30 June 2021|title=Are 'Heat Pumps' the Answer to Heat Waves? Some Cities Think So.|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/30/climate/heat-pumps-climate.html|access-date=11 September 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910154532/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/30/climate/heat-pumps-climate.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The IEA estimates heat pumps could provide over 90% of space and water heating requirements globally.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Abergel|first1=Thibaut|date=June 2020|title=Heat Pumps|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303162213/https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps|archive-date=3 March 2021|access-date=12 April 2021|publisher=[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]}}</ref>
A highly efficient way to heat buildings is through [[district heating]], in which heat is generated in a centralised location and then distributed to multiple buildings through [[insulated pipe]]s. Traditionally, most district heating systems have used fossil fuels, but [[District heating#Fourth generation|modern]] and [[cold district heating]] systems are designed to use high shares of renewable energy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Buffa|first1=Simone|last2=Cozzini|first2=Marco|last3=D'Antoni|first3=Matteo|last4=Baratieri|first4=Marco|last5=Fedrizzi|first5=Roberto|display-authors=4|date=2019|title=5th generation district heating and cooling systems: A review of existing cases in Europe|journal=[[Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews]]|volume=104|pages=504–522|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.12.059|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lund|first1=Henrik|author-link=Henrik Lund (academic)|last2=Werner|first2=Sven|last3=Wiltshire|first3=Robin|last4=Svendsen|first4=Svend|last5=Thorsen|first5=Jan Eric|last6=Hvelplund|first6=Frede|last7=Mathiesen|first7=Brian Vad|display-authors=4|date=2014|title=4th Generation District Heating (4GDH)|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544214002369|journal=[[Energy (journal)|Energy]]|volume=68|pages=1–11|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2014.02.089|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307230126/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544214002369|url-status=live}}</ref>
Cooling of buildings can be made more efficient through [[Passive solar building design|passive building design]], planning that minimises the [[urban heat island]] effect, and [[district cooling]] systems that cool multiple buildings with piped cold water.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=[[United Nations Environment Programme]]|date=22 July 2020|title=How cities are using nature to keep heatwaves at bay|url=https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-cities-are-using-nature-keep-heatwaves-bay|url-status=live|access-date=11 September 2021|ref=none|archive-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911225833/https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-cities-are-using-nature-keep-heatwaves-bay}}</ref><ref name=":26">{{Cite web|date=23 May 2019|title=Four Things You Should Know About Sustainable Cooling|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/05/23/four-things-you-should-know-about-sustainable-cooling|url-status=live|access-date=11 September 2021|publisher=[[World Bank]]|archive-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911232205/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/05/23/four-things-you-should-know-about-sustainable-cooling}}</ref> [[Air conditioning]] requires large amounts of electricity and is not always affordable for poorer households.<ref name=":26" /> Some air conditioning units still use [[refrigerant]]s that are greenhouse gases, as some countries have not ratified the [[Kigali Amendment]] to only use climate-friendly refrigerants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mastrucci|first1=Alessio|last2=Byers|first2=Edward|last3=Pachauri|first3=Shonali|last4=Rao|first4=Narasimha D.|date=2019|title=Improving the SDG energy poverty targets: Residential cooling needs in the Global South|journal=[[Energy and Buildings]]|volume=186|pages=405–415|doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.01.015|issn=0378-7788|doi-access=free|url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/15739/1/1-s2.0-S0378778818323958-main.pdf}}</ref>
In developing countries where populations suffer from [[energy poverty]], polluting fuels such as wood or animal dung are often used for cooking. Cooking with these fuels is generally unsustainable, because they release harmful smoke and because harvesting wood can lead to forest degradation.<ref>{{Cite report|author1=[[World Health Organization]] |author2=[[International Energy Agency]] |author3=[[Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves]] |author4=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |author5=Energising Development |name-list-style=and |author6=[[World Bank]] |date=2018|title=Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services|publisher=[[United Nations]]|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318023046/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|archive-date=18 March 2021|page=3}}</ref> The universal adoption of clean cooking facilities, which are already ubiquitous in rich countries,{{sfn|Smith|Pillarisetti|2017|pp=145–146}} would dramatically improve health and have minimal negative effects on climate.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=75}}{{sfn|IPCC|2014|p=29}} Clean cooking facilities, e.g. cooking facilities that produce less indoor soot, typically use natural gas, [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (both of which consume oxygen and produce carbon-dioxide) or electricity as the energy source; biogas systems are a promising alternative in some contexts.{{sfn|Smith|Pillarisetti|2017|pp=145–146}} [[Improved cookstoves]] that burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves are an interim solution where transitioning to clean cooking systems is difficult.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=12}}
====Industry====
Over one-third of energy use is by industry. Most of that energy is deployed in thermal processes: generating heat, drying, and [[refrigeration]]. The share of renewable energy in industry was 14.5% in 2017—mostly low-temperature heat supplied by bioenergy and electricity. The most energy-intensive activities in industry have the lowest shares of renewable energy, as they face limitations in generating heat at temperatures over {{convert|200|C|sigfig=2}}.{{Sfn|REN21|2020|p=40}}
For some industrial processes, commercialisation of technologies that have not yet been built or operated at full scale will be needed to eliminate greenhouse gas emissions.{{Sfn|IEA|2020|p=135}} [[Steelmaking]], for instance, is difficult to electrify because it traditionally uses [[Coke (fuel)|coke]], which is derived from coal, both to create very high-temperature heat and as an ingredient in the steel itself.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=50}} The production of plastic, cement, and fertilisers also requires significant amounts of energy, with limited possibilities available to decarbonise.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Åhman|first1=Max|last2=Nilsson|first2=Lars J.|last3=Johansson|first3=Bengt|date=2017|title=Global climate policy and deep decarbonization of energy-intensive industries|journal=[[Climate Policy (journal)|Climate Policy]]|volume=17|issue=5|pages=634–649|doi=10.1080/14693062.2016.1167009|issn=1469-3062|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017CliPo..17..634A }}</ref> A switch to a [[circular economy]] would make industry more sustainable as it involves recycling more and thereby using less energy compared to investing energy to mine and refine new [[raw materials]].{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|p=xxiii}}
==Government policies==
{{Further|Politics of climate change|Energy policy}}
{{quote box
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| quote = "Bringing new energy technologies to market can often take several decades, but the imperative of reaching net‐zero emissions globally by 2050 means that progress has to be much faster. Experience has shown that the role of government is crucial in shortening the time needed to bring new technology to market and to diffuse it widely."
| author = [[International Energy Agency]] (2021){{sfn|IEA|2021|p=186}}
| width = 25%
}}
Well-designed government policies that promote energy system transformation can lower greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality simultaneously, and in many cases can also increase energy security and lessen the financial burden of using energy.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=39–45}}
[[Environmental regulations]] have been used since the 1970s to promote more sustainable use of energy.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/we-must-price-carbon-emissions/66AEBB8BE9A7F7760DC1BCE3A9C50748 Chapter 6 – We Must Price Carbon Emissions"]|p=109}} Some governments have committed to dates for [[Coal phase-out|phasing out coal-fired power plants]] and ending new [[fossil fuel exploration]]. Governments can require that new cars produce zero emissions, or new buildings are heated by electricity instead of gas.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=28–36}} [[Renewable portfolio standard]]s in several countries require utilities to increase the percentage of electricity they generate from renewable sources.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ciucci|first=M.|date=February 2020|title=Renewable Energy|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/70/renewable-energy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604182037/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/70/renewable-energy|archive-date=4 June 2020|access-date=3 June 2020|publisher=[[European Parliament]]|ref={{harvid|European Parliament, February|2020}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=17 April 2020|title=State Renewable Portfolio Standards and Goals|url=https://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/renewable-portfolio-standards.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603174312/https://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/renewable-portfolio-standards.aspx|archive-date=3 June 2020|access-date=3 June 2020|publisher=[[National Conference of State Legislators]]|ref={{harvid|National Conference of State Legislators, 17 April|2020}}}}</ref>
Governments can accelerate energy system transformation by leading the development of infrastructure such as long-distance electrical transmission lines, smart grids, and hydrogen pipelines.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=14–25}} In transport, appropriate infrastructure and incentives can make travel more efficient and less car-dependent.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=39–45}} [[Urban planning]] that discourages [[Urban sprawl|sprawl]] can reduce energy use in local transport and buildings while enhancing quality of life.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=39–45}} Government-funded research, procurement, and incentive policies have historically been critical to the development and maturation of clean energy technologies, such as solar and lithium batteries.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=184–187}} In the IEA's scenario for a net zero-emission energy system by 2050, public funding is rapidly mobilised to bring a range of newer technologies to the demonstration phase and to encourage deployment.{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=16}}
[[File:MicrocityCarSharingHangzhou.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a row of cars plugged into squat metal boxes under a roof| Several countries and the European Union have committed to dates for all new cars to be [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=28–36}}]]
[[Carbon pricing]] (such as a tax on {{CO2}} emissions) gives industries and consumers an incentive to reduce emissions while letting them choose how to do so. For example, they can shift to low-emission energy sources, improve energy efficiency, or reduce their use of energy-intensive products and services.{{sfn|Jaccard|2020|pp=106–109|loc=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/we-must-price-carbon-emissions/66AEBB8BE9A7F7760DC1BCE3A9C50748 Chapter 6 – "We Must Price Carbon Emissions"]}} Carbon pricing has encountered strong [[Politics of climate change|political pushback]] in some jurisdictions, whereas energy-specific policies tend to be politically safer.<ref name="Plumer">{{Cite news|last=Plumer|first=Brad|date=8 October 2018|title=New U.N. Climate Report Says Put a High Price on Carbon |work=[[The New York Times]]|issn=0362-4331 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/08/climate/carbon-tax-united-nations-report-nordhaus.html|access-date=4 October 2019|url-status=live|archive-date=27 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927002827/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/08/climate/carbon-tax-united-nations-report-nordhaus.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Jessica F.|date=2021 |title=Does carbon pricing reduce emissions? A review of ex-post analyses |journal=[[Environmental Research Letters]]|volume=16|issue=4|pages=043004|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/abdae9|bibcode=2021ERL....16d3004G |s2cid=234254992|issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free}}</ref> Most studies indicate that to limit global warming to 1.5{{Nbsp}}°C, carbon pricing would need to be complemented by stringent energy-specific policies.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|loc=2.5.2.1}} As of 2019, the price of carbon in most regions is too low to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.<ref>
{{cite report |ref={{harvid|World Bank, June|2019}} |title=State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2019 |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/191801559846379845/pdf/State-and-Trends-of-Carbon-Pricing-2019.pdf |date=June 2019 |publisher=[[World Bank]] |doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-1435-8 |hdl=10986/29687 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506210943/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/191801559846379845/pdf/State-and-Trends-of-Carbon-Pricing-2019.pdf |url-status=live|pages=8–11 |isbn=978-1-4648-1435-8 }}
</ref> [[Carbon tax]]es provide a source of revenue that can be used to lower other taxes<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Revenue-Neutral Carbon Tax {{!}} Canada|url=https://unfccc.int/climate-action/momentum-for-change/financing-for-climate-friendly/revenue-neutral-carbon-tax|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028052504/https://unfccc.int/climate-action/momentum-for-change/financing-for-climate-friendly/revenue-neutral-carbon-tax|archive-date=28 October 2019|access-date=28 October 2019|publisher=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]}}</ref> or help lower-income households afford higher energy costs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carr|first=Mathew|date=10 October 2018|title=How High Does Carbon Need to Be? Somewhere From $20–$27,000|work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-10/how-much-does-carbon-need-to-cost-somewhere-from-20-to-27-000|url-status=live|access-date=4 October 2019|archive-date=5 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805224854/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-10/how-much-does-carbon-need-to-cost-somewhere-from-20-to-27-000}}</ref> Some governments, such as the EU and the UK, are exploring the use of [[carbon border adjustments]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=EAC launches new inquiry weighing up carbon border tax measures |date=24 September 2021|publisher=[[UK Parliament]] |url=https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/62/environmental-audit-committee/news/157728/eac-launches-new-inquiry-weighing-up-carbon-border-tax-measures/|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924120030/https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/62/environmental-audit-committee/news/157728/eac-launches-new-inquiry-weighing-up-carbon-border-tax-measures/|url-status=live}}</ref> These place [[tariff]]s on imports from countries with less stringent climate policies, to ensure that industries subject to internal carbon prices remain competitive.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Plumer |first=Brad|date=14 July 2021|title=Europe Is Proposing a Border Carbon Tax. What Is It and How Will It Work?|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/14/climate/carbon-border-tax.html|access-date=10 September 2021 |issn=0362-4331|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910225727/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/14/climate/carbon-border-tax.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Bharti |first=Bianca|date=12 August 2021|title=Taxing imports of heavy carbon emitters is gaining momentum – and it could hurt Canadian industry: Report|work=[[Financial Post]]|url=https://financialpost.com/news/economy/border-carbon-adjustments-canada-eu-import-carbon-tax|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003181112/https://financialpost.com/news/economy/border-carbon-adjustments-canada-eu-import-carbon-tax|url-status=live}}</ref>
The scale and pace of policy reforms that have been initiated as of 2020 are far less than needed to fulfil the climate goals of the Paris Agreement.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2020|p=vii}}{{sfn|IEA|2021|p=13}} In addition to domestic policies, greater international cooperation is required to accelerate innovation and to assist poorer countries in establishing a sustainable path to full energy access.{{sfn|IEA|2021|pp=14–18}}
Countries may support renewables to create jobs.{{Sfn|IRENA|IEA|REN21|2018|p=19}} The [[International Labour Organization]] estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 2 °C would result in net job creation in most sectors of the economy.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|date=14 May 2018|title=24 million jobs to open up in the green economy|url=http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_628644/lang--en/index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213559/http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_628644/lang--en/index.htm|archive-date=2 June 2021|access-date=30 May 2021|publisher=[[International Labour Organization]]}}</ref> It predicts that 24 million new jobs would be created by 2030 in areas such as renewable electricity generation, improving energy-efficiency in buildings, and the transition to electric vehicles. Six million jobs would be lost, in sectors such as mining and fossil fuels.<ref name=":21" /> Governments can make the transition to sustainable energy more politically and socially feasible by ensuring a [[just transition]] for workers and regions that depend on the fossil fuel industry, to ensure they have alternative economic opportunities.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2019|pp=46–55}}
==Finance==
{{Further|Climate finance}}
[[File:20210119 Renewable energy investment - 2004- BloombergNEF.svg |thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Graph of global investment for renewable energy, electrified heat and transport, and other non-fossil-fuel energy sources |Electrified transport and renewable energy are key areas of investment for the [[renewable energy transition]].<ref name=BloombergNEF_20230126>{{cite news |last1=Catsaros |first1=Oktavia |title=Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $1 Trillion for the First Time |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-low-carbon-energy-technology-investment-surges-past-1-trillion-for-the-first-time/ |publisher=Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance) |date=26 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522001857/https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-low-carbon-energy-technology-investment-surges-past-1-trillion-for-the-first-time/ |archive-date=22 May 2023 |at=Figure 1 |quote=Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Raising enough money for innovation and investment is a prerequisite for the energy transition.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last1=Mazzucato|first1=Mariana|last2=Semieniuk|first2=Gregor|date=2018|title=Financing renewable energy: Who is financing what and why it matters|journal=[[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]]|volume=127|pages=8–22|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2017.05.021|issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10044043/1/1-s2.0-S0040162517306820-main.pdf}}</ref> The IPCC estimates that to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, US$2.4 trillion would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035. Most studies project that these costs, equivalent to 2.5% of world GDP, would be small compared to the economic and health benefits.{{sfn|United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|2019|page=24}} Average annual investment in low-carbon energy technologies and energy efficiency would need to be six times more by 2050 compared to 2015.{{sfn|IPCC|2018|page=96}} Underfunding is particularly acute in the least developed countries, which are not attractive to the private sector.{{Sfn|IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization|2021|pp=129, 132}}
The [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] estimates that climate financing totalled $681 billion in 2016.{{sfn|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|2018|p=54}} Most of this is private-sector investment in renewable energy deployment, public-sector investment in sustainable transport, and private-sector investment in energy efficiency.{{sfn|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|2018|p=9}} The Paris Agreement includes a pledge of an extra $100 billion per year from developed countries to poor countries, to do climate change mitigation and adaptation. However, this goal has not been met and measurement of progress has been hampered by unclear accounting rules.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=J. Timmons|last2=Weikmans|first2=Romain|last3=Robinson|first3=Stacy-ann|last4=Ciplet|first4=David|last5=Khan|first5=Mizan|last6=Falzon|first6=Danielle|display-authors=4|date=2021|title=Rebooting a failed promise of climate finance|journal=[[Nature Climate Change]]|volume=11|issue=3|pages=180–182|bibcode=2021NatCC..11..180R|doi=10.1038/s41558-021-00990-2|issn=1758-6798|doi-access=free|url=https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/319545/3/Rebootingclimatefinance.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Radwanski|first=Adam|date=29 September 2021|title=Opinion: As pivotal climate summit approaches, Canada at centre of efforts to repair broken trust among poorer countries|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/article-as-pivotal-climate-summit-approaches-canada-at-centre-of-efforts-to/|access-date=30 September 2021|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930050603/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/article-as-pivotal-climate-summit-approaches-canada-at-centre-of-efforts-to/|url-status=live}}</ref> If energy-intensive businesses like chemicals, fertilizers, ceramics, steel, and non-ferrous metals invest significantly in R&D, its usage in industry might amount to between 5% and 20% of all energy used.<ref name=":78">{{Cite web |title=Here are the clean energy innovations that will beat climate change |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/green-energy-innovation |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/5d01a32d-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/5d01a32d-en |access-date=19 October 2022 |website=www.oecd-ilibrary.org |language=en}}</ref>
Fossil fuel funding and [[energy subsidy#Fossil fuel subsidies|subsidies]] are a significant barrier to the energy transition.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Bridle|first1=Richard|last2=Sharma|first2=Shruti|last3=Mostafa|first3=Mostafa|last4=Geddes|first4=Anna|date=June 2019|title=Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps: How to pay for an energy revolution|url=https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/fossil-fuel-clean-energy-subsidy-swap.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117055218/https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/fossil-fuel-clean-energy-subsidy-swap.pdf|archive-date=17 November 2019|access-date=|publisher=[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]]|page=iv}}</ref><ref name=":22" /> Direct global fossil fuel subsidies were $319 billion in 2017. This rises to $5.2 trillion when indirect costs are priced in, like the effects of air pollution.<ref name="Watts_et_al_2019">{{cite journal|last1=Watts|first1=N.|last2=Amann|first2=M.|last3=Arnell|first3=N.|last4=Ayeb-Karlsson|first4=S.|display-authors=etal|year=2019|title=The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate.|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/88053/4/__smbhome.uscs.susx.ac.uk_tjk30_Documents_The%202019%20Report%20of%20the%20Lancet%20Countdown%20-%20revised.pdf|journal=[[The Lancet]]|volume=394|issue=10211|pages=1836–1878|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6|pmid=31733928|s2cid=207976337|access-date=3 November 2021|url-access=}}</ref> Ending these could lead to a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths.{{Sfn|United Nations Development Programme|2020|page=10}} Funding for clean energy has been largely unaffected by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and pandemic-related economic stimulus packages offer possibilities for a [[green recovery]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kuzemko|first1=Caroline|last2=Bradshaw|first2=Michael|last3=Bridge|first3=Gavin|last4=Goldthau|first4=Andreas|last5=Jewell|first5=Jessica|display-authors=4|date=2020|title=Covid-19 and the politics of sustainable energy transitions|url=|journal=[[Energy Research & Social Science]]|volume=68|pages=101685|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2020.101685|issn=2214-6296|pmc=7330551|pmid=32839704}}</ref>{{Sfn|IRENA|2021|p=5}}
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{{Reflist}}
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* {{Cite book|author-link=International Energy Agency|last=IEA|title=World Energy Outlook 2020|year=2020 |publisher=International Energy Agency |isbn=978-92-64-44923-7|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2020|url-status=live |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822044327/https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2020}}
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* {{cite report|author=(([[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IRENA]], [[United Nations Statistics Division]], [[World Bank]], [[World Health Organization]]))|year=2021|publisher=[[World Bank]] |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Jun/SDG7_Tracking_Progress_2021.pdf |title=Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report|archive-date=10 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610160557/https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Jun/SDG7_Tracking_Progress_2021.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|author=[[IPCC]]|year=2011|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/renewable-energy-sources-and-climate-change-mitigation/|title=IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation |editor-first1=O. |editor-last1=Edenhofer|editor-first2=R.|editor-last2=Pichs-Madruga|editor-first3=Y. |editor-last3=Sokona|editor-first4=K.|editor-last4=Seyboth|editor-first5=P.|editor-last5=Matschoss|editor-first6=S.|editor-last6=Kadner|display-editors=4|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-02340-6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827115439/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/renewable-energy-sources-and-climate-change-mitigation/|archive-date=27 August 2021|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |author=[[IPCC]] |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |year=2014 |title=Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |editor-first1=O. |editor-last1=Edenhofer |editor-first2=R. |editor-last2=Pichs-Madruga |editor-first3=Y. |editor-last3=Sokona |editor-first4=E. |editor-last4=Farahani |editor-first5=S. |editor-last5=Kadner |display-editors=4 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-05821-7 |oclc=892580682 |archive-date=26 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126121016/http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book |author=[[IPCC]] |year=2018 |title=Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty |display-editors=4 |editor-first1=V. |editor-last1=Masson-Delmotte |editor-first2=P. |editor-last2=Zhai |editor-first3=H.-O. |editor-last3=Pörtner |editor-first4=D. |editor-last4=Roberts |editor-first5=J. |editor-last5=Skea |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120190924/https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf |archive-date=20 November 2020 |url-status=live|isbn=<!-- not issued? -->}}
* {{Cite book |author=IPCC |url=https://ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf |title=Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2022 |editor1-last=Shukla |editor1-first=P.R. |series=Contribution of Working Group III to the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |place=Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA |pages=91–92 |doi=10.1017/9781009157926 |isbn=9781009157926 |ref={{harvid|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022}} |author-link=IPCC |editor2-last=Skea |editor2-first=J. |editor3-last=Slade |editor3-first=R. |editor4-last=Al Khourdajie |editor4-first=A. |editor5-last=van Diemen |editor5-first=R. |editor6-last=McCollum |editor6-first=D. |editor7-last=Pathak |editor7-first=M. |editor8-last=Some |editor8-first=S. |editor9-last=Vyas |editor9-first=P. |display-editors=4 |editor10-first=R. |editor10-last=Fradera |editor11-first=M. |editor11-last=Belkacemi |editor12-first=A. |editor12-last=Hasija |editor13-first=G. |editor13-last=Lisboa |editor14-first=S. |editor14-last=Luz |editor15-first=J. |editor15-last=Malley}}
* {{cite book|author=[[IRENA]]|date=2019|title=Hydrogen: A renewable energy perspective|isbn=978-92-9260-151-5|url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2019/Sep/IRENA_Hydrogen_2019.pdf |access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=29 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929023014/https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2019/Sep/IRENA_Hydrogen_2019.pdf|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|author=[[IRENA]]|year=2021|title=World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/March/IRENA_World_Energy_Transitions_Outlook_2021.pdf |isbn=978-92-9260-334-2|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611230855/https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/March/IRENA_World_Energy_Transitions_Outlook_2021.pdf|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=IRENA|last2=IEA|last3=REN21|author1-link=IRENA|author2-link=International Energy Agency |author3-link=REN21|year=2018|title=Renewable Energy Policies in a Time of Transition |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Apr/IRENA_IEA_REN21_Policies_2018.pdf|isbn=978-92-9260-061-7|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724231603/https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Apr/IRENA_IEA_REN21_Policies_2018.pdf|url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book|last=Jaccard|first=Mark|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/49D99FBCBD6FCACD5F3D58A7ED80882D|title=The Citizen's Guide to Climate Success: Overcoming Myths that Hinder Progress |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2020|isbn=978-1-108-47937-0 |oclc=1110157223|author-link=Mark Jaccard|archive-date=12 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912165814/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/citizens-guide-to-climate-success/49D99FBCBD6FCACD5F3D58A7ED80882D|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Kutscher|first1=C.F.|last2=Milford|first2=J.B.|last3=Kreith|first3=F.|title=Principles of Sustainable Energy Systems|edition=Third|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|series=Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Series |year=2019|isbn=978-0-429-93916-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQhpDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live|archive-date=6 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606195825/https://books.google.com/books?id=wQhpDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|title=Future Energy: Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet |edition=Third |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2020|isbn=978-0-08-102886-5 |editor-last=Letcher|editor-first=Trevor M.}}
* {{Cite book|last=MacKay|first=David J. C.|author-link=David J. C. MacKay|title=Sustainable energy – without the hot air|date=2008|publisher=UIT Cambridge|isbn=978-0-9544529-3-3 |oclc=262888377 |url=https://www.withouthotair.com/ |archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828004812/http://www.withouthotair.com/|url-status=live}}
* {{cite report|last1=Morris|first1=Ellen|first2=Rose|last2=Mensah-Kutin|first3=Jennye|last3=Greene |first4=Catherine|last4=Diam-valla|url=https://seforall.org/sites/default/files/Situation-Analysis-of-Energy-and-Gender-Issues.pdf |title=Situation Analysis of Energy and Gender Issues in ECOWAS Member States |date=2015|publisher=ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency|archive-date=21 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321142125/http://seforall.org/sites/default/files/Situation-Analysis-of-Energy-and-Gender-Issues.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|author=(([[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]]))|title=Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda|year=2019|isbn=978-0-309-48452-7 |doi=10.17226/25259 |pmid=31120708|s2cid=134196575|url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda|archive-date=25 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525204549/https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|author=[[REN21]]|title=Renewables 2020: Global Status Report|publisher=REN21 Secretariat |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf |year=2020|isbn=978-3-948393-00-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923065621/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2020|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|author=[[REN21]]|url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2021_Full_Report.pdf |title=Renewables 2021: Global Status Report|publisher=REN21 Secretariat|year=2021|isbn=978-3-948393-03-8 |archive-date=15 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615172702/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2021_Full_Report.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book | last=Smil | first=Vaclav |author-link=Vaclav Smil| title=Energy Transitions: Global and National Perspectives | publisher=[[Praeger Publishing]] | year=2017a | isbn=978-1-4408-5324-1 | oclc=955778608 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Smil|first=Vaclav|author-link=Vaclav Smil|title=Energy and Civilization: A History|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|pages=|year=2017b|isbn=978-0-262-03577-4|oclc=959698256}}
*{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Kirk R.|last2=Pillarisetti|first2=Ajay|title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health|edition=3rd|publisher=[[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] / [[World Bank]]|year=2017 |editor-last1=Kobusingye|editor-first1=O.|chapter=Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health|display-editors=etal|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/|doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-0522-6_ch7|pmid=30212117|url-status=live|isbn=978-1-4648-0523-3 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525218/|access-date=23 October 2021|archive-date=22 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822155833/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525218/}}
* {{cite book |last1=Soysal |first1=Oguz A. |last2=Soysal |first2=Hilkat S. |title=Energy for Sustainable Society: From Resources to Users |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons Ltd]]|isbn=978-1-119-56130-9 |year=2020 |oclc=1153975635}}
* {{Cite book|last=Szarka|first=Joseph|title=Wind Power in Europe : Politics, Business and Society|date=2007|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0-230-28667-2 |oclc=681900901}}
* {{Cite book|last=Tester|first=Jefferson|title=Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|pages=|year=2012|isbn=978-0-262-01747-3|oclc=892554374}}
*{{cite report|url=https://www.undp.org/publications/undps-energy-strategy|title=Delivering Sustainable Energy in a Changing Climate: Strategy Note on Sustainable Energy 2017–2021|date=2016|author=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|url-status=live|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606234930/https://www.undp.org/publications/undps-energy-strategy}}
*{{cite report|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|last=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |year=2020|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|url-status=live|archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215063955/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Heat is On: Taking Stock of Global Climate Ambition|year=2019|author1=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |author2=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] |name-list-style=amp |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/NDC%20Outlook.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612075208/https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/NDC%20Outlook.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2021|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|ref={{harvid|UNECE|2020}}|author=[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] |url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/CSE/Publications/Final_Report_PathwaysToSE.pdf |title=Pathways to Sustainable Energy|publisher=[[United Nations]]|year=2020|isbn=978-92-1-117228-7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412194448/https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/CSE/Publications/Final_Report_PathwaysToSE.pdf|archive-date=12 April 2021|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |author=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] |year=2019 |title=Emissions Gap Report 2019 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30797/EGR2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |isbn=978-92-807-3766-0 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507022320/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30797/EGR2019.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |author=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] |year=2020 |title=Emissions Gap Report 2020 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |url=https://www.unep.org/emissions-gap-report-2020 |isbn=978-92-807-3812-4 |archive-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209220237/https://www.unep.org/emissions-gap-report-2020 |url-status=live }}
*{{Cite report|author=[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]|date=2018|title=2018 Biennial Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows Technical Report |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/2018%20BA%20Technical%20Report%20Final%20Feb%202019.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=14 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114002417/https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/2018%20BA%20Technical%20Report%20Final%20Feb%202019.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=[[World Health Organization]] |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204717/9789241565233_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=Burning Opportunity: Clean Household Energy for Health, Sustainable Development, and Wellbeing of Women and Children|year=2016|isbn=978-92-4-156523-3|url-status=live|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613080258/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204717/9789241565233_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}
* {{cite book|url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/cop24-special-report-health-climate-change |title=COP24 Special Report: Health and Climate Change|date=2018|author=[[World Health Organization]] |isbn=978-92-4-151497-2 |archive-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612025708/https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/cop24-special-report-health-climate-change/|url-status=live}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=10 January 2022|En-Sustainable_energy-article.ogg}}
{{Footer energy}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Sustainability}}{{Climate change}}
*'''''<small>{{portal-inline|Renewable energy}}</small>'''''
* '''''<small>{{portal-inline|Energy}}</small>'''''
* '''''<small>{{portal-inline|Wind power}}</small>'''''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Energy}}
[[Category:Sustainable energy| ]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Energy economics]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of the energy industry]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Julius Natterer | {{short description|French and Swiss engineer and wood expert}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Third-party|date=May 2021}}
{{Cleanup-PR|1=article|date=August 2021}}
}}
{{Infobox academic
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Julius Natterer
| honorific_suffix =
| image = File:Julius Natterer.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Natterer in 2015
| native_name =
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| birth_name = <!-- use only if different from full/othernames -->
| birth_date = {{birth date|1938|12|5}}
| birth_place = [[Neukirchen, Lower Bavaria]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2021|10|25|1938|12|5}}
| death_place =
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| nationality = [[Germany|German]]
| citizenship =
| other_names =
| occupation = Scientist, inventor, wood expert
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| awards = Académie d'architecture 1986
| website = https://www.nattererbcn.com
| school_tradition =
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| influences = <!--must be referenced from a third-party source-->
| era =
| discipline = [[Engineering]]
| sub_discipline = Wood construction
| workplaces = [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]] (École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne)
| doctoral_students = <!--only those with WP articles-->
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}}
'''Julius Natterer''', (December 5, 1938 – October 25, 2021), was a German engineer and professor of wood construction at the [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]] in Lausanne.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://people.epfl.ch/julius.natterer/?lang=en |title=Julius Natterer — People - EPFL |publisher=People.epfl.ch |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bois.fordaq.com/news/JuliusNatterer_HermannKaufmann_74275.html|title=Décès de Julius Natterer, le 25 octobre 2021|date=27 October 2021}}</ref>
== Career ==
Julius Natterer studied at the [[Technical University of Munich]], where he graduated in 1965.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.db-bauzeitung.de/wissen/technik/ingenieurportraet-julius-natterer/ |title=Ingenieurporträt. Julius Natterer - db deutsche bauzeitung |publisher=Db-bauzeitung.de |date=2014-08-31 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref> He then stayed there for nine years as an assistant. During this time, he founded his own wood design office. In 1978, he was appointed to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne. There he headed the timber construction laboratory (IBOIS / EPFL) which, according to the ideas of the university president, Maurice Cossandey, was to give a new impetus to timber construction in Switzerland.
Peer Haller, Professor from the Institute metal and timber construction at the University of [[Dresden University of Technology]] in Germany, says that he is one of the most important personalities in the field of timber construction.<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1">{{Cite web|last=Haller|first=Peer|date=February 2008|title=Eminent Structural Engineer: Julius Natterer|url=http://thost-iabse-elearning.org/EminentEng/Julius%20Natterer_2_2008.pdf|access-date=2021-05-24|website=thost-iabse-elearning.org}}</ref> He is the designer of many new construction systems in solid wood and nailed planks. He is also known for the geodesic roofs he designed in wood, such as the Polydome at the EPFL in 1991 and the Expo in Hannover in 2000.
Julius Natterer, as a practitioner and teacher, quickly realised that structural wood engineering had to be taught in a mixed way to engineering and architecture students. To develop this ambition, he initiated a postgraduate course in wood engineering and architecture at EPFL in 1988 in collaboration with Professor Roland Schweitzer. A pioneer of this type of master's degree at EPFL, he joined forces with Professor [[Jean-Luc Sandoz]], an engineer in wood materials and structures, to bring this training to an international level.
This expert continued to share his passion for wood construction, long after his academic retirement in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fr.calameo.com/read/005111039dd15fde968f6 |title=Curr E New Cv 6 2010 8 2011 |publisher=Fr.calameo.com |date=2021-04-25 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
Julius Natterer is regularly quoted as a reference by the generations that follow him, particularly during official presentations on sustainable development.<ref>{{cite web|last=Depner|first=Sandra|date=March 2019|title=Menschen, Ich bin nicht der Holzbau-Papst|trans-title=People, I'm not the timber construction pope|url=https://www.holzbau-schweiz.ch/de/first/magazine-online/detail/magazin-artikel/ich-bin-nicht-der-holzbau-papst/magazin-backlink/58/|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Holzbau-schweiz.ch|language=de}}</ref><ref name="informationsdienst-holz1">{{Cite web|date=June 2011|title=Einfach Bauen mit Holz - Späte Werke von Julius Natterer|trans-title=Simply building with wood - late works by Julius Natterer|url=https://informationsdienst-holz.de/fileadmin/Publikationen/9_Dokumentationen/Einfach_bauen_mit_Holz_Julius_Natterer.pdf|access-date=2021-05-24|website=informationsdienst-holz.de}}</ref>
== Prizes and honors ==
* 1976: German Metal Structure Prize<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1"/>
* 1981: Mies van der Rohe Award [[European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture]]<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1"/>
* 1986: Medal of the Academy of Architecture<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1"/>
* 1992: Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences chaired by Lena Treschow Torell<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1"/>
* 1995: Ernst Pelz Prize and Merit Award in the USA<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1"/>
* 1999: Bibliography of Swiss History <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nb.admin.ch/snl/fr/home/recherche/bibliographies/bhs.html |title=Bibliographie de l'histoire suisse |publisher=Nb.admin.ch |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* 2002: World Award for Timber Structures in Malaysia<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1"/>
* 2005: awarded the main prize of the Schweighofer Foundation<ref name="thost-iabse-elearning1"/>
* 2005: Designated Champion for the Earth by the community of Vaud for his valuable contribution to the preservation of the environment in the canton by the Athena Foundation and the Association pour le Développement du Nord Vaudois<ref name="informationsdienst-holz1"/>
* 2012: Mr. Bois award <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.batimag.ch/architecture/distinction-monsieur-bois-2012-2416 |title=Distinction Monsieur Bois 2012 | Batimag |publisher=Batimag.ch |date=2012-03-29 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* 2018: At the 8th International Wood Construction Forum, he receives a tribute, alongside many of the engineers he has trained throughout his career, from all his peers, engineers and architects in wood construction<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018|title=Forum Construction Dijon 2018 - 8e Forum International Bois Construction Palais des Congrès Congrexpo Dijon (FR) 11, 12 et 13 avril 2018|trans-title=Forum Construction Dijon 2018 - 8th International Wood Construction Forum Congress Center Congrexpo Dijon (FR) April 11, 12 and 13, 2018|url=https://www.forum-boisconstruction.com/pdf_FR/FBC2018-programme-FR.pdf|access-date=2021-05-24|website=forum-boisconstruction.com}}</ref>
== Books ==
He is co-author of several world-class reference books on timber construction in several languages, including the EPFL's Atlas of Construction and Treatise on Civil Engineering, volume 13:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epflpress.org/produit/64/9782880749491/construction-en-bois-tgc-volume-13 |title=Construction en bois (TGC volume 13) - Matériau, technologie et dimensionnement - Julius Natterer, Jean-Luc Sandoz, Martial Rey |publisher=Epfl Press |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Atlas of timber construction ({{ISBN|978-2-88074-602-5}})<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epflpress.org/produit/409/9782880746025/construire-en-bois |title=Construire en bois - - Thomas Herzog, Julius Natterer, Roland Schweitzer, Michaël Volz, Wolfgang Winter |publisher=Epfl Press |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Traité de génie civil de l'EPFL, Volume 13, Construire en bois ({{ISBN|978-2-88074-949-1}})
== Wooden structures ==
* The Vallorbe bridge at Ballaigues, 1989<ref>{{cite web|author=Nicolas Janberg |url=https://structurae.net/fr/ouvrages/pont-de-vallorbe |title=Pont de Vallorbe (Ballaigues, 1989) |publisher=Structurae |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Polydome EPFL, 1991<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Polydome-at-the-Campus-EPFL-Lausanne-by-J-Natterer-left-Photo-W-Klasz-2015-middle_fig2_311415299 |title=Polydôme at the Campus EPFL Lausanne by J. Natterer; left: Photo: W | Download Scientific Diagram |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Eine-Welt-Kirche, Schneverdingen, 1999<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.markusgemeinde-schneverdingen.de |title=Eine-Welt-Kirche Schneverdingen |publisher=Markusgemeinde-schneverdingen.de |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Roof of the 2000 World Exhibition, Hanover 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.holzkurier.com/holzbau/2008/12/julius_natterer_70jahre.html |title=Julius Natterer - 70 Jahre |publisher=Holzkurier.com |date= 2 December 2008|accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* [[Sauvabelin Tower]], Lausanne, 2003<ref>{{cite news|author=Debraine|first=Luc|date=2003-08-27|title=La tour de bois qui étreint le panorama lémanique - Le Temps|url=https://www.letemps.ch/societe/tour-bois-etreint-panorama-lemanique|access-date=2021-05-23|newspaper=Le Temps|language=fr}}</ref>
* [[Wil Tower]], St. Gallen, 2006<ref>{{cite web|author=Kurt Leuenberger |url=https://www.tagblatt.ch/ostschweiz/wil/der-wiler-turm-haette-schon-1884-gebaut-werden-sollen-ld.1031511 |title=Der Wiler Turm hätte schon 1884 gebaut werden sollen |publisher=Tagblatt.ch |date=2018-06-23 |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
* Zenith, Limoges, 2007<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lignum.ch/auf_einen_klick/news/lignum_journal_holz_news_schweiz/news_detail/internationale-leistungen-im-neuen-holzbulletin/|title=Internationale Leistungen im neuen "Holzbulletin"|website=www.lignum.ch|date=30 September 2010 }}</ref>
* Luxembourg Pavilion at the Shanghai World Expo, 2010<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nattererbcn.com/index.php/projekte|title=Bois Consult Natterer - PROJEKTE|website=www.nattererbcn.com}}</ref>
* Construction of the roof of the Evangelical Free Church Christuskirche Heiligenstadt, 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://architekt.ulricharndt.com/CKH.htm |title=Kirche in Bamberg |publisher=Architekt.ulricharndt.com |date= |accessdate=2021-05-23}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* Website of the company [https://www.nattererbcn.com Bois Consult Natterer - HOME]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Natterer, Julius}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental issues with forests]]
[[Category:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne alumni]]
[[Category:German engineers]]
[[Category:People from Straubing-Bogen]] |
James Ellsmoor | {{Short description|Entrepreneur and sustainability expert}}
{{Infobox person
| name = James Ellsmoor
| image = James_Ellsmoor,_Island_Innovation_(51223690359).png
| alt = <!-- descriptive text for use by speech synthesis (text-to-speech) software -->
| caption =
| birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name -->
| birth_date = <!-- {{Birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} for living people supply only the year with {{Birth year and age|YYYY}} unless the exact date is already widely published, as per [[WP:DOB]]. For people who have died, use {{Birth date|YYYY|MM|DD}}. -->
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| death_place =
| nationality = British
| education = *[[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]
*[[University of the Highlands and Islands]]
| occupation = [[Entrepreneur]]
| website = {{url|www.jellsmoor.com/}}
}}
'''James Ellsmoor''' is a writer, entrepreneur and sustainability expert, who has lived and worked in the [[Caribbean]], [[United States]] and [[Colombia]]. He now lives in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Island Innovation {{!}} Connecting Islands for Positive Change|url=https://islandinnovation.co/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Island Innovation|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pescada|first=Reuters, Carolina|title=Estes ingleses queriam continuar a pertencer à União Europeia. Por isso, mudaram-se para Portugal|url=https://www.publico.pt/2020/12/21/mundo/video/ingleses-queriam-continuar-pertencer-uniao-europeia-mudaramse-portugal-20201221-165600|access-date=2021-06-04|website=PÚBLICO|language=pt}}</ref> He is a graduate of the Institute for Northern Studies at the [[University of the Highlands and Islands]], and was awarded the [[university]]'s Alumnus of the Year in 2020.<ref>{{Cite press release|title=Social entrepreneur, writer and climate change champion recognised with university title|url=https://www.uhi.ac.uk/en/media/news/social-entrepreneur-writer-and-climate-change-champion-recognised-with-university-title---.html|access-date=2021-06-02|website=www.uhi.ac.uk|language=en}}</ref> In 2017 he was recognised on the [[Forbes 30 Under 30|Forbes 30 under 30]]: Energy list.<ref>{{Cite web|title=30 Under 30 2017: Energy|url=https://www.forbes.com/30-under-30-2017/energy/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Contributor|first=Compass|date=2019-10-07|title=James Ellsmoor – digital island nomad|url=https://www.caymancompass.com/2019/10/06/james-ellsmoor-digital-island-nomad/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Cayman Compass|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-03-02|title=Start-up challenge for entrepreneurs|url=https://www.royalgazette.com/other/business/article/20180302/start-up-challenge-for-entrepreneurs/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=www.royalgazette.com|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Career ==
After graduating from the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] with a [[Bachelor's degree]] in Economics and Geography, he gained an MLitt [[Master's degree]] in Island Studies from the Institute for Northern Studies at the [[University of the Highlands and Islands]] in 2018.
== Island Innovation ==
He is co-founder and [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] of Island Innovation, a [[Social Enterprise UK|social enterprise]] and [[digital media]] company which runs the Virtual Island Summit, promoting cross-sector collaboration and the sharing of best practice in [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-25|title=Pacific: COVID-19 forces conferences to go virtual|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radio-australia/programs/pacificbeat/covid-19-forces-virtual-conferences-greener-and-inclusive/12591992|access-date=2021-06-04|website=ABC Radio Australia|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-26|title=Virtual Island Summit: Making the economy sustainable|url=https://irishtechnews.ie/virtual-island-summit-making-economy-sustainable/|access-date=2021-06-04|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=says|first=Dumb|date=2020-09-05|title=Global Islands To Gather For Virtual Summit|url=https://bernews.com/2020/09/500-global-islands-gather-virtual-summit/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Bernews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-31|title=Virtual Summit To Discuss Island Sustainability|url=https://stthomassource.com/content/2020/08/31/virtual-summit-to-discuss-island-sustainability/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=St. Thomas Source|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-15|title=The Virtual Island Summit: Did it work?|url=https://www.devex.com/news/sponsored/the-virtual-island-summit-did-it-work-95815|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Devex}}</ref> Island Innovation originally started as a newsletter collating stories about sustainable development on islands across the world, and developed into a social enterprise running virtual events, working with remote islands around the world, linking them together to encourage sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=James Ellsmoor|url=https://www.citiesforum.org/interview/james-ellsmoor/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=citiesforum.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Klein|first=Michael|date=2020-11-17|title=Conference to focus on Cayman's clean energy future|url=https://www.caymancompass.com/2020/11/17/conference-to-focus-on-caymans-clean-energy-future/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Cayman Compass|language=en-GB}}</ref> It has its own online community and works on project promotion and environmental consultancy, bringing together the [[private sector]], government, [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and academia with the goal of advancing innovation for sustainability in island communities across the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=At CTEC, Ellsmoor explained how Cayman can learn from other islands {{!}} Loop Cayman Islands|url=https://cayman.loopnews.com/content/james-ellsmoor-explains-how-cayman-can-learn-other-islands|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Loop News|language=en}}</ref> The company has also worked with the Strathclyde Centre for Environmental Law and Governance, based at the [[University of Strathclyde]], on a study of islands across the world in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title="No return to business as usual" for island communities post-pandemic {{!}} University of Strathclyde|url=https://www.strath.ac.uk/whystrathclyde/news/noreturntobusinessasusualforislandcommunitiespost-pandemic/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=www.strath.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=UNC Alumnus and Founder of Island Innovation, James Ellsmoore, Works to Understand COVID-19's Impact on Islands Globally|url=https://global.unc.edu/news-story/understand-covid-19s-impact-on-islands-globally/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=UNC Global|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Solar Head of State ==
He is co-founder and Director of Solar Head of State, an international non-profit which works with governments across the [[Caribbean]] and [[Pacific Islands]] raising awareness of renewable energy through high-profile solar installations on governmental buildings.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-17|title=Q&A: On the Frontline, Islands Aim to Seize Climate Initiatives|url=https://www.ipsnews.net/2021/05/qa-frontline-islands-aim-seize-climate-initiatives/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Inter Press Service}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-02-26|title=A 'digital nomad' from the UK advocates for solar power in all island nations|url=https://globalvoices.org/2019/02/26/a-digital-nomad-from-the-uk-advocates-for-solar-power-in-all-island-nations/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Global Voices|language=en}}</ref> The company was modelled on a campaign by US President [[Jimmy Carter]], who installed solar water heaters on the White House to conserve energy and set an example to the American public at the time of an international energy crisis.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solar Panels and the White House|url=https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/solar-panels-and-the-white-house/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Science Museum Blog|language=en-GB}}</ref>
== References ==
<references />
== External links ==
* https://solarheadofstate.org/
* https://islandinnovation.co/
*https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AngekQzpuYA
*https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201786504/skepticism-over-kiribati-purchase-of-fiji-land
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ellsmoor, James}}
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[[Category:Alumni of the University of the Highlands and Islands]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Sustainability advocates]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] |
International Finance Facility | An '''International Finance Facility''' (IFF) is a [[Bond (finance)|bond]] issued against the security of donor government guarantees to maintain future [[aid]] flows for the purpose of [[international development]].
Bonds are issued on global [[capital markets]], against the security of government guarantees, which would be used to buy back the bonds over a longer period. This [[structured finance]] arrangement allows a large amount of aid to flow sooner, at the expense of less aid in the future.
Critics have raised concerns that the poorest countries in particular do not have the ability to efficiently spend such large amounts of aid whilst avoiding [[political corruption|corruption]], and that their economies may not be able to cope with such rapid change either.{{cn|date=July 2021}}
==History==
The concept of an International Finance Facility was first was proposed in the [[United Kingdom]] in January 2003 by [[HM Treasury]] in conjunction with the [[Department for International Development]].<ref name="hmt04">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/jid.1131|title=The International Finance Facility|year=2004|last1=Treasury|first1=HM|journal=Journal of International Development|volume=16|issue=6|pages=865–878}}</ref><ref name="hmtiff">{{cite news |title=The International Finance Facility |url=https://www.cbd.int/financial/interdevinno/unitedkingdom-iff2005.pdf |publisher=HM Treasury |date=2005}}</ref> The IFF were designed to frontload aid to help meet the [[Millennium Development Goals]].
[[Official development assistance]] donors were committed to reaching the target of 0.7 per cent [[Official_development_assistance#ODA_as_a_proportion_of_donor_national_incomes|ODA/GNI]] and the IFF is a mechanism to accomplish that goal.<ref name=hmt04/> The [[International Development Association]] as well as the [[World Bank Group]] promoted the IFF idea.<ref name="wbgm">{{cite news |title=Millions of children to be protected from deadly diseases through unique global vaccine bond issuance |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2013/07/02/millions-of-children-to-be-protected-from-deadly-diseases-through-unique-global-vaccine-bond-issuance |publisher=The World Bank Group |date=2 July 2013}}</ref>
==International Finance Facility for Immunisation==
The first IFF is the "[http://www.iffim.org International Finance Facility for Immunisation]" (IFFIm), begun by France, the UK and other European countries in 2006. "IFFIm was established as a charity with the [[Charity Commission for England and Wales]] and is registered in England and Wales as a company limited by guarantee with number 5857343 and as a charity with number 1115413"<ref name=wbgm/><ref name="roccc">{{cite news |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY |url=https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regid=1115413&subid=0 |access-date=3 April 2021 |publisher=Crown copyright OGL3}}</ref> without share capital for indefinite duration under the [[Companies Act 1985]].<ref name="secrep10">{{cite news |date=31 December 2010 |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES AND CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS |url=https://dl.bourse.lu/dl?v=3mqNK6MfRpAJpe5o81SeTin1W64Ylb/ZlJzjGWsMK+m/uh6HhF/n6ofcEtojD+kIlBmppyVY2xOgP1SC9EaZ4g9+cbNHhdaWFHfFXuvUI8I9X/8lt03wmOBtLEeyKx7ebXSBrzMpGtLuHREsuQ2cAYzX5qpmR0eocwfA7rzB+hY7DAZMDHnK1ikpDpNJ2hRfTBk5iC8jt3hAym9wecgMUQ== |publisher=Luxembourg Bourse}}</ref> IFFIm was initiated to rapidly accelerate the availability and predictability of funds for immunisation,<ref name="giff">{{cite news |title=International Finance Facility for Immunisation |url=https://www.gavi.org/investing-gavi/innovative-financing/iffim |publisher=GAVI |date=8 October 2020}}</ref> in programmes for over 70 of the poorest countries around the world.<ref name="secrep15">{{cite news |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES AND CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS |url=https://sec.report/lux/doc/100171926/ |agency=SEC.report |publisher=Luxembourg Market Filings |date=31 December 2015}}</ref> "Through its bond issuances, IFFlm converts long-term government pledges into immediately available cash resources."<ref name="secrep16">{{cite news |url=https://sec.report/lux/doc/100171928/ |title=INTERNATIONAL FINANCE FACILITY FOR IMMUNISATION COMPANY - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES AND CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS |agency=SEC.report |publisher=Luxembourg Market Filings |date=31 December 2016}}</ref>
IFFIm sells bonds - officially called [[Vaccine Bonds]] - on the capital markets to raise funds for the [[GAVI Alliance]], a public-private partnership which works to save children’s lives and protect people’s health by increasing access to vaccination in developing countries.<ref name="friffim">{{cite news |title=L'IFFIm en passe de contribuer à sauver quatre millions de vies |url=https://doczz.fr/doc/3179632/l-iffim-en-passe-de-contribuer-%C3%A0-sauver-quatre-millions-d... |publisher=IFFIm |date=5 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klock|first=Kevin A.|title=Global Management of Infectious Disease After Ebola|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|isbn=9780190604882|editor-last=Halabi|editor-first=Sam F.|pages=170|chapter=International Public-Private Partnerships as Part of the Solution to Infectious Disease Threats|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190604882.001.0001}}</ref> In 2008, [[Daiwa Securities Group]] provided in a package some of the capital market funds.<ref name="daiwa08">{{cite news |title=With new "Vaccine Bonds" Japanese Investors will have the opportunity to save more children's lives in the poorest countries of the world |url=https://www.daiwa-grp.jp/data/attach/35_press-2501-attachment.pdf |publisher=Daiwa Securities Group Inc. |date=11 December 2008}}</ref>
IFFIm was, as of July 2012, backed by the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Australia and South Africa.{{cn|date=July 2021}} Brazil has pledged to become IFFIm's tenth donor.{{cn|date=July 2021}} IFFIm was, as of May 2018, backed by the same nine countries.<ref name=oteh18/>
IFFIm "front loads financing for [[vaccines]] by issuing vaccine bonds backed by the legally binding pledges from donors."<ref name="oteh18">{{cite news |last1=Oteh |first1=Arunma |title=Leveraging Innovative Finance For Realizing The Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2018/05/15/leveraging-innovative-finance-for-realizing-the-sustainable-development-goals |publisher=The World Bank Group |date=15 May 2018}}</ref>
To date, IFFIm has leveraged US$6.3 billion in donor pledges to raise US$4.5 billion (July 2013) on the world’s capital markets from both retail and institutional investors. The [[World Bank]] is IFFIm's treasury manager. Since IFFIm began in 2006, IFFIm funding has allowed GAVI to nearly double its expenditures in health programmes. US$2.2 billion in IFFIm funding already has been disbursed to support vaccine purchase and delivery for 70 developing countries.
Health care consulting firm HLSP issued an independent evaluation of IFFIm in July 2011 that strongly commended its financial model and health care results. The report noted that not only do IFFIm-funded investments generate “extremely good returns,” but also that it likely helped GAVI save more than 2.1 million lives. The report focused on IFFIm’s cost-effectiveness, particularly the benefits of frontloading and its impact on creating large-scale immunity.{{cn|date=March 2022}}
IFFIm provides certainty of funding for both GAVI and recipient countries, aiding long-term planning and short-term needs. For example, US$545 million in proceeds from IFFIm funded tactical purchases that helped prevent 1.4 million deaths from [[yellow fever]], [[polio]] and [[measles]]. Dedicated IFFIm funding also played a significant role in combating 600,000 cases of meningitis and maternal and neonatal [[tetanus]].
In addition, IFFIm helped GAVI fund breakthrough vaccines quickly and securely. IFFIm financed more than 90% of the guaranteed payment to [[UNICEF]] for initial doses of a [[DTwP-HepB-Hib vaccine|pentavalent vaccine]] which immunises against five infectious diseases: [[diphtheria]], [[tetanus]], [[pertussis]], [[haemophilus influenzae type B]] (Hib) and [[hepatitis B]]. GAVI could not have made that commitment and upfront cash payment without IFFIm.
In December 2014 IFFIm issued its first Vaccine [[Sukuk]], which was "a three-year, US$500 million transaction that was the largest debut Sukuk ever issued by a [[supranational organisation]]."<ref name="mbsukuk">{{cite news |last1=Bennett |first1=Michael |title=Vaccine Sukuks: Islamic securities deliver economic and social returns |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/vaccine-sukuks-islamic-securities-deliver-economic-and-social-returns |publisher=The World Bank Group |date=29 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=secrep15/>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/documents/international_issues/int_gnd_intfinance.cfm HM Treasury: International Finance Facility]
*[http://www.iffim.org/ International Finance Facility for Immunisation]
[[Category:International development organizations]]
[[Category:UNICEF]]
[[Category:World Bank]]
[[Category:Millennium Development Goals]]
[[Category:Aid]]
[[Category:Economic development]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Vaccination-related organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2006]]
[[Category:2006 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Bonds (finance)]] |
Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present | {{Short description|Notable events in energy research since 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Sustainable energy}}
{{Science year nav|{{CURRENTYEAR}}}}
{{Primary sources|date=March 2023}}
'''Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020-''' documents increases in [[renewable energy]], [[solar energy]], and [[fusion power|nuclear energy]], particularly for ways that are [[sustainable]] within the [[Solar System]].
[[File:2011- Renewable energy capacity - International Energy Agency.svg|thumb| upright=1.5 | Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by [[Photovoltaic system|solar photovoltaic]] power.<ref name=IEA_202306>Source for data beginning in 2017: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711115355/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2023 |page=19 |date=June 2023 |quote=IEA. CC BY 4.0. |url-status=live}} ● Source for data through 2016: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update / Outlook for 2021 and 2022 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325084025/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2023 |page=8 |date=May 2021 |url-status=live |quote=IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0 }}</ref>]]
Events currently not included in the timelines include:
* goal-codifying [[environmental policy|policy]] about, [[Renewable energy commercialization|commercialization of]], adoptions of, deployment-statistics of, announced developments of, announced funding for and dissemination of sustainable energy -technologies and -infrastructure/systems
* research about related phase-outs in general – such as about the [[fossil fuel phase out]]<!--example: Fossil Fuel Cuts Database-->
* research about relevant alternative technologies – such as [[sustainable transport|in transport]], [[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]], [[refrigeration]], [[passive cooling]], [[heat pump]]s and [[district heating]]
* research about related public awareness, media<!--example: http://jestec.taylors.edu.my/Special%20Issue%20on%20SU18/SU18_04.pdf-->, policy-making and <!--Education sciences-->education
* research about [[Renewable energy#Geopolitics|related geopolitics]], [[policy studies|policies]], and [[Climate change mitigation#Overviews, strategies and comparisons of measures|integrated strategies]]
<!--adoption/use/dissemination statistics and other statistics, long-term trends and info about current deployment status are added not by events but could be added via images/charts-->
[[File:Energy consumption by source, OWID.svg|thumb|Prior history of energy consumption sources up to 2018]]
{{Toclimit}}
== Grids ==
{{See also|Grid energy storage}}
=== Smart grids ===
{{See also|Smart grid#Research}}
====2022====
* A study provides results of simulations and analysis of "[[transactive energy]] mechanisms to engage the large-scale deployment of flexible distributed energy resources (DERs), such as air conditioners, water heaters, batteries, and electric vehicles, in the operation of the electric power system".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ledbetter |first1=Tim |title=Homes fitted with new technology could make the grid smarter |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-homes-technology-grid-smarter.html |access-date=26 October 2022 |work=[[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133620/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-homes-technology-grid-smarter.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Distribution System Operation with Transactive (DSO+T) Study {{!}} PNNL |url=https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/transactive-systems-program/dsot-study |website=www.pnnl.gov |access-date=26 October 2022 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133617/https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/transactive-systems-program/dsot-study |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Super grids ===
{{See also|Super grid}}
====2022====
* Researchers describe a novel strategy to create a [[Electrical grid#Scale|global sustainable interconnected energy system]] based on deep-ocean-compressed [[green hydrogen|hydrogen]] [[Hydrogen transport|transportation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Julian David |last2=Nascimento |first2=Andreas |last3=Zakeri |first3=Behnam |last4=Barbosa |first4=Paulo Sérgio Franco |title=Hydrogen Deep Ocean Link: a global sustainable interconnected energy grid |journal=Energy |date=15 June 2022 |volume=249 |pages=123660 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2022.123660 |language=en |issn=0360-5442|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=October 2022}}
=== Microgrids and off-the-grid ===
{{See also|Microgrid|Mini-grid|Microgeneration|Off-the-grid}}
* Researchers describe a way for "inherently robust, scalable method of integration using multiple energy storage systems and distributed energy resources, which does not require any means of dedicated communication improvised controls", which could make microgrids easy and low cost "where they are needed most" such as during a power outage or [[Disaster response#Disaster response technologies|after a disaster]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Neil |first1=Connor |title=Communication-less scheme streamlines microgrid setup, simplifies recovery |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-communication-less-scheme-microgrid-setup-recovery.html |access-date=26 October 2022 |work=[[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133622/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-communication-less-scheme-microgrid-setup-recovery.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koralewicz |first1=Przemyslaw |last2=Mendiola |first2=Emanuel |last3=Wallen |first3=Robb |last4=Gevorgian |first4=Vahan |last5=Laird |first5=Daniel |title=Unleashing the Frequency: Multi-Megawatt Demonstration of 100% Renewable Power Systems with Decentralized Communication-Less Control Scheme |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1891206 |publisher=National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL), Golden, CO (United States) |access-date=26 October 2022 |language=English |date=28 September 2022 |doi=10.2172/1891206 |osti=1891206 |s2cid=252824040 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133614/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1891206 |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Solar power ==
{{Further|Timeline of solar cells|Solar power#Emerging technologies}}
[[File:NREL PV Cell Record Efficiency Chart.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Reported timeline of research [[solar cell]] energy conversion efficiencies since 1976 ([[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]])]]
{{#section-h:Timeline of solar cells|2020s}}
=== High-altitude and space-based solar power ===
{{Further|Space-based solar power}}
Ongoing research and development projects include [[SSPS-OMEGA]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Yiqun |last3=Duan |first3=Baoyan |last4=Wang |first4=Dongxu |last5=Li |first5=Xun |title=A novel design project for space solar power station (SSPS-OMEGA) |journal=Acta Astronautica |date=1 April 2016 |volume=121 |pages=51–58 |doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2015.12.029 |bibcode=2016AcAau.121...51Y |language=en |issn=0094-5765}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Andrew |title=Chinese university completes space-based solar power ground test facility |url=https://spacenews.com/chinese-university-completes-space-based-solar-power-ground-test-facility/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=SpaceNews |date=14 June 2022 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215164957/https://spacenews.com/chinese-university-completes-space-based-solar-power-ground-test-facility/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[SPS-ALPHA]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mankins |first1=John |last2=Hall |first2=Loura |title=SPS-ALPHA: The First Practical Solar Power Satellite |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2011_Practical_Solar_Power_Satellite/ |website=NASA |access-date=2 September 2022 |date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701012426/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2011_Practical_Solar_Power_Satellite/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=David |first1=Leonard |title=Space solar power's time may finally be coming |url=https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=Space.com |date=3 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106142726/https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Solaris program]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tamim |first1=Baba |title=European Space Agency is considering major investment in space-based solar power |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/european-space-agency-solar-power |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902230149/https://interestingengineering.com/science/european-space-agency-solar-power |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Could we get energy from solar power in space? – CBBC Newsround |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/62623698 |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902230149/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/62623698 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |title=Europe is seriously considering a major investment in space-based solar power |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/08/european-space-chief-says-continent-will-lead-in-space-based-solar-power/ |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=Ars Technica |date=18 August 2022 |language=en-us |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923155514/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/08/european-space-chief-says-continent-will-lead-in-space-based-solar-power/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
====2020====
* The [[United States Naval Research Laboratory|US Naval Research Laboratory]] conducts its first test of solar power generation in a satellite, the [[Photovoltaic Radio-frequency Antenna Module|PRAM]] experiment aboard the [[Boeing X-37]]<!--#OTV-6 (USSF 7)-->.<ref>{{cite web |last1=David |first1=Leonard |title=Air Force's X-37B robotic space plane wings past 500 days in Earth orbit |url=https://www.livescience.com/x-37b-space-plane-500-days-in-orbit-otv-6-mission |publisher=[[LiveScience]] |access-date=6 November 2021 |language=en |date=4 October 2021 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164631/https://www.livescience.com/x-37b-space-plane-500-days-in-orbit-otv-6-mission |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=David |first1=Leonard |title=Space solar power's time may finally be coming |url=https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=Space.com |date=3 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106142726/https://www.space.com/space-solar-power-research-advances |url-status=live }}</ref>
====2023====
[[File:Large-area flexible polymer solar cells on a balloon in the 35-km stratospheric environment.jpg|thumb]]
* Researchers demonstrate [[flexible electronics|flexible]] [[organic solar cell]]s on [[High-altitude balloon|balloons]] in the 35 km [[stratosphere]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Using flexible organic solar cells in the stratosphere |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-04-flexible-solar-cells-stratosphere.html |access-date=28 May 2023 |work=Science China Press via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528180059/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-04-flexible-solar-cells-stratosphere.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Zihan |last2=Xu |first2=Guoning |last3=Luo |first3=Qun |last4=Han |first4=Yunfei |last5=Tang |first5=Yu |last6=Miao |first6=Ying |last7=Li |first7=Yongxiang |last8=Qin |first8=Jian |last9=Guo |first9=Jingbo |last10=Zha |first10=Wusong |last11=Gong |first11=Chao |last12=Lu |first12=Kun |last13=Zhang |first13=Jianqi |last14=Wei |first14=Zhixiang |last15=Cai |first15=Rong |last16=Yang |first16=Yanchu |last17=Li |first17=Zhaojie |last18=Ma |first18=Chang-Qi |title=''In situ'' performance and stability tests of large-area flexible polymer solar cells in the 35-km stratospheric environment |journal=National Science Review |date=15 December 2022 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=nwac285 |doi=10.1093/nsr/nwac285 |pmid=36960222 |pmc=10029844 |issn=2095-5138|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Caltech]] reports the first successful beaming of [[Space-based solar power|solar energy from space]] down to a receiver on the ground, via the MAPLE instrument on its SSPD-1 spacecraft, launched into orbit in January.<ref>{{cite news |title=In a First, Caltech's Space Solar Power Demonstrator Wirelessly Transmits Power in Space |url=https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/in-a-first-caltechs-space-solar-power-demonstrator-wirelessly-transmits-power-in-space |date=1 June 2023 |work=Caltech |accessdate=9 June 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists demonstrate wireless power transmission from space to Earth for first time |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/space/space-earth-wireless-power-beamed-b2353588.html |date=8 June 2023 |work=The Independent|accessdate=9 June 2023 }}</ref>
=== Floating solar ===
{{Further|Floating solar}}
====2020====
* A study concludes that deploying floating solar panels on existing [[Hydroelectricity|hydro]] reservoirs could generate 16%–40% (4,251 to 10,616 TWh/year) of global energy needs when not considering project-siting constraints, local development regulations, "economic or market potential" and potential future technology improvements.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Combined Power Of Floating Solar On Hydro Reservoirs Shows New Potential |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/pikeresearch/2020/11/10/the-combined-power-of-floating-solar-on-hydro-reservoirs-shows-new-potential/ |access-date=22 July 2021 |work=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=22 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722150950/https://www.forbes.com/sites/pikeresearch/2020/11/10/the-combined-power-of-floating-solar-on-hydro-reservoirs-shows-new-potential/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Hybrid floating solar photovoltaics-hydropower systems: Benefits and global assessment of technical potential |journal=Renewable Energy |date=1 December 2020 |volume=162 |pages=1415–1427 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2020.08.080 |language=en |issn=0960-1481 |last1=Lee |first1=Nathan |last2=Grunwald |first2=Ursula |last3=Rosenlieb |first3=Evan |last4=Mirletz |first4=Heather |last5=Aznar |first5=Alexandra |last6=Spencer |first6=Robert |last7=Cox |first7=Sadie |s2cid=225257311 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
====2022====
* Researchers develop floating [[Artificial photosynthesis|artificial leaves]] for light-driven [[hydrogen]] and [[syngas]] fuel production. The lightweight, flexible perovskite devices are scalable and can float on water similar to lotus leaves.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cambridge University scientists create fuel from 'artificial leaves' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-62609620 |access-date=2 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=22 August 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902233702/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-62609620 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Andrei |first1=Virgil |last2=Ucoski |first2=Geani M. |last3=Pornrungroj |first3=Chanon |last4=Uswachoke |first4=Chawit |last5=Wang |first5=Qian |last6=Achilleos |first6=Demetra S. |last7=Kasap |first7=Hatice |last8=Sokol |first8=Katarzyna P. |last9=Jagt |first9=Robert A. |last10=Lu |first10=Haijiao |last11=Lawson |first11=Takashi |last12=Wagner |first12=Andreas |last13=Pike |first13=Sebastian D. |last14=Wright |first14=Dominic S. |last15=Hoye |first15=Robert L. Z. |display-authors=10 |date=17 August 2022 |title=Floating perovskite-BiVO4 devices for scalable solar fuel production |url=https://go.nature.com/3QYA7hX |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=608 |issue=7923 |pages=518–522 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04978-6 |pmid=35978127 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..518A |s2cid=251645379 |issn=1476-4687 |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215164926/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04978-6.epdf?sharing_token=zCD0q2mxHsD6Z9FikARzJtRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0MEOv-YoGFpe0FBwwZRBu0wVIecwvVZ2Ch9TnvHQ7brr16wS4nBH1LDurfmIDelKPPCu-A6ZZlN6jQz2iEmrT_YI8_nlu7R9pzLmvtv9KcqRxpufhBL0nlreqI0BBxvAYE%3D |url-status=live }}</ref>
====2023====
*An analysis concludes there is large potential (~9,400 TWh/yr) for [[floating solar|floating solar photovoltaics]] on reservoirs,<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Simon |first1=Matt |title=Solar Panels Floating in Reservoirs? We'll Drink to That |url=https://www.wired.com/story/solar-panels-floating-in-reservoirs-well-drink-to-that/ |access-date=20 April 2023 |magazine=Wired}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Yubin |last2=Hu |first2=Shijie |last3=Ziegler |first3=Alan D. |last4=Gibson |first4=Luke |last5=Campbell |first5=J. Elliott |last6=Xu |first6=Rongrong |last7=Chen |first7=Deliang |last8=Zhu |first8=Kai |last9=Zheng |first9=Yan |last10=Ye |first10=Bin |last11=Ye |first11=Fan |last12=Zeng |first12=Zhenzhong |title=Energy production and water savings from floating solar photovoltaics on global reservoirs |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=13 March 2023 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=865–874 |doi=10.1038/s41893-023-01089-6 |s2cid=257514885 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369201558 |language=en |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> at the upper range of the prior 2020 study (see above).
===Agrivoltaics===
* 2021 – An improved [[agrivoltaic]] system with a grooved glass plate is demonstrated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Novel Solar PV Plant Design for Agrivoltaics |url=https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/novel-solar-pv-plant-design-for-agrivoltaics/ |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=Green Building Africa |date=6 August 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153557/https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/novel-solar-pv-plant-design-for-agrivoltaics/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Jianan |last2=Meng |first2=Shoudong |last3=Zhang |first3=Xinyu |last4=Zhao |first4=Honglong |last5=Ning |first5=Xiaolong |last6=Chen |first6=Fangcai |last7=Omer |first7=Altyeb Ali Abaker |last8=Ingenhoff |first8=Jan |last9=Liu |first9=Wen |title=Increasing the comprehensive economic benefits of farmland with Even-lighting Agrivoltaic Systems |journal=PLOS ONE |date=15 July 2021 |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=e0254482 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254482 |pmid=34264986 |pmc=8282087 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654482Z |language=en |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* 2021 – A report reviews several studies<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pascaris |first1=Alexis S. |last2=Schelly |first2=Chelsea |last3=Pearce |first3=Joshua M. |title=A First Investigation of Agriculture Sector Perspectives on the Opportunities and Barriers for Agrivoltaics |journal=Agronomy |date=December 2020 |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=1885 |doi=10.3390/agronomy10121885 |language=en |issn=2073-4395|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trommsdorff |first1=Max |last2=Kang |first2=Jinsuk |last3=Reise |first3=Christian |last4=Schindele |first4=Stephan |last5=Bopp |first5=Georg |last6=Ehmann |first6=Andrea |last7=Weselek |first7=Axel |last8=Högy |first8=Petra |last9=Obergfell |first9=Tabea |title=Combining food and energy production: Design of an agrivoltaic system applied in arable and vegetable farming in Germany |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=1 April 2021 |volume=140 |pages=110694 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110694 |s2cid=233561938 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120309783 |language=en |issn=1364-0321 |access-date=23 September 2022 |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923155514/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032120309783 |url-status=live }}</ref> about the potential of agrivoltaics, which partly suggest "high potential of agrivoltaics as a viable and efficient technology" and outline concerns for refinements to the technology.<ref>{{cite news |title=Transforming Farms and Food Production With Solar Panels |url=https://www.governing.com/next/transforming-farms-food-production-with-solar-panels.html |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=Governing |date=9 April 2021 |language=en |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923155527/https://www.governing.com/next/transforming-farms-food-production-with-solar-panels.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2022 – Researchers report the development of [[greenhouse]]s (or [[solar module]]s) by a startup that generate electricity from a portion of the spectrum of sunlight, allowing spectra [[agrivoltaics|that interior plants use]] to pass through.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kempkens |first1=Wolfgang |title=Strom aus dem Gewächshaus |url=https://www.golem.de/news/saubere-energie-strom-aus-dem-gewaechshaus-2209-168042.html |access-date=18 September 2022 |work=Golem.de |archive-date=15 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915085502/https://www.golem.de/news/saubere-energie-strom-aus-dem-gewaechshaus-2209-168042.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carron |first1=Cécilia |title=With new solar modules, greenhouses run on their own energy |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-08-solar-modules-greenhouses-energy.html |access-date=18 September 2022 |work=[[Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171802/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-08-solar-modules-greenhouses-energy.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2023 – Demonstration of another [[agrivoltaic]] [[Greenhouse#Greenhouses with spectrally selective solar modules|greenhouse]] which outperforms a conventional glass-roof greenhouse.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paleja |first1=Ameya |title=Organic solar cells help plants in greenhouses grow better, finds study |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/organic-components-to-make-solar-cells |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=6 March 2023 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423151327/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/organic-components-to-make-solar-cells |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Yepin |last2=Li |first2=Zongqi |last3=Deger |first3=Caner |last4=Wang |first4=Minhuan |last5=Peric |first5=Miroslav |last6=Yin |first6=Yanfeng |last7=Meng |first7=Dong |last8=Yang |first8=Wenxin |last9=Wang |first9=Xinyao |last10=Xing |first10=Qiyu |last11=Chang |first11=Bin |last12=Scott |first12=Elizabeth G. |last13=Zhou |first13=Yifan |last14=Zhang |first14=Elizabeth |last15=Zheng |first15=Ran |last16=Bian |first16=Jiming |last17=Shi |first17=Yantao |last18=Yavuz |first18=Ilhan |last19=Wei |first19=Kung-Hwa |last20=Houk |first20=K. N. |last21=Yang |first21=Yang |title=Achieving sustainability of greenhouses by integrating stable semi-transparent organic photovoltaics |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=6 March 2023 |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=539–548 |doi=10.1038/s41893-023-01071-2 |s2cid=257388015 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01071-2 |language=en |issn=2398-9629 |url-access=subscription |access-date=19 June 2023 |archive-date=28 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428043026/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01071-2 |url-status=live }}
* University press release: {{cite news |title=Engineers design solar roofs to harvest energy for greenhouses |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-roofs-harvest-energy-greenhouses.html |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=[[University of California, Los Angeles]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423151318/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-roofs-harvest-energy-greenhouses.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Solar-powered production ===
{{See also|Microbial food cultures#Environmental, food security and efficiency aspects}}
==== Water production ====
===== Early 2020s =====
* [[Hydrogel]]s are used to develop system that [[Atmospheric water generator|capture moisture]] (e.g. at night in a desert) to cool solar panels<ref>{{cite news |title=Hydrogel helps make self-cooling solar panels |url=https://physicsworld.com/a/hydrogel-helps-make-self-cooling-solar-panels/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=Physics World |date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523232348/https://physicsworld.com/a/hydrogel-helps-make-self-cooling-solar-panels/ |url-status=live }}</ref> or to produce fresh water<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Ye |last2=Ilic |first2=Ognjen |last3=Atwater |first3=Harry A. |last4=Greer |first4=Julia R. |title=All-day fresh water harvesting by microstructured hydrogel membranes |journal=Nature Communications |date=14 May 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2797 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-23174-0 |pmid=33990601 |pmc=8121874 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.2797S |s2cid=234596800 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> – including for irrigating crops as demonstrated in [[Photovoltaic system#Standalone|solar panel integrated system]]s where these have been enclosed next to<ref>{{cite news |title=Self-contained SmartFarm grows plants using water drawn from the air |url=https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/smartfarm-plants-hydrogel-water/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=15 April 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428092426/https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/smartfarm-plants-hydrogel-water/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Jiachen |last2=Zhang |first2=Xueping |last3=Qu |first3=Hao |last4=Yu |first4=Zhi Gen |last5=Zhang |first5=Yaoxin |last6=Eey |first6=Tze Jie |last7=Zhang |first7=Yong‐Wei |last8=Tan |first8=Swee Ching |title=A Moisture‐Hungry Copper Complex Harvesting Air Moisture for Potable Water and Autonomous Urban Agriculture |journal=Advanced Materials |date=October 2020 |volume=32 |issue=39 |pages=2002936 |doi=10.1002/adma.202002936 |pmid=32743963 |bibcode=2020AdM....3202936Y |s2cid=220946177 |language=en |issn=0935-9648}}</ref> or beneath the panels within the system.<ref>{{cite news |title=These solar panels pull in water vapor to grow crops in the desert |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-solar-panels-vapor-crops.html |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=Cell Press |language=en |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117105419/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-solar-panels-vapor-crops.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ravisetti |first1=Monisha |title=New Solar Panel Design Uses Wasted Energy to Make Water From Air |url=https://www.cnet.com/home/energy-and-utilities/new-solar-panel-design-uses-wasted-energy-to-make-water-from-air/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=CNET |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428090418/https://www.cnet.com/home/energy-and-utilities/new-solar-panel-design-uses-wasted-energy-to-make-water-from-air/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Strom und Wasser aus Sonne und Wüstenluft |url=https://www.scinexx.de/news/technik/strom-und-wasser-aus-sonne-und-wuestenluft/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=scinexx {{!}} Das Wissensmagazin |date=2 March 2022 |language=de-DE |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528072508/https://www.scinexx.de/news/technik/strom-und-wasser-aus-sonne-und-wuestenluft/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hybrid system produces electricity and irrigation water in the desert |url=https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/wec2p-water-electricity-desert/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511115424/https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/wec2p-water-electricity-desert/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Schank |first1=Eric |title=Turning the desert green: this solar panel system makes water (and grows food) out of thin air |url=https://www.salon.com/2022/03/08/turning-the-desert-green-this-solar-panel-system-makes-water-and-grows-food-out-of-thin-air/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=Salon |date=8 March 2022 |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501223021/https://www.salon.com/2022/03/08/turning-the-desert-green-this-solar-panel-system-makes-water-and-grows-food-out-of-thin-air/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Renyuan |last2=Wu |first2=Mengchun |last3=Aleid |first3=Sara |last4=Zhang |first4=Chenlin |last5=Wang |first5=Wenbin |last6=Wang |first6=Peng |title=An integrated solar-driven system produces electricity with fresh water and crops in arid regions |journal=Cell Reports Physical Science |date=16 March 2022 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=100781 |doi=10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100781 |bibcode=2022CRPS....300781L |s2cid=247211013 |language=en |issn=2666-3864|doi-access=free |hdl=10754/676557 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
== Wind power ==
{{See also|History of wind power}}
<!--[[File:Wind energy generation by region, OWID.svg|thumb|Wind energy generation by region]]-->
===2021===
* A study using simulations finds that large scale [[vertical-axis wind turbine]]s<!--#Research--> could outcompete conventional HAWTs (horizontal axis) wind farm turbines.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vertical turbines could be the future for wind farms |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-04-vertical-turbines-future-farms.html |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720163758/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-04-vertical-turbines-future-farms.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Numerical modelling and optimization of vertical axis wind turbine pairs: A scale up approach |journal=Renewable Energy |date=1 June 2021 |volume=171 |pages=1371–1381 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2021.03.001 |language=en |issn=0960-1481 |doi-access=free |last1=Hansen |first1=Joachim Toftegaard |last2=Mahak |first2=Mahak |last3=Tzanakis |first3=Iakovos }}</ref>
* Scientists report that due to decreases in power generation efficiency of wind farms downwind of [[Offshore wind power|offshore wind farms]], cross-national limits and potentials for optimization need to be considered in [[Strategy#Management theory|strategic]] [[decision-making]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Are wind farms slowing each other down? |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-06-farms.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=11 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711151836/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-06-farms.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akhtar |first1=Naveed |last2=Geyer |first2=Beate |last3=Rockel |first3=Burkhardt |last4=Sommer |first4=Philipp S. |last5=Schrum |first5=Corinna |title=Accelerating deployment of offshore wind energy alter wind climate and reduce future power generation potentials |journal=Scientific Reports |date=3 June 2021 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11826 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-91283-3 |pmid=34083704 |pmc=8175401 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1111826A |language=en |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
* Researchers report, based on simulations, how large wind-farm performance can be significantly improved using windbreaks.<ref>{{cite news |title=Windbreaks, surprisingly, could help wind farms boost power output |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/wind-farm-windbreak-turbine-speed-power-output |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=Science News |date=10 August 2021 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164634/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/wind-farm-windbreak-turbine-speed-power-output |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Luoqin |last2=Stevens |first2=Richard J. A. M. |title=Enhanced wind-farm performance using windbreaks |journal=Physical Review Fluids |date=30 July 2021 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=074611 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.074611 | arxiv=2108.01197 |bibcode=2021PhRvF...6g4611L |s2cid=236881177 |url=https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.074611 |access-date=6 November 2021 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164633/https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.074611 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The world's first fully autonomous commercial "airborne wind energy" system (an [[airborne wind turbine]]) is launched by a company.<ref name="BBC-20220309">{{cite web |last1=Jones |first1=Nicola |title=The kites seeking the world's surest winds |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220309-the-kites-flying-to-harness-the-worlds-strongest-winds |website=www.bbc.com |access-date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815145710/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220309-the-kites-flying-to-harness-the-worlds-strongest-winds |url-status=live }}</ref>
* An U.S. congressionally directed report concludes that "the resource potential of wind energy available to AWE systems is likely similar to that available to traditional wind energy systems" but that "AWE would need significant further development before it could deploy at meaningful scales at the national level".<ref name="BBC-20220309"/>
===2023===
*First kWh by a [[tension leg platform|TLP]] [[offshore wind power|floating]] [[Airborne wind energy|airborne]] [[Airborne wind turbine|wind turbine]] system (X30) possibly as part of a "new wave of startups"<ref>{{cite news |title=Sky-high kites aim to tap unused wind power |url=https://www.dw.com/en/wind-power-renewable-energy-of-the-future/a-65021452 |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=dw.com |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423093953/https://www.dw.com/en/wind-power-renewable-energy-of-the-future/a-65021452 |url-status=live }}</ref> in this area.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Malayil |first1=Jijo |title=World's first floating wind prototype with TLP system produces first kWh |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-first-floating-wind-prototype |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423151324/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/worlds-first-floating-wind-prototype |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Hydrogen energy ==
{{See also|#Grids|Timeline of hydrogen technologies#21st century|Green hydrogen#Research and development|Hydrogen economy}}
===2022===
* Researchers increase water electrolysis performance of renewable hydrogen via capillary-fed electrolysis cells.<ref>{{cite news |title=Australian researchers claim 'giant leap' in technology to produce affordable renewable hydrogen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/mar/16/australian-researchers-claim-giant-leap-in-technology-to-produce-affordable-renewable-hydrogen |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=16 March 2022 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428212720/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/mar/16/australian-researchers-claim-giant-leap-in-technology-to-produce-affordable-renewable-hydrogen |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodges |first1=Aaron |last2=Hoang |first2=Anh Linh |last3=Tsekouras |first3=George |last4=Wagner |first4=Klaudia |last5=Lee |first5=Chong-Yong |last6=Swiegers |first6=Gerhard F. |last7=Wallace |first7=Gordon G. |title=A high-performance capillary-fed electrolysis cell promises more cost-competitive renewable hydrogen |journal=Nature Communications |date=15 March 2022 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=1304 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28953-x|pmid=35292657 |pmc=8924184 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.1304H |s2cid=247475206 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
* A novel energy-efficient strategy for hydrogen release from liquid hydrogen carriers with the potential to reduce costs of storage and transportation is reported.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shipman |first1=Matt |title=Driving down the costs of hydrogen fuel: Prototype achieves 99% yield 8 times faster than conventional batch reactors |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-hydrogen-fuel-prototype-yield-faster.html |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=[[North Carolina State University]] |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153557/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-hydrogen-fuel-prototype-yield-faster.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Malek Y. S. |last2=Bennett |first2=Jeffrey A. |last3=Abolhasani |first3=Milad |title=Continuous Room‐Temperature Hydrogen Release from Liquid Organic Carriers in a Photocatalytic Packed‐Bed Flow Reactor |journal=ChemSusChem |date=21 July 2022 |volume=15 |issue=14 |pages=e202200733 |doi=10.1002/cssc.202200733 |pmid=35446510 |pmc=9400973 |language=en |issn=1864-5631}}</ref>
* Researchers report the development of a potential efficient, secure and convenient method to separate, purify, store and transport large amounts of [[hydrogen economy|hydrogen for energy storage in renewables-based energy systems]] as powder using [[ball mill]]ing.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mechanochemical breakthrough unlocks cheap, safe, powdered hydrogen |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/mechanochemical-breakthrough-unlocks-cheap-safe-powdered-hydrogen/ |access-date=22 August 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=19 July 2022 |archive-date=16 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816094137/https://newatlas.com/energy/mechanochemical-breakthrough-unlocks-cheap-safe-powdered-hydrogen/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mateti |first1=Srikanth |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunmei |last3=Du |first3=Aijun |last4=Periasamy |first4=Selvakannan |last5=Chen |first5=Ying Ian |title=Superb storage and energy saving separation of hydrocarbon gases in boron nitride nanosheets via a mechanochemical process |journal=Materials Today |date=1 July 2022 |volume=57 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.1016/j.mattod.2022.06.004 |s2cid=250413503 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369702122001614 |language=en |issn=1369-7021 |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824233214/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369702122001614 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* A way method for hydrogen production from the air, useful for [[off-the-grid]] settings, is demonstrated.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |title=Making hydrogen out of thin air |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-hydrogen-thin-air.html |access-date=26 October 2022 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133624/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-hydrogen-thin-air.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Jining |last2=Zhang |first2=Yuecheng |last3=Zavabeti |first3=Ali |last4=Chen |first4=Kaifei |last5=Guo |first5=Yalou |last6=Hu |first6=Guoping |last7=Fan |first7=Xiaolei |last8=Li |first8=Gang Kevin |title=Hydrogen production from the air |journal=Nature Communications |date=6 September 2022 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5046 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-32652-y |pmid=36068193 |pmc=9448774 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.5046G |language=en |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* A novel type of effective [[hydrogen storage]] using readily available salts is reported.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paleja |first1=Ameya |title=German researchers find a solution to the hydrogen storage problem: salts. |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/salts-solve-problem-hydrogen-storage |access-date=17 November 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=19 October 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117151613/https://interestingengineering.com/science/salts-solve-problem-hydrogen-storage |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wei |first1=Duo |last2=Shi |first2=Xinzhe |last3=Sponholz |first3=Peter |last4=Junge |first4=Henrik |last5=Beller |first5=Matthias |title=Manganese Promoted (Bi)carbonate Hydrogenation and Formate Dehydrogenation: Toward a Circular Carbon and Hydrogen Economy |journal=ACS Central Science |date=26 October 2022 |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=1457–1463 |doi=10.1021/acscentsci.2c00723 |pmid=36313168 |pmc=9615124 |doi-access=free |language=en |issn=2374-7943}}</ref>
*An [[electrolysis]] system for viable [[hydrogen economy|hydrogen production from seawater]] without requiring a pre-[[desalination]] process is reported, which could allow for more flexible and less costly hydrogen production.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Timmer |first1=John |title=New device can make hydrogen when dunked in salt water |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/11/waterproof-clothing-concept-used-to-make-hydrogen-from-seawater/ |access-date=18 December 2022 |work=Ars Technica |date=30 November 2022 |language=en-us |archive-date=18 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218104532/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/11/waterproof-clothing-concept-used-to-make-hydrogen-from-seawater/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=Heping |last2=Zhao |first2=Zhiyu |last3=Liu |first3=Tao |last4=Wu |first4=Yifan |last5=Lan |first5=Cheng |last6=Jiang |first6=Wenchuan |last7=Zhu |first7=Liangyu |last8=Wang |first8=Yunpeng |last9=Yang |first9=Dongsheng |last10=Shao |first10=Zongping |title=A membrane-based seawater electrolyser for hydrogen generation |journal=Nature |date=30 November 2022 |volume=612 |issue=7941 |pages=673–678 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05379-5 |pmid=36450987 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..673X |s2cid=254123372 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365890373|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*Chemical engineers report a method to substantially increase conversion efficiency and reduce material costs of [[hydrogen production|green hydrogen production]] by using sound waves during [[electrolysis]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Theresa |first1=Deena |title=Engineers use sound waves to boost green hydrogen production by 14 times |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/sound-waves-boost-green-hydrogen-production |access-date=18 January 2023 |work=[[Interesting Engineering]] |date=14 December 2022 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170608/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/sound-waves-boost-green-hydrogen-production |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrnst |first1=Yemima |last2=Sherrell |first2=Peter C. |last3=Rezk |first3=Amgad R. |last4=Yeo |first4=Leslie Y. |title=Acoustically‐Induced Water Frustration for Enhanced Hydrogen Evolution Reaction in Neutral Electrolytes |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |date=4 December 2022 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=2203164 |doi=10.1002/aenm.202203164 |s2cid=254299691 |language=en |issn=1614-6832|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===2023===
* In three largely [[paywall]]ed studies, separate teams of researchers report substantial improvements to [[green hydrogen]] [[hydrogen production|production]] methods, enabling higher efficiencies<!--([[Photocatalytic water splitting#Indium gallium nitride|a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 9.2%]])--> and durable use of untreated seawater.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sun-powered water splitter produces unprecedented levels of green energy |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/sun-powered-water-splitter-produces-unprecedented-levels-green-energy |access-date=16 February 2023 |work=Science |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216224622/https://www.science.org/content/article/sun-powered-water-splitter-produces-unprecedented-levels-green-energy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |title=A way to produce hydrogen directly from untreated sea water |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-01-hydrogen-untreated-sea.html |access-date=16 February 2023 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216224628/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-01-hydrogen-untreated-sea.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Peng |last2=Navid |first2=Ishtiaque Ahmed |last3=Ma |first3=Yongjin |last4=Xiao |first4=Yixin |last5=Wang |first5=Ping |last6=Ye |first6=Zhengwei |last7=Zhou |first7=Baowen |last8=Sun |first8=Kai |last9=Mi |first9=Zetian |title=Solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of more than 9% in photocatalytic water splitting |journal=Nature |date=January 2023 |volume=613 |issue=7942 |pages=66–70 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05399-1 |pmid=36600066 |bibcode=2023Natur.613...66Z |s2cid=255474993 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05399-1 |language=en |issn=1476-4687 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203080833/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05399-1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Jiaxin |last2=Zheng |first2=Yao |last3=Hu |first3=Zhenpeng |last4=Zheng |first4=Caiyan |last5=Mao |first5=Jing |last6=Du |first6=Kun |last7=Jaroniec |first7=Mietek |last8=Qiao |first8=Shi-Zhang |last9=Ling |first9=Tao |title=Direct seawater electrolysis by adjusting the local reaction environment of a catalyst |journal=Nature Energy |date=30 January 2023 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1038/s41560-023-01195-x |s2cid=256493839 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367559005 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Young |first1=Chris |title=A new method converts seawater straight into green hydrogen |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/seawater-straight-into-green-hydrogen |access-date=4 April 2023 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=14 February 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403215516/https://interestingengineering.com/science/seawater-straight-into-green-hydrogen |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loomba |first1=Suraj |last2=Khan |first2=Muhammad Waqas |last3=Haris |first3=Muhammad |last4=Mousavi |first4=Seyed Mahdi |last5=Zavabeti |first5=Ali |last6=Xu |first6=Kai |last7=Tadich |first7=Anton |last8=Thomsen |first8=Lars |last9=McConville |first9=Christopher F. |last10=Li |first10=Yongxiang |last11=Walia |first11=Sumeet |last12=Mahmood |first12=Nasir |title=Nitrogen‐Doped Porous Nickel Molybdenum Phosphide Sheets for Efficient Seawater Splitting |journal=Small |date=8 February 2023 |volume=19 |issue=18 |pages=2207310 |doi=10.1002/smll.202207310|pmid=36751959 |s2cid=256663170 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* A [[Deutscher Verein des Gas- und Wasserfaches|DVGW]] report suggests gas [[Pipeline transport|pipeline infrastructures]] (in [[Energy in Germany|Germany]]) are suitable to be repurposed to transport [[Hydrogen economy|hydrogen]], showing limited corrosion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gasleitungen in Deutschland sind bereit für Wasserstoff |url=https://www.forschung-und-wissen.de/nachrichten/technik/gasleitungen-in-deutschland-sind-bereit-fuer-wasserstoff-13377194 |access-date=20 April 2023 |work=www.forschung-und-wissen.de |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=DVGW: Germany's gas pipelines h2ready |url=https://www.dvgw.de/english-pages/dvgw/news/germanys-gas-pipelines-h2ready |publisher=DVGW |access-date=20 April 2023 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420093014/https://www.dvgw.de/english-pages/dvgw/news/germanys-gas-pipelines-h2ready |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!--[[File:Overview of the solar hydrogen production system using a concentrated integrated photoelectrochemical device.webp |thumb]]-->
* A [[concentrated solar energy|concentrated solar]]-to-[[green hydrogen|hydrogen]] device approaching viability is demonstrated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Concentrated solar reactor generates unprecedented amounts of hydrogen |url=https://physicsworld.com/a/concentrated-solar-reactor-generates-unprecedented-amounts-of-hydrogen/ |access-date=28 May 2023 |work=Physics World |date=18 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528180109/https://physicsworld.com/a/concentrated-solar-reactor-generates-unprecedented-amounts-of-hydrogen/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes-Gentle |first1=Isaac |last2=Tembhurne |first2=Saurabh |last3=Suter |first3=Clemens |last4=Haussener |first4=Sophia |title=Kilowatt-scale solar hydrogen production system using a concentrated integrated photoelectrochemical device |journal=Nature Energy |date=10 April 2023 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=586–596 |doi=10.1038/s41560-023-01247-2 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Record [[Green hydrogen#Research|solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies]], using photoelectrochemical cells, are reported.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fehr |first1=Austin M. K. |last2=Agrawal |first2=Ayush |last3=Mandani |first3=Faiz |last4=Conrad |first4=Christian L. |last5=Jiang |first5=Qi |last6=Park |first6=So Yeon |last7=Alley |first7=Olivia |last8=Li |first8=Bor |last9=Sidhik |first9=Siraj |last10=Metcalf |first10=Isaac |last11=Botello |first11=Christopher |last12=Young |first12=James L. |last13=Even |first13=Jacky |last14=Blancon |first14=Jean Christophe |last15=Deutsch |first15=Todd G. |date=26 June 2023 |title=Integrated halide perovskite photoelectrochemical cells with solar-driven water-splitting efficiency of 20.8% |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=3797 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.3797F |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-39290-y |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=10293190 |pmid=37365175 |doi-access=free |last16=Zhu |first16=Kai |last17=Albrecht |first17=Steve |last18=Toma |first18=Francesca M. |last19=Wong |first19=Michael |last20=Mohite |first20=Aditya D.}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Silvia Cernea |last2=University |first2=Rice |date=July 20, 2023 |title=Device makes hydrogen from sunlight with record efficiency |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-07-device-hydrogen-sunlight-efficiency.html |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=techxplore.com |language=en}}</ref>
== Hydroelectricity and marine energy ==
{{See also|Hydropower#History|Hydroelectricity#History|Ocean thermal energy conversion|Marine energy}}
===2021===
* Engineers report the development of a prototype [[Wave power|wave energy converter]] that is twice as efficient as similar existing experimental technologies, which could be a major step towards practical viability of tapping into the sustainable energy source.<ref>{{cite news |title=New clean energy tech extracts twice the power from ocean waves |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-08-energy-tech-power-ocean.html |access-date=21 September 2021 |work=techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921135030/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-08-energy-tech-power-ocean.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Study of a novel rotational speed amplified dual turbine wheel wave energy converter |journal=Applied Energy |date=1 November 2021 |volume=301 |pages=117423 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117423 |language=en |issn=0306-2619|last1=Xiao |first1=Han |last2=Liu |first2=Zhenwei |last3=Zhang |first3=Ran |last4=Kelham |first4=Andrew |last5=Xu |first5=Xiangyang |last6=Wang |first6=Xu }}</ref>
*A study investigates how [[tidal energy]] could be best integrated into the [[Orkney]] [[energy system]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Almoghayer |first1=Mohammed A. |last2=Woolf |first2=David K. |last3=Kerr |first3=Sandy |last4=Davies |first4=Gareth |title=Integration of tidal energy into an island energy system – A case study of Orkney islands |journal=Energy |date=11 November 2021 |volume=242 |pages=122547 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2021.122547 |s2cid=244068724 |language=en |issn=0360-5442}}</ref> A few days earlier, a [[scientific review|review]] assesses the potential of tidal energy in the UK's energy systems, finding that it could, according to their considerations that include an economic cost-benefit analysis, deliver 34 TWh/y or 11% of its energy demand.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tidal stream power can aid drive for net-zero and generate 11% of UK's electricity demand |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-11-tidal-stream-power-aid-net-zero.html |access-date=12 December 2021 |work=[[University of Plymouth]] |language=en |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212150730/https://techxplore.com/news/2021-11-tidal-stream-power-aid-net-zero.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coles |first1=Daniel |last2=Angeloudis |first2=Athanasios |last3=Greaves |first3=Deborah |last4=Hastie |first4=Gordon |last5=Lewis |first5=Matthew |last6=Mackie |first6=Lucas |last7=McNaughton |first7=James |last8=Miles |first8=Jon |last9=Neill |first9=Simon |last10=Piggott |first10=Matthew |last11=Risch |first11=Denise |last12=Scott |first12=Beth |last13=Sparling |first13=Carol |last14=Stallard |first14=Tim |last15=Thies |first15=Philipp |last16=Walker |first16=Stuart |last17=White |first17=David |last18=Willden |first18=Richard |last19=Williamson |first19=Benjamin |title=A review of the UK and British Channel Islands practical tidal stream energy resource |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=24 November 2021 |volume=477 |issue=2255 |pages=20210469 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2021.0469|pmid=35153596 |pmc=8564615 |bibcode=2021RSPSA.47710469C |s2cid=240424151 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Energy storage ==
{{See also|Energy storage#History|History of the battery|#Grid energy storage}}
===Electric batteries===
{{Expand section|date=November 2021}}
===2022===
* In a [[paywall]]ed article, scientists provide 3D imaging and model analysis to reveal main causes, mechanics, and potential mitigations of the prevalent [[lithium-ion battery]] [[wear and tear|degradation]] [[Charge cycle|over charge cycles]].<!--Such may be problematic e.g. due to [[electronic waste]], durability/costs especially when batteries in various devices are [[Technology policy|not required]] to be [[replaceable battery|replaceable/swapable]] worldwide, renewable energy efficiency, and [[Technology-critical element|rare minerals]].--><ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Sarah C. P. |title=Researchers zoom in on battery wear and tear |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-12-battery.html |access-date=18 January 2023 |work=[[University of Chicago]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170609/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-12-battery.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Minghao |last2=Chouchane |first2=Mehdi |last3=Shojaee |first3=S. Ali |last4=Winiarski |first4=Bartlomiej |last5=Liu |first5=Zhao |last6=Li |first6=Letian |last7=Pelapur |first7=Rengarajan |last8=Shodiev |first8=Abbos |last9=Yao |first9=Weiliang |last10=Doux |first10=Jean-Marie |last11=Wang |first11=Shen |last12=Li |first12=Yixuan |last13=Liu |first13=Chaoyue |last14=Lemmens |first14=Herman |last15=Franco |first15=Alejandro A. |last16=Meng |first16=Ying Shirley |title=Coupling of multiscale imaging analysis and computational modeling for understanding thick cathode degradation mechanisms |journal=Joule |date=22 December 2022 |volume=7 |pages=201–220 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2022.12.001 |url=https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(22)00572-4 |language=English |issn=2542-4785 |url-access=subscription |access-date=15 February 2023 |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170605/https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(22)00572-4 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=February 2023}}
===2023===
* In two studies, researchers report that substitution of PET adhesive tapes could {{tooltip|nearly prevent|they report that "The addition of two weight percent vinylene carbonate can prevent redox shuttle generation and leads to almost zero reversible self-discharge"}}{{clarify|date=February 2023}} [[self-discharge]] in the widely used [[lithium-ion batteries]], extending [[battery life]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Discovery in Canadian lab could help laptop, phone and car batteries last longer |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/discovery-in-canadian-lab-could-help-laptop-phone-and-car-batteries-last-longer-1.6254040 |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=CTVNews |date=31 January 2023 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215181223/https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/discovery-in-canadian-lab-could-help-laptop-phone-and-car-batteries-last-longer-1.6254040 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Reversible Self-discharge of LFP/Graphite and NMC811/Graphite Cells Originating from Redox Shuttle Generation |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |year=2023 |volume=170 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/acb10c|doi-access=free|last1=Buechele |first1=Sebastian |last2=Logan |first2=Eric |last3=Boulanger |first3=Thomas |last4=Azam |first4=Saad |last5=Eldesoky |first5=Ahmed |last6=Song |first6=Wentao |last7=Johnson |first7=Michel B. |last8=Metzger |first8=Michael |issue=1 |page=010518 |bibcode=2023JElS..170a0518B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Identification of Redox Shuttle Generated in LFP/Graphite and NMC811/Graphite Cells |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |year=2023 |volume=170 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/acaf44|last1=Buechele |first1=Sebastian |last2=Adamson |first2=Anu |last3=Eldesoky |first3=Ahmed |last4=Boetticher |first4=Tom |last5=Hartmann |first5=Louis |last6=Boulanger |first6=Thomas |last7=Azam |first7=Saad |last8=Johnson |first8=Michel B. |last9=Taskovic |first9=Tina |last10=Logan |first10=Eric |last11=Metzger |first11=Michael |issue=1 |page=010511 |bibcode=2023JElS..170a0511B |s2cid=255321506 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Thermal energy storage===
* 2022 – Researchers report the development of a system that combines the [[Thermal energy storage#MOST|MOST solar thermal energy storage system]] that can store energy for 18 years with a chip-sized [[thermoelectric generator]] to generate electricity from it.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hawkins |first1=Joshua |title=New liquid system could revolutionize solar energy |url=https://bgr.com/science/new-liquid-system-could-revolutionize-solar-energy/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=BGR |date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418130852/https://bgr.com/science/new-liquid-system-could-revolutionize-solar-energy/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhihang |last2=Wu |first2=Zhenhua |last3=Hu |first3=Zhiyu |last4=Orrego-Hernández |first4=Jessica |last5=Mu |first5=Erzhen |last6=Zhang |first6=Zhao-Yang |last7=Jevric |first7=Martyn |last8=Liu |first8=Yang |last9=Fu |first9=Xuecheng |last10=Wang |first10=Fengdan |last11=Li |first11=Tao |last12=Moth-Poulsen |first12=Kasper |title=Chip-scale solar thermal electrical power generation |journal=Cell Reports Physical Science |date=16 March 2022 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=100789 |doi=10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100789 |bibcode=2022CRPS....300789W |s2cid=247329224 |language=en |issn=2666-3864|doi-access=free |hdl=10261/275653 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== Novel and emerging types ===
{{See also|List of battery types|Lithium–sulfur battery#Research}}
* 2021 – A company generates its first power from a [[gravity battery]] at a site in Edinburgh.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gravity-based batteries try to beat their chemical cousins with winches, weights, and mine shafts |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/gravity-based-batteries-try-beat-their-chemical-cousins-winches-weights-and-mine-shafts |website=www.science.org |access-date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153556/https://www.science.org/content/article/gravity-based-batteries-try-beat-their-chemical-cousins-winches-weights-and-mine-shafts |url-status=live }}</ref> Other gravity batteries are also under construction by other companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Revolutionary idea to store green power for the grid |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/energy-vault_revolutionary-idea-to-store-green-power-for-the-grid/45467684 |website=SWI swissinfo.ch |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=8 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526182826/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/energy-vault_revolutionary-idea-to-store-green-power-for-the-grid/45467684 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2022 – A study describes using lifts and empty apartments in tall buildings to store energy, estimating global potential around 30 to 300 GWh.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bushwick |first1=Sophie |title=Concrete Buildings Could Be Turned into Rechargeable Batteries |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/concrete-buildings-could-be-turned-into-rechargeable-batteries/ |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=Scientific American |language=en |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812094311/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/concrete-buildings-could-be-turned-into-rechargeable-batteries/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Julian David |last2=Nascimento |first2=Andreas |last3=Zakeri |first3=Behnam |last4=Jurasz |first4=Jakub |last5=Dąbek |first5=Paweł B. |last6=Barbosa |first6=Paulo Sergio Franco |last7=Brandão |first7=Roberto |last8=de Castro |first8=Nivalde José |last9=Leal Filho |first9=Walter |last10=Riahi |first10=Keywan |title=Lift Energy Storage Technology: A solution for decentralized urban energy storage |journal=Energy |date=1 September 2022 |volume=254 |pages=124102 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2022.124102 |language=en |issn=0360-5442|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Nuclear fusion ==
{{Excerpt|Timeline of nuclear fusion|2020s}}
== Geothermal energy ==
{{See also|Geothermal energy#History}}
===2022===
* A study describes a way by which [[geothermal power]] plants {{tooltip|could store their energy|(rather than providing nonflexible "baseload" energy even at times when renewable energy generation is abundant)}} within their reservoirs for [[dispatchable generation|dispatch]] to (better) help [[100% renewable energy#Intermittency|manage intermittency of solar and wind]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahambhatt |first1=Rupendra |title=In a world first, scientists propose geothermal power plants that also work as valuable clean energy reservoirs |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/geothermal-power-plants-clean-energy-reservoirs |access-date=20 October 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=9 September 2022 |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210406/https://interestingengineering.com/science/geothermal-power-plants-clean-energy-reservoirs |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ricks |first1=Wilson |last2=Norbeck |first2=Jack |last3=Jenkins |first3=Jesse |title=The value of in-reservoir energy storage for flexible dispatch of geothermal power |journal=Applied Energy |date=1 May 2022 |volume=313 |pages=118807 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.118807 |s2cid=247302205 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/6385742 |language=en |issn=0306-2619 |access-date=26 October 2022 |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210408/https://zenodo.org/record/6385742 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* University press release: {{cite news |last1=Waters |first1=Sharon |title=Study shows geothermal could be an ideal energy storage technology |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-geothermal-ideal-energy-storage-technology.html |access-date=20 October 2022 |work=Princeton University via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210406/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-geothermal-ideal-energy-storage-technology.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Waste heat recovery==
{{See also|Waste heat recovery}}
===2020===
* Reviews about WHR in the aluminium industry<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brough |first1=Daniel |last2=Jouhara |first2=Hussam |title=The aluminium industry: A review on state-of-the-art technologies, environmental impacts and possibilities for waste heat recovery |journal=International Journal of Thermofluids |date=1 February 2020 |volume=1–2 |pages=100007 |doi=10.1016/j.ijft.2019.100007 |s2cid=212720002 |language=en |issn=2666-2027|doi-access=free }}</ref> and cement industry<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fierro |first1=José J. |last2=Escudero-Atehortua |first2=Ana |last3=Nieto-Londoño |first3=César |last4=Giraldo |first4=Mauricio |last5=Jouhara |first5=Hussam |last6=Wrobel |first6=Luiz C. |title=Evaluation of waste heat recovery technologies for the cement industry |journal=International Journal of Thermofluids |date=1 November 2020 |volume=7–8 |pages=100040 |doi=10.1016/j.ijft.2020.100040 |s2cid=221689777 |language=en |issn=2666-2027|doi-access=free }}</ref> are published.
===2023===
* A report by the company [[Danfoss]] estimates EU's excess heat recovery potential, suggesting there is "huge, unharnessed potential" and that action could involve initial mapping of existing waste heat sources.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turns |first1=Anna |title=Recapturing excess heat could power most of Europe, say experts |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/23/recapturing-excess-heat-could-power-most-of-europe-say-experts |access-date=4 April 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330175109/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/23/recapturing-excess-heat-could-power-most-of-europe-say-experts |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Bioenergy, chemical engineering and biotechnology ==
{{See also|Bioenergy|Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage#Current projects|Biobased economy#Energy|Artificial photosynthesis|Woodchips#Fuel}}
===2020===
* Scientists report the development of <!--[[Microemulsion]]-->micro-droplets for [[algae|algal cells]] or synergistic algal-bacterial multicellular [[spheroid]] [[microreactor|microbial reactors]] capable [[Hydrogen fuel#Production|of producing]] oxygen as well as [[biohydrogen|hydrogen]] via photosynthesis in daylight under air.<ref name="phys-droplets">{{cite news |title=Research creates hydrogen-producing living droplets, paving way for alternative future energy source |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-hydrogen-producing-droplets-paving-alternative-future.html |access-date=9 December 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=16 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216151601/https://phys.org/news/2020-11-hydrogen-producing-droplets-paving-alternative-future.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Zhijun |last2=Wang |first2=Shengliang |last3=Zhao |first3=Chunyu |last4=Li |first4=Shangsong |last5=Liu |first5=Xiaoman |last6=Wang |first6=Lei |last7=Li |first7=Mei |last8=Huang |first8=Xin |last9=Mann |first9=Stephen |title=Photosynthetic hydrogen production by droplet-based microbial micro-reactors under aerobic conditions |journal=Nature Communications |date=25 November 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5985 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19823-5 |pmid=33239636 |pmc=7689460 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5985X |url=|language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
===2022===
*Researchers report the [[Nanobiotechnology#Nanobiotechnology|development]] of [[3D printing|3D-printed]] [[Nanomanufacturing|nano]]-"skyscraper" electrodes that house [[cyanobacteria]] for extracting substantially more [[sustainable energy|sustainable]] [[bioenergy]] from their [[photosynthesis]] than before<!-- and provide new tools for three-dimensional electrode design-->.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tiny 'skyscrapers' help bacteria convert sunlight into electricity |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-tiny-skyscrapers-bacteria-sunlight-electricity.html |access-date=19 April 2022 |work=[[University of Cambridge]] |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330222845/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-tiny-skyscrapers-bacteria-sunlight-electricity.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiaolong |last2=Lawrence |first2=Joshua M. |last3=Wey |first3=Laura T. |last4=Schertel |first4=Lukas |last5=Jing |first5=Qingshen |last6=Vignolini |first6=Silvia |last7=Howe |first7=Christopher J. |last8=Kar-Narayan |first8=Sohini |last9=Zhang |first9=Jenny Z. |title=3D-printed hierarchical pillar array electrodes for high-performance semi-artificial photosynthesis |journal=Nature Materials |date=7 March 2022 |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=811–818 |doi=10.1038/s41563-022-01205-5| pmid=35256790 |bibcode=2022NatMa..21..811C |s2cid=237763253 |language=en |issn=1476-4660 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353153555}}</ref>
*News outlets report about the development of [[Algae bioreactor#Microgeneration|algae biopanels]] by a company for [[Renewable energy#Algae fuels|sustainable energy generation]] with unclear viability<ref>{{cite news |title=Algae biopanel windows make power, oxygen and biomass, and suck up CO2 |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/greenfluidics-algae-biopanels/ |access-date=21 August 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=11 July 2022 |archive-date=21 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821192455/https://newatlas.com/energy/greenfluidics-algae-biopanels/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Paleja |first1=Ameya |title=Algae-filled panels could generate oxygen and electricity while absorbing CO2 |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/algae-filled-panels-generate-oxygen-electricity-absorbing-co2 |access-date=21 August 2022 |work=interestingengineering.com |date=13 July 2022 |archive-date=21 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821192603/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/algae-filled-panels-generate-oxygen-electricity-absorbing-co2 |url-status=live }}</ref> after other researchers built the self-powered [[Bionic architecture#Advantages|{{tooltip|2='Bio-Intelligent Quotient'|BIQ}} house prototype]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Talaei |first1=Maryam |last2=Mahdavinejad |first2=Mohammadjavad |last3=Azari |first3=Rahman |title=Thermal and energy performance of algae bioreactive façades: A review |journal=Journal of Building Engineering |date=1 March 2020 |volume=28 |pages=101011 |doi=10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101011 |s2cid=210245691 |language=en |issn=2352-7102}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Sara |last2=Stoller |first2=Paul |last3=Ralph |first3=Peter |last4=Hamdorf |first4=Brenton |last5=Catana |first5=Laila Navarro |last6=Kuzava |first6=Gabriela Santana |title=Exploring the Feasibility of Algae Building Technology in NSW |journal=Procedia Engineering |date=1 January 2017 |volume=180 |pages=1121–1130 |doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.272 |language=en |issn=1877-7058|doi-access=free}}</ref>
====2023====
*A [[Mycobacterium smegmatis#Production of Electricity|bacterial]] [[hydrogenase]]<!--#[NiFe] hydrogenase--> [[enzyme]], Huc, for [[biohydrogen]] energy from the air is reported.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yu |first1=Andi |title=Scientists have found an enzyme that can make electricity out of tiny amounts of hydrogen |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-09/monash-university-air-electricity-enzyme-soil/102071786 |access-date=20 April 2023 |work=ABC News |date=9 March 2023 |language=en-AU |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420082616/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-09/monash-university-air-electricity-enzyme-soil/102071786 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grinter |first1=Rhys |last2=Kropp |first2=Ashleigh |last3=Venugopal |first3=Hari |last4=Senger |first4=Moritz |last5=Badley |first5=Jack |last6=Cabotaje |first6=Princess R. |last7=Jia |first7=Ruyu |last8=Duan |first8=Zehui |last9=Huang |first9=Ping |last10=Stripp |first10=Sven T. |last11=Barlow |first11=Christopher K. |last12=Belousoff |first12=Matthew |last13=Shafaat |first13=Hannah S. |last14=Cook |first14=Gregory M. |last15=Schittenhelm |first15=Ralf B. |last16=Vincent |first16=Kylie A. |last17=Khalid |first17=Syma |last18=Berggren |first18=Gustav |last19=Greening |first19=Chris |title=Structural basis for bacterial energy extraction from atmospheric hydrogen |journal=Nature |date=March 2023 |volume=615 |issue=7952 |pages=541–547 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05781-7 |pmid=36890228 |pmc=10017518 |bibcode=2023Natur.615..541G |language=en |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== General ==
Research about sustainable energy in general or across different types.
=== Other energy-need reductions ===
{{See also|Energy conservation|Sustainable lifestyle|Heat cost allocator|Personal carbon credits|Climate change mitigation#Research}}
Research and development of (technical) means to substantially or systematically reduce need for energy beyond smart grids, education / educational technology (such as about differential environmental impacts of diets), transportation infrastructure (bicycles and rail transport) and conventional improvements of [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] on the level of the energy system.
====2020====
* A study shows a set of different scenarios of minimal energy requirements for providing decent [[living standard]]s globally, finding that – according to their models, assessments and data – by 2050 global energy use could be reduced to 1960 levels despite of 'sufficiency' still being materially relatively generous.<ref>{{cite news |title=Decent living for all does not have to cost the Earth |url=https://scienmag.com/decent-living-for-all-does-not-have-to-cost-the-earth/ |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=SCIENMAG: Latest Science and Health News |date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111130059/https://scienmag.com/decent-living-for-all-does-not-have-to-cost-the-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Decent living for all does not have to cost the Earth |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-decent-earth.html |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=University of Leeds |language=en |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111130059/https://phys.org/news/2020-10-decent-earth.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Millward-Hopkins |first1=Joel |last2=Steinberger |first2=Julia K. |last3=Rao |first3=Narasimha D. |last4=Oswald |first4=Yannick |title=Providing decent living with minimum energy: A global scenario |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=1 November 2020 |volume=65 |pages=102168 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102168 |s2cid=224977493 |language=en |issn=0959-3780|doi-access=free }}</ref>
====2022====
* A trial of estimated financial energy cost of [[refrigerator]]s alongside [[European Union energy label|EU energy-efficiency class (EEEC) labels]] online finds that the approach of labels involves a trade-off between [[Homo economicus|financial considerations]] and higher cost requirements in effort or time for the product-selection from the [[Overchoice|many]] available options which are often unlabelled and don't have any EEEC-requirement for being bought, used or sold within the EU.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fadelli |first1=Ingrid |title=Adding energy cost information to energy-efficiency class labels could affect refrigerator purchases |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-adding-energy-energy-efficiency-class-affect.html |access-date=15 May 2022 |work=Tech Xplore |language=en |archive-date=6 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506083307/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-adding-energy-energy-efficiency-class-affect.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=d’Adda |first1=Giovanna |last2=Gao |first2=Yu |last3=Tavoni |first3=Massimo |title=A randomized trial of energy cost information provision alongside energy-efficiency classes for refrigerator purchases |journal=Nature Energy |date=April 2022 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=360–368 |doi=10.1038/s41560-022-01002-z |bibcode=2022NatEn...7..360D |s2cid=248033760 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|doi-access=free |hdl=2434/922959 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== Materials and recycling ===
{{See also|#Solar power|Solar panel#Waste and recycling|Solar cell#Recycling|Rare-earth element#Environmental considerations|Environmental aspects of the electric car|Circular economy#Rare-earth elements recovery}}
====2020====
* Researchers report that mining for [[renewable energy production]] will increase threats to [[biodiversity]] and publish a map of areas that contain needed materials as well as estimations of their overlaps with "Key Biodiversity Areas", "Remaining Wilderness" and "Protected Areas". The authors assess that careful [[strategic planning]] is needed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mining needed for renewable energy 'could harm biodiversity' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/01/mining-needed-for-renewable-energy-could-harm-biodiversity |access-date=8 October 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=1 September 2020 |language=en |archive-date=6 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006002803/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/01/mining-needed-for-renewable-energy-could-harm-biodiversity |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mining for renewable energy could be another threat to the environment |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-renewable-energy-threat-environment.html |access-date=8 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003033243/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-renewable-energy-threat-environment.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sonter |first1=Laura J. |last2=Dade |first2=Marie C. |last3=Watson |first3=James E. M. |last4=Valenta |first4=Rick K. |title=Renewable energy production will exacerbate mining threats to biodiversity |journal=Nature Communications |date=1 September 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=4174 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17928-5 |pmid=32873789 |pmc=7463236 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.4174S |url=|language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
==== 2021 ====
* [[Neodymium]], an essential [[rare-earth element]] (REE), plays a key role in making permanent magnets for wind turbines. Demand for REEs is expected to double by 2035 due to renewable energy growth, posing environmental risks, including [[radioactive waste]] from their extraction.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rare Earth Elements: A Resource Constraint of the Energy Transition |url=https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/research/publications/rare-earth-elements-a-resource-constraint-of-the-energy-transition/ |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=Kleinman Center for Energy Policy |language=en-US}}</ref>
====2023====
*A study finds that the world has [[Technology-critical element|enough]] [[rare earths]] and other raw materials to [[Energy transition|switch]] from fossil fuels to [[renewable energy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Study: Enough rare earth minerals to fuel green energy shift |url=https://apnews.com/article/science-green-technology-climate-and-environment-renewable-energy-141761657a8e7a5627a0e49e601dd48e |date=27 January 2023 |work=AP |accessdate=31 January 2023 |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130212928/https://apnews.com/article/science-green-technology-climate-and-environment-renewable-energy-141761657a8e7a5627a0e49e601dd48e |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Future demand for electricity generation materials under different climate mitigation scenarios |date=27 January 2023 |journal=[[Joule (journal)|Joule]] |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2023.01.001 |last1=Wang |first1=Seaver |last2=Hausfather |first2=Zeke |last3=Davis |first3=Steven |last4=Lloyd |first4=Juzel |last5=Olson |first5=Erik B. |last6=Liebermann |first6=Lauren |last7=Núñez-Mujica |first7=Guido D. |last8=McBride |first8=Jameson |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=309–332 |s2cid=256347184 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*A new viable [[Research in lithium-ion batteries|lithium-ion]] [[battery recycling]] method is reported.<ref>{{cite news |title=New lithium-ion battery recycling method is energy efficient, acid free and recovers 70% lithium |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/lithium-ion-battery-recycling-new/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |work=Cosmos Magazine |date=31 March 2023 |language=en-AU |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212534/https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/lithium-ion-battery-recycling-new/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dolotko |first1=Oleksandr |last2=Gehrke |first2=Niclas |last3=Malliaridou |first3=Triantafillia |last4=Sieweck |first4=Raphael |last5=Herrmann |first5=Laura |last6=Hunzinger |first6=Bettina |last7=Knapp |first7=Michael |last8=Ehrenberg |first8=Helmut |title=Universal and efficient extraction of lithium for lithium-ion battery recycling using mechanochemistry |journal=Communications Chemistry |date=28 March 2023 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=49 |doi=10.1038/s42004-023-00844-2 |pmid=36977798 |pmc=10049983 |language=en |issn=2399-3669|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Flow chart of possible product stewardship scheme for new solar PV panels.jpg|thumb|Flow chart of proposed or possible product stewardship scheme for new solar PV panels<ref name="10.3934/energy.2023008"/>]]
*A study suggests incentives and regulations [[Renewable energy#Conservation areas, recycling and rare-earth elements|are needed]] for producers to [[sustainable design|design]] solar panels [[solar panel recycling|that can be more easily recycled]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hart |first1=Amalyah |title=Researchers urge mandatory scheme to ensure solar panels are recycled |url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/researchers-urge-mandatory-scheme-to-ensure-solar-panels-are-recycled/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |work=RenewEconomy |date=21 March 2023 |language=en-AU |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212535/https://reneweconomy.com.au/researchers-urge-mandatory-scheme-to-ensure-solar-panels-are-recycled/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="10.3934/energy.2023008">{{cite journal |last1=Majewski |first1=Peter |last2=Deng |first2=Rong |last3=Dias |first3=Pablo R. |last4=Jones |first4=Megan |last5=Majewski |first5=Peter |last6=Deng |first6=Rong |last7=Dias |first7=Pablo R. |last8=Jones |first8=Megan |title=Product stewardship considerations for solar photovoltaic panels |journal=AIMS Energy |date=2023 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=140–155 |doi=10.3934/energy.2023008 |language=en |issn=2333-8334|doi-access=free}}
* University press release: {{cite news |title=Solar industry feeling the heat over disposal of 80 million panels |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-industry-disposal-million-panels.html |access-date=19 April 2023 |work=[[University of South Australia]] via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212533/https://techxplore.com/news/2023-03-solar-industry-disposal-million-panels.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
==== Seabed mining ====
=====2020=====
* Researchers assess to what extent international law and existing policy support the practice of a proactive knowledge management system that enables systematic addressing of uncertainties about the [[Deep sea mining#Environmental impacts|environmental effects of seabed mining]] via regulations that, for example, enable the [[International Seabed Authority]] to actively engage in generating and synthesizing information.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ginzky |first1=Harald |last2=Singh |first2=Pradeep A. |last3=Markus |first3=Till |title=Strengthening the International Seabed Authority's knowledge-base: Addressing uncertainties to enhance decision-making |journal=Marine Policy |date=1 April 2020 |volume=114 |pages=103823 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103823 |s2cid=212808129 |language=en |issn=0308-597X}}</ref>
===== 2021 =====
* A moratorium on deep-sea mining until rigorous and transparent impact assessments are carried out is enacted at the 2021 world congress of the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN). However, the effectiveness of the moratorium may be questionable as no enforcement mechanisms have been set up, planned or specified.<ref>{{cite news |title=Conservationists call for urgent ban on deep-sea mining |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/09/marseille-biodiversity-summit-adopts-motion-to-ban-deep-sea-mining |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=9 September 2021 |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106112014/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/09/marseille-biodiversity-summit-adopts-motion-to-ban-deep-sea-mining |url-status=live }}</ref> Researchers have outlined why there is a need to avoid mining the deep sea.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=K. A. |last2=Brigden |first2=K. |last3=Santillo |first3=D. |last4=Currie |first4=D. |last5=Johnston |first5=P. |last6=Thompson |first6=K. F. |title=Challenging the Need for Deep Seabed Mining From the Perspective of Metal Demand, Biodiversity, Ecosystems Services, and Benefit Sharing |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |date=2021 |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.706161 |issn=2296-7745|doi-access=free |hdl=10871/126732 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='False choice': is deep-sea mining required for an electric vehicle revolution? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/28/false-choice-is-deep-sea-mining-required-for-an-electric-vehicle-revolution |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=28 September 2021 |language=en |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025055311/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/28/false-choice-is-deep-sea-mining-required-for-an-electric-vehicle-revolution |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Warning over start of commercial-scale deep-sea mining |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-07-commercial-scale-deep-sea.html |access-date=8 August 2022 |work=University of Exeter |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808153600/https://phys.org/news/2021-07-commercial-scale-deep-sea.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amon |first1=Diva J. |last2=Gollner |first2=Sabine |last3=Morato |first3=Telmo |last4=Smith |first4=Craig R. |last5=Chen |first5=Chong |last6=Christiansen |first6=Sabine |last7=Currie |first7=Bronwen |last8=Drazen |first8=Jeffrey C. |last9=Fukushima |first9=Tomohiko |last10=Gianni |first10=Matthew |last11=Gjerde |first11=Kristina M. |last12=Gooday |first12=Andrew J. |last13=Grillo |first13=Georgina Guillen |last14=Haeckel |first14=Matthias |last15=Joyini |first15=Thembile |last16=Ju |first16=Se-Jong |last17=Levin |first17=Lisa A. |last18=Metaxas |first18=Anna |last19=Mianowicz |first19=Kamila |last20=Molodtsova |first20=Tina N. |last21=Narberhaus |first21=Ingo |last22=Orcutt |first22=Beth N. |last23=Swaddling |first23=Alison |last24=Tuhumwire |first24=Joshua |last25=Palacio |first25=Patricio Urueña |last26=Walker |first26=Michelle |last27=Weaver |first27=Phil |last28=Xu |first28=Xue-Wei |last29=Mulalap |first29=Clement Yow |last30=Edwards |first30=Peter E. T. |last31=Pickens |first31=Chris |title=Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining |journal=Marine Policy |date=1 April 2022 |volume=138 |pages=105006 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006 |s2cid=247350879 |language=en |issn=0308-597X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Out of our depth? Why deep seabed mining is not the answer to the climate crisis |url=https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/depth-deep-sea-mining-not-answer-climate-crisis |website=Fauna & Flora International |access-date=8 August 2022 |date=1 September 2021 |archive-date=16 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016190424/https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/depth-deep-sea-mining-not-answer-climate-crisis |url-status=live |last1=Duthie |first1=Lizzie }}</ref>
* Nauru requested the ISA to finalize rules so that The Metals Company be approved to begin work in 2023.<ref name=":0" />
* China’s COMRA tested its polymetallic nodules collection system at 4,200 feet of depth in the East and South China Seas. The Dayang Yihao was exploring the Clarion-Clipperton Zone for China Minmetals when it crossed into the U.S. [[exclusive economic zone]] near [[Hawaii]], where for five days it looped south of [[Honolulu]] without having requested entry into US waters.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Kuo |first=Lily |date=October 19, 2023 |title=China is set to dominate the deep sea and its wealth of rare metals |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2023/china-deep-sea-mining-military-renewable-energy/ |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=Washington Post |language=en}}</ref>
=====2022=====
* Impossible Metals announces its first [[Autonomous underwater vehicle|underwater robotic vehicle]], 'Eureka 1', has completed its first trial of selectively harvesting [[polymetallic nodule]] rocks from the seabed to help address the [[climate change mitigation|rising global need]] for [[Technology-critical element|metals]] for [[renewable energy]] system components, mainly batteries.<ref>{{cite news |title=Impossible Metals demonstrates its super-careful seabed mining robot |url=https://newatlas.com/marine/seabed-mining-robot-impossible-metals/ |access-date=17 January 2023 |work=New Atlas |date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117120752/https://newatlas.com/marine/seabed-mining-robot-impossible-metals/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=These fearsome robots will bring mining to the deep ocean |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/innovation/these-fearsome-robots-will-bring-mining-deep-ocean-n724901 |access-date=2 February 2023 |work=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=15 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115003027/https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/innovation/these-fearsome-robots-will-bring-mining-deep-ocean-n724901 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Proposed deep-sea mining would kill animals not yet discovered |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/proposed-deep-sea-mining-would-kill-animals-not-yet-discovered |access-date=2 February 2023 |work=National Geographic |date=1 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170603/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/proposed-deep-sea-mining-would-kill-animals-not-yet-discovered |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mining robot stranded on Pacific Ocean floor in deep-sea mining trial |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/mining-robot-stranded-pacific-ocean-floor-deep-sea-mining-trial-2021-04-28/ |access-date=2 February 2023 |work=Reuters |date=28 April 2021 |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202170602/https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/mining-robot-stranded-pacific-ocean-floor-deep-sea-mining-trial-2021-04-28/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===== 2023 =====
* Supporters of mining were led by Norway, Mexico, and the United Kingdom, and supported by [[The Metals Company]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Clifford |first=Catherine |date=2023-08-04 |title=The Metals Company announces a controversial timeline for deep sea mining that worsens the divide in an already bitter battle |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/08/04/the-metals-company-puts-out-controversial-timeline-for-deep-sea-mining.html |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>
* Chinese prospecting ship Dayang Hao prospected in China-licensed areas in the Clarion Clipperton Zone.<ref name=":1" />
===== 2024 =====
* [[Norway]] approved commercial deep-sea mining. 80% of Parliament voted to approve.<ref>{{Cite web |title=🟡 Semafor Flagship: Bedlam, brilliance, and brightness {{!}} Semafor {{!}} Semafor |url=https://www.semafor.com/newsletter/01/10/2024/semafor-flagship |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.semafor.com |language=en}}</ref>
=== Maintenance ===
{{Expand section|date=November 2021}}
{{See also|Soiling (solar energy)#Mitigation techniques}}
Maintenance of sustainable energy systems could [[Solar cell#Autonomous maintenance|be automated]], standardized and simplified and the required resources and efforts for such get reduced via research relevant for their design and processes like [[waste management]].
====2022====
* Researchers demonstrate electrostatic dust removal from solar panels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Static electricity can keep desert solar panels free of dust |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2312079-static-electricity-can-keep-desert-solar-panels-free-of-dust/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418152732/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2312079-static-electricity-can-keep-desert-solar-panels-free-of-dust/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panat |first1=Sreedath |last2=Varanasi |first2=Kripa K. |title=Electrostatic dust removal using adsorbed moisture–assisted charge induction for sustainable operation of solar panels |journal=Science Advances |date=11 March 2022 |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=eabm0078 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abm0078 |pmid=35275728 |pmc=8916732 |bibcode=2022SciA....8M..78P |s2cid=247407117 |language=en |issn=2375-2548}}</ref>
=== Economics ===
====2021====
* A review finds that the pace of cost-decline of renewables has been underestimated and that an "open cost-database would greatly benefit the energy scenario community".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Johnson |first1=Doug |title=The decreasing cost of renewables unlikely to plateau any time soon |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/10/the-decreasing-cost-of-renewables-unlikely-to-plateau-anytime-soon/ |access-date=6 November 2021 |work=Ars Technica |date=3 October 2021 |language=en-us |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106164634/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/10/the-decreasing-cost-of-renewables-unlikely-to-plateau-anytime-soon/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Mengzhu |last2=Junne |first2=Tobias |last3=Haas |first3=Jannik |last4=Klein |first4=Martin |title=Plummeting costs of renewables – Are energy scenarios lagging? |journal=Energy Strategy Reviews |date=1 May 2021 |volume=35 |pages=100636 |doi=10.1016/j.esr.2021.100636 |s2cid=233543846 |language=en |issn=2211-467X|doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref> A 2022 study comes to similar conclusions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Patel |first1=Prachi |title=Fast transition to carbon-free energy could save trillions |url=https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2022/09/carbon-free-energy-system-could-save-trillions-of-dollars/ |access-date=25 October 2022 |date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026133618/https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2022/09/carbon-free-energy-system-could-save-trillions-of-dollars/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Way |first1=Rupert |last2=Ives |first2=Matthew C. |last3=Mealy |first3=Penny |last4=Farmer |first4=J. Doyne |title=Empirically grounded technology forecasts and the energy transition |journal=Joule |date=21 September 2022 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=2057–2082 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.009 |s2cid=237624207 |language=English |issn=2542-4785|doi-access=free }}</ref>
====2022====
* A study<!--described as "the first major study of driving forces behind government funding of energy RD&D"--> investigates funding allocations for [[public investment]] in energy [[research and development|research, development]] and demonstration. It provides insights about {{tooltip|potential past impacts of drivers|e.g. clean tech competition with China and stimulus spending after the financial crisis}}, that may be relevant to [[Public research and development|adjusting (or facilitating)]] "investment in [[sustainable energy|clean energy]]" "to come close to achieving meaningful [[climate change mitigation|global decarbonization]]", suggesting advancement of impactful "{{tooltip|coopetition|the "managed interplay of cooperation and competition, through both domestic and international measures"}}".<ref>{{cite news |title=Competition with China a 'driving force' for clean energy funding in the 21st century |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-competition-china-energy-funding-21st.html |access-date=19 October 2022 |work=University of Cambridge via techxplore.com |language=en |archive-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019155105/https://techxplore.com/news/2022-09-competition-china-energy-funding-21st.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meckling |first1=Jonas |last2=Galeazzi |first2=Clara |last3=Shears |first3=Esther |last4=Xu |first4=Tong |last5=Anadon |first5=Laura Diaz |title=Energy innovation funding and institutions in major economies |journal=Nature Energy |date=September 2022 |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=876–885 |doi=10.1038/s41560-022-01117-3 |bibcode=2022NatEn...7..876M |s2cid=252272866 |language=en |issn=2058-7546|doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Feasibility studies and energy system models ===
====2020====
* A study suggests that all sector defossilisation can be achieved worldwide even for nations with severe conditions. The study suggests that integration impacts depend on "demand profiles, flexibility and storage cost".<ref>{{cite news |title=Cheap, safe 100% renewable energy possible before 2050, says Finnish uni study |url=https://yle.fi/news/3-10736252 |access-date=24 January 2022 |date=12 April 2019 |language=en |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119083452/https://yle.fi/news/3-10736252 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bogdanov |first1=Dmitrii |last2=Gulagi |first2=Ashish |last3=Fasihi |first3=Mahdi |last4=Breyer |first4=Christian |title=Full energy sector transition towards 100% renewable energy supply: Integrating power, heat, transport and industry sectors including desalination |journal=Applied Energy |date=1 February 2021 |volume=283 |pages=116273 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116273 |s2cid=229427360 |language=en |issn=0306-2619|doi-access=free }}</ref>
====2021====
* Researchers develop an [[energy system]] model for [[100% renewable energy|100%]] [[renewable energy transition|renewable energy]], examining [[feasibility study|feasibility]] and [[Variable renewable energy#Solutions for their integration|grid stability]] in the U.S.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clifford |first1=Catherine |title=U.S. can get to 100% clean energy with wind, water, solar and zero nuclear, Stanford professor says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/21/us-can-get-to-100percent-clean-energy-without-nuclear-power-stanford-professor-says.html |access-date=16 January 2022 |work=CNBC |date=21 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=14 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114201928/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/21/us-can-get-to-100percent-clean-energy-without-nuclear-power-stanford-professor-says.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Mark Z. |last2=von Krauland |first2=Anna-Katharina |last3=Coughlin |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Palmer |first4=Frances C. |last5=Smith |first5=Miles M. |title=Zero air pollution and zero carbon from all energy at low cost and without blackouts in variable weather throughout the U.S. with 100% wind-water-solar and storage |journal=Renewable Energy |date=1 January 2022 |volume=184 |pages=430–442 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.067 |s2cid=244820608 |language=en |issn=0960-1481 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148121016499 |url-access=subscription |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182656/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148121016499 |url-status=live }}</ref>
====2022====
* A revised or updated version of a major worldwide [[100% renewable energy]] proposed plan and model is published.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harvey |first1=George |title=We Can Have (Just About) Everything We Want For Energy & The Climate |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2022/07/04/we-can-have-just-about-everything-we-want-for-energy-the-climate/ |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=CleanTechnica |date=4 July 2022 |archive-date=21 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721120608/https://cleantechnica.com/2022/07/04/we-can-have-just-about-everything-we-want-for-energy-the-climate/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Mark Z. |last2=Krauland |first2=Anna-Katharina von |last3=Coughlin |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Dukas |first4=Emily |last5=Nelson |first5=Alexander J. H. |last6=Palmer |first6=Frances C. |last7=Rasmussen |first7=Kylie R. |title=Low-cost solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy insecurity for 145 countries |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |date=28 June 2022 |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=3343–3359 |doi=10.1039/D2EE00722C |s2cid=250126767 |language=en |issn=1754-5706 |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/145Country/22-145Countries.pdf |access-date=8 August 2022 |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807054703/http://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/145Country/22-145Countries.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Researchers [[scientific review|review]] the scientific literature on [[100% renewable energy]], addressing various issues, [[research question#Aggregated research questions and coordination|outlining open research questions]], and concluding there to be growing consensus, research and empirical evidence concerning its feasibility worldwide.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shakeel |first1=Fatima |title=The World Can Achieve A 100% Renewable Energy System By 2050, Researchers Say |url=https://wonderfulengineering.com/renewable-energy-systems-could-be-possible-by-2050/ |access-date=23 August 2022 |work=Wonderful Engineering |date=12 August 2022 |archive-date=23 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823103237/https://wonderfulengineering.com/renewable-energy-systems-could-be-possible-by-2050/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breyer |first1=Christian |last2=Khalili |first2=Siavash |last3=Bogdanov |first3=Dmitrii |last4=Ram |first4=Manish |last5=Oyewo |first5=Ayobami Solomon |last6=Aghahosseini |first6=Arman |last7=Gulagi |first7=Ashish |last8=Solomon |first8=A. A. |last9=Keiner |first9=Dominik |last10=Lopez |first10=Gabriel |last11=Østergaard |first11=Poul Alberg |last12=Lund |first12=Henrik |last13=Mathiesen |first13=Brian V. |last14=Jacobson |first14=Mark Z. |last15=Victoria |first15=Marta |last16=Teske |first16=Sven |last17=Pregger |first17=Thomas |last18=Fthenakis |first18=Vasilis |last19=Raugei |first19=Marco |last20=Holttinen |first20=Hannele |last21=Bardi |first21=Ugo |last22=Hoekstra |first22=Auke |last23=Sovacool |first23=Benjamin K. |title=On the History and Future of 100% Renewable Energy Systems Research |journal=IEEE Access |date=2022 |volume=10 |pages=78176–78218 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free}}</ref>
====2023====
[[File:Assessment of pathways for building heating in the EU in the context of planetary boundaries.jpg|thumb|Assessment of pathways for building heating in the EU<ref name="10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602"/> ([[:Commons:Category:Heating transition|more]])]]
*A study indicates that in [[Central heating|building heating]] in the [[Energy policy of the EU|EU]], the [[Feasibility study|feasibility]] of staying within [[planetary boundaries]] is possible only {{tooltip|through [[electrification]]|relying on electrification where system costs could be reduced via "Large-scale international trade of electricity combined with renewable electricity generation in the most favourable locations" and "Balancing supply and demand through a combination of trade and dispatchable generation means there was almost no need for energy storage"}}, with [[green hydrogen|green]] [[Hydrogen fuel#Energy|hydrogen heating]] being 2–3 times more expensive than [[heat pump]] costs.<ref name="Gabbatiss">{{cite news |last1=Gabbatiss |first1=Josh |title=Heat pumps 'up to three times cheaper' than green hydrogen in Europe, study finds |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/heat-pumps-up-to-three-times-cheaper-than-green-hydrogen-in-europe-study-finds/ |access-date=21 April 2023 |work=Carbon Brief |date=23 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421094515/https://www.carbonbrief.org/heat-pumps-up-to-three-times-cheaper-than-green-hydrogen-in-europe-study-finds/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602">{{cite journal |last1=Weidner |first1=Till |last2=Guillén-Gosálbez |first2=Gonzalo |title=Planetary boundaries assessment of deep decarbonisation options for building heating in the European Union |journal=Energy Conversion and Management |date=15 February 2023 |volume=278 |pages=116602 |doi=10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602 |language=en |issn=0196-8904|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11850/599236 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A separate study indicates that replacing [[gas boiler]]s with heat pumps is the fastest way to cut [[Energy policy of Germany|German]]<!--first study of its kind and in Nature despite limited to Germany--> [[gas consumption]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Altermatt |first1=Pietro P. |last2=Clausen |first2=Jens |last3=Brendel |first3=Heiko |last4=Breyer |first4=Christian |last5=Gerhards |first5=Christoph |last6=Kemfert |first6=Claudia |authorlink6=Claudia Kemfert |last7=Weber |first7=Urban |last8=Wright |first8=Matthew |title=Replacing gas boilers with heat pumps is the fastest way to cut German gas consumption |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |date=3 March 2023 |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=56 |doi=10.1038/s43247-023-00715-7 |bibcode=2023ComEE...4...56A |language=en |issn=2662-4435|doi-access=free}}</ref> despite of "[[fossil fuel industry|gas-industry]] [[lobbyism|lobbyists]] and [...] politicians" at the time making "the case for hydrogen" amid some {{ill|heating transition|de|Wärmewende}} policy changes,<ref name="Gabbatiss"/> for which the former study revealed a need to "[[Climate justice|mitigate]] [[Economics of climate change|increased]] costs [[Consumer expenditure|for [many of the] consumers]]".<ref name="10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116602"/>
== See also ==
{{Science year nav|{{CURRENTYEAR}}}}
{{Portal|Renewable energy|Energy|Science}}
* [[Climate change adaptation]]
* [[Energy development]]
* [[Energy policy]]
** [[Funding of science]]
** [[Energy transition]]
** [[Green recovery]]
** [[Public research and development]]
** [[Policy studies]]
* [[Energy system]]
* [[Renewable energy#Emerging technologies]]
* [[List of emerging technologies#Energy]]
* [[Technology transfer]]
* [[Outline of energy]]
;Not yet included
* [[Standardization#Environmental protection]] such as for certifications and policies
* [[Open energy system models]]
* [[Open energy system databases]]
* [[Power-to-X]]
* Nanogeneration such as [[synthetic molecular motor]]s [[Microbotics#Design considerations|for microbots]] and nanobots<!--example: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7334648-->
;Timelines of related areas
* [[Timeline of materials technology#20th century]]
* [[Timeline of computing 2020–present]]
* [[Timeline of transportation technology#21st century]]
{{clear}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}{{Grid modernization|state=uncollapsed}}
{{HydrogenDelivery|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Energy modeling|state=uncollapsed}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020-present}}
[[Category:Sustainable energy|*]]
[[Category:Energy timelines|Sustainable]]
[[Category:Renewable energy]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:History of energy]]
[[Category:Technology timelines|Sustainable energy research 2020-present]]
[[Category:Science timelines]]
[[Category:Energy research|*]] |
Sulfur concrete | {{Short description|Composite construction material with elemental sulfur as a binder}}
'''Sulfur concrete''', sometimes named '''thioconcrete''' or '''sulfurcrete''', is a [[composite material|composite]] construction material, composed mainly of [[sulfur]] and [[construction aggregate|aggregate]] (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravel or crushed rocks and a fine aggregate such as [[sand]]). [[Cement]] and water, important compounds in normal [[concrete]], are not part of sulfur concrete. The concrete is heated above the [[melting point]] of elemental sulfur ({{Convert|115.21|C|F}}) at ca. {{Convert|140|C|F}} in a ratio of between 12% and 25% sulfur, the rest being [[Construction aggregate|aggregate]].<ref name="MohamedEl-Gamal2010">{{cite book |author1=Abdel-Mohsen Onsy Mohamed |author2=Maisa El-Gamal |title=Sulfur Concrete for the Construction Industry: A Sustainable Development Approach |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYecyRmnTEkC&pg=PA109 |date=15 July 2010 |publisher=J. Ross Publishing |isbn=978-1-60427-005-1 |page=109}}</ref>
Low-volatility (i.e., with a high [[boiling point]]) organic admixtures (sulfur modifiers), such as [[dicyclopentadiene]] (DCPD), [[styrene]], [[turpentine]], or [[furfural]], are also added to the molten sulfur to inhibit its crystallization and to stabilize its polymeric structure after solidification.<ref name="Lewandowski_2018">{{cite journal |last1=Lewandowski |first1=Michał |last2=Kotynia |first2=Renata |title=Assessment of sulfur concrete properties for use in civil engineering |journal=MATEC Web of Conferences |date=2018 |volume=219 |pages=03006 |doi=10.1051/matecconf/201821903006|doi-access=free }}</ref>
In the absence of modifying agents, elemental sulfur crystallizes in its most stable [[allotropic]] ([[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphic]]) crystal phase at room temperature. With the addition of modifying agents, elemental sulfur forms a [[copolymer]] (linear chains with styrene, [[cross-link]]ing structure with DCPD<ref name="Bordoloi_1978">{{cite book| last1 = Bordoloi | first1 = Binoy K. | last2 = Pearce | first2 = Eli M. | title = ''In:'' New uses of sulfur — II | chapter = Plastic sulfur stabilization by copolymerization of sulfur with dicyclopentadiene | series = Advances in Chemistry | date = 1 March 1978 |volume = 165 | pages = 31–53 | publisher = American Chemical Society | issn = 0065-2393 | doi = 10.1021/ba-1978-0165.ch003 | isbn = 9780841203914 | url = }}</ref>) and remains plastic.<ref name="Lewandowski_2018" />{{efn|name=fn1|In the [[natural rubber]] [[sulfur vulcanization|vulcanization]] process developed by [[Charles Goodyear]], elemental sulfur is added to the material (extracted from [[hevea|rubber tree]] [[latex]]) heated to high temperatures to [[cross-link]] it (cross-linking with formation of [[disulfide bond]]s). In sulfur concrete, the opposite is true: a low-volatility organic liquid ([[dicyclopentadiene]] (DCPD), [[styrene]], [[turpentine]], or [[furfural]]...) is added to the molten sulfur to inhibit its crystallization and maintain a certain [[Plasticity (physics)|plasticity]] during its cooling/hardening. In both cases, cross-linking reactions take place between the sulfur and the organic molecules.}}
Sulfur concrete then achieves high [[strength (material)|mechanical strength]] within {{no break|~ 24 hours}} of cooling. It does not require a prolonged [[Concrete#Curing|curing]] period like conventional [[cement]] [[concrete]], which after setting (a few hours) must still harden to reach its expected nominal strength at 28 days. The rate of hardening of sulfur concrete depends on its cooling rate and also on the nature and concentration of modifying agents (cross-linking process).<ref name="Lewandowski_2018" /> Its hardening is governed by the fairly rapid liquid/solid state change and associated phase transition processes (the added modifiers maintaining the plastic state while avoiding its recrystallization). It is a [[Thermoplasticity|thermoplastic]] material whose physical state depends on temperature. It can be recycled and reshaped in a reversible way, simply by remelting it at high temperature.
A sulfur concrete patent was already registered in 1900 by McKay.<ref name="McKay_1900">McKay, G., U.S. Patent No. 643, February 13, 1900, p. 251.</ref><ref name="Loov_1974">{{Cite journal |last1=Loov |first1=Robert E. |last2=Vroom |first2=Alan H. |last3=Ward |first3=Michael A. |date=1974 |title=Sulfur concrete – A new construction material |journal=PCI Journal |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=86–95 |doi=10.15554/pcij.01011974.86.95 |doi-access=free |issn=0887-9672 |accessdate=2022-09-20 |publisher=Prestressed Concrete Institute |url=https://www.pci.org/PCI_Docs/Publications/PCI%20Journal/1974/Jan-Feb/Sulfur%20Concrete%20-%20A%20New%20Construction%20Material.pdf |url-status= bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322151823/http://www.pci.org/pdf/publications/journal/1974/January-February/JL-74-JANUARY-FEBRUARY-7.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-22}}</ref> Sulfur concrete was studied in the 1920s and 1930s and received renewed interest in the 1970s because of the accumulation of large quantities of sulfur as a by-product of the [[hydrodesulfurization]] process of oil and gas production and its low cost.<ref name="Loov_1974" /><ref name="Bourne_1978">{{Cite book |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/book/10.1021/ba-1978-0165 |title=New uses of sulfur — II |chapter=A New Approach to Sulfur Concrete |date=1978 |publisher=American Chemical Society |isbn=978-0-8412-0391-4 |editor-last=Bourne |editor-first=Douglas J. |series=Advances in Chemistry |volume=165 |pages=54–78 |location=Washington, D.C. |language=en |doi=10.1021/ba-1978-0165.ch004}}</ref><ref name="Gregor_1978">{{Cite book |last1=Gregor |first1=R. |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/book/10.1021/ba-1978-0165 |title=New uses of sulfur — II |last2=Hackl |first2=A. |date=March 1, 1978 |publisher=American Chemical Society |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-8412-0391-4 |editor-last=Bourne |editor-first=Douglas J. |series=Advances in Chemistry |volume=165 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=54–78 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 4: A new approach to sulfur concrete |doi=10.1021/ba-1978-0165.ch004}}</ref>
==Characteristics==
Sulfur concrete has a low [[porosity]] and is a poorly [[Permeability (Earth sciences)|permeable]] material. Its low [[hydraulic conductivity]] slows down water ingress in its low porosity matrix and so decreases the transport of harmful chemical species, such as [[chloride]] ([[pitting corrosion]]), towards the steel reinforcements (physical protection of [[steel]] as long as no microcracks develop in the sulfur concrete matrix). It is resistant to some compounds like acids which attack normal concrete. However, unlike ordinary concrete, it cannot withstand prolonged high heat {{Clarify|date=September 2022|reason=Unclear. What does it mean? How the composition of sulfur concrete does affect its melting point? Or is it about the risk of fire at high temperature? |text=without adjusted mixture.}}
Beside its [[hydraulic conductivity|impermeability]], Loov et al. (1974) also consider amongst the beneficial characteristics of sulfur concrete its low [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] and [[electrical conductivity |electrical conductivities]]. Sulfur concrete does not cause adverse reaction with [[glass]] (no [[alkali–silica reaction]]), does not produce [[efflorescence]]s, and also presents a smooth surface finish. They also mention amongst its main limitations, its high [[coefficient of thermal expansion]], the possible formation of [[acid]] under the action of water and [[sunlight]]. It also reacts with [[copper]] and produces a smell when melted.
==Uses==
Sulfur concrete was developed and promoted as a building material to get rid of large amounts of stored sulfur produced by [[hydrodesulfurization]] of gas and oil ([[Claus process]]). As of 2011, sulfur concrete has only been used in small quantities when fast curing or acid resistance is necessary.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlQe8WAA8AEC&pg=PA52 |page=52 |title=Cement-based composites: Materials, mechanical properties and performance |isbn=978-0-419-19110-0 |last1=Brandt |first1=Andrzej Marek |year=1995|publisher=CRC Press }}</ref><ref name="Loov_1974" />The material has been suggested by researchers as a potential [[building material]] on [[Mars]], where water and [[limestone]] are not easily available, but sulfur is.<ref>Wan, Lin, Roman Wendner, and Gianluca Cusatis (2016). "A novel material for ''in situ'' construction on Mars: experiments and numerical simulations." Construction and Building Materials, 120: 222–231.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-27 |title=To build settlements on Mars, we'll need materials chemistry |url=https://cen.acs.org/articles/96/i1/build-settlements-Mars-ll-need.html |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=cen.acs.org}}</ref><ref name="Jones_2019">{{Cite web |title=Mixing it on Mars |author=Nick Jones |work=sustainableconcrete.org.uk |date=2019 |access-date=19 September 2022 |url= https://www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/MPA-ACP/media/SustainableCon-Media-Library/Pdfs%20-%20Performance%20reports/TIC_innovation_Feb19.pdf |publisher=The Concrete Centre |pages=18–19 |language=English |quote=Marscrete will be mission-critical to any future landing on the Red Planet, writes Nick Jones}}</ref>
==Advantages and benefits==
More recently,{{when|reason=Date needed|date=August 2022}} it has been proposed as a near-[[Carbon neutrality|carbon-neutral]] construction material. Its waterless and less energy-intensive production (in comparison with ordinary cement and regular concrete) makes it a potential alternative for high-{{Chem|link=Carbon dioxide|C|O|2}}-emission [[portland cement|portland-cement]]-based materials. Due to improvements in fabrication techniques, it can be produced in high quality and large quantities.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} Recyclable sulfur [[concrete sleeper]]s are used in [[Belgium]] for the [[railway track|railways infrastructure]], and are mass-produced locally.<ref name="Infrabel_2021">{{cite web |author=Infrabel|date=8 March 2021|title=First recyclable sulfur concrete sleepers placed in Belgium |url=https://www.railtech.com/infrastructure/2021/03/08/first-recyclable-sulfur-concrete-sleepers-placed-in-belgium/ |website=RailTech.com |access-date=14 April 2022}}</ref>
==Long-term scientific and technical challenges==
[[Sulfate-reducing bacteria]] (SRB) and [[sulfur-oxidizing bacteria]] (SOB) produce [[hydrogen sulfide]] ({{chem2|H2S}}) and [[sulfuric acid]] ({{chem2|H2SO4}}) respectively. When the [[sulfur cycle]] is active in [[sanitary sewer|sewers]] and {{chem2|H2S}} emanations from the effluent waters are oxidized in {{chem2|H2SO4}} by atmospheric oxygen at the moist surface of tunnel walls, sulfuric acid can attack the hydrated Portland cement paste of cementitious materials, especially in the non-totally immersed sections of sewers (non-completely water-filled [[vadose zone]]).<ref name="Satoh_2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Satoh |first1=Hisashi |last2=Odagiri |first2=Mitsunori |last3=Ito |first3=Tsukasa |last4=Okabe |first4=Satoshi |date=2009 |title=Microbial community structures and in situ sulfate-reducing and sulfur-oxidizing activities in biofilms developed on mortar specimens in a corroded sewer system |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0043135409005041 |journal=Water Research |language=en |volume=43 |issue=18 |pages=4729–4739 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2009.07.035|pmid=19709714 |bibcode=2009WatRe..43.4729S |hdl=2115/45290 |s2cid=10227999 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It causes extensive damages to [[Mortar (masonry)|masonry mortar]] and concrete in older sewage infrastructures.<ref name="Scrivener_2013">{{Citation |last1=Scrivener |first1=Karen |date=2013 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-5413-3_12 |work=Performance of Cement-Based Materials in Aggressive Aqueous Environments |volume=10 |pages=305–318 |editor-last=Alexander |editor-first=Mark |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-5413-3_12 |isbn=978-94-007-5412-6 |access-date=2022-10-02 |last2=De Belie |first2=Nele |title=Bacteriogenic Sulfuric Acid Attack of Cementitious Materials in Sewage Systems |series=RILEM State-of-the-Art Reports |editor2-last=Bertron |editor2-first=Alexandra |editor3-last=De Belie |editor3-first=Nele}}</ref><ref name="Alexander_2013">{{Cite book |last1=Alexander |first1=Mark G. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823643788 |title=Performance of cement-based materials in aggressive aqueous environments |last2=Bertron |first2=Alexandra |last3=Nele |first3=De Belie |date=2013 |work=International Union of Testing and Research |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |isbn=978-94-007-5413-3 |location=Dordrecht |language=English |oclc=823643788}}</ref> Sulfur concrete, if proven resistant to long-term chemical and bacterial attacks, could provide an effective and long-lasting solution to this problem. However, since elemental sulfur itself participates in [[redox|redox reactions]] used by some [[autotroph]]ic bacteria to produce the energy they need from the [[sulfur cycle]], elemental sulfur could contribute directly fueling the bacterial activity.<ref name="Okabe_2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Okabe |first1=Satoshi |last2=Ito |first2=Tsukasa |last3=Sugita |first3=Kenichi |last4=Satoh |first4=Hisashi |date=2005 |title=Succession of internal sulfur cycles and sulfur-oxidizing bacterial communities in microaerophilic wastewater biofilms |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=71 |issue=5 |pages=2520–2529 |doi=10.1128/AEM.71.5.2520-2529.2005 |issn=0099-2240 |pmc=1087539 |pmid=15870342 |bibcode=2005ApEnM..71.2520O |id=Okabe_2005}}</ref>
[[Biofilm]]s adhering to the surface of sewer walls could harbor [[autotroph]]ic microbial colonies that can degrade sulfur concrete if they are able to use elemental sulfur directly as an [[electron donor]] to reduce [[nitrate]] (autotrophic [[denitrification]] process),<ref name="Batchelor_1978">{{Cite journal |last=Batchelor |first=B |date=1978 |title=A kinetic model for autotrophic denitrification using elemental sulfur |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0043135478900532 |journal=Water Research |language=en |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1075–1084 |doi=10.1016/0043-1354(78)90053-2 |bibcode=1978WatRe..12.1075B |id=Batchelor_1978}}</ref><ref name="Claus_1985">{{Cite journal |last1=Claus |first1=Günter |last2=Kutzner |first2=Hans Jürgen |date=1985 |title=Autotrophic denitrification by ''Thiobacillus denitrificans'' in a packed bed reactor |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00252032 |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |doi=10.1007/BF00252032 |s2cid=23359931 |issn=0175-7598}}</ref><ref name="Koenig_1996">{{Cite journal |last1=Koenig |first1=A. |last2=Liu |first2=L. H. |date=1996 |title=Autotrophic denitrification of landfill leachate using elemental sulphur |url=https://iwaponline.com/wst/article/34/5-6/469/6283/Autotrophic-denitrification-of-landfill-leachate |journal=Water Science and Technology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=5–6 |pages=469–476 |doi=10.2166/wst.1996.0584 |issn=0273-1223}}</ref><ref name="Lee_2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Chang Soo |last2=Kim |first2=Kwang Kyu |last3=Aslam |first3=Zubair |last4=Lee |first4=Sung-Taik |date=2007 |title=''Rhodanobacter thiooxydans'' sp. nov., isolated from a biofilm on sulfur particles used in an autotrophic denitrification process |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |language=en |volume=57 |issue=8 |pages=1775–1779 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.65086-0 |pmid=17684255 |issn=1466-5026|doi-access=free }}</ref> or [[sulfate]], present in [[wastewater]]. The required service life of sewage infrastructures in large cities is well over 100 years (in [[London]], many sewers date back to the [[Victorian era]], 1832 – 1901). One of the major challenges facing sulfur concrete is to demonstrate that it is sufficiently non-reactive and insensitive to [[microbial consortium|microbial activity]] over the long term. [[Microbial biodegradation]] tests in the laboratory and under ''in situ'' field conditions are still needed due to the lack of [[feedback|return of experience]] on the [[durability]] of this material and the considered time scales.
The very long-term durability of sulfur concrete also depends on physicochemical factors such as those controlling, among other things, the [[diffusion]] of modifying agents (if not completely chemically fixed) out of the elemental sulfur matrix and their [[Leaching (chemistry)|leaching]] by water. The resulting changes in the physical properties of the material will determine its long-term [[Strength of materials|mechanical strength]] and chemical behavior. The [[Biodegradation|biodegradability]] of the organic admixtures (sulfur modifiers), or their resistance to [[Microbial consortium|microbial activity]], and their possible [[Biocide|biocidal]] properties (which may protect the sulfur concrete from microbial attack) are important aspects in assessing the durability of the material. This could also depend on the progressive [[Recrystallization (metallurgy)|recrystallization]] of elemental sulfur over time, or on the rate of [[Plasticity (physics)|plastic deformation]] of its structure modified by the different types of organic admixtures.
==Disadvantages and limitations==
Swamy and Jurjees (1986) have pointed out the limitations of sulfur concrete.<ref name="Swamy1986">{{Cite journal| last1 = Swamy| first1 = R. N.| last2 = Jurjees| first2 = T. A. R.| date = 1986-09-01| title = Stability of sulphur concrete beams with steel reinforcement| journal = Materials and Structures| volume = 19| issue = 5| pages = 351–360| doi = 10.1007/BF02472125| s2cid = 135888809| issn = 1871-6873| accessdate = 2023-03-25| url = https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02472125}}</ref> They questioned the stability and the long-term durability of sulfur concrete beams with steel reinforcement, especially for sulfur concrete modified with dicyclopentadiene and dipentene. Even when dry, modified concrete beams show strength loss with ageing. Ageing in a wet environment leads to softening of sulfur concrete and loss of strength. It causes structural damages in sulfur concrete beams leading to shear failures and cracking. Swamy and Jurjees (1986) also observed severe corrosion of steel reinforcements.<ref name="Swamy1986" /> They concluded that the stability of reinforced sulfur concrete beams can only be guaranteed when they are unmodified and kept dry.<ref name="Swamy1986" /> In a wet environment sulfur concrete lacks stability and durability.<ref name="Swamy1986" />
Being based on the use of [[sulfur|elemental sulfur]] (S{{sup|0}}, or S{{sub|8}}) as a binder, sulfur concrete applications are expected to suffer the same limitations as those of elemental sulfur which is not a really inert material, can burn, and is also known to be a potent [[corrosion|corrosive agent]].<ref name="MacDonald_1978">{{Cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Digby D. |last2=Roberts |first2=Bruce |last3=Hyne |first3=James B. |date=1978 |title=The corrosion of carbon steel by wet elemental sulphur |journal=Corrosion Science |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=411–425 |doi=10.1016/S0010-938X(78)80037-7 |issn=0010-938X |access-date=2022-09-19 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X78800377}}</ref><ref name="Maldonado_1982">{{Cite journal |last1=Maldonado-Zagal |first1=S. B. |last2=Boden |first2=P. J. |date=1982 |title=Hydrolysis of elemental sulphur in water and its effect on the corrosion of mild steel |journal=British Corrosion Journal |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1179/000705982798274336 |issn=0007-0599 |access-date=2022-09-19 |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/000705982798274336}}</ref><ref name="Smith_2005">{{Cite conference |last1=Smith |first1=Liane |last2=Craig |first2=Bruce D. |date=2005-04-03 |title=Practical corrosion control measures for elemental sulfur containing environments |conference=Corrosion 2005 |publisher=OnePetro |access-date=2022-09-19 |url=https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings/CORR05/All-CORR05/NACE-05646/115569}}</ref>
In case of fire, this concrete is flammable and will generate toxic and corrosive fumes of [[sulfur dioxide]] ({{chem|link=sulfur dioxide|SO|2}}), and [[sulfur trioxide]] ({{chem|link=sulfur trioxide|SO|3}}), ultimately leading to the formation of [[sulfuric acid]] ({{chem|link=sulfuric acid|H|2|SO|4}}).
According to Maldonado-Zagal and Boden (1982),<ref name="Maldonado_1982" /> the hydrolysis of elemental sulfur (octa-atomic sulphur, S{{sub|8}}) in water is driven by its [[disproportionation]] into oxidised and reduced forms in the ratio {{chem|H|2|S}}/{{chem|H|2|SO|4}} = 3/1. [[Hydrogen sulfide]] ({{chem|H|2|S}}) causes [[sulfide stress cracking]] (SSC) and in contact with air is also easily oxidized into [[thiosulfate]] ({{chem|link=thiosulfate|S|2|O|3|2-}}), responsible for [[pitting corrosion]].
Like [[pyrite]] ({{chem|link=pyrite|FeS|2}}, iron(II) [[disulfide]]), in the presence of moisture, sulfur is also sensitive to [[oxidation]] by [[atmospheric oxygen]] and could ultimately produce [[sulfuric acid]] ({{chem|link=sulfuric acid|H|2|SO|4}}), [[sulfate]] ({{chem|link=sulfate|SO|4|2-}}), and intermediate chemical species such as [[thiosulfate]]s ({{chem|link=thiosulfate|S|2|O|3|2-}}), or [[tetrathionate]]s ({{chem|link=tetrathionate|S|4|O|6|2-}}), which are also strongly [[corrosion|corrosive]] substances ([[pitting corrosion]]), as all the reduced species of sulfur.<ref name="MacDonald_1978" /><ref name="Fang_2008">{{Cite conference |publisher=OnePetro |conference=Corrosion 2008 |last1=Fang |first1=Haitao |last2=Young |first2=David |last3=Nesic |first3=Srdjan |title=Corrosion of mild steel in the presence of elemental sulfur |date=2008 |url=https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings-abstract/CORR08/All-CORR08/NACE-08637/119135}}</ref><ref name="Fang_2011">{{Cite conference |last1=Fang |first1=Haitao |last2=Brown |first2=Bruce |last3=Young |first3=David |last4=Nešic |first4=Srdjan |date=2011-03-13 |title=Investigation of elemental sulfur corrosion mechanisms |conference=Corrosion 2011 |publisher=OnePetro |url=https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings-abstract/CORR11/All-CORR11/NACE-11398/119729 |access-date=2022-09-19}}</ref> Therefore, long-term [[corrosion]] problems of [[steel]]s and other metals ([[aluminium]], [[copper]]...) need to be anticipated, and correctly addressed, before selecting sulfur concrete for specific applications.
The formation of sulfuric acid could also attack and dissolve [[limestone]] ({{chem|link=calcium carbonate|CaCO|3}}) and [[concrete]] structures while also producing expansive [[gypsum]] ({{chem|link=calcium sulfate|CaSO|4|·2H|2|O}}), aggravating the formation of cracks and fissures in these materials.
If the local physico-chemical conditions are conducive (sufficient space and water available for their growth), [[Microbial metabolism#Sulfur oxidation|sulfur-oxidizing bacteria]] ([[microbial oxidation of sulfur]]) could also thrive at the expense of concrete sulfur and contribute to aggravate potential corrosion problems.<ref name="Little_2000">{{Cite journal |last1=Little |first1=B.J. |last2=Ray |first2=R.I. |last3=Pope |first3=R.K. |date=2000-04-01 |title=Relationship between corrosion and the biological sulfur cycle: A review |journal=Corrosion |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=433–443 |doi=10.5006/1.3280548 |issn=0010-9312 |url=https://onepetro.org/corrosion/article-abstract/111949/Relationship-Between-Corrosion-and-the-Biological}}</ref>
The degradation rate of elemental sulfur depends on its [[specific surface area]]. The degradation reactions are the fastest with sulfur [[dust]], or [[Powder|crushed powder]] of sulfur, while intact compact blocks of sulfur concrete are expected to react more slowly. The [[service life]] of components made of sulfur concrete depends thus on the degradation [[Chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of elemental sulfur exposed to atmospheric oxygen, moisture and [[microorganism]]s, on the density/concentration of microcracks in the material, and on the accessibility of the [[Carbon steel|carbon-steel]] surface to the corrosive degradation products present in aqueous solution in case of macrocracks or technical voids exposed to water ingress. All these factors need to be taken into account when designing structures, systems and components (SSC) based on sulfur concrete, certainly if they are reinforced, or pre-stressed, with steel elements ([[rebar]] or tensioning cables respectively).
While the process of elemental sulfur oxidation will also lower the [[pH]] value, aggravating [[carbon steel]] corrosion, in contrast to ordinary [[Portland cement]] and classical [[concrete]], fresh sulfur concrete does not contain [[alkali]] [[hydroxide]]s (KOH, NaOH), nor [[calcium hydroxide]] ({{chem|link=portlandite|Ca(OH)|2}}), and therefore does not provide any [[buffering capacity]] to maintain a high pH [[passivation (chemistry)|passivating]] the steel surface. In other words, intact sulfur concrete does not chemically protect steel [[reinforcement bar]]s (rebar) against corrosion. The corrosion of steel elements embedded into sulfur concrete will thus depends on water ingress through cracks and to their exposure to aggressive chemical species of sulfur dissolved in the seeping water. The presence of microorganisms fuelled by elemental sulfur could also play a role and accelerate the corrosion rate.
==See also==
{{Common|Concrete}}
{{Wiktionary|sulfur}}
* [[Asphalt concrete]], similar aggregate material using 'bitumen' as a binder
* [[Lunarcrete#Sulfur based .22Waterless Concrete.22|Sulfur-based lunarcrete]], a proposed lunar construction material
* [[Cenocell]], a concrete material using fly ash cenospheres (hollow spheres) in place of cement
* Rubber [[vulcanisation]] and [[cross-link]]ing made by [[disulfide bridge]]s formed after the reaction of elemental sulfur with [[natural rubber]] [[terpenoid]]s ([[polyisoprene]]) (process discovered by [[Charles Goodyear]])
* [[Sulfur vulcanization]], produced by the reaction of elemental sulfur with [[allyl]] groups (-CH=CH-CH<sub>2</sub>-) of natural rubber ([[latex]] extracted from [[hevea]]) heated at elevated temperature
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist | 30em}}
== Further reading ==
{{div col | colwidth = 30em | small = yes}}
* {{cite conference|title=Production of Lunar Concrete Using Molten Sulfur|author1=Husam A. Omar |author2=Mohsen Issa |name-list-style=amp |pages=952–959|book-title=Engineering, construction, and operations in space IV: Space '94; Proceedings of the 4th International Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico, February 26–March 3, 1994|volume=2|date=1994|editor1=Rodney G. Galloway |editor2=Stanley Lokaj |location=New York|publisher=[[American Society of Civil Engineers]]|isbn=0872629376|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980001900_1997093192.pdf}}
* {{cite conference|title=Feasibility and Applications of Sulfur Concrete for Lunar Base Development: A Preliminary Study|author=I. Casanova|book-title=28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 17–21, 1997, Houston, TX|pages=209|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc97/pdf/1483.PDF|date=1997}}
* {{cite journal|author1=T. D. Lin |author2=Steven B. Skaar |author3=Joseph J. O'Gallagher |name-list-style=amp |title=Proposed remote control solar powered concrete production experiment on the Moon|journal=Aerospace Engineering|volume=10|issue=2|pages=104–109|date=April 1997|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0893-1321(1997)10:2(104) }}
* {{cite conference|chapter=Strength and Durability Performance of Waterless Lunar Concrete|author1=Houssam Toutanji|author2=Becca Glenn-Loper|author3=Beth Schrayshuen|title=43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit|name-list-style=amp|book-title=43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit 10 – 13 January 2005, Reno, Nevada|date=2005|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|doi=10.2514/6.2005-1436|isbn=978-1-62410-064-2|chapter-url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2005-1436}}
* {{cite conference|author1=R.N. Grugel |author2=Houssam Toutanji |name-list-style=amp |title=Viability of Sulfur "Concrete" on the Moon: Environmental Consideration|book-title=Proceedings: 43rd American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), Reno, NV, Jan. 9-12, 2006|date=2006}} — also:
* {{cite journal|author1=R. Grugel |author2=Houssam Toutanji |name-list-style=amp |year=2006|title=Viability of Sulfur Concrete on the Moon: Environmental Considerations|journal=Journal of Advances in Space Research}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.asr.2007.08.018|title=Sulfur "concrete" for lunar applications — Sublimation concerns|author1=Richard N. Grugela |author2=Houssam Toutanji |name-list-style=amp |journal=Advances in Space Research|volume=41|issue=1|year=2008|pages=103–112|bibcode=2008AdSpR..41..103G|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258768}}
* {{Cite journal| last1 = Dugarte| first1 = Margareth| last2 = Martinez-Arguelles| first2 = Gilberto| last3 = Torres| first3 = Jaime| date = 2019| title = Experimental evaluation of modified sulfur concrete for achieving sustainability in industry applications| journal = Sustainability| volume = 11| issue = 1| pages = 70| doi = 10.3390/su11010070| doi-access = free| issn = 2071-1050}}
{{div col end}}
== External links ==
* {{cite web |author=Infrabel|date=8 March 2021|title=First recyclable sulfur concrete sleepers placed in Belgium |url=https://www.railtech.com/infrastructure/2021/03/08/first-recyclable-sulfur-concrete-sleepers-placed-in-belgium/ |website=RailTech.com |access-date=14 April 2022}}
{{Concrete navbox}}
[[Category:Concrete]]
[[Category:Sulfur]]
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[[Category:Geomicrobiology]]
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[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Sustainable development | {{Short description|Mode of human development}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
[[File:Sustainable_development_-_6_central_capacities.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Sustainable development requires six central capacities.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=William |last2=Harley |first2=Alicia |date=2020 |title=Sustainability Science: Toward a Synthesis |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=331–86 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-043621 |doi-access=free}} {{CC-notice|cc=by4}}</ref>]]
'''Sustainable development''' is an [[organizing principle]] that aims to meet [[Human development (economics)|human development]] goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary [[natural resource]]s and [[ecosystem services]] to humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Justin Andrew |last2=Baldos |first2=Uris Lantz |last3=Corong |first3=Erwin |last4=Hertel |first4=Thomas |last5=Polasky |first5=Stephen |last6=Cervigni |first6=Raffaello |last7=Roxburgh |first7=Toby |last8=Ruta |first8=Giovanni |last9=Salemi |first9=Colette |last10=Thakrar |first10=Sumil |title=Investing in nature can improve equity and economic returns |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |date=2023 |volume=120 |issue=27 |pages=e2220401120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2220401120 |pmid=37364118 |doi-access=free |pmc=10318957 |bibcode=2023PNAS..12020401J }}</ref> The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet [[human needs]] without undermining the [[planetary integrity]] and stability of the natural system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robert |first1=Kates W. |last2=Parris |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Leiserowitz |first3=Anthony A. |title=What is Sustainable Development? Goals, Indicators, Values, and Practice |journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development |date=2005 |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=8–21 |doi=10.1080/00139157.2005.10524444|bibcode=2005ESPSD..47c...8R |s2cid=154882898 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mensah |first1=Justice |title=Sustainable development: Meaning, history, principles, pillars, and implications for human action: Literature review |journal=Cogent Social Sciences |date=2019 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1653531 |doi=10.1080/23311886.2019.1653531 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Sustainable development tries to find a balance between [[economic development]], [[environmental protection]], and [[social well-being]]. The [[Brundtland Report]] in 1987 defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of [[future generations]] to meet their own needs".<ref name=":1">United Nations General Assembly (1987) .[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf ''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331195909/https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf |date=31 March 2022 }}. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment.</ref><ref name=":72">{{cite web |author=United Nations General Assembly |date=20 March 1987 |title=''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''; Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment; Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development; Paragraph 1 |url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm |access-date=1 March 2010 |publisher=[[United Nations General Assembly]]}}</ref> The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on [[economic development]], [[Social Development|social development]] and [[environmental protection]] for future generations.
Sustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the [[Earth Summit|1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro]]. In 2015 the [[United Nations General Assembly]] (UNGA) adopted the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (2015 to 2030) and explained how the goals are integrated and indivisible to achieve sustainable development at the global level.<ref name="Purvis">{{Cite journal |last1=Purvis |first1=Ben |last2=Mao |first2=Yong |last3=Robinson |first3=Darren |date=2019 |title=Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins |journal=Sustainability Science |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=681–695 |doi=10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019SuSc...14..681P }} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> The UNGA's 17 goals address the global challenges, including [[poverty]], inequality, [[climate change]], [[environmental degradation]], peace, and justice.
Sustainable development is interlinked with the [[Normativity|normative concept]] of [[sustainability]]. [[UNESCO]] formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "''Sustainability'' is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while ''sustainable development'' refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last= |date=2015-08-03 |title=Sustainable Development |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development/what-is-esd/sd |access-date=20 January 2022 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> The concept of sustainable development has been criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or as an [[oxymoron]]) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Berg |first=Christian |title=Sustainable action: overcoming the barriers |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-429-57873-1 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1124780147}}</ref>{{RP|16}}{{TOC limit|3}}
== Definition ==
In 1987, the United Nations [[World Commission on Environment and Development]] released the report ''Our Common Future'', commonly called the [[Brundtland Report]].<ref name=":1" /> The report included a definition of "sustainable development" which is now widely used:<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keeble |first1=Brian R. |title=The Brundtland report: 'Our common future' |journal=Medicine and War |date=1988 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=17–25 |doi=10.1080/07488008808408783}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two key concepts within it:
* The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and
* The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.|author=[[World Commission on Environment and Development]]|source=''[[Our Common Future]]'' (1987)}}Sustainable development thus tries to find a balance between [[economic development]], [[environmental protection]], and [[social well-being]].
=== Related concepts ===
====Sustainability====
{{excerpt|sustainability|paragraphs=1}}
== Development of the concept ==
{{See also|Sustainability}}
Sustainable development has its roots in ideas regarding [[sustainable forest management]], which were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name="Grober2">Ulrich Grober: Deep roots — [https://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2007/p07-002.pdf A conceptual history of "sustainable development" (Nachhaltigkeit)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925121333/https://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2007/p07-002.pdf |date=25 September 2021 }}, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung, 2007</ref><ref name="Blewitt-2015">{{cite book |last1=Blewitt |first1=John |title=Understanding Sustainable Development |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-70782-4 }}{{pn|date=July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Du Pisani |first1=Jacobus A. |title=Sustainable development – historical roots of the concept |journal=Environmental Sciences |date=2006 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1080/15693430600688831 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2006JIES....3...83D }}</ref> In response to a growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, [[John Evelyn]] argued, in his 1662 essay ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber|Sylva]]'', that "sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every landowner, in order to stop the destructive [[over-exploitation|over-]][[exploitation of natural resources]]." In 1713, [[Hans Carl von Carlowitz]], a senior mining administrator in the service of Elector [[Augustus II the Strong|Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]] published ''Sylvicultura economics'', a 400-page work on forestry. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], von Carlowitz developed the concept of managing forests for [[sustained yield]].<ref name="Grober2" /> His work influenced others, including [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[Georg Ludwig Hartig]], eventually leading to the development of the science of forestry. This, in turn, influenced people like [[Gifford Pinchot]], the first head of the [[US Forest Service]], whose approach to forest management was driven by the idea of wise use of resources, and [[Aldo Leopold]] whose [[land ethic]] was influential in the development of the [[environmental movement]] in the 1960s.<ref name="Grober2" /><ref name="Blewitt-2015" />
Following the publication of [[Rachel Carson]]'s ''[[Silent Spring]]'' in 1962, the developing environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and [[environmental degradation]]. [[Kenneth E. Boulding]], in his influential 1966 essay ''The Economics of the Coming [[Spaceship Earth]]'', identified the need for the economic system to fit itself to the ecological system with its limited pools of resources.<ref name="Blewitt-2015"/> Another milestone was the 1968 article by [[Garrett Hardin]] that popularized the term "[[tragedy of the commons]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=Garrett |title=The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality |journal=Science |date=13 December 1968 |volume=162 |issue=3859 |pages=1243–1248 |doi=10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 |pmid=17756331 }}</ref>
The direct linking of [[sustainability]] and development in a contemporary sense can be traced to the early 1970s. "Strategy of Progress", a 1972 book (in German) by Ernst Basler, explained how the long-acknowledged [[sustainability]] concept of preserving forests for future wood production can be directly transferred to the broader importance of preserving environmental resources to sustain the world for future generations.<ref name="Basler-1972">{{cite book |last=Basler |first=Ernst |title= Strategie des Fortschritts: Umweltbelastung Lebensraumverknappung and Zukunftsforshung (Strategy of Progress: Environmental Pollution, Habitat Scarcity and Future Research) |date=1972 |publisher= BLV Publishing Company |location=Munich}}</ref> That same year, the interrelationship of environment and development was formally demonstrated in a systems dynamic simulation model reported in the classic report on ''[[Limits to Growth]]''. It was commissioned by the Club of Rome and written by a group of scientists led by [[Dennis Meadows|Dennis]] and [[Donella Meadows]] of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. Describing the desirable "state of global equilibrium", the authors wrote: "We are searching for a model output that represents a world system that is sustainable without sudden and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its people."<ref name="Finn-2009">{{cite book |last=Finn |first=Donovan |title=Our Uncertain Future: Can Good Planning Create Sustainable Communities? |date=2009 |publisher=University of Illinois |location=Champaign-Urbana}}</ref> Also in 1972 was publication of the influential book, ''[[A Blueprint for Survival]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=A Blueprint for Survival |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/02/05/archives/a-blueprint-for-survival.html |work=The New York Times |date=5 February 1972 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theecologist.org/2012/jan/27/ecologist-january-1972-blueprint-survival|title=The Ecologist January 1972: a blueprint for survival|website=The Ecologist|date=27 January 2012 |language=en|access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref>
In 1975, an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] research group prepared ten days of hearings on "Growth and Its Implication for the Future" for the [[United States Congress|US Congress]], the first hearings ever held on sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Growth and its implications for the future |url=http://www.wpainc.com/Archive/MIT/Growth%20and%20Its%20Implications.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033056/http://www.wpainc.com/Archive/MIT/Growth%20and%20Its%20Implications.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>
In 1980, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] published a world conservation strategy that included one of the first references to sustainable development as a global priority<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.a21italy.it/medias/31C2D26FD81B0D40.pdf |title=World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development |date=1980 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources}}</ref> and introduced the term "sustainable development".<ref name="Sachs-2015">{{Cite book |last=Sachs |first=Jeffrey D. |title=The Age of Sustainable Development |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780231173155 |location=New York}}</ref>{{RP|4}} Two years later, the United Nations [[World Charter for Nature]] raised five principles of [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged.<ref>{{citation |title=World Charter for Nature |date=28 October 1982 |url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm |publisher=United Nations, General Assembly, 48th Plenary Meeting}}</ref>
Since the [[Brundtland Report]], the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of "socially [[inclusive growth|inclusive]] and environmentally [[sustainable economic growth]]".<ref name=Sachs-2015/>{{RP|5}} In 1992, the [[UN Conference on Environment and Development]] published the [[Earth Charter]], which outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan [[Agenda 21]] for sustainable development identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.<ref>Will Allen. 2007.[http://learningforsustainability.net/susdev/ "Learning for Sustainability: Sustainable Development."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114042435/http://learningforsustainability.net/susdev/ |date=14 January 2016 }}</ref>
[[Rio Protocol|The Rio Protocol]] was a huge leap forward: for the first time, the world agreed on a [[sustainability]] agenda. In fact, a global consensus was facilitated by neglecting concrete goals and operational details. The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) now have concrete targets (unlike the results from the Rio Process) but no methods for sanctions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-06-12 |title=Why Rio failed in the past and how it can succeed this time |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jun/12/rio20-agenda-politicians-john-gummer |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref name=":10" />{{rp|137}}
==Dimensions==
{{Main|Sustainability#Dimensions of sustainability}}
Sustainable development, like [[sustainability]], is regarded to have three ''dimensions'': the environment, economy and [[Society|society.]] The idea is that a good balance between the three dimensions should be achieved. Instead of calling them ''dimensions'', other terms commonly used are ''pillars'', ''domains'', ''aspects'', ''spheres''.
{{excerpt|Sustainability#Development of three dimensions|paragraphs=1}}
== Critique ==
{{Main|Sustainability#Critique}}
{{Further|Weak and strong sustainability|Degrowth|Eco-economic decoupling}}
The concept of sustainable development has been and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as sustainable use of a [[non-renewable resource]], since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock;<ref name="kt01">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=R. Kerry |title=Sustainable Environmental Management. |date=1988 |publisher=Belhaven Press |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=R. Kerry |location=London |chapter=Sustainability, Resource Conservation and Pollution Control: An Overview}}</ref>{{rp|13}} this perspective renders the [[Industrial Revolution]] as a whole unsustainable.<ref name="ngr01">{{cite book |last=Georgescu-Roegen |first=Nicholas |url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich |title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process |date=1971 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674257801 |location=Cambridge |format=Full book accessible at Scribd |author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen}}</ref>{{rp|20f}}<ref name="jr01">{{cite book |last=Rifkin |first=Jeremy |url=http://www.foet.org/FOET-data/uploads/2017/03/Jeremy-Rifkin-Entropy-table-of-contents.pdf |title=Entropy: A New World View. |date=1980 |publisher=The Viking Press |isbn=978-0670297177 |location=New York |format=PDF contains only the title and contents pages of the book |author-link=Jeremy Rifkin}}</ref>{{rp|61–67}}<ref name="hd01">{{cite book |last=Daly |first=Herman E. |title=Steady-state economics |date=1992 |publisher=Earthscan Publications |edition=2nd |location=London |author-link=Herman Daly}}</ref>{{rp|22f}}
The sustainable development debate is based on the assumption that societies need to manage three types of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible.<ref name="Dyllick, T. 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Dyllick |first1=T. |last2=Hockerts |first2=K. |year=2002 |title=Beyond the business case for corporate sustainability |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=130–141 |doi=10.1002/bse.323}}</ref> [[Natural capital]] can not necessarily be substituted by economic capital.<ref name="hd01" /> While it is possible that we can find ways to replace some natural resources, it is much less likely that they will ever be able to replace [[ecosystem service]]s, such as the protection provided by the ozone layer, or the climate stabilizing function of the Amazonian forest.
The concept of sustainable development has been criticized from different angles. While some see it as paradoxical (or an [[oxymoron]]) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far.<ref name=":13">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=James H. |date=2015 |title=The Oxymoron of Sustainable Development |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=1027–1029 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biv117 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Colin C |last2=Millington |first2=Andrew C |date=2004 |title=The diverse and contested meanings of sustainable development |journal=[[The Geographical Journal]] |volume=170 |issue=2 |pages=99–104 |doi=10.1111/j.0016-7398.2004.00111.x |bibcode=2004GeogJ.170...99W |s2cid=143181802}}</ref> Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined.<ref name=":10" />{{RP|16}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Albert Sanghoon |date=2023 |title=Understanding resilience in sustainable development: Rallying call or siren song? |journal=Sustainable Development |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1002/sd.2645 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Such a viewpoint contradicts the mainstream academic community, which frequently concedes that the processes of capitalism are incompatible with the long-term sustainability of human life.
The vagueness of the Brundtland definition of sustainable development has been criticized as follows:<ref name=":10" />{{RP|17}} The definition has "opened up the possibility of downplaying sustainability. Hence, governments spread the message that we can have it all at the same time, i.e. economic growth, prospering societies and a healthy environment. No new ethic is required. This so-called weak version of sustainability is popular among governments, and businesses, but profoundly wrong and not even [[Weak and strong sustainability|weak]], as there is no alternative to preserving the earth's ecological integrity."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosselmann |first=Klaus |title=The principle of sustainability: transforming law and governance |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-4724-8128-3 |edition=2nd |location=London |oclc=951915998}}</ref>{{RP|2}}
== Pathways ==
{{Further|Sustainability#Sustainability transitions}}
=== Requirements ===
Six interdependent capacities are deemed to be necessary for the successful pursuit of sustainable development.<ref name=":7" /> These are the capacities to measure progress towards sustainable development; promote equity within and between generations; adapt to shocks and surprises; transform the system onto more sustainable development pathways; link knowledge with action for sustainability; and to devise governance arrangements that allow people to work together.
=== Environmental characteristics of sustainable cities ===
A sustainable city is an urban center that improves its environmental impact through urban planning and management. For the definition of an eco-city, imagine a city with parks and green spaces, solar-powered buildings, rooftop gardens, and more pedestrians and bicycles than cars. This is not a futuristic dream. Smart cities are actively moving towards greener urban ecosystems and better environmental management.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalgoals.org/goals/11-sustainable-cities-and-communities/ | title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities }}</ref>
{{Further|Human impact on the environment|Ecological footprint}}
[[File:Sugarcane Deforestation, Bolivia, 2016-06-15 by Planet Labs.jpg|thumb|[[Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest]]. Deforestation and increased road-building in the [[Amazon rainforest]] are a concern because of increased human encroachment upon [[wilderness]] areas, increased resource extraction and further threats to [[biodiversity]].]][[Environmental sustainability]] concerns the [[natural environment]] and how it endures and remains diverse and productive. Since [[natural resources]] are derived from the environment, the state of air, water, and climate is of particular concern. Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human needs while preserving the life support systems of the planet. This, for example, entails using water sustainably, using [[renewable energy]] and sustainable material supplies (e.g. harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains the biomass and biodiversity).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable development domains|url=http://semantic-portal.net/sd-domains |access-date=2021-09-06|website=Semantic portal}}</ref>
An unsustainable situation occurs when [[natural capital]] (the total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|58}} Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of [[carrying capacity]]. Theoretically, the long-term result of [[environmental degradation]] is the inability to sustain human life.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Nayeripour |first1=Majid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9CPDwAAQBAJ&dq=An+unsustainable+situation+occurs+when+natural+capital+(the+total+of+nature's+resources)+is+used+up+faster+than+it+can+be+replenished.+Sustainability+requires+that+human+activity+only+uses+nature's+resources+at+a+rate+at+which+they+can+be+replenished+naturally.+The+concept+of+sustainable+development+is+intertwined+with+the+concept+of+carrying+capacity.+Theoretically,+the+long-term+result+of+environmental+degradation+is+the+inability+to+sustain+human+life&pg=PA58 |title=Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources |last2=Kheshti |first2=Mostafa |date=2011-12-02 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-953-307-408-5 |page=58 }}[[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License]] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/|date=16 October 2017}}</ref>
Important operational principles of sustainable development were published by [[Herman Daly]] in 1990: renewable resources should provide a [[sustainable yield]] (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=H.E. |year=1990 |title=Toward some operational principles of sustainable development |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1016/0921-8009(90)90010-r}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Summary of different levels of consumption of natural resources.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|58}}
|-
! Consumption of natural resources
! State of the environment
! State of sustainability
|-
| More than nature's ability to replenish
| Environmental degradation
| Not sustainable
|-
| Equal to nature's ability to replenish
| Environmental equilibrium
| [[Steady state economy]]
|-
| Less than nature's ability to replenish
| Environmental renewal
| Environmentally sustainable
|}
==== Land use changes, agriculture and food ====
{{Further|Environmental impact of agriculture}}
[[Environmental impact of agriculture|Environmental problems]] associated with [[industrial agriculture]] and [[agribusiness]] are now being addressed through approaches such as [[sustainable agriculture]], [[organic farming]] and more [[Sustainable business|sustainable business practices]].<ref>[http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1 World Business Council for Sustainable Development] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410074308/http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1|date=10 April 2009}} This web site has multiple articles on [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development|WBCSD]] contributions to sustainable development. Retrieved 7 April 2009.</ref> The most cost-effective [[climate change mitigation]] options include [[afforestation]], [[sustainable forest management]], and reducing [[deforestation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=AR5 Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change — IPCC|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/|access-date=2021-05-13}}</ref> At the local level there are various movements working towards [[sustainable food system]]s which may include less meat consumption, [[local food]] production, [[slow food]], [[sustainable gardening]], and [[organic gardening]].<ref>Holmgren, D. (March 2005). [http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html "Retrofitting the suburbs for sustainability."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415103213/http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html|date=15 April 2009}} CSIRO Sustainability Network. Retrieved 7 July 2009.</ref> The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMichael |first1=Anthony J |last2=Powles |first2=John W |last3=Butler |first3=Colin D |last4=Uauy |first4=Ricardo |title=Food, livestock production, energy, climate change, and health |journal=The Lancet |date=October 2007 |volume=370 |issue=9594 |pages=1253–1263 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61256-2 |pmid=17868818 |hdl=1885/38056 |s2cid=9316230 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baroni |first1=L |last2=Cenci |first2=L |last3=Tettamanti |first3=M |last4=Berati |first4=M |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |date=1 February 2007 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |s2cid=16387344 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==== Materials and waste ====
[[File:Highlight Findings of the WA S0E 2007 report.gif|upright=1.7|thumb|Ecological footprint for different nations compared to their [[Human Development Index]] (2007)]]
[[File:Air pollution by industrial chimneys.jpg|thumb|Before [[flue-gas desulfurization]] was installed, the [[air pollution|air-polluting]] emissions from this power plant in [[New Mexico]] contained excessive amounts of [[sulfur dioxide]].]]
{{Further|Cradle-to-cradle}}
As global population and affluence have increased, so has the use of various materials increased in volume, diversity, and distance transported. Included here are raw materials, minerals, synthetic chemicals (including [[hazardous substances]]), manufactured products, food, living organisms, and waste.<ref name="VITAL">Bournay, E. ''et al.''. (2006). [http://www.vitalgraphics.net/ ''Vital waste graphics 2''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912162250/http://vitalgraphics.net/ |date=12 September 2017 }}. The Basel Convention, UNEP, GRID-Arendal. {{ISBN|82-7701-042-7}}.</ref> By 2050, humanity could consume an estimated 140 billion tons of minerals, ores, fossil fuels and biomass per year (three times its current amount) unless the economic growth rate is decoupled from the rate of natural [[resource consumption]]. Developed countries' citizens consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita per year, ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries with resource consumption levels far beyond what is likely sustainable. By comparison, the average person in India today consumes four tons per year.<ref>UNEP (2011). [http://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/decoupling-natural-resource-use-and-environmental-impacts-economic-growth Decoupling Natural Resource Use and Environmental Impacts from Economic Growth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120134055/https://resourcepanel.org/reports/decoupling-natural-resource-use-and-environmental-impacts-economic-growth |date=20 January 2022 }}. {{ISBN|978-92-807-3167-5}}. Retrieved 30 November 2011.</ref>
Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of [[Dematerialization (economics)|dematerialization]], converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal in landfill) to a [[Material flow accounting|circular material flow]] that reuses materials as much as possible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Anderberg|first1=S|year=1998|title=Industrial metabolism and linkages between economics, ethics, and the environment|journal=Ecological Economics|volume=24|issue=2–3|pages=311–320|doi=10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00151-1}}</ref> Dematerialization is being encouraged through the ideas of [[industrial ecology]], [[Ecodesign|eco design]]<ref>Fuad-Luke, A. (2006). ''The Eco-design Handbook''. London: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|978-0-500-28521-3}}.</ref> and [[ecolabelling]].
This way of thinking is expressed in the concept of [[circular economy]], which employs [[reuse]], [[Sharing economy|sharing]], repair, refurbishment, [[remanufacturing]] and [[recycling]] to create a closed-loop system, minimizing the use of [[Resource depletion|resource inputs]] and the creation of [[Waste minimisation|waste]], pollution and carbon emissions.<ref name="Geissdoerfer 757–768">{{cite journal |last1=Geissdoerfer |first1=Martin |last2=Savaget |first2=Paulo |last3=Bocken |first3=Nancy M.P. |last4=Hultink |first4=Erik Jan |title=The Circular Economy – A new sustainability paradigm? |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=February 2017 |volume=143 |pages=757–768 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048 |s2cid=157449142 |url=https://dro.dur.ac.uk/29108/1/29108.pdf }}</ref> Building electric vehicles has been one of the most popular ways in the field of sustainable development, the potential of using reusable energy and reducing waste offered a perspective in sustainable development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shigeta |first1=Naoya |last2=Hosseini |first2=Seyed Ehsan |title=Sustainable Development of the Automobile Industry in the United States, Europe, and Japan with Special Focus on the Vehicles' Power Sources |journal=Energies |date=25 December 2020 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=78 |doi=10.3390/en14010078 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[European Commission]] has adopted an ambitious [[Circular Economy Action Plan]] in 2020, which aims at making sustainable products the norm in the EU.<ref>European Commission (2020). [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/circular-economy-action-plan_en Circular economy action plan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120070301/https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/circular-economy-action-plan_en |date=20 January 2022 }}. Retrieved 10 November 2021.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex - 52020DC0098 - EN - EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2020%3A98%3AFIN|access-date=2021-11-09|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>
==== Biodiversity and ecosystem services ====
There is a connection between ecosystems and biodiversity. Ecosystems are made up of various living things interacting with one another and their surroundings. Along with this, biodiversity lays the groundwork for ecosystems to function well by defining the kinds of species that can coexist in an environment, as well as their functions and interactions with other species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balvanera |first1=Patricia |last2=Pfisterer |first2=Andrea B. |last3=Buchmann |first3=Nina |last4=He |first4=Jing-Shen |last5=Nakashizuka |first5=Tohru |last6=Raffaelli |first6=David |last7=Schmid |first7=Bernhard |title=Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services: Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning/services |journal=Ecology Letters |date=October 2006 |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=1146–1156 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00963.x |pmid=16972878 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/2100/8/Balvanera_etal_EL_06V.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tilman |first1=David |last2=Knops |first2=Johannes |last3=Wedin |first3=David |last4=Reich |first4=Peter |last5=Ritchie |first5=Mark |last6=Siemann |first6=Evan |title=The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes |journal=Science |date=29 August 1997 |volume=277 |issue=5330 |pages=1300–1302 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5330.1300 }}</ref> In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the [[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services|largest, most comprehensive study to date]] of [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem service]]s was published by the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]. It recommended that human civilization will need a transformative change, including [[sustainable agriculture]], reductions in [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] and waste, fishing quotas and collaborative water management.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/spm_unedited_advance_for_posting_htn.pdf |title=Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |date=6 May 2019 |publisher=the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Deutsche Welle |first1=Deutsche |date=6 May 2019 |title=Why Biodiversity Loss Hurts Humans as Much as Climate Change Does |agency=Ecowatch |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/biodiversity-loss-human-health-2636410357.html |access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref> Biodiversity is not only crucial for the well-being of animals and wildlife but also plays a positive role in the lives of human beings in the way in which it aids development of human life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naeem |first1=Shahid |last2=Chazdon |first2=Robin |last3=Duffy |first3=J. Emmett |last4=Prager |first4=Case |last5=Worm |first5=Boris |title=Biodiversity and human well-being: an essential link for sustainable development |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=14 December 2016 |volume=283 |issue=1844 |pages=20162091 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.2091 |pmid=27928039 |pmc=5204155 }}</ref>
==== Management of human consumption and impacts ====
{{Further|Consumption (economics)|Overconsumption|Micro-sustainability}}
[[File:Waste_generation_per_day_per_capita,_September_2018.jpg|thumb|[[Waste]] generation, measured in kilograms per person per day]]
The [[Human impact on the environment|environmental impact]] of a community or humankind as a whole depends both on population and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used, whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Basiago |first=Andrew D. |date=1995 |title=Methods of defining 'sustainability' |journal=Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=109–119 |doi=10.1002/sd.3460030302 }}</ref> Careful resource management can be applied at many scales, from economic sectors like agriculture, manufacturing and industry, to work organizations, the consumption patterns of households and individuals, and the resource demands of individual goods and services.<ref>Clark, D. (2006). ''A Rough Guide to Ethical Living''. London: Penguin. {{ISBN|978-1-84353-792-2}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref><ref name="Brower">Brower, M. & Leon, W. (1999). ''The Consumer's Guide to Effective Environmental Choices: Practical Advice from the Union of Concerned Scientists''. New York: Three Rivers Press. {{ISBN|0-609-80281-X}}.{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref>
The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption.<ref name="www2.mst.dk">Michaelis, L. & Lorek, S. (2004). [http://www2.mst.dk/udgiv/publications/2004/87-7614-193-4/pdf/87-7614-194-2.pdf "Consumption and the Environment in Europe: Trends and Futures."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722062028/https://www2.mst.dk/udgiv/publications/2004/87-7614-193-4/pdf/87-7614-194-2.pdf |date=22 July 2019 }} Danish Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Project No. 904.</ref> This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but also making the full cycle of production, use, and disposal more sustainable. Consumption of goods and services can be analyzed and managed at all scales through the chain of consumption, starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns, through to the resource demands of specific goods and services, the impacts of economic sectors, through national economies to the global economy.<ref>Jackson, T. & Michaelis, L. (2003). [https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/2237/sdc-2003-consumption-policy.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y "Policies for Sustainable Consumption"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807222211/https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/2237/sdc-2003-consumption-policy.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |date=7 August 2020 }}. The UK [[Sustainable Development Commission]].</ref> Key resource categories relating to human needs are [[food]], [[energy]], raw materials and water.
===Improving on economic and social aspects===
{{Further|Corporate sustainability|Sustainable business}}
It has been suggested that because of [[rural poverty]] and [[overexploitation]], environmental resources should be treated as important economic assets, called [[natural capital]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbier |first=Edward B. |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/economics/economic-development-and-growth/natural-resources-and-economic-development?format=HB |title=Natural Resources and Economic Development |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780521706513 |location= |pages=44–45 |access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> Economic development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This model of unlimited personal and GDP growth may be over. Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a decrease in [[resource consumption]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Brown|first=L. R.|title=World on the Edge|publisher=Norton|year=2011|isbn=978-0-393-08029-2|series=Earth Policy Institute}}</ref> "Growth" generally ignores the direct effect that the environment may have on social welfare, whereas "development" takes it into account.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243768263 |title=Sustainable development concepts |last=Pezzey |first=John |publisher=The World Bank |date=November 1992 |website=Researchgate |access-date=16 October 2022}}</ref>
As early as the 1970s, the concept of sustainability was used to describe an economy "in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems".<ref>[[Robert L. Stivers|Stivers, R.]] 1976. The Sustainable Society: Ethics and Economic Growth. Philadelphia: [[Westminster John Knox Press|Westminster Press]].</ref> Scientists in many fields have highlighted ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'',<ref>Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W.W. Behrens III. 1972. The Limits to Growth. Universe Books, New York, NY. {{ISBN|0-87663-165-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Meadows|first1=D.H.|title=Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update|last2=Randers|first2=Jørgen|last3=Meadows|first3=D.L.|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-931498-58-6}}</ref> and economists have presented alternatives, for example a '[[steady-state economy]]', to address concerns over the impacts of expanding human development on the planet.<ref name="hd01" /> In 1987, the economist [[Edward Barbier]] published the study ''The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development'', where he recognized that goals of environmental conservation and economic development are not conflicting and can be reinforcing each other.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barbier|first=E.|year=1987|title=The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development|journal=Environmental Conservation|volume=14|issue=2|pages=101–110|doi=10.1017/S0376892900011449|bibcode=1987EnvCo..14..101B |s2cid=145595791 }}</ref>
A [[World Bank]] study from 1999 concluded that based on the theory of genuine savings (defined as "traditional net savings less the value of [[resource depletion]] and environmental degradation plus the value of investment in [[human capital]]"), policymakers have many possible interventions to increase sustainability, in [[macroeconomics]] or purely environmental.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hamilton|first1=K.|last2=Clemens|first2=M.|year=1999|title=Genuine savings rates in developing countries|journal=World Bank Economic Review|volume=13|issue=2|pages=333–356|citeseerx=10.1.1.452.7532|doi=10.1093/wber/13.2.333}}</ref> Several studies have noted that efficient policies for renewable energy and pollution are compatible with increasing human welfare, eventually reaching a golden-rule{{Clarify|date=September 2021}} steady state.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ayong Le Kama|first=A. D.|year=2001|title=Sustainable growth renewable resources, and pollution|journal=Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control|volume=25|issue=12|pages=1911–1918|doi=10.1016/S0165-1889(00)00007-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chichilnisky|first1=G.|last2=Heal|first2=G.|last3=Beltratti|first3=A.|year=1995|title=A Green Golden Rule|journal=Economics Letters|volume=49|issue=2|pages=175–179|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(95)00662-Y|s2cid=154964259|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Endress|first1=L.|last2=Roumasset|first2=J.|year=1994|title=Golden rules for sustainable resource management|url=http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/workingpapers/88-98/WP_93-19.pdf|journal=Economic Record|volume=70|issue=210|pages=266–277|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4932.1994.tb01847.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Endress|first1=L.|last2=Roumasset|first2=J.|last3=Zhou|first3=T.|year=2005|title=Sustainable Growth with Environmental Spillovers|journal=Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization|volume=58|issue=4|pages=527–547|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.5305|doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2004.09.003}}</ref>
A meta review in 2002 looked at environmental and economic valuations and found a "lack of concrete understanding of what "sustainability policies" might entail in practice".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Pezzey|first1=John C. V.|last2=Michael A.|first2=Toman|year=2002|title=The Economics of Sustainability: A Review of Journal Articles |website=Resources for the Future |url=http://www.rff.org/documents/rff-dp-02-03.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408214704/http://www.rff.org/documents/rff-dp-02-03.pdf|archive-date=8 April 2014|access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> A study concluded in 2007 that knowledge, manufactured and human capital (health and education) has not compensated for the degradation of natural capital in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dasgupta|first=P.|year=2007|title=The idea of sustainable development|journal=[[Sustainability Science]]|volume=2|issue=1|pages=5–11|doi=10.1007/s11625-007-0024-y|bibcode=2007SuSc....2....5D |s2cid=154597956}}</ref> It has been suggested that intergenerational equity can be incorporated into a sustainable development and decision making, as has become common in economic valuations of [[Economics of climate change|climate economics]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Heal|first=G.|year=2009|title=Climate Economics: A Meta-Review and Some Suggestions for Future Research|journal=Review of Environmental Economics and Policy|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4–21|doi=10.1093/reep/ren014|s2cid=154917782}}</ref>
The [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]] published a Vision 2050 document in 2021 to show "How business can lead the transformations the world needs". The vision states that "we envision a world in which 9+billion people can live well, within [[planetary boundaries]], by 2050."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vision 2050 - Time to transform |url=https://timetotransform.biz/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |publisher=WBCSD |language=en-US}}</ref> This report was highlighted by ''[[The Guardian]]'' as "the largest concerted corporate sustainability action plan to date – include reversing the damage done to ecosystems, addressing rising [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and ensuring societies move to sustainable agriculture."<ref name="Wills">{{cite news |last1=Wills |first1=Jackie |title=World Business Council for Sustainable Development: Vision 2050 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainability-case-studies-world-business-council |access-date=17 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=15 May 2014 |language=en}}</ref>
====Gender and leadership in sustainable development====
Gender and sustainable development have been examined, focusing on women's leadership potential and barriers to it. While leadership roles in sustainable development have become more androgynous over time, patriarchal structures and perceptions continue to constrain women from becoming leaders.<ref name="Shinbrot Wilkins Gretzel Bowser 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Shinbrot |first1=Xoco A. |last2=Wilkins |first2=Kate |last3=Gretzel |first3=Ulrike |last4=Bowser |first4=Gillian |title=Unlocking women's sustainability leadership potential: Perceptions of contributions and challenges for women in sustainable development |journal=World Development |date=July 2019 |volume=119 |pages=120–132 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.03.009 |s2cid=159285419 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some hidden issues are women's lack of self-confidence, impeding access to leadership roles, but men can potentially play a role as allies for women's leadership.<ref name="Shinbrot Wilkins Gretzel Bowser 2019"/>
== Barriers ==
There are barriers that small and medium enterprises face when implementing sustainable development such as lack of expertise, lack of resources, and high initial capital cost of implementing sustainability measures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sossa |first1=Jhon |date=May 2019 |title=Barriers to sustainability for small and medium enterprises in the framework of sustainable development—Literature review |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=512–524 |doi=10.1002/bse.2261 |s2cid=239523321}}</ref>
Globally, the scale of [[Collective action problem|collective action]] and lack of [[political will]] are barriers to achieving sustainable development.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Adetunji |first1=Israel O. |last2=Price |first2=Andrew |last3=Fleming |first3=Paul |last4=Kemp |first4=Pamela |title=The barriers and possible solution to achieve sustainable development | url=https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB10669.pdf| publisher=Proceedings of 2005 2nd Scottish conference for Postgraduate Researchers of the Built and Natural Environment| date=2005 |access-date=7 January 2024| hdl=2134/23679 }}</ref> To overcome these challenges, governments must jointly form an agreement of social and political strength. Efforts to enact reforms or design and implement programs to decrease the harmful effects of human behaviors allow for progress toward present and future environmental sustainability goals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ccsi.columbia.edu/news/political-will-what-it-why-it-matters-extractives-and-how-earth-do-you-find-it |title=Political Will: What It Is, Why It Matters for Extractives and How on Earth Do You Find It? |access-date=22 October 2022 |archive-date=22 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022070114/https://ccsi.columbia.edu/news/political-will-what-it-why-it-matters-extractives-and-how-earth-do-you-find-it |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Paris Agreement]] exemplifies efforts of [[political will]] on a global level, a multinational agreement between 193 parties <ref name="un.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/paris-agreement|title=The Paris Agreement|first=United|last=Nations|website=United Nations|access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref> intended to strengthen the global response to [[climate change]] by reducing [[Emission intensity|emissions]] and working together to adjust to the consequent effects of [[climate change]].<ref name="un.org"/> Experts continue to firmly suggest that governments should do more outside of [[Paris Agreement|The Paris Agreement]], there persist a greater need for [[political will]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/paris-global-climate-change-agreements|title=Global Climate Agreements: Successes and Failures|website=Council on Foreign Relations|access-date=18 December 2022}}</ref>
Another barrier towards sustainable development would be [[negative externalities]] that may potentially arise from implementing sustainable development technology. One example would be the development of [[lithium-ion batteries]], a key element towards environmental sustainability and the reduction in reliance towards [[fossil fuels]]. However, currently with the technology and methodology available, Lithium production poses a negative environmental impact during its extraction from the earth as it uses a method very similar to [[fracking]] as well as during its processing to be used as a battery which is a chemically intensive process.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/02646811.2020.1754596 | title=Potential environmental impacts of lithium mining | year=2020 | last1=Kaunda | first1=Rennie B. | journal=Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law | volume=38 | issue=3 | pages=237–244 | bibcode=2020JENRL..38..237K | s2cid=219452489 }}</ref> One suggested solution would be to weigh the possibility of recycling as this will cut down on the waste of old lithium as well as reducing the need for extracting new lithium from the ground, however, this sustainable development solution is barred from implementation by a high initial cost as studies have shown that recycling old technology for the purpose of extracting metals such as [[lithium]] and [[cobalt]] is typically more expensive than extracting them from the ground and processing them.{{fact|date=July 2023}}
The COVID-19 pandemic needs to be considered in the SDG process. Especially for developing countries exposed to social problems affected by COVID-19, the connection between post-epidemic recovery and SDG needs to be discussed and studied.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elavarasan |first1=Rajvikram Madurai |last2=Pugazhendhi |first2=Rishi |last3=Shafiullah |first3=G. M. |last4=Kumar |first4=Nallapaneni Manoj |last5=Arif |first5=Mohammad Taufiqul |last6=Jamal |first6=Taskin |last7=Chopra |first7=Shauhrat Singh |last8=Dyduch |first8=Joanna |title=Impacts of COVID-19 on Sustainable Development Goals and effective approaches to maneuver them in the post-pandemic environment |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=May 2022 |volume=29 |issue=23 |pages=33957–33987 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-17793-9 |pmc=8760582 |pmid=35032263 |bibcode=2022ESPR...2933957E }}</ref> The COVID-19 pandemic has provided substantial roadblocks towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While the long-term effects of COVID-19 on SDGs is limited, research has shown that SDG 1, SDG 4, and SDG 8 are the most likely to be adversely affected by the pandemic. One of the strategies proposed towards SDG in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic is green management, or the government strategy of utilizing resources such as water and energy with the intention to change resource consumption behavior. Other strategies include erecting sustainable food systems, labor market energization, inclusive education, and supporting research in the energy sector.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ameli |first1=Mariam |last2=Esfandabadi |first2=Zahara S. |last3=Sadeghi |first3=Somayeh |last4=Ranjbari |first4=Meisam |last5=Zanetti |first5=Maria C. |title=COVID-19 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Scenario analysis through fuzzy cognitive map modeling |journal=Gondwana Research |date=29 January 2022 |volume=114, 2023 |pages=138–155 |doi=10.1016/j.gr.2021.12.014 |pmid=35132304 |pmc=8811702 }}</ref>
== Society and culture ==
=== Sustainable development goals ===
[[File:Sustainable Development Goals.png|thumb|right|The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals]]
{{excerpt|Sustainable Development Goals|paragraphs=1-3|file=no}}
=== Education for sustainable development ===
Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a term officially used by the [[United Nations]] and is defined as education practices that encourage changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for humanity. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their needs using a balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.<ref name="UNESCO">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261445|title=Issues and trends in education for sustainable development|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|isbn=978-92-3-100244-1|location=Paris|pages=7}}{{CC-notice|cc=by4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kolvoord |first1=Robert A |title=Fostering spatial thinking skills for future citizens to support sustainable development |journal=Cultures of Science |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=17–24 |doi=10.1177/20966083211024714 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[Agenda 21]] was the first international document that identified education as an essential tool for achieving sustainable development and highlighted areas of action for education.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leicht |first=Alexander |date=2018 |title=From Agenda 21 to Target 4.7: the development of education for sustainable development |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261801 |access-date=2020-05-24 |website=[[UNESCO]], UNESDOC Digital Library}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bernad-Cavero|first1=Olga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwiQDwAAQBAJ&q=Agenda+21+was+the+first+international+document+that+identified+education+as+an+essential+tool+for+achieving+sustainable+development+and+highlighted+areas+of+action+for+education.&pg=PA27|title=New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century: Contributions of Research in Education|last2=Llevot-Calvet|first2=Núria|date=2018-07-04|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand|isbn=978-1-78923-380-3|language=en}}</ref> ESD is a component of measurement in an indicator for [[Sustainable Development Goal 12]] (SDG) for "responsible consumption and production". SDG 12 has 11 targets and target 12.8 is "By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature."<ref>United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121826/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |date=23 October 2020 }})</ref> 20 years after the Agenda 21 document was declared, the 'Future we want' document was declared in the Rio+20 UN Conference on Sustainable Development, stating that "We resolve to promote education for sustainable development and to integrate sustainable development more actively into education beyond the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shulla |first1=K. |last2=Filho |first2=W. Leal |last3=Lardjane |first3=S. |last4=Sommer |first4=J. H. |last5=Borgemeister |first5=C. |title=Sustainable development education in the context of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology |date=3 July 2020 |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=458–468 |doi=10.1080/13504509.2020.1721378 |bibcode=2020IJSDW..27..458S |s2cid=214390476 |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/625146/1/Deposit.Sustainable%20development%20education%20in%20the%20context%20of%20the%202030%20Agenda%20for%20sustainable%20development.pdf }}</ref>
One version of education for Sustainable Development recognizes modern-day environmental challenges and seeks to define new ways to adjust to a changing biosphere, as well as engage individuals to address societal issues that come with them <ref>{{Cite book |title=Schooling for sustainable development in Europe: concepts, policies and educational experiences at the end of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development |editor=Jucker, Rolf |editor2=Mathar, Reiner |date=27 October 2014|isbn=978-3-319-09549-3|location=Cham, Switzerland |oclc=894509040}}</ref> In the International Encyclopedia of Education, this approach to education is seen as an attempt to "shift consciousness toward an ethics of life-giving relationships that respects the interconnectedness of man to his natural world" in order to equip future members of society with environmental awareness and a sense of responsibility to sustainability.<ref>{{Citation |entry= |title=International encyclopedia of education|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier |editor=Peterson, Penelope L. |editor2=Baker, Eva L. |editor3=McGaw, Barry |isbn=978-0-08-044894-7 |edition=3rd|location=Oxford|oclc=645208716}}</ref>
For [[UNESCO]], education for sustainable development involves:
{{blockquote|integrating key sustainable development issues into teaching and learning. This may include, for example, instruction about [[climate change]], [[disaster risk reduction]], [[biodiversity]], and [[poverty reduction]] and [[sustainable consumption]]. It also requires participatory teaching and learning methods that motivate and empower learners to change their behaviours and take action for sustainable development. ESD consequently promotes competencies like critical thinking, imagining future scenarios and making decisions in a collaborative way.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development|title=Education for Sustainable Development|website=UNESCO|date=10 May 2013|access-date=17 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002330/233030e.pdf|title=Unleashing the Potential: Transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training|last1=Marope|first1=P.T.M|last2=Chakroun|first2=B.|last3=Holmes|first3=K.P.|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100091-1|pages=9, 23, 25–26}}</ref>}}
The Thessaloniki Declaration, presented at the "International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability" by [[UNESCO]] and the Government of Greece (December 1997), highlights the importance of sustainability not only with regards to the natural environment, but also with "poverty, health, food security, democracy, human rights, and peace".<ref>{{Cite book|date=2010|title=Education for Sustainable Development: Challenges, Strategies, and Practices in a Globalizing World Education for sustainable development: Challenges, strategies, and practices in a globalizing world|doi=10.4135/9788132108023|isbn=9788132102939|last1=Nikolopoulou |first1=Anastasia |last2=Abraham |first2=Taisha |last3=Mirbagheri |first3=Farid }}{{pn|date=July 2023}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment}}
*{{annotated link|Climate change education (CCE)}}
*{{annotated link|Environmental education}}
*{{annotated link|Global citizenship education}}
*{{annotated link|Human population planning}}
*{{annotated link|List of sustainability topics}}
*{{annotated link|Outline of sustainability}}
*{{annotated link|United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development}}
*{{annotated link|Informal waste collection}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Sustainability}}
* [http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform of the UN]
* [http://unsdsn.org/ Sustainable Development Solutions Network]
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Bioeconomy | {{Short description|Economic activity focused on biotechnology}}
'''Biobased economy''', '''bioeconomy''' or '''biotechonomy''' is economic activity involving the use of [[biotechnology]] and [[biomass]] in the production of goods, services, or energy. The terms are widely used by regional development agencies, national and international organizations, and biotechnology companies. They are closely linked to the evolution of the biotechnology industry and the capacity to study, understand, and manipulate genetic material that has been possible due to scientific research and technological development. This includes the application of scientific and technological developments to agriculture, health, chemical, and energy industries.<ref name="Smyth-2011">{{cite journal|last1=Smyth|first1=S. J.|last2=Aerni|first2=P.|last3=Castle|first3=D.|last4=Demont|first4=M.|last5=Falck-Zepeda|first5=J. B.|last6=Paarlberg|first6=R.|last7=Phillips|first7=P. W. B.|last8=Pray|first8=C. E.|last9=Savastano|first9=S.|last10=Wesseler|last11=Zilberman|first11=D.|year=2011|title=Sustainability and the bioeconomy: Policy recommendations from the 15th ICABR conference|journal=AgBioForum|volume=14|issue=3|pages=180–186}}</ref><ref name="Wesseler-2011">{{cite journal|last1=Wesseler|last2=Spielman|first2=D. S.|last3=Demont|first3=M.|year=2011|title=The Future of Governance in the Global Bioeconomy: Policy, Regulation, and Investment Challenges for the Biotechnology and Bioenergy Sectors|journal=AgBioForum|volume=13|issue=4|pages=288–290}}</ref>[[File:Lab Grown Meat explained by New Harvest.webm|thumb|thumbtime=0:39|350px|A video by [[New Harvest]] and [[Xprize]] explaining the development of cultured meat and a "post-animal bio-economy" driven by lab-grown protein (meat, eggs, milk)]] The terms bioeconomy (BE) and bio-based economy (BBE) are sometimes used interchangeably. However, it is worth to distinguish them: the biobased economy takes into consideration the production of non-food goods, whilst bioeconomy covers both bio-based economy and the production and use of food and feed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Staffas|first1=Louise|last2=Gustavsson|first2=Mathias|last3=McCormick|first3=Kes|date=2013-06-20|title=Strategies and Policies for the Bioeconomy and Bio-Based Economy: An Analysis of Official National Approaches|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=5|issue=6|pages=2751–2769|doi=10.3390/su5062751|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref> More than 60 countries and regions have bioeconomy or bioscience-related strategies, of which 20 have published dedicated bioeconomy strategies in Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Document card {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb6564en |access-date=2022-09-16 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>
==Definitions==
Bioeconomy has large variety of definitions. The bioeconomy comprises those parts of the economy that use renewable biological resources from land and sea – such as crops, forests, fish, animals and micro-organisms – to produce food, health, materials, products, textiles and energy.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/839878465|title=Innovating for sustainable growth: a bioeconomy for Europe|date= 2012|publisher=European Union. European Commission. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation.|isbn=978-92-79-25376-8|location=Luxembourg|oclc=839878465}}</ref> The definitions and usage does however vary between different areas of the world. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roos |first1=Annie |last2=Blomquist |first2=Mimmi |last3=Bhatia |first3=Riina |last4=Ekegren |first4=Katarina |last5=Rönnberg |first5=Jonas |last6=Torfgård |first6=Lovisa |last7=Tunberg |first7=Maria |date=2021-11-17 |title=The digitalisation of the Nordic bioeconomy and its effect on gender equality |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research |volume=36 |issue=7–8 |pages=639–654 |doi=10.1080/02827581.2021.1996629 |s2cid=240328487 |issn=0282-7581|doi-access=free }}</ref>
An important aspect of the bioeconomy is understanding mechanisms and processes at the genetic, molecular, and [[Genomics|genomic]] levels, and applying this understanding to creating or improving industrial processes, developing new products and services, and producing new energy. Bioeconomy aims to reduce our dependence on fossil natural resources, to prevent [[biodiversity loss]] and to create new economic growth and jobs that are in line with the principles of [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1035157127|title=Growth by integrating bioeconomy and low-carbon economy : scenarios for Finland until 2050|others=Arasto, Antti, Koljonen, Tiina, Similä, Lassi|year=2018|isbn=978-951-38-8699-8|location=[Espoo]|oclc=1035157127}}</ref>
===Earlier definitions===
The term 'biotechonomy' was used by [[Juan Enríquez]] and Rodrigo Martinez at the [[Genomics Seminar]] in the 1997 [[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]] meeting. An excerpt of this paper was published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''."<ref>Enríquez-Cabot, Juan. "Genomics and the World's Economy." ''Science'' 281 (14 August 1998): 925-926.</ref>
In 2010 it was defined in the report "The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) in Europe: Achievements and Challenges" by Albrecht & al. as follows: ''The bio-economy is the sustainable production and conversion of biomass, for a range of food, health, fibre and industrial products and energy, where renewable biomass encompasses any biological material to be used as raw material''.”<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=J. Albrecht|last2=D. Carrez|last3=P. Cunningham|last4=L.Daroda|last5=R. Mancia|last6=L. Máthé|last7=A. Raschka|last8=M. Carus|last9=S.Piotrowski|date=2010|title=The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) in Europe: Achievements and Challenges.|url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.36049.94560|doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.36049.94560}}</ref>
According to a 2013 study, "the bioeconomy can be defined as an economy where the basic building blocks for materials, chemicals and energy are derived from renewable biological resources".<ref name="10.3390/su5062589"/>
The [https://gbs2015.com/ First Global Bioeconomy Summit] in Berlin in November 2015 defines bioeconomy as "knowledge-based production and utilization of biological resources, biological processes and principles to sustainably provide goods and services across all economic sectors". According to the summit, bioeconomy involves three elements: renewable biomass, enabling and converging technologies, and integration across applications concerning primary production (i.e. all living natural resources), health (i.e. pharmaceuticals and medical devices), and industry (i.e. chemicals, plastics, enzymes, pulp and paper, bioenergy).<ref>{{Cite web|title=An Overview on How Sustainability is Addressed in Official Bioeconomy Strategies at International, National and Regional Levels|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5998e.pdf|website=fao.org}}</ref>
==History==
Enríquez and Martinez' 2002 Harvard Business School working paper, "Biotechonomy 1.0: A Rough Map of Biodata Flow", showed the global flow of genetic material into and out of the three largest public genetic databases: [[GenBank]], [[EMBL]] and [[DDBJ]]. The authors then hypothesized about the economic impact that such data flows might have on patent creation, evolution of biotech startups and licensing fees.<ref>Juan Enríquez, Rodrigo Martinez. "Biotechonomy 1.0: A Rough Map of Biodata Flow", Harvard Business School working paper # 03-028, August 2002.</ref> An adaptation of this paper was published in ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'' magazine in 2003.<ref>Rodrigo Martinez, Juan Enríquez, Jonathan West. "DNA Space. The Geography of the Genome", ''Wired'', June 2003. p. 160.</ref>
The term 'bioeconomy' became popular from the mid-2000s with its adoption by the [[European Union]] and [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] as a policy agenda and framework to promote the use of biotechnology to develop new products, markets, and uses of biomass.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Neoliberal Bio-economies? The Co-construction of Markets and Natures|last=Birch|first=Kean|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2019|isbn=978-3-319-91424-4|location=London|pages=64–67}}</ref> Since then, both the EU (2012) and OECD (2006) have created dedicated bioeconomy strategies, as have an increasing number of countries around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Schematic showing the biomass and processes used in Zeafuels|url=https://biooekonomierat.de/en/international/|access-date=Jan 6, 2021|website=biooekonomierat.de}}</ref> Often these strategies conflate the bioeconomy with the term 'bio-based economy'. For example, since 2005 the Netherlands has sought to promote the creation of a biobased economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/|title=BioBased Economy – De Nederlandse BioBased Economy community|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref> Pilot plants have been started i.e. in Lelystad (Zeafuels), and a centralised organisation exists (Interdepartementaal programma biobased economy), with supporting research (Food & Biobased Research) being conducted.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TransIP - Reserved domain|url=http://www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/acrres_afbeelding.jpg|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426050549/http://www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/acrres_afbeelding.jpg|archive-date=Apr 26, 2012|access-date=Jan 6, 2021|website=www.duurzameenergiethuis.nl}}</ref> Other [[Europe]]an countries have also developed and implemented bioeconomy or bio-based economy policy strategies and frameworks.<ref name="10.3390/su5062589"/>
In 2012 [[Presidency of Barack Obama|president Barack Obama]] of the [[United States|USA]] announced intentions to encourage biological manufacturing methods, with a National Bioeconomy Blueprint.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/26/business/energy-environment/white-house-promotes-a-bioeconomy.html White House Promotes a Bioeconomy] April 26, 2012</ref>
==Aims==
Global population growth and over consumption of many resources are causing increasing environmental pressure and climate change. Bioeconomy tackles with these challenges. It aims to ensure food security and to promote more sustainable natural resource use as well as to reduce the dependence on non-renewable resources, e.g. fossil natural resources and minerals. In some extent bioeconomy also helps economy to reduces greenhouse gas emissions and assists in mitigating and adapting to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1060956843|title=Review of the 2012 European Bioeconomy Strategy|others=European Commission. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation.|year=2017|isbn=978-92-79-74382-5|location=Luxembourg|oclc=1060956843}}</ref>
==Genetic modification ==
{{See also|Genetically modified crops#By-products|Genetically modified organism|Algae fuel|Cellulosic ethanol|#Agriculture|#Medicine, nutritional science and the health economy}}
Organisms, ranging from bacteria over yeasts up to plants are used for production of enzymatic catalysis. Genetically modified [[bacteria]] have been used to produce insulin, artemisinic acid was made in engineered [[yeast]]. Some [[bioplastic]]s (based on polyhydroxylbutyrate or polyhydroxylalkanoates) are produced from [[sugar]] using genetically modified microbes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-05-circular-bioeconomy-synthetic-biology.html|title=Building a circular bioeconomy with synthetic biology|website=phys.org|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref>
Genetically modified organisms are also used for the production of [[biofuel]]s. Biofuels are a type of [[carbon-neutral fuel]].
Research is also being done towards CO<sub>2</sub> fixation using a synthetic metabolic pathway. By genetically modifying ''E. coli'' bacteria so as to allow them to consume CO<sub>2</sub>, the bacterium may provide the infrastructure for the future renewable production of food and green fuels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/life-sciences/greenest-diet-bacteria-switch-eating-carbon-dioxide|title=The Greenest Diet: Bacteria Switch to Eating Carbon Dioxide|date=27 November 2019 |access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>[http://www.weizmann.ac.il/WeizmannCompass/sections/briefs/diet-for-the-planet Diet for the planet]</ref>
One of the organisms (''Ideonella sakaiensis'') that is able to break down PET (a plastic) into other substances [[Ideonella sakaiensis#Genetic engineering|has been genetically modified]] to break down PET even faster and also break down PEF. Once plastics (which are normally non-biodegradable) are broken down and recycled into other substances (i.e. biomatter in the case of [[Mealworm|''Tenebrio molitor'' larvae]]) it can be used as an input for other animals.
Genetically modified crops are also used. Genetically modified [[energy crops]] for instance may provide some additional advantages such as reduced associated costs (i.e. costs during the manufacturing process<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Rebecca A. |last2=Cass |first2=Cynthia L. |last3=Mazaheri |first3=Mona |last4=Sekhon |first4=Rajandeep S. |last5=Heckwolf |first5=Marlies |last6=Kaeppler |first6=Heidi |last7=de Leon |first7=Natalia |last8=Mansfield |first8=Shawn D. |last9=Kaeppler |first9=Shawn M. |last10=Sedbrook |first10=John C. |last11=Karlen |first11=Steven D. |last12=Ralph |first12=John |title=Suppression of CINNAMOYL-CoA REDUCTASE increases the level of monolignol ferulates incorporated into maize lignins |journal=Biotechnology for Biofuels |date=2 May 2017 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=109 |doi=10.1186/s13068-017-0793-1 |pmid=28469705 |pmc=5414125 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ) and less water use. One example are trees have been genetically modified to either have less lignin, or to express lignin with chemically labile bonds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25354-redesigned-crops-could-produce-far-more-fuel/|title=Redesigned crops could produce far more fuel|first=Hal|last=Hodson|website=New Scientist|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/content/Plant-genetic-engineering-for-biofuel-production-towards-45102|title=Plant genetic engineering for biofuel production: towards affordable cellulosic ethanol. | Learn Science at Scitable|website=www.nature.com|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref>
With genetically modified crops however, there are still some [[Genetically modified organism#Regulation|challenges involved]] (hurdles to regulatory approvals, market adoption and public acceptance).<ref>{{cite journal| pmid=17701080 | doi=10.1007/s11248-007-9122-y | volume=16 | issue=6 | title=Genetically modified crops for the bioeconomy: meeting public and regulatory expectations | year=2007 | journal=Transgenic Res | pages=675–88 | last1 = Chapotin | first1 = SM | last2 = Wolt | first2 = JD| s2cid=37104746 }}</ref>
== Fields ==
According to European Union Bioeconomy Strategy updated in 2018 the bioeconomy covers all sectors and systems that rely on biological resources (animals, plants, micro-organisms and derived biomass, including organic waste), their functions and principles. It covers all primary production and economic and industrial sectors that base on use, production or processing biological resources from [[agriculture]], [[forestry]], [[Fishery|fisheries]] and [[aquaculture]]. The product of bioeconomy are typically food, feed and other biobased products, bioenergy and services based on biological resources. The bioeconomy aims to drive towards [[sustainability]], circularity as well as the protection of the environment and will enhance [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1099358181|title=A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe strengthening the connection between economy, society and the environment : updated bioeconomy strategy|others=Europäische Kommission Generaldirektion Forschung und Innovation|year=2018|isbn=978-92-79-94144-3|location=Luxembourg|oclc=1099358181}}</ref>
In some definitions, bioeconomy comprises also ecosystem services that are services offered by the environment, including binding carbon dioxide and opportunities for recreation. Another key aspect of the bioeconomy is not wasting natural resources but using and recycling them efficiently.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=The Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy|title=Sustainable growth from bioeconomy – The Finnish Bioeconomy Strategy|url=https://biotalous.fi/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Finnish_Bioeconomy_Strategy_110620141.pdf|url-status=live|website=Bioeconomy.fi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505173432/http://biotalous.fi:80/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The_Finnish_Bioeconomy_Strategy_110620141.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-05 }}</ref>
According to EU [https://op.europa.eu/s/ozfP Bioeconomy Report 2016], the bioeconomy brings together various sectors of the economy that produce, process and reuse renewable biological resources (agriculture, forestry, fisheries, food, bio-based chemicals and materials and bioenergy).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Union|first=Publications Office of the European|date=2017-06-09|title=Bioeconomy report 2016.|url=http://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/b3a3b800-4f18-11e7-a5ca-01aa75ed71a1|access-date=2020-12-17|website=op.europa.eu|isbn=9789279657115|language=en}}</ref>
===Agriculture===
{{See also|Food microbiology|Biochar|Pesticide#Alternatives|Agricultural technology|Regenerative agriculture}}
[[File:First cultured hamburger fried.png|thumb|Presentation of the world's first [[cultured meat]] hamburger]]
{{Further|Cellular agriculture#Applications|Sustainable food system}}
{{Transclude lead excerpt | 1=Cellular agriculture | paragraphs= | files= | fileargs= | errors= }}
However, not all synthetic nutrition products are animal food products such as meat and dairy – for instance, as of 2021 there are also <!--two-->products of [[Coffee substitute#Synthetic coffee|synthetic coffee]] that are reported to be close to commercialization.<ref name="synthcoffee">{{cite news |last1=Lavars |first1=Nick |title=Lab-grown coffee cuts out the beans and deforestation |url=https://newatlas.com/science/lab-grown-coffee-beans-deforestation/ |access-date=18 October 2021 |work=New Atlas |date=20 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="labgrown">{{cite news |title=Eco-friendly, lab-grown coffee is on the way, but it comes with a catch |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/16/lab-grown-coffee-eco-friendly |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=16 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="vttresearch">{{cite web |title=Sustainable coffee grown in Finland – {{!}} VTT News |url=https://www.vttresearch.com/en/news-and-ideas/sustainable-coffee-grown-finland-land-drinks-most-coffee-capita-produces-its-first |website=www.vttresearch.com |date=15 September 2021 |access-date=18 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Similar fields of research and production based on bioeconomy agriculture are:
* [[Microbial food cultures]] and genetically engineered microbial production (e.g. of spider silk<ref name="spider-silk">{{cite news |title=Spider silk made by photosynthetic bacteria |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-spider-silk-photosynthetic-bacteria.html |access-date=16 August 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807092649/https://phys.org/news/2020-07-spider-silk-photosynthetic-bacteria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Foong Higuchi-Takeuchi Malay Oktaviani p. 357">{{cite journal |last1=Foong |first1=Choon Pin |last2=Higuchi-Takeuchi |first2=Mieko |last3=Malay |first3=Ali D. |last4=Oktaviani |first4=Nur Alia |last5=Thagun |first5=Chonprakun |last6=Numata |first6=Keiji |title=A marine photosynthetic microbial cell factory as a platform for spider silk production |journal=Communications Biology |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=2020-07-08 |issn=2399-3642 |doi=10.1038/s42003-020-1099-6 |page=357 |pmid=32641733 |pmc=7343832 }}</ref> or solar-energy-based protein powder)<ref>{{cite news |title=Growing food with air and solar power: More efficient than planting crops |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-food-air-solar-power-efficient.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leger |first1=Dorian |last2=Matassa |first2=Silvio |last3=Noor |first3=Elad |last4=Shepon |first4=Alon |last5=Milo |first5=Ron |last6=Bar-Even |first6=Arren |title=Photovoltaic-driven microbial protein production can use land and sunlight more efficiently than conventional crops |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=29 June 2021 |volume=118 |issue=26 |pages=e2015025118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2015025118 |pmid=34155098 |s2cid=235595143 |language=en |issn=0027-8424|pmc=8255800 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11815025L |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Controlled self-assembly of plant proteins (e.g. of spider silk similar plant-proteins-based [[Sustainable packaging#Alternatives to plastics|plastics alternative]]s)<ref>{{cite news |title='Vegan spider silk' provides sustainable alternative to single-use plastics |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-vegan-spider-silk-sustainable-alternative.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="controlled assembly">{{cite journal |last1=Kamada |first1=Ayaka |last2=Rodriguez-Garcia |first2=Marc |last3=Ruggeri |first3=Francesco Simone |last4=Shen |first4=Yi |last5=Levin |first5=Aviad |last6=Knowles |first6=Tuomas P. J. |title=Controlled self-assembly of plant proteins into high-performance multifunctional nanostructured films |journal=Nature Communications |date=10 June 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=3529 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-23813-6 |pmid=34112802 |pmc=8192951 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.3529K |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>
* Cell-free artificial synthesis (e.g. of [[starch]]<ref>{{cite news |title=World-first artificial synthesis of starch from CO2 outperforms nature |url=https://newatlas.com/science/artificial-synthesis-starch-from-co2/ |access-date=18 October 2021 |work=New Atlas |date=28 September 2021}}</ref><!--https://phys.org/news/2021-09-chinese-scientists-starch-synthesis-carbon.html--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Tao |last2=Sun |first2=Hongbing |last3=Qiao |first3=Jing |last4=Zhu |first4=Leilei |last5=Zhang |first5=Fan |last6=Zhang |first6=Jie |last7=Tang |first7=Zijing |last8=Wei |first8=Xinlei |last9=Yang |first9=Jiangang |last10=Yuan |first10=Qianqian |last11=Wang |first11=Wangyin |last12=Yang |first12=Xue |last13=Chu |first13=Huanyu |last14=Wang |first14=Qian |last15=You |first15=Chun |last16=Ma |first16=Hongwu |last17=Sun |first17=Yuanxia |last18=Li |first18=Yin |last19=Li |first19=Can |last20=Jiang |first20=Huifeng |last21=Wang |first21=Qinhong |last22=Ma |first22=Yanhe |title=Cell-free chemoenzymatic starch synthesis from carbon dioxide |journal=Science |date=24 September 2021 |volume=373 |issue=6562 |pages=1523–1527 |doi=10.1126/science.abh4049 |pmid=34554807 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1523C |s2cid=237615280 |language=EN|doi-access=free }}</ref>)
* Bioproduced [[:Category:Imitation foods|imitation foods]] (e.g. [[meat analogue]]s and [[milk substitute]]s)
Many of the foods produced with tools and methods of the bioeconomy may not be intended for human consumption but for non-human animals such as for [[Animal feed|livestock feed]], [[insect-based pet food]] or [[Commercial fish feed#Sustainability|sustainable aquacultural feed]]. There are various startups and research teams around the world who use synthetic biology to create animal feed.<ref>{{cite news |title=China to make protein for livestock from carbon monoxide |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-make-protein-livestock-carbon-monoxide-2021-11-01/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=Reuters |date=1 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
Moreover, [[genetically modified crop|crops could be genetically engineered]] in ways that e.g. safely increase yields, reduce the need for pesticides or ease indoor production.
One example of a product highly specific to the bioeconomy that is widely available is [[Algae fuel#Food supplementation|algae oil]] which is a dietary supplement that could substitute possibly less sustainable, larger-market-share [[fish oil]] supplements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arterburn |first1=Linda M. |last2=Oken |first2=Harry A. |last3=Bailey Hall |first3=Eileen |last4=Hamersley |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Kuratko |first5=Connye N. |last6=Hoffman |first6=James P. |title=Algal-Oil Capsules and Cooked Salmon: Nutritionally Equivalent Sources of Docosahexaenoic Acid |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |date=1 July 2008 |volume=108 |issue=7 |pages=1204–1209 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2008.04.020 |pmid=18589030 |language=en |issn=0002-8223}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Lisa |last2=Symington |first2=Amy M. |title=Algal-oil supplements are a viable alternative to fish-oil supplements in terms of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3; DHA) |journal=Journal of Functional Foods |date=1 December 2015 |volume=19 |pages=852–858 |doi=10.1016/j.jff.2014.06.023 |language=en |issn=1756-4646}}</ref>
====Vertical farming====
{{Excerpt|Vertical farming}}
====Fungiculture====
{{See also|Fungiculture}}
{{Excerpt|Fungus|Human use}}
For example, there is ongoing research and development for indoor high-yield mechanisms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Katsnelson |first1=Alla |title=Cultivating Coveted Morels Year-Round and Indoors |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/26/science/morel-mushrooms-growing.html |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=26 April 2022}}</ref>
{{Excerpt|Fungus|Cultured foods}}
=====Mycoprotein=====
{{Excerpt|Mycoprotein|paragraphs=1}}
=== Algaculture ===
[[File:Microalgae cultivation facility along the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawai’i.jpg|thumb|A microalgae cultivation facility<ref name="10.5670/oceanog.2022.213"/>]]
{{Excerpt|Algaculture}}
=== Waste management, recycling and biomining ===
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}
{{See also|Polymer degradation#Biological degradation|Plastisphere#Degradation by microorganisms}}
Biobased applications, research and development of [[waste management]] may form a part of the bioeconomy. Bio-based [[recycling]] ([[e-waste]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ilyas |first1=Sadia |last2=Srivastava |first2=Rajiv R. |last3=Kim |first3=Hyunjung |last4=Das |first4=Subhankar |last5=Singh |first5=Vinay K. |title=Circular bioeconomy and environmental benignness through microbial recycling of e-waste: A case study on copper and gold restoration |journal=Waste Management |date=15 February 2021 |volume=121 |pages=175–185 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2020.12.013 |pmid=33360816 |bibcode=2021WaMan.121..175I |s2cid=229693482 |language=en |issn=0956-053X}}</ref> [[plastics recycling]], etc.) is linked to waste management and relevant standards and requirements of production and products. Some of the recycling of waste may be biomining and some biomining could be applied beyond recycling.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mitha |first1=Farhan |title=Biomining: Turning Waste into Gold Sustainably with Microbes |url=https://www.labiotech.eu/in-depth/biomining-sustainable-microbes/ |website=Labiotech.eu |access-date=26 October 2021 |date=18 November 2020}}</ref>
For example, in 2020, biotechnologists reported the [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] refinement and mechanical description of synergistic enzymes – [[PETase]], first discovered in 2016, and [[MHETase]] of ''[[Ideonella sakaiensis]]'' – for faster [[depolymerization]] of [[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]] and also of PEF, which may be useful for [[Plastics pollution|depollution]], [[plastics recycling|recycling]] and [[upcycling]] of mixed plastics along with other approaches.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=New super-enzyme eats plastic bottles six times faster |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/28/new-super-enzyme-eats-plastic-bottles-six-times-faster |access-date=12 October 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012004245/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/28/new-super-enzyme-eats-plastic-bottles-six-times-faster |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Plastic-eating enzyme 'cocktail' heralds new hope for plastic waste |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-plastic-eating-enzyme-cocktail-heralds-plastic.html |access-date=12 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011210353/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-plastic-eating-enzyme-cocktail-heralds-plastic.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knott |first1=Brandon C. |last2=Erickson |first2=Erika |last3=Allen |first3=Mark D. |last4=Gado |first4=Japheth E. |last5=Graham |first5=Rosie |last6=Kearns |first6=Fiona L. |last7=Pardo |first7=Isabel |last8=Topuzlu |first8=Ece |last9=Anderson |first9=Jared J. |last10=Austin |first10=Harry P. |last11=Dominick |first11=Graham |last12=Johnson |first12=Christopher W. |last13=Rorrer |first13=Nicholas A. |last14=Szostkiewicz |first14=Caralyn J. |last15=Copié |first15=Valérie |last16=Payne |first16=Christina M. |last17=Woodcock |first17=H. Lee |last18=Donohoe |first18=Bryon S. |last19=Beckham |first19=Gregg T. |last20=McGeehan |first20=John E. |title=Characterization and engineering of a two-enzyme system for plastics depolymerization |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=24 September 2020 |volume=117 |issue=41 |pages=25476–25485 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2006753117 |pmid=32989159 |pmc=7568301 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11725476K |language=en |issn=0027-8424 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Such approaches may be more environmentally-friendly as well as cost-effective than mechanical and chemical PET-recycling, enabling circular plastic bio-economy solutions via systems based on engineered strains.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gautom |first1=Trishnamoni |last2=Dheeman |first2=Dharmendra |last3=Levy |first3=Colin |last4=Butterfield |first4=Thomas |last5=Alvarez Gonzalez |first5=Guadalupe |last6=Le Roy |first6=Philip |last7=Caiger |first7=Lewis |last8=Fisher |first8=Karl |last9=Johannissen |first9=Linus |last10=Dixon |first10=Neil |title=Structural basis of terephthalate recognition by solute binding protein TphC |journal=Nature Communications |date=29 October 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=6244 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26508-0 |pmid=34716322 |pmc=8556258 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.6244G |s2cid=240229196 |language=en |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Moreover, [[biomining|microorganisms could be employed to mine]] useful elements from basalt rocks via [[bioleaching]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Crane |first1=Leah |title=Asteroid-munching microbes could mine materials from space rocks |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2259373-asteroid-munching-microbes-could-mine-materials-from-space-rocks/ |access-date=9 December 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=7 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207190406/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2259373-asteroid-munching-microbes-could-mine-materials-from-space-rocks/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="iss-biomining">{{cite journal |last1=Cockell |first1=Charles S. |last2=Santomartino |first2=Rosa |last3=Finster |first3=Kai |last4=Waajen |first4=Annemiek C. |last5=Eades |first5=Lorna J. |last6=Moeller |first6=Ralf |last7=Rettberg |first7=Petra |last8=Fuchs |first8=Felix M. |last9=Van Houdt |first9=Rob |last10=Leys |first10=Natalie |last11=Coninx |first11=Ilse |last12=Hatton |first12=Jason |last13=Parmitano |first13=Luca |last14=Krause |first14=Jutta |last15=Koehler |first15=Andrea |last16=Caplin |first16=Nicol |last17=Zuijderduijn |first17=Lobke |last18=Mariani |first18=Alessandro |last19=Pellari |first19=Stefano S. |last20=Carubia |first20=Fabrizio |last21=Luciani |first21=Giacomo |last22=Balsamo |first22=Michele |last23=Zolesi |first23=Valfredo |last24=Nicholson |first24=Natasha |last25=Loudon |first25=Claire-Marie |last26=Doswald-Winkler |first26=Jeannine |last27=Herová |first27=Magdalena |last28=Rattenbacher |first28=Bernd |last29=Wadsworth |first29=Jennifer |last30=Craig Everroad |first30=R. |last31=Demets |first31=René |title=Space station biomining experiment demonstrates rare earth element extraction in microgravity and Mars gravity |journal=Nature Communications |date=10 November 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5523 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19276-w |pmid=33173035 |pmc=7656455 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5523C |language=en |issn=2041-1723 }}.</ref>
=== Medicine, nutritional science and the health economy ===
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}
{{See also|Personal genomics}}
In 2020, the global industry for [[dietary supplement]]s was valued at $140.3 billion by a "Grand View Research" analysis.<ref name="GVW_Report">{{cite web |title=Dietary Supplements Market Size & Trends Report, 2021-2028 |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/dietary-supplements-market |access-date=2021-07-30 | location = San Francisco, CA | work = Grand View Research |language=en}}</ref> Certain parts of the [[Health economics|health economy]] may overlap with the bioeconomy,<ref>{{cite web |title=The global bioeconomy |url=https://ebrary.net/169442/geography/global_bioeconomy |website=Ebrary |access-date=26 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408">{{cite journal |last1=Haapala |first1=Antti |last2=Härkönen |first2=Janne |last3=Leviäkangas |first3=Pekka |last4=Kess |first4=Pekka |last5=Häggman |first5=Hely |last6=Arvola |first6=Jouko |last7=Stoor |first7=Tuomas |last8=Ämmälä |first8=Ari |last9=Karppinen |first9=Katja |last10=Leppilampi |first10=Mari |last11=Niinimäki |first11=Jouko |title=Bioeconomy potential - focus on Northern Finland |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Economy |date=1 January 2015 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=66–90 |doi=10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408 |issn=1756-5804}}</ref> including [[anti-aging]]- and [[life extension]]-related products and activities, hygiene/beauty products,<ref name="10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408"/> [[functional food]],<ref name="10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408"/> sports performance related products and bio-based tests (such as of one's [[Gut microbiota#Composition|microbiota]]) and banks (such as [[Fecal microbiota transplant#Stool banks|stool banks]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McLeod |first1=Carmen |last2=Nerlich |first2=Brigitte |last3=Jaspal |first3=Rusi |title=Fecal microbiota transplants: emerging social representations in the English-language print media |journal=New Genetics and Society |date=3 July 2019 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=331–351 |doi=10.1080/14636778.2019.1637721 |s2cid=195390497 |issn=1463-6778|doi-access=free }}</ref> including oral "super stool" capsules<ref>{{cite news |title=Super poo: the emerging science of stool transplants and designer gut bacteria |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jan/03/super-poo-the-emerging-science-of-stool-transplants-and-designer-gut-bacteria |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=2 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>) and databases (mainly [[DNA database]]s), all of which can in turn be used for [[precision medicine|individualized interventions]], monitoring as well as for the development of new products. The pharmaceutical sector, including the research and development of new [[antibiotics]], can also be considered to be a bioeconomy sector.
===Forest bioeconomy===
{{Further|#Climate change adaptation and mitigation|#Woodchips and pellets}}
'''The forest bioeconomy''' is based on [[forest]]s and their natural resources, and covers a variety of different industry and production processes. Forest bioeconomy includes, for example, the processing of forest [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] to provide products relating to, energy, chemistry, or the food industry. Thus, forest bioeconomy covers a variety of different manufacturing processes that are based on wood material and the range of end products is wide.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Green bioeconomy|url=https://mmm.fi/en/bioeconomy/green-bioeconomy|access-date=December 11, 2020|website=Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Finland}}</ref>
Besides different wood-based products, recreation, nature tourism and game are a crucial part of forest bioeconomy. [[Carbon sequestration]] and [[ecosystem service]]s are also included in the concept of forest bioeconomy.<ref name=":0" />
Pulp, paper, packaging materials and sawn timber are the traditional products of the [[forest industry]]. Wood is also traditionally used in furniture and construction industries. But in addition to these, as a renewable natural resource, ingredients from wood can be valorised into innovative [[bioproducts]] alongside a range of conventional forest industry products. Thus, traditional mill sites of large forest industry companies, for example in Finland, are in the process of becoming [[Biorefinery|biorefineries]]. In different processes, forest biomass is used to produce textiles, chemicals, cosmetics, fuels, medicine, intelligent packaging, coatings, glues, plastics, food and feed.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Wood-Based Bioeconomy Solving Global Challenges|publisher=Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment Enterprise and Innovation Department|year=2017|isbn=978-952-327-215-6|editor-last=Lilja|editor-first=Kari|pages=9–10|editor-last2=Loukola-Ruskeeniem|editor-first2=Kirsti}}</ref>
=== Blue bioeconomy ===
{{Further|Ocean#Protection}}
The blue bioeconomy covers businesses that are based on the sustainable use of renewable aquatic resources as well water related expertise areas. It covers the development and marketing of blue bioeconomy products and services. In that respect, the key sectors include business activities based on water expertise and technology, water-based tourism, making use of aquatic biomass, and the value chain of fisheries. Furthermore, the immaterial value of aquatic natural resources is also very high. Water areas have also other values beyond being platforms of economic activities. It provides human well-being, recreation and health.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Blue bioeconomy|url=https://mmm.fi/en/bioeconomy/blue-bioeconomy|access-date=2020-12-17|website=Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö|language=en-US}}</ref>
According to the European Union the blue bioeconomy has the focus on aquatic or marine environments, especially, on novel aquaculture applications, including non-food, food and feed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140706262|title=Blue Bioeconomy Forum : highlights : synthesis of the roadmap and a selection of viable and innovative projects.|others=Executive Agency for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises., Technopolis Group., Wageningen Research.|year=2020|isbn=978-92-9202-730-8|location=Luxembourg|oclc=1140706262}}</ref>
In the European [https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/swd-2017-128_en.pdf Report on the Blue Growth Strategy - Towards more sustainable growth and jobs in the blue economy] (2017) the blue bioeconomy is defined differently to the blue economy. The [[blue economy]] means the industries that are related to marine environment activities, e.g. shipbuilding, transport, coastal tourism, renewable energies (such as off-shore windmills), living and non-living resources.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Johnson|first1=Kate|title=Building Industries athttp://bibliotecadigital.f Sea: 'Blue Growth' and the New Maritime Economy|date=2018|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.13052/rp-9788793609259|pages=1–516|publisher=River Publisher|isbn=978-87-93609-25-9|access-date=2020-12-17|last2=Dalton|first2=Gordon|last3=Masters|first3=Ian|doi=10.13052/rp-9788793609259|s2cid=135401447 }}</ref>
=== Energy ===
{{See also|Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present#Bioenergy and biotechnology|Cellulosic ethanol#Production methods|Ethanol fermentation}}
The bioeconomy also includes [[bioenergy]], [[biohydrogen]], [[biofuel]] and [[algae fuel]].
According to [[World Bioenergy Association]] 17.8 % out of gross final energy consumption was covered with renewable energy. Among renewable energy sources, bioenergy (energy from bio-based sources) is the largest renewable energy source. In 2017, bioenergy accounted for 70% of renewable energy consumption.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|publisher=World Bioenergy Association|title=Global bioenergy statistics 2019|url=https://worldbioenergy.org/uploads/191129%20WBA%20GBS%202019_LQ.pdf|access-date=13 November 2020|website=worldbioenergy.org}}</ref>
The role of bioenergy varies in different countries and continents. In Africa it is the most important energy sources with the share of 96%. Bioenergy has significant shares in energy production in the Americas (59%), Asia (65%) and Europe (59%). The bioenergy is produced out of a large variety of [[biomass]] from forestry, agriculture and waste and side streams of industries to produce useful end products (pellets, wood chips, bioethanol, biogas and biodiesel) for electricity, heat and transportation fuel around the world.<ref name=":3" />
Biomass is a renewable natural resource but it is still a limited resource. Globally there are huge resources, but environmental, social and economic aspects limit their use. [[Biomass (ecology)|Biomass]] can play an important role for low-carbon solutions in the fields of customer supplies, energy, food and feed. In practice, there are many competing uses.<ref name=":0" />
The biobased economy uses first-generation [[biomass]] (crops), second-generation biomass (crop refuge), and third-generation biomass (seaweed, algae). Several methods of processing are then used (in [[Biorefinery|biorefineries]]) to gather the most out of the biomass. This includes techniques such as
* [[Anaerobic digestion]]
* [[Pyrolysis]]
* [[Torrefaction]]
* [[Industrial fermentation|Fermentation]]
Anaerobic digestion is generally used to produce [[biogas]], fermentation of sugars produces [[ethanol]], pyrolysis is used to produce [[pyrolysis-oil]] (which is solidified biogas), and torrefaction is used to create biomass-coal.<ref>{{cite web |title=4. Bioenergy conversion technologies. |url=http://www.fao.org/3/t1804e/t1804e06.htm |website=www.fao.org |access-date=1 August 2021}}</ref> Biomass-coal{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} and biogas is then burnt for energy production, ethanol can be used as a (vehicle)-fuel, as well as for other purposes, such as [[skincare]] products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acrres.nl/|title=Home|website=Acrres|access-date=Jan 6, 2021}}</ref>
Biobased energy can be used to [[100% renewable energy#Intermittency|manage intermittency of variable renewable energy]] like solar and wind.
====Woodchips and pellets====
{{Excerpt|Woodchips|Fuel}}
{{Excerpt|Woodchips|Comparison to other fuels}}
====Getting the most out of the biomass====
For economic reasons, the processing of the biomass is done according to a specific pattern (a process called cascading). This pattern depends on the types of biomass used. The whole of finding the most suitable pattern is known as [[biorefining]]. A general list shows the products with high added value and lowest volume of biomass to the products with the lowest added value and highest volume of biomass:<ref>Kijk magazine, number 8, 2011</ref>
* fine chemicals/medicines
* food
* chemicals/bioplastics
* transport fuels
* electricity and heat
Recent studies have highlighted the potential of traditionally used plants, in providing value-added products in remote areas of the world. A study conducted on tobacco plants proposed a non-exhaustive list of compounds with potential economic interest that can be sourced from these plants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laszlo C, Kaminski K, Guan H, Fatarova M, Wei J, Bergounioux A, Schlage WK, Schorderet-Weber S, Guy PA, Ivanov NV, Lamottke K, Hoeng J | title = Fractionation and Extraction Optimization of Potentially Valuable Compounds and Their Profiling in Six Varieties of Two ''Nicotiana'' Species | journal = Molecules | volume = 27 | issue = 22 | page = 8105 | date = November 2022 | pmid = 36432206 | pmc = 9694777 | doi = 10.3390/molecules27228105 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
=== Other fields and applications ===
{{See also|Timeline of biotechnology}}
[[Bioproducts]] or bio-based products are products that are made from [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]]. The term “bioproduct” refers to a wide array of industrial and commercial products that are characterized by a variety of properties, compositions and processes, as well as different benefits and risks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181844396|title=Primer on bioproducts.|date=2004|publisher=Pollution Probe|others=Pollution Probe., BIOCAP Canada Foundation.|isbn=978-0-919764-57-6|location=Toronto, Ont.|oclc=181844396}}</ref>
Bio-based products are developed in order to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and non-renewable resources. To achieve this, the key is to develop new bio-refining technologies to sustainably transform renewable natural resources into bio-based products, materials and fuels, e.g.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015-07-01|title=The role of biomass and bioenergy in a future bioeconomy: Policies and facts|journal=Environmental Development|language=en|volume=15|pages=3–34|doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2015.03.006|issn=2211-4645|last1=Scarlat|first1=Nicolae|last2=Dallemand|first2=Jean-François|last3=Monforti-Ferrario|first3=Fabio|last4=Nita|first4=Viorel|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==== Transplantable organs and induced regeneration ====
{{main|Synthetic biology#Other<!--not bioprinted--> transplants and induced regeneration}}
==== Microtechnology (medicine and energy) ====
{{Transcluded section|source=Synthetic biology |part=Nanoparticles, artificial cells and micro-droplets }}
{{#section-h:Synthetic biology|Nanoparticles, artificial cells and micro-droplets}}
==== Climate change adaptation and mitigation ====
{{See also|Nature-based solutions}}
<!--Besides innovations, activities and products that could transform industries and production to be sustainable, -->Activities and technologies for bio-based [[climate change adaptation]] could be considered as part of the bioeconomy. Examples may include:
* reforestation (alongside [[Deforestation#Control|forest protection]]) {{see above|[[#Forest bioeconomy|above]]}}
* algaculture carbon sequestration {{see above|[[#Algaculture|above]]}}
* [[Coral bleaching#Artificial assistance|artificial assistance to make coral reefs more resilient against climate change]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Probiotics help lab corals survive deadly heat stress |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/probiotics-lab-coral-heat-stress-death-reef-survival-ocean-warming |access-date=22 September 2021 |work=Science News |date=13 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santoro |first1=Erika P. |last2=Borges |first2=Ricardo M. |last3=Espinoza |first3=Josh L. |last4=Freire |first4=Marcelo |last5=Messias |first5=Camila S. M. A. |last6=Villela |first6=Helena D. M. |last7=Pereira |first7=Leandro M. |last8=Vilela |first8=Caren L. S. |last9=Rosado |first9=João G. |last10=Cardoso |first10=Pedro M. |last11=Rosado |first11=Phillipe M. |last12=Assis |first12=Juliana M. |last13=Duarte |first13=Gustavo A. S. |last14=Perna |first14=Gabriela |last15=Rosado |first15=Alexandre S. |last16=Macrae |first16=Andrew |last17=Dupont |first17=Christopher L. |last18=Nelson |first18=Karen E. |last19=Sweet |first19=Michael J. |last20=Voolstra |first20=Christian R. |last21=Peixoto |first21=Raquel S. |title=Coral microbiome manipulation elicits metabolic and genetic restructuring to mitigate heat stress and evade mortality |journal=Science Advances |date=August 2021 |volume=7 |issue=33 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abg3088 |pmid=34389536 |pmc=8363143 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.3088S |language=EN}}</ref>
* restoration of [[seagrass]], [[mangroves]] and [[salt marsh]]es {{see above|[[#Blue bioeconomy|above]]}}<ref>{{cite news |title=The problem with blue carbon: can seagrass be replanted … by hand? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/05/seagrass-meadows-could-turn-tide-of-climate-crisis-aoe |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=5 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macreadie |first1=Peter I. |last2=Costa |first2=Micheli D. P. |last3=Atwood |first3=Trisha B. |last4=Friess |first4=Daniel A. |last5=Kelleway |first5=Jeffrey J. |last6=Kennedy |first6=Hilary |last7=Lovelock |first7=Catherine E. |last8=Serrano |first8=Oscar |last9=Duarte |first9=Carlos M. |title=Blue carbon as a natural climate solution |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |date=December 2021 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=826–839 |doi=10.1038/s43017-021-00224-1 |bibcode=2021NRvEE...2..826M |language=en |issn=2662-138X|hdl=10754/673304 |s2cid=240290913 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==== Materials ====
There is a potential for biobased-production of building materials (insulation, surface materials, etc.) as well as new materials in general (polymers, plastics, composites, etc.).<ref name="10.1504/IJSE.2015.066408"/> Photosynthetic microbial cells have been used as a step to synthetic production of [[spider silk]].<ref name="spider-silk"/><ref name="Foong Higuchi-Takeuchi Malay Oktaviani p. 357"/>
===== Bioplastics =====
[[Bioplastic]]s are not just one single material. They comprise a whole family of materials with different properties and applications. According to European Bioplastics, a plastic material is defined as a bioplastic if it is either [[Bioplastic|bio-based plastic]], [[biodegradable plastic]], or is a material with both properties. Bioplastics have the same properties as conventional plastics and offer additional advantages, such as a reduced carbon footprint or additional waste management options, such as [[compost]]ing.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=What are bioplastics?|url=https://www.european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=www.european-bioplastics.org}}</ref>
Bioplastics are divided into three main groups:<ref name=":2" />
* Bio-based or partially bio-based non-biodegradable plastics such as bio-based PE, PP, or PET (so-called drop-ins) and bio-based technical performance polymers such as PTT or TPC-ET
* Plastics that are both bio-based and biodegradable, such as PLA and PHA or PBS
* Plastics that are based on fossil resources and are biodegradable, such as PBAT
Additionally, new materials such as PLA, PHA, [[cellulose]] or starch-based materials offer solutions with completely new functionalities such as [[biodegradability]] and compostability, and in some cases optimized barrier properties. Along with the growth in variety of bioplastic materials, properties such as flexibility, durability, printability, transparency, barrier, heat resistance, gloss and many more have been significantly enhanced.<ref name=":2" />
Bioplastics have been made from sugarbeet, by bacteria.<ref>[https://bloom-bioeconomy.eu/2020/04/01/video-series-on-bioeconomy-bioplastics-from-sugar-beets/ Video Series on Bioeconomy – Bioplastics from Sugar Beets].</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Bioplastics from sugerbeet video created by project "Boosting European Citizen's Knowledge and Awareness of Bio-Economy Research and Innovation" that is European Union Horizon project under programme H2020-EU.3.2.4.3. - Supporting market development for bio-based products and processes.|url=https://bloom-bioeconomy.eu/2020/07/16/video-series-on-bioeconomy-bioplastic-from-bacteria/|access-date=25 November 2020|website=Bloom-bioeconomy.eu|date=16 July 2020}}</ref>
====== Examples of bioplastics ======
* '''Paptic:''' There are packaging materials which combine the qualities of paper and plastic. For example, Paptic is produced from wood-based fibre that contains more than 70% wood. The material is formed with foam-forming technology that saves raw material and improves the qualities of the material. The material can be produced as reels, which enables it to be delivered with existing mills. The material is spatter-proof but is decomposed when put under water. It is more durable than paper and maintains its shape better than plastic. The material is recycled with cardboards.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fact sheet of PAPTIC®|url=https://ec.europa.eu/easme/sites/easme-site/files/pap_fact_sheet_new.pdf|access-date=17 December 2020|website=ec.europa.eu/easme|publisher=Fact sheet of EASME - Executive Agency for SMEs under European Commission}}</ref>
====== Examples of bio-composites ======
* '''Sulapac''' tins are made from wood chips and biodegradable natural binder and they have features similar to plastic. These packaging products tolerate water and fats, and they do not allow oxygen to pass. Sulapac products combine ecology, luxury and are not subject to design limitations. Sulapac can compete with traditional plastic tins by cost and is suitable for the same packing devices.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Haimi|first=Suvi|date=25 April 2017|title=The biodegradable Sulapac® material aims to challenge plastic|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/the-biodegradable-sulapac-material-aims-to-challenge-plastic/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}</ref>
* '''Woodio''' produces wood composite sinks and other bathroom furniture. The composite is produced by moulding a mixture of wood chips and crystal clear binder. Woodio has developed a solid wood composite that is entirely waterproof. The material has similar features to ceramic, but can be used for producing energy at the end of its lifespan, unlike ceramic waste. Solid wood composite is hard and can be moulded with wooden tools.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pasanen|first=Teemu|date=17 June 2017|title=Woodio's waterproof wood composite elevates wood to a new level|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/woodios-waterproof-wood-composite-elevates-wood-to-a-new-level/|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}</ref>
* '''Woodcast''' is a renewable and biodegradable casting material. It is produced from woodchips and biodegradable plastic. It is hard and durable in room temperature but when heated is flexible and self-sticky. Woodcast can be applied to all plastering and supporting elements. The material is breathable and X-ray transparent. It is used in plastering and in occupational therapy and can be moulded to any anatomical shape. Excess pieces can be reused: used casts can be disposed of either as energy or biowaste. The composite differs from traditional lime cast in that it doesn’t need water and it is non-toxic. Therefore gas-masks, gauntlets or suction fans are not required when handling the cast.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2014|title=Woodcast|url=https://www.bioeconomy.fi/woodcast-2/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=Bioeconomy.fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=14 December 2016|title=Splinting material made from wood and bioplastics|url=https://forest.fi/products-services/splinting-material-made-from-wood-and-bioplastics/|access-date=17 December 2020|website=forest.fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=n.d.|title=Revolutionary casting material|url=https://woodcastmedical.com/about/casting|website=woodcastmedical.com}}</ref>
===== For sustainable packaging =====
{{Transcluded section|source=Sustainable packaging# Alternatives to conventional plastics|part= }}
{{#section-h:Sustainable packaging| Alternatives to conventional plastics}}
==== Textiles ====
{{See also|Environmental impact of fashion}}
The [[textile industry]], or certain activities and elements of it, could be considered to be a strong global bioeconomy sector. Textiles are produced from natural fibres, regenerated fibres and synthetic fibres (Sinclair 2014). The natural fibre textile industry is based on cotton, linen, bamboo, hemp, wool, silk, angora, mohair and cashmere.<ref name=":4">{{Citation|title=Textiles Used in Fashion Design|date=2008|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474218214.ch-006|work=Textiles and Fashion|pages=156–189|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc|doi=10.5040/9781474218214.ch-006|isbn=978-1-4742-1821-4|access-date=2020-12-17}}. p. 5</ref>
Activities related to textile production and processing that more clearly fall under the domain of the bioeconomy are developments such as the [[biofabrication]] of leather-like material using fungi,<ref>{{cite news |title=Leather jackets made in labs? This fashion designer wants to make it happen |url=https://grist.org/science/leather-jackets-made-in-labs-this-fashion-designer-wants-to-make-it-happen/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=Grist |date=12 November 2015 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gamillo |first1=Elizabeth |title=This Mushroom-Based Leather Could Be the Next Sustainable Fashion Material |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/this-mushroom-based-leather-could-be-the-next-sustainable-fashion-material-180979170/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mitchell |last2=Gandia |first2=Antoni |last3=John |first3=Sabu |last4=Bismarck |first4=Alexander |title=Leather-like material biofabrication using fungi |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00606-1 |s2cid=221522085 |language=en |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> fungal cotton substitutes,<ref>{{cite news |title=Sustainable textiles made from fungi |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/materials/sustainable-textiles-fungi/ |access-date=1 December 2022 |work=cosmosmagazine.com |date=23 March 2022 |language=en-AU}}</ref> and renewable fibers from fungal cell walls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Svensson |first1=Sofie E. |last2=Ferreira |first2=Jorge A. |last3=Hakkarainen |first3=Minna |last4=Adolfsson |first4=Karin H. |last5=Zamani |first5=Akram |title=Fungal textiles: Wet spinning of fungal microfibers to produce monofilament yarns |journal=Sustainable Materials and Technologies |date=1 July 2021 |volume=28 |pages=e00256 |doi=10.1016/j.susmat.2021.e00256 |language=en |issn=2214-9937|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Textile fibres can be formed in chemical processes from bio-based materials. These fibres are called bio-based regenerated fibres. The oldest regenerated fibres are viscose and rayon, produced in the 19th century. The first industrial processes used a large amount of wood as raw material, as well as harmful chemicals and water. Later the process of regenerating fibres developed to reduce the use of raw materials, chemicals, water and energy.<ref name=":4" />
In the 1990s the first more sustainable regenerated fibres, e.g. Lyocell, entered the market with the commercial name of Tencel. The production process uses wood cellulose and it processes the fibre without harmful chemicals.<ref name=":4" />
The next generation of regenerated fibres are under development. The production processes use less or no chemicals, and the water consumption is also diminished.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Knuuttila|first1=Kirsi|last2=Sciences{{!}}|first2=fi=Jyväskylän ammattikorkeakoulu{{!}}sv=Jyväskylän ammattikorkeakoulu{{!}}en=JAMK University of Applied|date=2020|title=Uudet bio- ja kierrätyspohjaiset tekstiilimateriaalit ja niiden ominaisuuksien testaaminen|url=http://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/344627|access-date=2020-12-17|website=www.theseus.fi}}</ref>
== Issues ==
{{See also|Synthetic biology#Ethics}}
=== Degrowth, green growth and circular economy ===
{{Further|Degrowth}}
The bioeconomy has largely been associated with visions of "green growth".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hausknost |first1=Daniel |last2=Schriefl |first2=Ernst |last3=Lauk |first3=Christian |last4=Kalt |first4=Gerald |title=A Transition to Which Bioeconomy? An Exploration of Diverging Techno-Political Choices |journal=Sustainability |date=April 2017 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=669 |doi=10.3390/su9040669 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref> A study found that a "circular bioeconomy" may be "necessary to build a carbon neutral future in line with the climate objectives of the [[Paris Agreement]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoehn |first1=Daniel |last2=Laso |first2=Jara |last3=Margallo |first3=María |last4=Ruiz-Salmón |first4=Israel |last5=Amo-Setién |first5=Francisco José |last6=Abajas-Bustillo |first6=Rebeca |last7=Sarabia |first7=Carmen |last8=Quiñones |first8=Ainoa |last9=Vázquez-Rowe |first9=Ian |last10=Bala |first10=Alba |last11=Batlle-Bayer |first11=Laura |last12=Fullana-i-Palmer |first12=Pere |last13=Aldaco |first13=Rubén |title=Introducing a Degrowth Approach to the Circular Economy Policies of Food Production, and Food Loss and Waste Management: Towards a Circular Bioeconomy |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=3379 |doi=10.3390/su13063379 |language=en|doi-access=free |hdl=10902/21665 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> However, some are concerned that with a focus or reliance on technological progress a fundamentally unsustainable socioeconomic model might be maintained rather than be changed.<ref name="beg">{{cite book |last1=Pietzsch |first1=Joachim |title=Bioeconomy for Beginners |date=6 March 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-662-60390-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkHVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 |language=en}}</ref> Some are concerned it that may not lead to a ecologization of the economy but to an economization of the biological, "the living" and caution that potentials of non-bio-based techniques to achieve greater sustainability need to be considered.<ref name="beg"/> A study found that the, as of 2019, current EU interpretation of the bioeconomy is "diametrically opposite to the original narrative of Baranoff and Georgescu-Roegen that told us that expanding the share of activities based on renewable resources in the economy would slow down economic growth and set strict limits on the overall expansion of the economy".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Giampietro |first1=Mario |title=On the Circular Bioeconomy and Decoupling: Implications for Sustainable Growth |journal=Ecological Economics |date=1 August 2019 |volume=162 |pages=143–156 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.05.001 |s2cid=201329805 |language=en |issn=0921-8009|doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, some caution that "Silicon Valley and food corporations" could use bioeconomy technologies for [[greenwashing]] and [[#Patents, intellectual property and monopolies|monopoly-concentrations]].<ref name="tg2"/> The bioeconomy, its potentials, disruptive new modes of production and innovations may distract from the need for systemic structural socioeconomic changes<ref name="effectspaper">{{cite journal |last1=Forster |first1=Piers M. |last2=Forster |first2=Harriet I. |last3=Evans |first3=Mat J. |last4=Gidden |first4=Matthew J. |last5=Jones |first5=Chris D. |last6=Keller |first6=Christoph A. |last7=Lamboll |first7=Robin D. |last8=Quéré |first8=Corinne Le |last9=Rogelj |first9=Joeri|author9-link=Joeri Rogelj |last10=Rosen |first10=Deborah |last11=Schleussner |first11=Carl-Friedrich |last12=Richardson |first12=Thomas B. |last13=Smith |first13=Christopher J. |last14=Turnock |first14=Steven T. |title=Current and future global climate impacts resulting from COVID-19 |journal=Nature Climate Change |date=7 August 2020 |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=913–919 |doi=10.1038/s41558-020-0883-0 |bibcode=2020NatCC..10..913F |s2cid=221019148 |language=en |issn=1758-6798|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1= Ripple |first1=William J.|display-authors=etal.|date=July 28, 2021 |title=World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency 2021 |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biab079/6325731 |journal=BioScience |volume=71|issue=9|pages=894–898|doi=10.1093/biosci/biab079 |access-date=July 29, 2021|hdl=1808/30278 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and provide a false illusion of [[technocapitalism|technocapitalist]] [[Technological utopianism|utopianism/optimism]] that suggests [[technological fix]]es<ref name="10.3390/su5062589">{{Cite journal|last1=McCormick|first1=Kes|last2=Kautto|first2=Niina|date=2013|title=The Bioeconomy in Europe: An Overview|journal=Sustainability|volume=5|issue=6|pages=2589–2608|doi=10.3390/su5062589|doi-access=free}}</ref> may make it possible to sustain contemporary patterns and structures, pre-empting structural changes.
===Unemployment and work reallocation===
{{Further|Technological unemployment}}
Many farmers depend on conventional methods of producing crops and many of them live in developing economies.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eco-friendly, lab-grown coffee is on the way, but it comes with a catch |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/16/lab-grown-coffee-eco-friendly |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=16 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Cellular agriculture for products such as synthetic coffee could, if the contemporary socioeconomic context (the socio[[economic system]]'s mechanisms such as incentives and resource distribution mechanisms like markets) remains unaltered (e.g. in nature, purposes, scopes, limits and degrees), threaten their employment and livelihoods as well as the respective nation's economy and social stability. A study concluded that "given the expertise required and the high investment costs of the innovation, it seems unlikely that cultured meat immediately benefits the poor in developing countries" and emphasized that animal agriculture is often essential for the subsistence for farmers in poor countries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental & Resource Economics |year=2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 |pmid=33758465 |pmc=7977488 |language=en}}</ref> However, not only developing countries may be affected.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Peter |last2=Blaustein-Rejto |first2=Daniel |title=Social and Economic Opportunities and Challenges of Plant-Based and Cultured Meat for Rural Producers in the US |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |date=2021 |volume=5 |pages=10 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2021.624270 |issn=2571-581X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Patents, intellectual property and monopolies ===
Observers worry that the bioeconomy will become as opaque and free of accountability as the industry it attempts to replace, that is the current [[food system]]. The fear is that its core products will be mass-produced, nutritionally dubious meat sold at the homogeneous fast-food joints of the future.<ref name="tg2">{{cite news |title=Man v food: is lab-grown meat really going to solve our nasty agriculture problem? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/jul/29/lab-grown-meat-factory-farms-industrial-agriculture-animals |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=29 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
The medical community has warned that [[Biological patent|gene patents]] can inhibit the practice of medicine and progress of science.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andrews | first1 = LB | year = 2000 | title = Genes and Patent Policy: Rethinking IP Rights | journal = Nature Reviews Genetics | volume = 3 | issue = 10 | pages = 803–8 | doi=10.1038/nrg909| pmid = 12360238 | s2cid = 13822192 }}</ref> This can also apply to other areas where patents and private intellectual property licenses are being used, often entirely preventing the use and continued development of knowledge and techniques for many years or decades. On the other hand, some worry that without intellectual property protection as the type of R&D-incentive, particularly to current degrees and extents, companies would no longer have the resources or motives/incentives to perform competitive, viable biotech research – as otherwise they may not be able to generate sufficient returns from initial R&D investment or less returns than from other expenditures that are possible.<ref>Marchant GE. 2007. Genomics, Ethics, and Intellectual Property. Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices. Ch 1.5:29-38</ref> "[[Biopiracy]]" refers to "the use of intellectual property systems to legitimize the exclusive ownership and control over biological resources and biological products that have been used over centuries in non-industrialized cultures".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Chris |title=Intellectual property rights, the bioeconomy and the challenge of biopiracy |journal=Genomics, Society and Policy |date=15 December 2008 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=26 |doi=10.1186/1746-5354-4-3-26 |s2cid=35186396 |issn=1746-5354|doi-access=free |pmc=5424966 }}</ref>
Rather than leading to sustainable, healthy, inexpensive, safe, accessible food being produced with little labor locally – after [[technology transfer|knowledge-]] and [[technology transfer]] and timely, efficient [[innovation]] – the bioeconomy may lead to aggressive [[monopoly|monopoly-formation]] and exacerbated inequality.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Braun |first1=Veit |title=Bioeconomy and Global Inequalities |chapter=Tools of Extraction or Means of Speculation? Making Sense of Patents in the Bioeconomy |journal=Bioeconomy and Global Inequalities: Socio-Ecological Perspectives on Biomass Sourcing and Production |date=2021 |pages=65–84 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-68944-5_4 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-68943-8 |s2cid=236731518 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Birch |first1=Kean |title=Rethinking Value in the Bio-economy: Finance, Assetization, and the Management of Value |journal=Science, Technology, & Human Values |date=1 May 2017 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=460–490 |doi=10.1177/0162243916661633 |pmid=28458406 |pmc=5390941 |s2cid=1702910 |language=en |issn=0162-2439}}</ref><ref name="tg2"/>{{additional citation needed|date=October 2021}} For instance, while production costs may be minimal, costs – including of medicine<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Löfgren |first1=Hans |title=The Competition State and the Private Control of Healthcare |journal=Global Health Governance |date=2009 |pages=245–264 |doi=10.1057/9780230249486_12 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-349-30228-4 |language=en}}</ref> – may be high.
=== Innovation management, public spending and governance ===
{{See also|Strategic planning}}
It has been argued that public investment would be a tool governments should use to regulate and license cellular agriculture. Private firms and venture capital would likely seek to maximise investor value rather than social welfare.<ref name="tg2"/> Moreover, radical innovation is considered to be more risky, "and likely involves more information asymmetry, so that private financial markets may imperfectly manage these frictions". Governments may also help to coordinate "since several innovators may be needed to push the knowledge frontier and make the market profitable, but no single company wants to make the early necessary investments". And investments in the relevant sectors seem to be a bottleneck hindering the transition toward a bioeconomy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinderer |first1=Sebastian|last2=Brändle |first2=Leif|last3=Kuckertz|first3=Andreas|date=2021 |title=Transition to a Sustainable Bioeconomy|journal=Sustainability |volume=13 |issue=15 |pages=8232 |doi=10.3390/SU13158232 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Governments could also help innovators that lack the network "to naturally obtain the visibility and political influence necessary to obtain public funds" and could help determine relevant laws.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Treich |first1=Nicolas |title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges |journal=Environmental and Resource Economics |date=1 May 2021 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=33–61 |doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 |pmid=33758465 |pmc=7977488 |language=en |issn=1573-1502}}</ref>
By establishing supporting infrastructure for entrepreneurial ecosystems they can help creating a beneficial environment for innovative bioeconomy startups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuckertz |first1=Andreas|last2=Berger|first2=Elisabeth S.C.|last3=Brändle |first3=Leif|title=Entrepreneurship and the sustainable bioeconomy transformation |journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions | date=2020 |volume=37 |pages=332–344 |doi=10.1016/j.eist.2020.10.003 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Enabling such bioeconomy startups to act on the opportunities provided through the bioeconomy transformation further contributes to its success.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinderer |first1=Sebastian|last2=Kuckertz|first2=Andreas|date=2022 |title=The bioeconomy transformation as an external enabler of sustainable entrepreneurship|url= https://doi.org/10.1002/BSE.3056 |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment| volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=2947–2963|doi=10.1002/BSE.3056 |hdl=10419/266672|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
== In popular media ==
[[Biopunk]] – so called due to similarity with [[cyberpunk]] – is a genre of science fiction that often thematizes the bioeconomy as well as its potential issues and technologies. The novel ''[[The Windup Girl]]'' portrays a society driven by a ruthless bioeconomy and [[climate fiction|ailing under climate change]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Idema |first1=Tom |title=When the levees break: global heating, watery rhetoric and complexity in Paolo Bacigalupi's The Windup Girl |journal=Green Letters |date=2 January 2020 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=51–63 |doi=10.1080/14688417.2020.1752509 |s2cid=219811345 |issn=1468-8417|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the more recent novel ''Change Agent'' prevalent black market clinics offer wealthy people unauthorized [[human genetic enhancement]] services and e.g. custom narcotics are 3D-printed locally or smuggled with [[soft robot]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Adi |title=Change Agent is a terrible book that will make a great movie |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/18/15162608/change-agent-daniel-suarez-movie-option-genetic-engineering-review |website=The Verge |access-date=29 October 2021 |language=en |date=18 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Aune |first1=Clayton J. |title=Building the Hyper-Capable Operator: Should the Military Enhance Its Special Operations Warriors? |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1120842 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029160833/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1120842 |url-status=live |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |publisher=Naval War College – Newport, R.I.|language=en |date=7 June 2019}}</ref> [[Solarpunk]] is another emerging genre that focuses on the relationship between human societies and the environment and also addresses many of the bioeconomy's issues and technologies such as genetic engineering, synthetic meat and commodification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farver |first1=Kenneth |title=Negotiating the Boundaries of Solarpunk Literature in Environmental Justice |url=https://cedar.wwu.edu/wwu_honors/124/ |journal=WWU Honors College Senior Projects |date=1 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mohr |first1=Dunja M. |title=Mohr, Dunja M.: Anthropocene Fiction: Narrating the 'Zero Hour' in Margaret Atwood's MaddAddam Trilogy. Writing Beyond the End Times? The Literatures of Canada and Quebec. Eds. Ursula Mathis-Moser and Marie Carrière. Innsbruck: Innsbruck UP, 2017, 25-46. |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/39934/9783903122970.pdf |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{div col}}
* [[Bioremediation]]
* [[Biosynthesis]]
* [[Chemurgy]]
* [[Cross-laminated timber]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Digital economy]]
* [[European Green Deal]]
* [[Plyscraper]]
* [[Oleochemical]]
* [[Open innovation]]
* [[Single-cell protein]]
* [[Synthetic ivory]]
* [[Straw-bale construction]]
* [[Timeline of biotechnology]]
* [[Framing (construction)|Wood frame building]]
* [[Working animal]]
{{div col end}}
{{Portal|Biology|Technology}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Bioeconomy}}
*{{website|https://ec.europa.eu/knowledge4policy/bioeconomy_en/|European Commission's Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy}}
*[https://www.fao.org/in-action/sustainable-and-circular-bioeconomy/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Sustainable and circular bioeconomy]
{{Biotechnology}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Alternative energy economics]]
[[Category:Industries (economics)]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Economy by field]] |
Environmental governance | {{short description|Concept in political ecology and environmental policy}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Essay-like|date = September 2013}}
{{Buzzword|date = September 2013}}
}}
{{Governance}}
{{broader|Environmental, social, and corporate governance}}
'''Environmental governance (EG)''' consists of a system of laws, norms, rules, policies and practices that dictate how the board members of an [[Regulatory agency|environment related regulatory body]] should manage and oversee the affairs of any [[Regulatory agency|environment related regulatory body]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manchester |first1=University |title=MSc Environmental Governance |url=https://www.manchester.ac.uk/study/masters/courses/list/06967/msc-environmental-governance/ |website=University of Manchester |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> which is responsible for ensuring [[sustainability]] ([[sustainable development]]) and [[Management|manage]] all human activities—[[Politics|political]], [[social]] and [[Economy|economic]].<ref>Page 8. The Soft Path in a Nutshell. (2005). Oliver M Brandes and David B Brooks. University of Victoria, Victoria, BC.</ref> Environmental governance includes government, business and civil society, and emphasizes whole [[Systems management|system management]]. To capture this diverse range of elements, environmental governance often employs alternative systems of governance, for example watershed-based management.<ref>IPlanet U, R. Michael M'Gonigle, Justine Starke</ref> Obviously, in fact the EG arrangements are very diversed and not at all as inclusive as we could wish them to be.
In some cases, it views natural resources and the environment as global public goods, belonging to the category of [[goods]] that are not diminished when they are shared.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.institut-gouvernance.org/en/analyse/fiche-analyse-317.html |title=Launay, Claire, Mouriès, Thomas, '' Les différentes catégories de biens '', summary and excerpt from Pierre Calame’s book, ’’La démocratie en miettes’’, 2003. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2009-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913042940/http://www.institut-gouvernance.org/en/analyse/fiche-analyse-317.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> This means that everyone benefits from, for example, a breathable [[atmosphere]], stable [[climate]] and stable biodiversity. But obviously, following Ostrom's analysis, many environmental goods are rival and qualify as common-pool resources (CPRs). (Ostrom, 1990). Therefore, they need to be managed with care and require deliberation among involved parties.
==Definitions==
''Environmental governance'' refers to the processes of [[decision-making]] involved in the control and management of the environment and [[natural resource]]s. [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), define environmental governance as the 'multi-level interactions (i.e., local, national, international/global) among, but not limited to, three main actors, i.e., state, [[market (economics)|market]], and civil society, which interact with one another, whether in formal and informal ways; in formulating and implementing policies in response to environment-related demands and inputs from the society; bound by rules, procedures, processes, and widely accepted behavior; possessing characteristics of “good governance”; for the purpose of attaining environmentally-[[sustainable development]]' (IUCN 2014)
Key principles of environmental governance include:
* Embedding the environment in all levels of decision-making and action
* Conceptualizing cities and communities, economic and political life as a subset of the environment
* Emphasizing the connection of people to the ecosystems in which they live
* Promoting the transition from open-loop/cradle-to-grave systems (like garbage disposal with no recycling) to closed-loop/[[cradle-to-cradle]] systems (like [[permaculture]] and [[zero waste]] strategies).
''Neoliberal environmental governance'' is an approach to the theory of environmental governance framed by a perspective on [[neoliberalism]] as an ideology, policy and practice in relation to the biophysical world. There are many definitions and applications of neoliberalism, e.g. in economic, international relations, etc. However, the traditional understanding of neoliberalism is often simplified to the notion of the primacy of market-led economics through the rolling back of the state, [[deregulation]] and [[privatisation]]. Neoliberalism has evolved particularly over the last 40 years with many scholars leaving their ideological footprint on the neoliberal map. [[Hayek]] and [[Friedman]] believed in the superiority of the free market over state intervention. As long as the market was allowed to act freely, the supply/demand law would ensure the ‘optimal’ price and reward. In [[Karl Polanyi]]'s opposing view this would also create a state of tension in which self-regulating [[free market]]s disrupt and alter social interactions and “displace other valued means of living and working”.<ref>Castree, N. (2007) ‘Neoliberal ecologies’, in Nik Heynen, James McCarthy, Scott Prudham and Paul Robbins (eds.) Neoliberal environments, London: Routledge, p. 281.</ref> However, in contrast to the notion of an unregulated market economy there has also been a “paradoxical increase in [state] intervention”<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00250|page=454|title=Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Urban Governance: A State-Theoretical Perspective|journal=Antipode|volume=34|issue=3|year=2002|last1=Jessop|first1=Bob|bibcode=2002Antip..34..452J |s2cid=14246801 }}</ref> in the choice of economic, legislative and social policy reforms, which are pursued by the state to preserve the neoliberal order. This contradictory process is described by Peck and Tickell as roll back/roll out neoliberalism in which on one hand the state willingly gives up the control over resources and responsibility for social provision while on the other, it engages in “purposeful construction and consolidation of neoliberalised state forms, modes of governance, and regulatory relations".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00247|page=382|title=Neoliberalizing Space|journal=Antipode|volume=34|issue=3|year=2002|last1=Peck|first1=Jamie|last2=Tickell|first2=Adam|bibcode=2002Antip..34..380P |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03142138/file/Bally_F.%20Transition%202020.pdf}}</ref>
There has been a growing interest in the effects of neoliberalism on the politics of the non-human world of environmental governance. Neoliberalism is seen to be more than a [[Homogenous|homogenous and monolithic]] ‘thing’ with a clear end point.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/1045575052000335339|page=6|title=The neoliberalization of nature: Governance, privatization, enclosure and valuation|journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism|volume=16|year=2005|last1=Heynen|first1=Nik|last2=Robbins|first2=Paul|issue=1|s2cid=144519444}}</ref> It is a series of path-dependent, spatially and temporally “connected neoliberalisation” processes which affect and are affected by nature and environment that “cover a remarkable array of places, regions and countries”.<ref>Castree, N. (2007) ‘Neoliberal ecologies’, in Nik Heynen, James McCarthy, Scott Prudham and Paul Robbins (eds.) Neoliberal environments, London: Routledge, p. 283.</ref> Co-opting neoliberal ideas of the importance of private property and the protection of individual (investor) rights, into environmental governance can be seen in the example of recent multilateral trade agreements (see in particular the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]]). Such neoliberal structures further reinforce a process of nature enclosure and primitive accumulation or “accumulation by dispossession” that serves to privatise increasing areas of nature.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2003.07.002|page=327|title=Privatizing conditions of production: Trade agreements as neoliberal environmental governance|journal=Geoforum|volume=35|issue=3|year=2004|last1=McCarthy|first1=James}}</ref> The ownership-transfer of resources traditionally not privately owned to free market mechanisms is believed to deliver greater efficiency and optimal return on investment.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/1045575052000335384|title=Dispossessing H2O: The contested terrain of water privatization|journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism|volume=16|pages=81–98|year=2005|last1=Swyngedouw|first1=Erik|issue=1 |s2cid=131323368}}</ref> Other similar examples of neo-liberal inspired projects include the enclosure of minerals, the fisheries quota system in the North Pacific<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.00414.x|title=Rules of Privatization: Contradictions in Neoliberal Regulation of North Pacific Fisheries|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|volume=94|issue=3|pages=565–584|year=2004|last1=Mansfield|first1=Becky|s2cid=18365959}}</ref> and the [[water privatization|privatisation of water supply]] and [[sewage treatment]] in England and Wales.<ref>Bakker, K. (2004) An uncooperative commodity: privatizing water in England and Wales, Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref> All three examples share neoliberal characteristics to “deploy markets as the solution to environmental problems” in which scarce natural resources are commercialized and turned into commodities.<ref>Bakker, K. (2004) An uncooperative commodity: privatizing water in England and Wales, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.431</ref> The approach to frame the ecosystem in the context of a price-able commodity is also present in the work of neoliberal geographers who subject nature to price and supply/demand mechanisms where the earth is considered to be a [[quantifiable]] resource ([[Robert Costanza|Costanza]], for example, estimates the earth [[ecosystem services|ecosystem's service]] value to be between 16 and 54 trillion dollars per year<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/387253a0|page=255|title=The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital|journal=Nature|volume=387|issue=6630|year=1997|last1=Costanza|first1=Robert|last2=d'Arge|first2=Ralph|last3=De Groot|first3=Rudolf|last4=Farber|first4=Stephen|last5=Grasso|first5=Monica|last6=Hannon|first6=Bruce|last7=Limburg|first7=Karin|last8=Naeem|first8=Shahid|last9=O'Neill|first9=Robert V.|last10=Paruelo|first10=Jose|last11=Raskin|first11=Robert G.|last12=Sutton|first12=Paul|last13=Van Den Belt|first13=Marjan|bibcode=1997Natur.387..253C|s2cid=672256}}</ref>).
==Environmental issues==
===Main drivers of environmental degradation===
''[[Economic growth]]'' – The development-centric vision that prevails in most countries and international institutions advocates a headlong rush towards more economic growth. Environmental economists on the other hand, point to a close correlation between economic growth and [[environmental degradation]], arguing for qualitative development as an alternative to growth. As a result, the past couple of decades has seen a big shift towards sustainable development as an alternative to neo-liberal economics. There are those, particularly within the alternative globalization movement, who maintain that it is feasible to change to a [[degrowth]] phase without losing social efficiency or lowering the [[quality of life]].
''[[Consumption (economics)|Consumption]]'' – The growth of consumption and the cult of consumption, or [[consumerist]] ideology, is the major cause of economic growth. [[Overdevelopment]], seen as the only alternative to poverty, has become an end in itself. The means for curbing this growth are not equal to the task, since the phenomenon is not confined to a growing middle class in developing countries, but also concerns the development of irresponsible lifestyles, particularly in northern countries, such as the increase in the size and number of homes and cars per person.
''Destruction of [[biodiversity]]'' – The complexity of the planet's ecosystems means that the loss of any species has [[unexpected consequences]]. The stronger the impact on biodiversity, the stronger the likelihood of a chain reaction with unpredictable negative effects. Another important factor of environmental degradation that falls under this destruction of biodiversity, and must not be ignored is deforestation. Despite all the damage inflicted, a number of ecosystems have proved to be [[Resilience (ecology)|resilient]]. Environmentalists are endorsing a precautionary principle whereby all potentially damaging activities would have to be analyzed for their [[environmental impact]].
''[[Population growth]]'' – Forecasts predict 8.9 billion people on the planet in 2050. This is a subject which primarily affects developing countries, but also concerns northern countries; although their demographic growth is lower, the environmental impact per person is far higher in these countries. Demographic growth needs to be countered by developing education and family planning programs and generally improving women's status.
"[[Pollution]]" - Pollution caused by the use of fossil fuels is another driver of environmental destruction. The burning of carbon-based fossil fuels such as coal and oil, releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. One of the major impacts of this is the climate change that is currently taking place on the planet, where the earth's temperature is gradually rising. Given that fuels such as coal and oil are the most heavily used fuels, this a great concern to many environmentalists.
"Agricultural practices" - Destructive agricultural practices such as overuse of fertilizers and [[overgrazing]] lead to land degradation. The soil gets [[soil erosion|eroded]], and leads to silting in rivers and reservoirs. Soil erosion is a continuous cycle and ultimately results in [[desertification]] of the land. Apart from [[land degradation]], [[water pollution]] is also a possibility; chemicals used in farming can [[surface runoff|run-off]] into rivers and [[water contamination|contaminate the water]].
===Challenges===
Challenges facing environmental governance include:
* Inadequate continental and global agreements
* Unresolved tensions between maximum development, sustainable development and maximum protection, limiting funding, damaging links with the economy and limiting application of [[Multilateral Environment Agreement]]s (MEAs).
* Environmental funding is not self-sustaining, diverting resources from problem-solving into funding battles.
* Lack of integration of sector policies
* Inadequate institutional capacities
* Ill-defined priorities
* Unclear objectives
* Lack of coordination within the UN, governments, the private sector and civil society
* Lack of shared vision
* Interdependencies among development/sustainable economic growth, trade, agriculture, health, peace and security.
* International imbalance between environmental governance and trade and finance programs, e.g., [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO).
* Limited credit for organizations running projects within the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
* Linking [[UNEP]], [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) and the [[World Bank]] with MEAs
* Lack of government capacity to satisfy MEA obligations
* Absence of the gender perspective and equity in environmental governance
* Inability to influence public opinion<ref name="inforesources2005">[http://www.inforesources.ch/pdf/focus_3_05_e.pdf Global Conventions and Environmental Governance; Inforesources Focus No. 3, 2005.]</ref><ref name=unep>UNEP; International Environmental Governance and the Reform of the United Nations, XVI Meeting of the Forum of Environment Ministers of Latin America and the Caribbean; 2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/civil_society/PDF_docs/3rdGCSF_CS_Statement_IEG.pdf |title=Civil Society Statement on International Environmental Governance; Seventh special session of the UNEP Governing Council/GMEF; Cartagena, Colombia; February 2002. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2009-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422073745/http://www.unep.org/civil_society/PDF_docs/3rdGCSF_CS_Statement_IEG.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Time lag between human action and environmental effect, sometimes as long as a generation<ref name="Underdal, A 2010, pp.386-393">{{cite journal | last1 = Underdal | first1 = A | year = 2010 | title = Complexity and challenges of long term environmental governance | journal = Global Environmental Change | volume = 20 | issue = 3| pages = 386–393 | doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.02.005}}</ref>
* Environmental problems being embedded in very complex systems, of which our understanding is still quite weak<ref name="Underdal, A 2010, pp.386-393"/>
All of these challenges have implications on governance, however international environmental governance is necessary. The IDDRI claims that rejection of [[multilateralism]] in the name of efficiency and protection of national interests conflicts with the promotion of international law and the concept of global public goods. Others cite the complex nature of environmental problems.
On the other hand, The [[local Agenda 21|Agenda 21]] program has been implemented in over 7,000 communities.<ref>7,000 municipalities is very few, as over a million municipalities exist on the planet and that initial forecasts were for local agenda 21 actions being adopted in 500,000 municipalities in 1996 and throughout the rest of the planet in 2000</ref> Environmental problems, including global-scale problems, may not always require global solutions. For example, marine pollution can be tackled regionally, and ecosystem deterioration can be addressed locally. Other global problems such as climate change benefit from local and regional action.
Bäckstrand and Saward wrote, “sustainability and environmental protection is an arena in which innovative experiments with new hybrid, plurilateral forms of governance, along with the incorporation of a transnational civil society spanning the public-private divide, are taking place.”<ref name=Saward>[http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p58974_index.html Bäckstrand, Karin; Saward, Michel; Democratizing Global Governance: Stakeholder Democracy at the World Summit for Sustainable Development; Document presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association; Chicago; 2005.]</ref>
===Local governance===
A 1997 report observed a global consensus that sustainable development implementation should be based on local level solutions and initiatives designed with and by the local communities.<ref name="Leach, M. 1997 pp 1">Leach, M., Mearns, R and Scoones, I. (1997), Challenges to community based sustainable development, in IDS Bulletin Vol 28:4, pp 1</ref> Community participation and partnership along with the decentralisation of government power to local communities are important aspects of environmental governance at the local level. Initiatives such as these are integral divergence from earlier environmental governance approaches which was “driven by state agendas and resource control”<ref name="Leach, M. 1997 pp 1"/> and followed a top-down or trickle down approach rather than the bottom up approach that local level governance encompasses. The adoption of practices or interventions at a local scale can, in part, be explained by [[Diffusion of innovations|diffusion of innovation]] theory.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Mascia|first1=Michael B.|last2=Mills|first2=Morena|title=When conservation goes viral: The diffusion of innovative biodiversity conservation policies and practices|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=11|issue=3|language=en|doi=10.1111/conl.12442|issn=1755-263X|year=2018|pages=e12442|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018ConL...11E2442M |hdl=10044/1/76315|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In Tanzania and in the Pacific, researchers have illustrated that aspects of the intervention, of the adopter, and of the social-ecological context all shape why community-centered conservation interventions spread through space and time.<ref name=":0" /> Local level governance shifts decision-making power away from the state and/or governments to the grassroots. Local level governance is extremely important even on a global scale. Environmental governance at the global level is defined as international and as such has resulted in the marginalisation of local voices. Local level governance is important to bring back power to local communities in the global fight against environmental degridation.<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 57">Elliot, L. (1956), Global Environmental Governance, in Hughes, S. and Wilkinson, R. (eds), Global Governance: Critical Perspectives, London: Routledge, ch. 4, pp. 57</ref> Pulgar Vidal observed a “new institutional framework, [wherein] decision-making regarding access to and use of natural resources has become increasingly decentralized.”<ref name=pv>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11304196171GAD-espanol.pdf |title=Pulgar Vidal, Manuel; Gobernanza Ambiental Descentralizada (Decentralized Environmental Governance); 2005. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609013624/http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11304196171GAD-espanol.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He noted four techniques that can be used to develop these processes:
* formal and informal regulations, procedures and processes, such as consultations and participative democracy;
* social interaction that can arise from participation in development programs or from the reaction to perceived injustice;
* regulating social behaviours to reclassify an individual question as a [[public matter]];
* within-group [[participation (decision making)|participation]] in decision-making and relations with external actors.
He found that the key conditions for developing decentralized environmental governance are:
* access to [[social capital]], including local knowledge, leaders and local shared vision;
* democratic access to information and decision-making;
* local government activity in environmental governance: as facilitator of access to natural resources, or as policy maker;
* an institutional framework that favours decentralized environmental governance and creates forums for social interaction and making widely accepted agreements acceptable.<ref name=pv/>
The legitimacy of decisions depends on the local population's participation rate and on how well participants represent that population.<ref name=poats>{{Cite web |url=http://www.portalces.org/content/view/85/100000022/lang,Spanish |title=Suárez, David; Poats, Susan V.; Procesos de Gobernanza Ambiental en el Manejo Participativo de Áreas Protegidas en Carchi (Environmental Governance Processes in the Participative Management of Carchi Protected Areas); Symposium; 2008. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731215822/http://www.portalces.org/content/view/85/100000022/lang,spanish/ |archive-date=2009-07-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
With regard to public authorities, questions linked to biodiversity can be faced by adopting appropriate policies and strategies, through exchange of knowledge and experience, the forming of partnerships, correct management of land use, monitoring of biodiversity and optimal use of resources, or reducing consumption, and promoting environmental certifications, such as EMAS and/or ISO 14001. Local authorities undoubtedly have a central role to play in the protection of biodiversity and this strategy is successful above all when the authorities show strength by involving stakeholders in a credible environmental improvement project and activating a transparent and effective communication policy (Ioppolo et al., 2013).<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.08.010|title=From coastal management to environmental management: The sustainable eco-tourism program for the mid-western coast of Sardinia (Italy)|journal=Land Use Policy|volume=31|pages=460–471|year=2013|last1=Ioppolo|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Saija|first2=Giuseppe|last3=Salomone|first3=Roberta}}</ref>
===State governance===
States play a crucial role in environmental governance, because "however far and fast international economic integration proceeds, political authority remains vested in national governments".<ref>Cable, V. 1999, ''Globalisation and global governance'', Chatham House Papers, London</ref> It is for this reason that governments should respect and support the commitment to implementation of international agreements.<ref>WHAT 2000, "Governance for a sustainable future", Reports of the Commissions of the World Humanity Action Trust, viewed 22 April 2014, http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/governance/future.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007093122/http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/governance/future.pdf |date=2006-10-07 }}</ref>
At the state level, [[environmental management]] has been found to be conducive to the creation of roundtables and committees. In France, the ''Grenelle de l’environnement''<ref>Operational Committee No. 24 "Institutions and stakeholder representativity" (introduced by Bertrand Pancher); Final report to the Prime Minister, senior Minister, Minister for the Ecology, Sustainable Development and Territorial Planning; 2008, also known as the Rapport Pancher.</ref> process:
* included a variety of actors (e.g. the state, political leaders, unions, businesses, not-for-profit organizations and environmental protection foundations);
* allowed stakeholders to interact with the legislative and executive powers in office as indispensable advisors;
* worked to integrate other institutions, particularly the [[French Economic, Social and Environmental Council|Economic and Social Council]], to form a pressure group that participated in the process for creating an environmental governance model;
* attempted to link with environmental management at regional and local levels.
If environmental issues are excluded from e.g., the economic agenda, this may delegitimize those institutions.<ref>[http://www.eauxglacees.com/Gouvernance-environnementale-vers Laime, Marc; Gouvernance environnementale: vers une meilleure concertation ? (Environmental Governance: towards better consultation?); 2008.]</ref>
“In southern countries, the main obstacle to the integration of intermediate levels in the process of territorial environmental governance development is often the dominance of developmentalist inertia in states’ political mindset. The question of the environment has not been effectively integrated in national development planning and programs. Instead, the most common idea is that environmental protection curbs economic and social development, an idea encouraged by the frenzy for exporting raw materials extracted using destructive methods that consume resources and fail to generate any added value.”<ref>[http://www.iucn.org/es/sobre/union/secretaria/oficinas/sudamerica/sur_trabajo/sur_pgam.cfm IUCN; Gobernanza ambiental para un desarrollo sostenible (Environmental Governance for Sustainable Development).]</ref> Of course they are justified in this thinking, as their main concerns are social injustices such as poverty alleviation. Citizens in some of these states have responded by developing empowerment strategies to ease poverty through sustainable development. In addition to this, policymakers must be more aware of these concerns of the global south, and must make sure to integrate a strong focus on social justice in their policies.
=== Global governance ===
According to the [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]], global environmental governance is "the sum of organizations, policy instruments, financing mechanisms, rules, procedures and norms that regulate the processes of global environmental protection."<ref>{{Citation |last=Deere-Birkbeck |first=Carolyn |title=WTO Reform: A Forward-looking Agenda on Environmental Sustainability |date=2019-05-13 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.14217/86877f45-en |work=WTO Reform |pages=33–59 |publisher=Commonwealth |doi=10.14217/86877f45-en |isbn=978-1-84859-977-2 |s2cid=164287165 |access-date=2022-03-02}}</ref> At the global level there are numerous important actors involved in environmental governance and "a range of institutions contribute to and help define the practice of global environmental governance.<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 57"/> The idea of global environmental governance is to govern the environment at a global level through a range of nation states and non state actors such as national governments, [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and other international organisations such as UNEP ([[United Nations Environment Programme]]).<ref>{{Citation |last=Tarter |first=Andrew |title=Environment Programme, UN (UNEP) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452275956.n127 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Crisis Management |year=2013 |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. |doi=10.4135/9781452275956.n127 |isbn=9781452226125 |access-date=2022-03-02}}</ref> The global environmental movement can be traced back to the 19th century; academics acknowledge the role of the [[United Nations]] for providing a platform for international conversations regarding the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patt |first=Anthony G. |date=2010-02-01 |title=Effective regional energy governance—not global environmental governance—is what we need right now for climate change |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378009000855 |journal=Global Environmental Change |series=Adaptive Capacity to Global Change in Latin America |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=33–35 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.09.006 |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> Supporters of global environmental governance emphasize the importance of [[Multilateralism|international cooperation]] on environmental issues such as climate change. Some opponents argue that more aggressive regional environmental governance has a stronger impact compared to global environmental governance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patt |first=Anthony G. |date=February 2010 |title=Effective regional energy governance—not global environmental governance—is what we need right now for climate change |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959378009000855 |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=33–35 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.09.006}}</ref>
Global environmental governance is the answer to calls for new forms of governance because of the increasing complexity of the international agenda. It is perceived to be an effective form of multilateral management and essential to the international community in meeting goals of mitigation and the possible reversal of the impacts on the global environment.<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58">Elliot, L. (1956), Global Environmental Governance, in Hughes, S. and Wilkinson, R. (eds), Global Governance: Critical Perspectives, London: Routledge, ch. 4, pp. 58</ref> However, a precise definition of global environmental governance is still vague and there are many issues surrounding global governance.<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58" />
Elliot argues that “the congested institutional terrain still provides more of an appearance than a reality of comprehensive global governance.”<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58" /> It is a political practice which simultaneously reflects, constitutes and masks global relations of power and powerlessness.”<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58" /> State agendas exploit the use of global environmental governance to enhance their oven agendas or wishes even if this is at the detriment of the vital element behind global environmental governance which is the environment. Elliot states that global environmental governance “is neither normatively neutral nor materially benign.”<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 58" />
As explored by Newell, report notes by The Global Environmental Outlook noted that the systems of global environmental governance are becoming increasingly irrelevant or impotent due to patterns of globalisation such as; imbalances in productivity and the distribution of goods and services, unsustainable progression of extremes of wealth and poverty and population and economic growth overtaking environmental gains.<ref name="Newell, P. 2008 pp 508">{{cite journal|jstor=40212487|page=508|title=The Political Economy of Global Environmental Governance|journal=Review of International Studies|volume=34|issue=3|last1=Newell|first1=Peter|year=2008|doi=10.1017/S0260210508008140|s2cid=146654612|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/12575/1/S0260210508008140a.pdf}}</ref> Newell states that, despite such acknowledgements, the “managing of global environmental change within International Relations continues to look to international regimes for the answers.”<ref name="Newell, P. 2008 pp 508" />
==== Environmental Governance in the Global North and Global South ====
Relations between the [[Global North and Global South]] have been impacted by a history of [[colonialism]], during which Northern colonial powers contributed to environmental degradation of natural resources in the South.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shepherd |first1=Christopher |last2=Palmer |first2=Lisa |date=2015-01-01 |title=The Modern Origins of Traditional Agriculture: Colonial Policy, Swidden Development, and Environmental Degradation in Eastern Timor |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/171/2-3/article-p281_5.xml |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |language=en |volume=171 |issue=2–3 |pages=281–311 |doi=10.1163/22134379-17102005 |issn=0006-2294|doi-access=free }}</ref> This dynamic continues to influence international relations and is the basis for what some historians recognize as the "[[Global North and Global South|North-South divide]]."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/international-environmental-law-and-the-global-south/F20B81AFC3AB12E6ABC114BEFDA88BF1 |title=International Environmental Law and the Global South |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-05569-8 |editor-last=Alam |editor-first=Shawkat |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/cbo9781107295414 |editor-last2=Atapattu |editor-first2=Sumudu |editor-last3=Gonzalez |editor-first3=Carmen G. |editor-last4=Razzaque |editor-first4=Jona |editor-link2=Sumudu Atapattu}}</ref> Scholars argue that this divide has created hurdles in the international lawmaking process regarding the environment. Scholars have noted that unindustrialized countries in the Global South sometimes are disconnected from environmentalism and perceive environmental governance to be a "luxury" priority for the Global North.<ref name=":1" /> In recent years, [[sustainable development]] has made its way to the forefront of international discourse and urges the North and South to cooperate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 17 GOALS {{!}} Sustainable Development |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |access-date=2022-02-24 |website=sdgs.un.org}}</ref> Academics recognized that environmental governance priorities in the Global North have been at odds with the desire to focus on economic development in the Global South.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Duffy |first=Rosaleen |date=April 2013 |title=Global Environmental Governance and North—South Dynamics: The Case of the Cites |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1068/c1105 |journal=Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=222–239 |doi=10.1068/c1105 |bibcode=2013EnPlC..31..222D |s2cid=154558633 |issn=0263-774X}}</ref>
Some analysts propose a shift towards "non-state" actors for the development of environmental governance.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Bäckstrand |first=Karin |date=December 2006 |title=Democratizing Global Environmental Governance? Stakeholder Democracy after the World Summit on Sustainable Development |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106069321 |journal=European Journal of International Relations |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=467–498 |doi=10.1177/1354066106069321 |s2cid=146248414 |issn=1354-0661}}</ref> Environmental politics researcher [[Karin Bäckstrand]] claims this will increase transparency, accountability, and legitimacy.<ref name=":2" /> In some cases, scholars have noted that environmental governance in the Global North has had adverse consequences on the environment in the Global South.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Minneti |first=Jeffrey |date=2018-10-15 |title=Environmental Governance and the Global South |url=https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmelpr/vol43/iss1/4 |journal=William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=83 |issn=1091-9724}}</ref> Environmental and economic priorities in the Global North do not always align with those in the Global South.<ref name=":02" /> Producers in the Global North developed voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) to address environmental concerns in the North, but these standards also end up impacting economic activity in the Global South.<ref name=":02" /> Jeffrey J. Minneti from the [[William & Mary Law School]] has argued that the Global South needs to "manage its own ecological footprint" by creating VSS independent from the Global North.<ref name=":02" /> Tension between countries in the Global North and Global South has caused some academics to criticize global environmental governance for being too slow of a process to enact policy change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winchester |first=N. |date=2009-01-01 |title=Emerging Global Environmental Governance |url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijgls/vol16/iss1/2 |journal=16 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 7 (2009) |volume=16 |issue=1}}</ref>
=== Outer Space Environmental Governance ===
Since space travel and activities began in the 1950s, more nations have engaged in the race to use space more rigorously. More specifically, USA and Russia launched the world's first [[artificial satellite]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Cracknell |first1=Arthur P. |last2=Varotsos |first2=Costas A. |date=2007-05-01 |title=Editorial and cover: Fifty years after the first artificial satellite: from Sputnik 1 to ENVISAT |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160701347147 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=2071–2072 |doi=10.1080/01431160701347147 |bibcode=2007IJRS...28.2071C |s2cid=128420996 |issn=0143-1161}}</ref> The other new nations entering the space race lack the comprehensive space abilities similar to the US and Russia. The need and desire to expand into space creates numerous problems, none more prominent than the concern of space wreckages. Various organizations, including the [[Committee of Space Research]], continue to implement ways to successfully and effectively govern the global sphere. Laws like the [[Planetary protection policy|Planetary Protection Policy]] are meant to regulate the use of space, specifically, the issue of space debris. As each launch becomes more and more dangerous, the policy development of various countries is unbalanced, and there is a lack of unified international standards and norms. Space is at risk of permanent damage or "[[Kessler syndrome]]" (an on-orbit collision [[chain reaction]] caused by major debris events). It increases the risk of paralyzed global space services, including GPS, the [[global financial system]], and daily weather forecasts. Although the [[Planetary protection policy|Planetary Protection Policy]] law is not enforceable, it helps protect against the Moon's contamination and other celestial bodies. The space governing organizations implement laws that help regulate space use, thus, lessening space contamination. For instance, the 65% post-mission-disposal still falls well short of the 90% target, which China looks to increase to 95%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Qisong |first=He |date=2021 |title=China's Space Power Strategy in the New Era |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/837041 |journal=Asian Perspective |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=785–807 |doi=10.1353/apr.2021.0041 |s2cid=244482618 |issn=2288-2871}}</ref> However, more countries are implementing additional measures to increase that number. [[Space Situational Awareness Programme|Space Situational Awareness]] (SSA) is important because it monitors the conditions in space and helps improve [https://www.army.mil/article/237502/safety_of_flight_messages_save_lives#:~:text=Safety%20of%20Flight%20messages%20are,or%20damage%20to%20the%20system. Safety-of-Flight (SoF)], increasing its comprehensiveness, timeliness, accuracy, and transparency.
Outer space is part of the environment because it is linked to the Earth's environment in numerous modest ways. For instance, the day-to-day changes in the weather system are closely related to outer space conditions. The solar wind repeatedly hits [[Earth's magnetic field]], including its [[upper atmosphere]], resulting in [http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~earpwjg/PG_EN/Mypdfs/2015_Glover_ToG2_LD.pdf Earth's electrical properties]. Furthermore, Earth sits at the center of the 'gale' of particles that emanate from the outer parts of the [[Sun's atmosphere]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Hai |last2=Liu |first2=Jing |last3=Cheng |first3=Hao-Wen |last4=Zhang |first4=Yao |date=2017-02-01 |title=Particle swarm optimization based space debris surveillance network scheduling |journal=Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=30 |doi=10.1088/1674-4527/17/3/30 |bibcode=2017RAA....17...30J |s2cid=12926473 |issn=1674-4527|doi-access=free }}</ref> Like the solar wind but of much deeper space origin, [[cosmic ray]]s also strike the Earth penetrating its [[Troposphere|lower atmosphere]], where it is believed to help form low-level clouds. Lastly, outer space is part of the environment because its conditions affect the operations of spaceships, the health of astronauts, and the state and functioning of any other objects and satellites circumnavigating Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pardini |first1=Carmen |last2=Anselmo |first2=Luciano |date=2017-05-01 |title=Revisiting the collision risk with cataloged objects for the Iridium and COSMO-SkyMed satellite constellations |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576516312607 |journal=Acta Astronautica |language=en |volume=134 |pages=23–32 |doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.01.046 |bibcode=2017AcAau.134...23P |issn=0094-5765}}</ref> The international space order is amid an upheaval, adjustment, and reconstruction period. The global space economy will be worth $360 billion by 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Petronio |first=Sole Petronio |date=2020 |title=The evolution of the space sector: an insight into the new trends and business opportunities |url=http://tesi.luiss.it/29455/1/225821_PETRONIO_MARIA%20SOLE.pdf}}</ref> However, as costs decline, it is expected that the entry barrier to space will continue to decrease. Countries are increasingly focusing their attention on space not only for national security but also for commercial opportunities. As a result, outer space environmental governance is being introduced gradually.
The space governance methods incorporate the issues provided in the [https://www.canasean.com/the-montreal-declaration-for-the-responsible-development-of-artificial-intelligence-launched/ Montreal Declaration], which requires the following elements. The inspection of the shifting international fiscal, social, and political environments and space infrastructure dependence; the identification and valuation of all known space threats and dangers; the inspection of all space prospects and the need for [[maintainable]] and diplomatic use of outer space, including the study and manipulation of space for the advantage of man; the recognition of safety, technical, and operative alterations requiring resolutions; and the endorsement of relevant space governance treaties, arrangements, guidelines, ethics, and apposite established mechanisms, inventions and procedures pertinent to existing and developing space events.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Fengyun |last2=Shi |first2=Yaning |last3=Yao |first3=Ke |date=2021 |title=Challenges and Countermeasures of China's Cyberspace Governance in the New Era |url=https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/abs/2021/07/shsconf_iafsm2020_01005/shsconf_iafsm2020_01005.html |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |language=en |volume=96 |pages=01005 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/20219601005 |s2cid=234119004 |issn=2261-2424|doi-access=free }}</ref> Many countries aspire to be leaders and responsible actors in space and therefore support the international community's ongoing efforts to develop responsible behavior and norms for space operators. Countries such as Brazil, China, France, Japan, and South Africa are all working to establish standards of behavior in space, hoping to protect space assets through better [[Space Situational Awareness Programme|space situational awareness]] and [[space traffic management]].
Below are examples of policies from three different countries.
* Australia does not have a national space policy but emphasizes [[COPUOS]] standards for space debris mitigation while creating official guidelines for international launches. Australia has activated a [[C-Band All Sky Survey|C-band]] space surveillance radar system for the purpose of tracking space debris.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Defence |first=Department of |date=2017-03-07 |title=Australia's Space Surveillance Radar reaches Full Operational Capability |url=https://www.minister.defence.gov.au/minister/marise-payne/media-releases/australias-space-surveillance-radar-reaches-full-operational |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=www.minister.defence.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> These data from the southern hemisphere will help increase worldwide awareness of the state of the world's space and sustainable practices.
* France's outer space environmental governance policy is mostly seen in the 2011 [https://www.ccis-expertise.com/en/cu-tr-010-2011-safety-of-machinery Technical Regulations Decree], which focuses on launch and orbital licensing. The Technical Regulations Decree requires that rail systems be designed, manufactured, and implemented in such a way that debris is avoided during regular operation. At launch, the likelihood of disintegration in orbit must be less than one in 1,000. Additionally, it must be capable of safely deorbiting and re-entering the atmosphere once the mission is accomplished. If it cannot deorbit, it must adhere to the [[ITU]]'s standards for geosynchronous orbits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Space Law Review - The Law Reviews |url=https://thelawreviews.co.uk/title/the-space-law-review/france |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=thelawreviews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>
* Canada's government has established a regulatory framework aimed at reducing the formation of space debris. Operators must give an evaluation and plan for disposing of projected orbital debris. The [[Canadian Space Agency]] (CSA) has adopted the [https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/iadc-space-debris-guidelines-revision-2.pdf IADC principles] for space debris mitigation and aims to implement them across all CSA activities. Additionally, the Canadian government requires licensees of spacecraft that operate in the radio frequency to submit a space debris mitigation strategy as part of the licensing process.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Agency |first=Canadian Space |date=2013-11-29 |title=Canada's Space Policy Framework |url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/publications/space-policy/default.asp |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=www.asc-csa.gc.ca}}</ref> Simultaneously, if the satellite is in a geosynchronous orbit, it must adhere to [[ITU]] standards.<ref name=":4" />
=== Issues of scale ===
==== Multi-tier governance ====
The literature on governance scale shows how changes in the understanding of [[environmental issues]] have led to the movement from a local view to recognising their larger and more complicated scale. This move brought an increase in the diversity, specificity and complexity of initiatives. Meadowcroft pointed out innovations that were layered on top of existing structures and processes, instead of replacing them.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Meadowcroft|first=James|title=Politics and scale: some implications for environmental governance|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|year=2002|volume=61|issue=2–4|pages=169–179|doi=10.1016/s0169-2046(02)00111-1}}</ref>
Lafferty and Meadowcroft give three examples of multi-tiered governance: [[internationalisation]], increasingly comprehensive approaches, and involvement of multiple governmental entities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lafferty|first=William|title=Implementing Sustainable Development|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|author2=Meadowcroft, James}}</ref> Lafferty and Meadowcroft described the resulting multi-tiered system as addressing issues on both smaller and wider scales.
==== Institutional fit ====
[[Hans Bruyninckx]] claimed that a mismatch between the scale of the environmental problem and the level of the policy intervention was problematic.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bruyninckx|first=Hans|title=Environmental evaluation practices and the issue of scale|journal=New Directions for Evaluation|year=2009|volume=2009|issue=122|pages=31–39|doi=10.1002/ev.293|s2cid=144373806 |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/234737/1/newdirectionsevaluation-HB.pdf}}</ref> Young claimed that such mismatches reduced the effectiveness of interventions.<ref name=young>{{cite journal|last=Young|first=Oran|title=The globalization of socio-ecological systems: An agenda for scientific research|journal=Global Environmental Change|year=2006|volume=16|issue=3|pages=304–316|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.004}}</ref> Most of the literature addresses the level of [[governance]] rather than ecological scale.
[[Elinor Ostrom]], amongst others, claimed that the mismatch is often the cause of unsustainable management practices and that simple solutions to the mismatch have not been identified.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Folke|first=C|title=The problem of fit between ecosystems and institutions: ten years later|journal=Ecology and Society|year=2007|volume=12|issue=1|page=30|doi=10.5751/ES-02064-120130|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/3529|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ostrem|first=Elinor|title=A diagnostic approach for going beyond panaceas|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2007|volume=104|issue=39|pages=15181–15187|doi=10.1073/pnas.0702288104|pmid=17881578|pmc=2000497|bibcode=2007PNAS..10415181O|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Considerable debate has addressed the question of which level(s) should take responsibility for fresh water management. Development workers tend to address the problem at the local level. National governments focus on policy issues.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lebel|first=L |author2=Garden, L |author3=Imamura, M|title=The Politics of Scale, Position and Place in the Governance of Water Resources in the Mekong Region|journal=Ecology and Society|year=2005|volume=10|issue=2|page=18|doi=10.5751/ES-01543-100218 |doi-access=free|hdl=10535/2498|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This can create conflicts among states because rivers cross borders, leading to efforts to evolve governance of [[river basins]].<ref name="Elliot, L. 1956 pp. 57"/>
<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zagg|first=V|author2=Gupta, J|title=Scale issues in the governance of water storage projects|journal=Water Resources Research|year=2008|volume=44|issue=10|pages=W10417|bibcode=2008WRR....4410417V|doi=10.1029/2007WR006364|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/8d927518-6adc-4b67-bea3-3ed1c19e488b|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Environmental governance issues==
===Soil deterioration===
[[soil degradation|Soil]] and [[land degradation|land deterioration]] reduces its [[field capacity|capacity]] for capturing, [[water storage|storing]] and recycling water, energy and food. [[Alliance 21]] proposed solutions in the following domains:<ref>[http://www.alliance21.org/2003/article514.html Alliance 21’s Proposal Paper “Save our Soils to Sustain our Societies”]</ref>
* include [[Soil regeneration|soil rehabilitation]] as part of conventional and popular education
* involve all stakeholders, including policymakers and authorities, producers and land users, the scientific community and civil society to manage incentives and enforce regulations and laws
* establish a set of binding rules, such as an international convention
* set up mechanisms and incentives to facilitate transformations
* gather and share knowledge;
* mobilize funds nationally and internationally
===Climate change===
The [[scientific consensus on climate change]] is expressed in the reports of [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) and also in the statements by all major scientific bodies in the United States such as [[National Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1103618|pmid=15576594|title=The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change|journal=Science|volume=306|issue=5702|pages=1686|year=2004|last1=Oreskes|first1=Naomi|author1-link=Naomi Oreskes|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The drivers of climate change can include
- Changes in [[solar irradiance]]
- Changes in atmospheric [[trace gas]] and [[aerosol]] concentrations
Evidence of climate change can be identified by examining
- Atmospheric concentrations of [[Green House Gas]]es (GHGs) such as [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}})
- Land and sea surface temperatures
- Atmospheric water vapor
- [[Precipitation]]
- The occurrence or strength of extreme weather and climate events
- [[Glacier]]s
- Rapid sea [[ice loss]]
- Sea level<ref>http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_Chapter01_FINAL.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
It is suggested by climate models that the changes in temperature and sea level can be the causal effects of human activities such as [[fuel consumption|consumption]] of fossil fuels, [[deforestation]], increased [[agricultural production]] and production of [[xenobiotic]] gases.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0964-5691(92)90054-o|title=Climate, sea level rise and the coastal zone: Management and planning for global changes|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=18|pages=113–160|year=1992|last1=Pernetta|first1=John C.|last2=Elder|first2=Danny L.|issue=1 |bibcode=1992OCM....18..113P }}</ref>
There has been increasing actions in order to mitigate climate change and reduce its impact at national, regional and international levels. [[Kyoto protocol]] and [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) plays the most important role in addressing climate change at an international level.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/climatechange/pages/gateway/the-negotiations/the-un-climate-change-convention-and-the-kyoto-protocol | title=United Nations Maintenance Page}}</ref>
The goal of combating climate change led to the adoption of the [[Kyoto Protocol]] by 191 states, an agreement encouraging the reduction of [[greenhouse gases]], mainly {{CO2}}. Since developed economies produce more emissions per capita, limiting emissions in all countries inhibits opportunities for emerging economies, the only major success in efforts to produce a global response to the phenomenon.
Two decades following the [[Brundtland Report]], however, there has been no improvement in the key indicators highlighted.
===Biodiversity===
Environmental governance for protecting the [[biodiversity]] has to act in many levels. Biodiversity is fragile because it is threatened by almost all human actions. To promote conservation of biodiversity, agreements and laws have to be created to regulate agricultural activities, [[urban growth]], [[industrialization]] of countries, [[resource use|use of natural resources]], control of [[invasive species]], the correct use of water and protection of [[air quality]]. Before making any decision for a region or country decision makers, politicians and community have to take into account what are the potential impacts for biodiversity, that any project can have.
[[Population growth]] and [[urbanization]] have been a great contributor for deforestation. Also, population growth requires more intense agricultural areas use, which also results in necessity of new areas to be deforested. This causes [[habitat loss]], which is one of the major threats for biodiversity. Habitat loss and [[habitat fragmentation]] affects all species, because they all rely on limited resources, to feed on and to breed.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2000.00175.x|title=Butterfly community structure in fragmented habitats|journal=Ecology Letters|volume=3|issue=5|pages=449–456|year=2000|last1=Steffan-Dewenter|first1=I.|last2=Tscharntke|first2=T.|bibcode=2000EcolL...3..449S }}</ref>
‘''Species are genetically unique and irreplaceable their loss is irreversible. Ecosystems vary across a vast range of parameters, and similar ecosystems (whether wetlands, forests, coastal reserves etc) cannot be presumed to be interchangeable, such that the loss of one can be compensated by protection or restoration of another''’.<ref>IUCN 2010 ‘Environmental Governance’ viewed 28 May 2014, www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/environmental_law/elp_work/elp_work_issues/elp_work_governance</ref>
To avoid habitat loss, and consequently [[biodiversity loss]], politicians and lawmakers should be aware of the precautionary principle, which means that before approving a project or law all the pros and cons should be carefully analysed. Sometimes the impacts are not explicit, or not even proved to exist. However, if there is any chance of an irreversible impact happen, it should be taken into consideration.<ref>IUCN 2007 ‘Guidelines for applying the precautionary principle to biodiversity conservation and natural resource management’ viewed 28 May 2014, cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/ln250507_ppguidelines.pdf</ref>
To promote environmental governance for biodiversity protection there has to be a clear articulation between values and interests while negotiating environmental management plans.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/s1462-9011(02)00027-8|title=Environmental governance for biodiversity|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=5|pages=79–90|year=2002|last1=Sampford|first1=Charles|issue=1 }}</ref> International agreements are good way to have it done right.
The [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) was signed in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 human activities. The CBD's objectives are: “to conserve biological diversity, to use biological diversity in a sustainable fashion, to share the benefits of [[Biological diversity|biological diversity fairly]] and equitably.” The convention is the first global agreement to address all aspects of biodiversity: genetic resources, species and ecosystems. It recognizes, for the first time, that the conservation of biological diversity is “a common concern for all humanity”. The Convention encourages joint efforts on measures for scientific and technological cooperation, access to genetic resources and the transfer of clean environmental technologies.
The Convention on Biological Diversity most important edition happened in 2010 when the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the [[Aichi Targets]], were launched. These two projects together make the United Nations decade on Biodiversity. It was held in Japan and has the targets of ‘''halting and eventually reversing the [[loss of biodiversity]] of the planet''’.<ref name="cbd.int">Convention on Biodiversity 2010 ‘Strategic Goals & Targets for 2020’ viewed 28 May 2014, www.cbd.int/2011-2020/goals/</ref> The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity has the goal to ‘''promote its overall vision of living in harmony with nature''’ As result (...) ‘''mainstream biodiversity at different levels. Throughout the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity, governments are encouraged to develop, implement and communicate the results of national strategies for implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity''’.<ref name="cbd.int"/> According to the CBD <ref name="cbd.int"/> the five Aichi targets are:
#‘''Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society'';
#''Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use'';
#''Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and [[genetic diversity]]'';
#''Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]]'';
#''Enhance implementation through [[participatory planning]], [[knowledge management]] and [[capacity building]]''.’
=== Water ===
The 2003 [[UN World Water Development Report]] claimed that the amount of water available over the next twenty years would drop by 30%.{{update|date=September 2013}}
In the same report, it is indicated that in 1998, 2.2 million people died from diarrhoeal diseases.<ref>United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2003). ''World Water Development Report 1: "Water for People, Water for Life"''. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129726e.pdf#page=27</ref> In 2004, the UK's [[WaterAid]] charity reported that one child died every 15 seconds from water-linked diseases.
According to Alliance 21<ref>[http://www.alliance21.org/2003/article501.html Proposals Related to the Water Issue]</ref> “All levels of [[Water management|water supply management]] are necessary and independent. The integrated approach to the catchment areas must take into account the needs of [[irrigation]] and those of towns, jointly and not separately as is often seen to be the case....The governance of a water supply must be guided by the principles of sustainable development.”
[[Australia]]n [[water resources]] have always been variable but they are becoming increasingly so with changing climate conditions. Because of how limited water resources are in Australia, there needs to be an effective implementation of environmental governance conducted within the country. Water restrictions are an important policy device used in Australian environmental governance to limit the amount of water used in urban and agricultural environments (Beeton et al. 2006). There is increased pressure on surface water resources in Australia because of the uncontrolled growth in [[groundwater]] use and the constant threat of drought. These increased pressures not only affect the quantity and quality of the waterways but they also negatively affect biodiversity. The government needs to create policies that preserve, protect and monitor Australia's inland water. The most significant environmental governance policy imposed by the Australian government is environmental flow allocations that allocate water to the natural environment. The proper implementation of [[water trading]] systems could help to conserve water resources in Australia. Over the years there has been an increase in demand for water, making Australia the third largest per capita user of water in the world (Beeton et al. 2006). If this trend continues, the gap between supply and demand will need to be addressed. The government needs to implement more efficient water allocations and raise water rates (UNEP, 2014). By changing public perception to promote the action of reusing and recycling water some of the stress of water shortages can be alleviated. More extensive solutions like desalination plants, building more dams and using aquifer storage are all options that could be taken to conserve water levels but all these methods are controversial. With caps on surface water use, both urban and rural consumers are turning to groundwater use; this has caused groundwater levels to decline significantly. Groundwater use is very hard to monitor and regulate. There is not enough research currently being conducted to accurately determine sustainable yields. Some regions are seeing improvement in groundwater levels by applying caps on bores and the amount of water that consumers are allowed to extract. There have been projects in environmental governance aimed at restoring vegetation in the riparian zone. Restoring riparian vegetation helps increase biodiversity, reduce salinity, prevent soil erosion and prevent riverbank collapse. Many rivers and waterways are controlled by weirs and locks that control the flow of rivers and also prevent the movement of fish. The government has funded fish-ways on some weirs and locks to allow for native fish to move upstream. Wetlands have significantly suffered under restricted water resources with water bird numbers dropping and a decrease in species diversity. The allocation of water for bird breeding through environmental flows in [[Macquarie Marshes]] has led to an increase in breeding (Beeton et al. 2006). Because of dry land salinity throughout Australia there has been an increase in the levels of salt in Australian waterways. There has been funding in salt interception schemes which help to improve in-stream salinity levels but whether river salinity has improved or not is still unclear because there is not enough data available yet. High salinity levels are dangerous because they can negatively affect larval and juvenile stages of certain fish. The introduction of invasive species into waterways has negatively affected native aquatic species because invasive species compete with native species and alter natural habitats. There has been research in producing [[daughterless carp]] to help eradicate carp. Government funding has also gone into building in-stream barriers that trap the carp and prevent them from moving into floodplains and wetlands. Investment in national and regional programmes like the Living Murray (MDBC), Healthy Waterways Partnership and the Clean Up the Swan Programme are leading to important environmental governance. The Healthy Rivers programme promotes restoration and recovery of environmental flows, riparian re-vegetation and aquatic pest control. The Living Murray programme has been crucial for the allocation of water to the environment by creating an agreement to recover 500 billion litres of water to the Murray River environment. Environmental governance and water resource management in Australia must be constantly monitored and adapted to suit the changing environmental conditions within the country (Beeton et al. 2006). If environmental programmes are governed with transparency there can be a reduction in policy fragmentation and an increase in policy efficiency (Mclntyre, 2010). In Arab countries, the extensive use of water for agriculture also needs critical attention since agriculture in this region has less contribution for its national income.
<ref>Beeton, B, Buckley, K, Jones, G, Morgan, D, Reichelt, R, Trewin, D, 2006, “Inland waters: Water availability and use”, Australian Government: Department of Environment.</ref>
<ref>McIntyre, Owen, 2010, “Improving Transboundary Water Governance through the Application of Integrated Water Resources Management”, National University of Ireland.</ref>
<ref>
United Nations Environmental Programme, 2014, “UNEP Conference on Strengthening Transboundary Freshwater Governance – The Environmental Sustainability Challenge”, UNEP, viewed on 31/5/14, <http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/Events/StrengtheningTransboundaryFreshwaterGovernance/tabid/475/language/en-US/Default.aspx>
</ref>
===Ozone layer===
On 16 September 1987 the United Nations General Assembly signed the Montreal Protocol to address the declining [[ozone layer]]. Since that time, the use of [[chlorofluorocarbons]] (industrial refrigerants and aerosols) and farming fungicides such as [[methyl bromide]] has mostly been eliminated, although other damaging gases are still in use.<ref>Gareau, Brian J. From Precaution to Profit: Contemporary Challenges to Global Environmental Protection in the Montreal Protocol (2013, Yale University Press).</ref>
===Nuclear risk===
The [[Nuclear non-proliferation treaty]] is the primary multilateral agreement governing nuclear activity.
===Transgenic organisms===
[[Genetically modified organisms]] are not the subject of any major multilateral agreements. They are the subject of various restrictions at other levels of governance. GMOs are in widespread use in the US, but are heavily restricted in many other jurisdictions.
Controversies have ensued over [[golden rice]], [[AquAdvantage salmon|genetically modified salmon]], [[Monsanto#Seeds|genetically modified seeds]], disclosure and other topics.
=== Precautionary principle ===
The [[precautionary principle]] or precautionary approach states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those taking an action. As of 2013 it was not the basis of major multilateral agreements.
The Precautionary Principle is put into effect if there is a chance that proposed action may cause harm to the society or the environment. Therefore, those involved in the proposed action must provide evidence that it will not be harmful, even if scientists do not believe that it will cause harm. It falls upon the policymakers to make the optimal decision, if there is any risk, even without any credible scientific evidence. However, taking precautionary action also means that there is an element of cost involved, either social or economic. So if the cost was seen as insignificant the action would be taken without the implementation of the precautionary principle.<ref>Goldstein, BD 2000, 'Applying the precautionary principle to the environment', Bulletin Of The World Health Organization, 78, 9, p. 1159, Health Business Elite, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 May 2014.</ref> But often the cost is ignored, which can lead to harmful repercussions. This is often the case with industry and scientists who are primarily concerned with protecting their own interests.<ref>European Report 25 Jan. 2013"ENVIRONMENT : PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE: EEA REPORT DAMNING TO INDUSTRY."Academic OneFile. Web. 17 May 2014.</ref>
=== Socio-environmental conflicts ===
Environmental issues such as natural resource management and climate change have security and social considerations. Drinking water scarcity and climate change can cause mass migrations of [[Environmental migrant|climate refugees]], for example.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Kaplan|first=Robert D.|date=February 1994|title=The Coming Anarchy: How scarcity, crime, overpopulation,tribalism, and disease are rapidly destroying the social fabric of our planet.|magazine=The Atlantic|volume=GLOBAL|pages=39}}</ref>
[[Social network analysis]] has been applied to understand how different actors cooperate and conflict in environmental governance. Existing relationships can influence how stakeholders collaborate during times of conflict: a study of transportation planning and land use in California found that stakeholders choose their collaborative partners by avoiding those with the most dissimilar beliefs, rather than by selecting for those with shared views. The result is known as [[homophily]]—actors with similar views are more likely to end up collaborating than those with opposing views.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-011020-064352|doi-access=free|title=Reconciling Conflict and Cooperation in Environmental Governance: A Social Network Perspective|year=2020|last1=Bodin|first1=Örjan|last2=Mancilla García|first2=María|last3=Robins|first3=Garry|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=45|issue=1 |pages=471–495|hdl=11343/274185|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/jopart/muq042|doi-access=free|title=Belief Systems and Social Capital as Drivers of Policy Network Structure: The Case of California Regional Planning|year=2011|last1=Henry|first1=Adam Douglas|last2=Lubell|first2=Mark|last3=McCoy|first3=Michael|journal=Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory|volume=21|issue=3|pages=419–444}}</ref>
=== Orbital debris ===
Since the beginning of [[space exploration]] and operations in the 1950s, additional countries have joined the race to utilize space more intensively. The United States and Russia launched the first artificial satellite.<ref name=":3" /> Human space operations have resulted in a large amount of trash in the sky. Among these is the last stage of a rocket, functioning pieces of starting explosive devices, disintegration fragments created by the mutual impact of [[space vehicle]]s or arrows ([[projectile]]s) as a result of their explosion. In the vicinity of the Earth, there are already more than 50,000 abandoned spacecraft and space junk as each launch gets hazardous.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Garcia |first=Mark |date=2015-04-13 |title=Space Debris and Human Spacecraft |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ting |date=2010-06-30 |title=Analysis of Debris from the Collision of the Cosmos 2251 and the Iridium 33 Satellites |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08929882.2010.493078 |journal=Science & Global Security |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=87–118 |doi=10.1080/08929882.2010.493078 |bibcode=2010S&GS...18...87W |s2cid=22749661 |issn=0892-9882}}</ref> A "[[Kessler syndrome]]" or "permanent harm" might occur, which means one fragment breaks up and collides with another fragment, causing a series of collisions, which eventually pollutes the whole orbit of the satellite. Space has become a part of daily human life, from [[telecommunications]] to disaster monitoring. The loss of any satellite is a serious problem, such as GPS, the [[global financial system]], and daily [[Weather forecasting|weather forecasts]].
==Agreements==
===Conventions===
The main multilateral conventions, also known as Rio Conventions, are as follows:
[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) (1992–1993): aims to conserve biodiversity. Related agreements include the [http://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cartagena-protocol-en.pdf Cartagena Protocol] on biosafety.
[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCC) (1992–1994): aims to stabilize concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would [[Avoiding dangerous climate change|stabilize the climate system]] without threatening food production, and enabling the pursuit of sustainable economic development; it incorporates the [[Kyoto Protocol]].
[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD) (1994–1996): aims to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought and desertification, in developing countries (Though initially the convention was primarily meant for Africa).
Further conventions:
* [http://www.ramsar.org Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance] (1971–1975)
* [http://whc.unesco.org UNESCO World Heritage Convention] (1972–1975)
* [http://www.cites.org Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)] (1973–1975)
* [http://www.cms.int Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species] (1979–1983)
* [http://www.unece.org/env/water Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention)] (1992–1996)
* [http://www.basel.int Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal] (1989–1992)
* [http://www.pic.int Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedures for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade]
* [http://www.pops.int Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (COP)] (2001–2004)
The Rio Conventions are characterized by:
* obligatory execution by signatory states
* involvement in a sector of global environmental governance
* focus on the fighting poverty and the development of sustainable living conditions;
* funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for countries with few financial resources;
* inclusion of a for assessing ecosystem status<ref>[http://www.millenniumassessment.org/fr/index.aspx Millennium assessment]</ref>
Environmental conventions are regularly criticized for their:
* rigidity and verticality: they are too descriptive, homogenous and top down, not reflecting the diversity and complexity of environmental issues. Signatory countries struggle to translate objectives into concrete form and incorporate them consistently;
* duplicate structures and aid: the sector-specific format of the conventions produced duplicate structures and procedures. Inadequate cooperation between government ministries;
* contradictions and incompatibility: e.g., “if reforestation projects to reduce {{CO2}} give preference to monocultures of exotic species, this can have a negative impact on biodiversity (whereas natural regeneration can strengthen both biodiversity and the conditions needed for life).”<ref name="inforesources2005"/>
Until now, the formulation of environmental policies at the international level has been divided by theme, sector or territory, resulting in treaties that overlap or clash. International attempts to coordinate environment institutions, include the Inter-Agency Coordination Committee and the [[Commission for Sustainable Development]], but these institutions are not powerful enough to effectively incorporate the three aspects of sustainable development.{{sfn|Kanie|Haas|2004}}
===Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)===
MEAs are agreements between several countries that apply internationally or regionally and concern a variety of environmental questions. As of 2013 over 500 Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), including 45 of global scope involve at least 72 signatory countries.<ref name=inomata>Inomata, Tadanori; Management Review of Environmental Governance within the United Nations System; United Nations; Joint Inspection Unit; Geneva; 2008.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Prue|title=Multilateral Environmental Agreement Negotiator's Handbook: Pacific Region 2013|date=2013|publisher=Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme / New Zealand Centre for Environmental Law, University of Auckland|location=Samoa / New Zealand|isbn=978-982-04-0475-5|url=http://www.sprep.org/attachments/Publications/EMG/MEA_Handbook_2013.pdf|author2=Stroud, Lucy |author3=Peteru, Clark }}</ref> Further agreements cover regional environmental problems, such as [[deforestation in Borneo]] or pollution in the Mediterranean. Each agreement has a specific mission and objectives ratified by multiple states.
Many Multilateral Environmental Agreements have been negotiated with the support from the United Nations Environmental Programme and work towards the achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals as a means to instil sustainable practices for the environment and its people.<ref name="Steiner, A 2010 pp. 1-136">Steiner, A & Oviir, M (2010) ‘Auditing the Implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs): A Primer for Auditors’, United Nations Environment Programme, pp. 1-136</ref> Multilateral Environmental Agreements are considered to present enormous opportunities for greener societies and economies which can deliver numerous benefits in addressing food, energy and [[water security]] and in achieving sustainable development.<ref name="Steiner, A 2010 pp. 1-136"/> These agreements can be implemented on a global or regional scale, for example the issues surrounding the disposal of hazardous waste can be implemented on a regional level as per the Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste within Africa which applies specifically to Africa, or the global approach to hazardous waste such as the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal which is monitored throughout the world.<ref name="Steiner, A 2010 pp. 1-136"/><ref>African Union, (2010) ‘Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa’, African Union, accessed on 16 May 2014 via <http://www.au.int/en/content/bamako-convention-ban-import-africa-and-control-transboundary-movement-and-management-hazard {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517135708/http://www.au.int/en/content/bamako-convention-ban-import-africa-and-control-transboundary-movement-and-management-hazard |date=2014-05-17 }}></ref><ref>Basil Action Network (2011) ‘The Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal’, Basil Action Network, accessed on 16 May 2014 via <http://ban.org/about_basel_conv/treaty_text.html></ref>
“The environmental governance structure defined by the Rio and Johannesburg Summits is sustained by [http://en.coredem.info/wiki/Environmental_governance#International_institutions UNEP], MEAs and developmental organizations and consists of assessment and policy development, as well as project implementation at the country level.
"The governance structure consists of a chain of phases:
* a) assessment of environment status;
* b) international policy development;
* c) formulation of MEAs;
* d) policy implementation;
* e) policy assessment;
* f) enforcement;
* g) sustainable development.
"Traditionally, UNEP has focused on the normative role of engagement in the first three
phases. Phases (d) to (f) are covered by MEAs and the sustainable development phase involves developmental organizations such as UNDP and the World Bank.”<ref name=inomata/>
Lack of coordination affects the development of coherent governance. The report shows that donor states support development organizations, according to their individual interests. They do not follow a joint plan, resulting in overlaps and duplication. MEAs tend not to become a joint frame of reference and therefore receive little financial support. States and organizations emphasize existing regulations rather than improving and adapting them.<ref name=inomata/>
==Background==
The risks associated with nuclear fission raised global awareness of environmental threats. The 1963 [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]] prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing was the beginning of the globalization of environmental issues. Environmental law began to be modernized and coordinated with the [[Stockholm Conference]] (1972), backed up in 1980 by the Vienna Convention on the [[Law of treaties|Law of Treaties]].<ref>Di Mento, Josep; The Global Environment and International law, University of Texas Press; 2003; p 7.</ref> The [[Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer]] was signed and ratified in 1985. In 1987, 24 countries signed the [[Montreal Protocol]] which imposed the gradual withdrawal of CFCs.
The [[Brundtland Report]], published in 1987 by the [[Earth Summit|UN Commission on Environment and Development]], stipulated the need for economic development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the capacity of future generations to meet their needs.
===Rio Conference (1992) and reactions===
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), better known as the 1992 [[Earth Summit]], was the first major international meeting since the end of the [[Cold War]] and was attended by delegations from 175 countries. Since then the biggest international conferences that take place every 10 years guided the global governance process with a series of MEAs. [[Environmental treaties]] are applied with the help of [[secretariats]].
Governments created international treaties in the 1990s to check [[List of global issues|global threats]] to the environment. These treaties are far more restrictive than global protocols and set out to change non-sustainable production and consumption models.<ref name=boug>Bouguerra, Larbi; La consommation assassine. Comment le mode de vie des uns ruine celui des autres, pistes pour u ne consommation responsible (Consumption Kills. How some people’s lifestyles ruin other people’s lives. Ideas for responsible consumption) ; Éditions Charles Léopold Mayer; 2005; adaptation of State of the World. Special Focus - The Consumer Society; The Worldwatch Institute; 2004.</ref>
===Agenda 21===
[[Agenda 21]] is a detailed plan of actions to be implemented at the global, national and local levels by UN organizations, member states and key individual groups in all regions. Agenda 21 advocates making sustainable development a legal principle law. At the local level, local Agenda 21 advocates an inclusive, territory-based strategic plan, incorporating sustainable environmental and social policies.
The Agenda has been accused of using neoliberal principles, including free trade to achieve environmental goals. For example, chapter two, entitled “International Cooperation to Accelerate Sustainable Development in Developing Countries and Related Domestic Policies” states, “The international economy should provide a supportive international climate for achieving environment and development goals by: promoting sustainable development through trade liberalization.”
==Actors==
===International institutions===
====United Nations Environment Program====
{{main|United Nations Environment Program}}
The UNEP has had its biggest impact as a monitoring and advisory body, and in developing environmental agreements. It has also contributed to strengthening the institutional capacity of environment ministries.
In 2002 UNEP held a conference to focus on product lifecycle impacts, emphasizing the fashion, advertising, financial and retail industries, seen as key agents in promoting sustainable consumption.<ref name=boug/>
According to Ivanova, UNEP adds value in environmental monitoring, scientific assessment and information sharing, but cannot lead all environmental management processes. She proposed the following tasks for UNEP:
* initiate a strategic independent overhaul of its mission;
* consolidate the financial information and transparency process;
* restructure organizing governance by creating an operative executive council that balances the omnipresence of the overly imposing and fairly ineffectual Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum (GMEF).
Other proposals offer a new mandate to “produce greater unity amongst social and environmental agencies, so that the concept of ‘environment for development’ becomes a reality. It needs to act as a platform for establishing standards and for other types of interaction with national and international organizations and the United Nations. The principles of cooperation and [https://web.archive.org/web/20091123163001/http://www.amisdelaterre.org/Des-responsabilites-communes-mais.html common but differentiated responsibilities] should be reflected in the application of this revised mandate.”<ref>Reforming International Environmental Governance: Statement representing views expressed at two meetings of stakeholders held at the 24th Session of the UNEP Governing Council/GMEF 2007.</ref>
Sherman proposed principles to strengthen UNEP:
* obtain a social consensus on a long-term vision;
* analyze the current situation and future scenarios;
* produce a comprehensive plan covering all aspects of sustainable development;
* build on existing strategies and processes;
* multiply links between national and local strategies;
* include all these points in the financial and budget plan;
* adopt fast controls to improve process piloting and identification of progress made;
* implement effective participation mechanisms.<ref>[https://www.un.org/ga/president/62/issues/environmentalgov/Statement%20on%20IEG%20by%20civil%20society.pdf Stakeholder Forum for a Sustainable Future, et al (comp.); Options for Strengthening the Environment Pillar of Sustainable Development. Compilation of Civil Society Proposals on the Institutional Framework for the United Nations' Environmental Activities; 2007.]</ref>
Another group stated, “Consider the specific needs of developing countries and respect of the fundamental principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities'. Developed countries should promote technology transfer, new and additional financial resources, and capacity building for meaningful participation of developing countries in international environmental governance. Strengthening of international environmental governance should occur in the context of sustainable development and should involve civil society as an important stakeholder and agent of transformation.”<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/ieg/SubmissionsToThePanel/BRAZILIANFORUMOFNGOS.pdf |title=Submission by the Brazilian Forum of NGOs and Social Movements for the Environment and the Development to the Panel Consultation with Civil Society; June 2006. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721080113/http://www.stakeholderforum.org/policy/ieg/SubmissionsToThePanel/BRAZILIANFORUMOFNGOS.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
====Global Environment Facility (GEF)====
{{main|Global Environment Facility}}
Created in 1991, the Global Environment Facility is an independent financial organization initiated by donor governments including Germany and France. It was the first financial organization dedicated to the environment at the global level. As of 2013 it had 179 members. Donations are used for projects covering biodiversity, climate change, international waters, destruction of the ozone layer, soil degradation and [[persistent organic pollutant]]s.
GEF's institutional structure includes UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank. It is the funding mechanism for the four environmental conventions: climate change, biodiversity, persistent organic pollutants and desertification. GEF transfers resources from developed countries to developing countries to fund UNDP, UNEP and World Bank projects. The World Bank manages the annual budget of US$561.10 million.<ref name=young2002>{{cite book|last=Zoë |first=Young |title=A new green order: The World Bank and the politics of the global environmental facility |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London |year=2002 }}</ref>
The GEF has been criticized for its historic links with the World Bank, at least during its first phase during the 1990s,<ref>Andler, Lydia; The Secretariat of the Global Environment Facility: From Network to Bureaucracy; "Global Governance Working Paper", no. 24; Amsterdam et al.; The Global Governance Project; 2007.</ref> and for having favoured certain regions to the detriment of others.<ref>Werksman, Jake; Consolidating global environmental governance: New lessons from the GEF?; in {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> Another view sees it as contributing to the emergence of a global "green market". It represents “an adaptation (of the World Bank) to this emerging world order, as a response to the emergence of environmental movements that are becoming a geopolitical force.”{{sfn|Zoë2002|p=3}} Developing countries demanded financial transfers to help them protect their environment.
GEF is subject to economic profitability criteria, as is the case for all the [http://en.coredem.info/wiki/Environmental_governance#Conventions conventions]. It received more funds in its first three years than the UNEP has since its creation in 1972. GEF funding represents less than 1% of development aid between 1992 and 2002.{{sfn|Zoë2002|p=3}}
====United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)====
{{main|Commission on Sustainable Development}}
This intergovernmental institution meets twice a year to assess follow-up on Rio Summit goals. The CSD is made up of 53 member states, elected every three years and was reformed in 2004 to help improve implementation of Agenda 21. It meets twice a year, focusing on a specific theme during each two-year period: 2004-2005 was dedicated to water and 2006–2007 to climate change. The CSD has been criticized for its low impact, general lack of presence and the absence of Agenda 21 at the state level specifically, according to a report by the [[World Resources Institute]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.wri.org/pubs/pubs_pdf.cfm?PubID=3764 |title=World Resources Institute; World Resources 2002–2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance, Voice and Power; Washington DC; 2004. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104024346/http://archive.wri.org/pubs/pubs_pdf.cfm?PubID=3764 |archive-date=2010-01-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Its mission focuses on sequencing actions and establishing agreements puts it in conflict with institutions such as UNEP and OECD.<ref name=Najam>[http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2006/geg.pdf Najam, A., Papa, M. and Taiyab, N. Global Environmental Governance. A Reform Agenda; IISD; 2006.]</ref>
====World Environment Organization (WEO)====
{{main|United Nations Environment Organization}}
A proposed World Environment Organization, analogous to the [[World Health Organization]] could be capable of adapting treaties and enforcing international standards.<ref>[http://en.coredem.info/wiki/Environmental_governance#Proposals proposals]</ref>
The European Union, particularly France and Germany, and a number of NGOs favour creating a WEO. The United Kingdom, the US and most developing countries prefer to focus on voluntary initiatives.<ref>[http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Collections/Syntheses/Gouvernance-internationale-de-l'environnement-les-prochaines-etapes Tubiana, L.; Martimort-Asso, B.; Gouvernance internationale de l'environnement: les prochaines étapes (International Environmental Governance; the next stages)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920013058/http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Collections/Syntheses/Gouvernance-internationale-de-l%27environnement-les-prochaines-etapes |date=2008-09-20 }}; in "Synthèse", 2005, no. 01, Institut du développement durable et des relations internationales (IDDRI).</ref> WEO partisans maintain that it could offer better political leadership, improved legitimacy and more efficient coordination. Its detractors argue that existing institutions and missions already provide appropriate environmental governance; however the lack of coherence and coordination between them and the absence of clear division of responsibilities prevents them from greater effectiveness.{{sfn|Kanie|Haas|2004}}<ref name=unep/>
====World Bank====
{{main|World Bank}}
The World Bank influences environmental governance through other actors, particularly the GEF. The World Bank's mandate is not sufficiently defined in terms of environmental governance despite the fact that it is included in its mission. However, it allocates 5 to 10% of its annual funds to environmental projects. The institution's capitalist vocation means that its investment is concentrated solely in areas which are profitable in terms of cost benefits, such as climate change action and ozone layer protection, whilst neglecting other such as adapting to climate change and desertification. Its financial autonomy means that it can make its influence felt indirectly on the creation of standards, and on international and regional negotiations.<ref>Marschinski, Robert; Behrle, Steffen; The World Bank: Making the Business Case for the Environment; "Global Governance Working Paper No 21"; Amsterdam et al; The Global Governance Project; 2006.</ref>
Following intense criticism in the 1980s for its support for destructive projects which, amongst other consequences, caused deforestation of tropical forests, the World Bank drew up its own environment-related standards in the 1990s so it could correct its actions. These standards differ from UNEP's standards, meant to be the benchmark, thus discrediting the institution and sowing disorder and conflict in the world of environmental governance. Other financial institutions, regional development banks and the private sector also drew up their own standards. Criticism is not directed at the World Bank's standards in themselves, which Najam considered as “robust”,<ref name=Najam/> but at their legitimacy and efficacy.
===== GEF =====
The [[Global Environment Facility|GEF]]'s account of itself as of 2012 [http://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef] is as "the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment", period, which "provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants." It claims to have provided "$10.5 billion in grants and leveraging $51 billion in co-financing for over 2,700 projects in over 165 countries [and] made more than 14,000 small grants directly to civil society and community-based organizations, totaling $634 million." It serves as mechanism for the:
*[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD)
*[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC)
*[[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]] (POPs)
*[[Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD)
*implementation of [[Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer]] in some countries with "economies in transition" [http://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef]
This mandate reflects the restructured GEF as of October 2011 [http://www.thegef.org/gef/instrument] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315020839/https://www.thegef.org/gef/instrument |date=2016-03-15 }}.
====World Trade Organization (WTO)====
{{main|World Trade Organization}}
The WTO's mandate does not include a specific principle on the environment. All the problems linked to the environment are treated in such a way as to give priority to trade requirements and the principles of the WTO's own trade system. This produces conflictual situations. Even if the WTO recognizes the existence of MEAs, it denounces the fact that around 20 MEAs are in conflict with the WTO's trade regulations. Furthermore, certain MEAs can allow a country to ban or limit trade in certain products if they do not satisfy established environmental protection requirements. In these circumstances, if one country's ban relating to another country concerns two signatories of the same MEA, the principles of the treaty can be used to resolve the disagreement, whereas if the country affected by the trade ban with another country has not signed the agreement, the WTO demands that the dispute be resolved using the WTO's trade principles, in other words, without taking into account the environmental consequences.
Some criticisms of the WTO mechanisms may be too broad. In a recently dispute over labelling of [[dolphin safe label]]s for [[tuna]] between the US and Mexico, the ruling was relatively narrow and did not, as some critics claimed,
====International Monetary Fund (IMF)====
{{main|International Monetary Fund}}
The IMF's mission is "''to ensure the stability of the international monetary system''".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/about.htm/|title=IMF -- About|website=www.imf.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>
The IMF Green Fund proposal of [[Dominique Strauss-Kahn]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2010/NEW013010A.htm |title=IMF Survey: IMF Proposes "Green Fund" for Climate Change Financing |publisher=Imf.org |date=2010-01-30 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> specifically to address "climate-related shocks in Africa",<ref>{{cite web|last=Recio |first=Eugenia |url=http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/imf-chief-proposes-green-fund-to-address-climate-related-shocks-in-africa/ |title=IMF Chief Proposes Green Fund to Address Climate-Related Shocks in Africa - Climate Change Policy & Practice |publisher=Climate-l.iisd.org |date=2010-03-08 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> despite receiving serious attention<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wdev.eu/wearchiv/042ae69d480ee8e01.php |title=The IMF's Green Fund Proposal |publisher=Wdev.eu |date=2010-02-04 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> was rejected.<ref name="reuters1">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/imf-climate-idUSN2414340820100325 |title=IMF member countries reject green fund plan |newspaper=Reuters |access-date=2013-09-15|date=2010-03-25 }}</ref> Strauss-Kahn's proposal, backed by [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]], was that "developed countries would make an initial capital injection into the fund using some of the $176 billion worth of SDR allocations from last year in exchange for a stake in the green fund." However, "most of the 24 directors ... told Strauss-Kahn that climate was not part of the IMF's mandate and that SDR allocations are a reserve asset never intended for development issues."<ref name="reuters1"/>
==== UN ICLEI ====
{{main|International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives}}
The UN's main body for coordinating municipal and urban decision-making<ref>[http://www.iclei.org/ ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability]</ref> is named the [[International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives]]. Its slogan is "Local Governments for Sustainability".
This body sponsored the concept of [[full cost accounting]] that makes environmental governance the foundation of other governance.
ICLEIs projects and achievements include:
*Convincing thousands of municipal leaders to sign the [[World Mayors and Municipal Leaders Declaration on Climate Change]] (2005) which notably requests of other levels of government that:
:Global trade regimes, credits and banking reserve rules be reformed to advance debt relief and incentives to implement policies and practices that reduce and mitigate climate change.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=2447
| title=World Mayors and Municipal Leaders Declaration on Climate Change
| date=8 December 2005
| access-date=30 March 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330211229/http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=2447
| archive-date=30 March 2018
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>
*Starting national councils to implement this and other key agreements, e.g., [[ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA]]
*Spreading [[ecoBudget]] (2008)<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=822
| title=Sustainability Management Projects
| access-date=30 March 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330143739/http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=822
| archive-date=30 March 2018
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> and [[Triple Bottom Line]] (2007) "tools for embedding sustainability into council operations",<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=6390
| title=Triple Bottom Line Tools for Embedding Sustainability into Council Operations
| date=2 May 2007
| access-date=30 March 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330143718/http://archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=6390
| archive-date=30 March 2018
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> e.g. [[Guntur]]'s Municipal Corporation, one of the first four to implement the entire framework.
*[[Sustainability Planning Toolkit]] (launched 2009)<ref>{{cite web |author=ICLEI Releases Sustainability Toolkit |url=http://blog.accessfayetteville.org/triple_bottom_line/2009/12/iclei-releases-sustainability-toolkit.html |title=ICLEI Releases Sustainability Toolkit - Triple Bottom Line |publisher=Blog.accessfayetteville.org |date=2009-12-05 |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812135301/http://blog.accessfayetteville.org/triple_bottom_line/2009/12/iclei-releases-sustainability-toolkit.html |archive-date=2011-08-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> integrating these and other tools
*[[Cities Climate Registry]] (launched 2010)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wmsc2010.org/2010/11/mayors-launch-reporting-platform-of-cities-at-climate-summit/ |title=Mayors launch reporting platform of cities at Climate Summit | WMSC 2010 Mexico City | World Mayors Summit on Climate 2010 |publisher=Wmsc2010.org |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622012603/http://www.wmsc2010.org/2010/11/mayors-launch-reporting-platform-of-cities-at-climate-summit/ |archive-date=2015-06-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> - part of UNEP [[Campaign on Cities and Climate Change]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/issues/climate_change.asp |title=Urban Environment Unit, UNEP |publisher=Unep.org |date=2006-09-20 |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref>
ICLEI promotes [[best practice exchange]] among municipal governments globally, especially [[green infrastructure]], [[sustainable procurement]].
====Other secretariats====
Other international institutions incorporate environmental governance in their action plans, including:
* [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), promoting development;
* [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) which works on the climate and atmosphere;
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) working on the protection of agriculture, forests and fishing;
* [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) which focuses on nuclear security.
Over 30 UN agencies and programmes support environmental management, according to Najam.<ref name=Najam/> This produces a lack of coordination, insufficient exchange of information and dispersion of responsibilities. It also results in proliferation of initiatives and rivalry between them.
====Criticism====
According to Bauer, Busch and Siebenhüner,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.glogov.org/ |title=Bauer, Steffen; Busch, Per-Olof; Siebenhüner, Bernd; Administering International Governance: What Role for Treaty Secretariats? "Global Governance Working Paper" No 29. Amsterdam et al; The Global Governance Project; 2006. |access-date=2019-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021512/http://www.glogov.org/ |archive-date=2019-01-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the different conventions and multilateral agreements of global environmental regulation is increasing their secretariats' influence. Influence varies according to bureaucratic and leadership efficiency, choice of technical or client-centered.
The United Nations is often the target of criticism, including from within over the multiplication of secretariats due to the chaos it produces. Using a separate secretariat for each MEA creates enormous overhead given the 45 international-scale and over 500 other agreements.
===States===
====Environmental governance at the state level====
Environmental protection has created opportunities for mutual and collective monitoring among neighbouring states. The European Union provides an example of the institutionalization of joint regional and state environmental governance. Key areas include information, led by the [[European Environment Agency]] (EEA), and the production and monitoring of norms by states or local institutions.
See also the [[Environmental policy of the European Union]].
====State participation in global environmental governance====
US refusal to ratify major environment agreements produced tensions with ratifiers in Europe and Japan.
The World Bank, IMF and other institutions are dominated by the developed countries and do not always properly consider the requirements of developing countries.
===Business===
Environmental governance applies to business as well as government. Considerations are typical of those in other domains:
* values (vision, mission, principles);
* policy (strategy, objectives, targets);
* oversight (responsibility, direction, training, communication);
* process (management systems, initiatives, internal control, monitoring and review, stakeholder dialogue, transparency, environmental accounting, reporting and verification);
* performance (performance indicators, benchmarking, eco-efficiency, reputation, compliance, liabilities, business development).<ref name=white>{{Cite web |url=http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0904BKFE-e-e.pdf |title=White, Andrew; Klernan, Matthew; Corporate Environment Governance. A Study into the Influence of Environmental Governance and the Financial Performance; Environment Agency (United Kingdom Government); 2004. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081026205128/http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0904BKFE-e-e.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
White and Klernan among others discuss the correlation between environmental governance and financial performance. This correlation is higher in sectors where environmental impacts are greater.<ref name=white/>
Business environmental issues include emissions, biodiversity, historical liabilities, product and material waste/recycling, energy use/supply and many others.<ref name=white/>
Environmental governance has become linked to traditional corporate governance as an increasing number of shareholders are corporate environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wallacepartners.net/governance.html |title=Environmental Governance |publisher=Wallace Partners |access-date=2013-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209034511/http://wallacepartners.net/governance.html |archive-date=2013-12-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Corporate governance is the set of [[Business process|processes]], customs, [[policies]], laws, and institutions affecting the way a [[corporation]] (or [[company]]) is managed. Corporate governance is affected by the relationships among [[stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]]. These stakeholders research and quantify performance to compare and contrast the environmental performance of thousands of companies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wallacepartners.net/stakeholders.html |title=Priority Stakeholders |publisher=Wallace Partners |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301152819/http://www.wallacepartners.net/stakeholders.html |archive-date=2012-03-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Large corporations with global supply chains evaluate the environmental performance of business partners and suppliers for marketing and ethical reasons. Some consumers seek environmentally friendly and sustainable products and companies.
===Non-governmental organizations===
{{Main|Non-governmental organizations}}
According to Bäckstrand and Saward,<ref name=Saward/> “broader participation by non-state actors in multilateral environmental decisions (in varied roles such as agenda setting, campaigning, lobbying, consultation, monitoring, and implementation) enhances the democratic legitimacy of environmental governance.”
Local activism is capable of gaining the support of the people and authorities to combat environmental degradatation. In Cotacachi, Ecuador, a social movement used a combination of education, direct action, the influence of local public authorities and denunciation of the mining company's plans in its own country, Canada, and the support of international environmental groups to influence mining activity.<ref>Bebbington, Anthony; et al.; Los movimientos sociales frente a la minería: disputando el desarrollo territorial andino (Social Movements and Mining: disputes over territorial development in the Andes); in J. Bengoa (ed.) "Movimientos sociales y desarrollo territorial rural en América Latina" (Social Movements and Territorial Rural Development in Latin America). Catalonia; 2007.</ref>
Fisher cites cases in which multiple strategies were used to effect change.<ref name=fisher>Fisher, Dana R.; Civil Society Protest and Participation: Civic Engagement Within the Multilateral Governance Regime pp. 176-201; in {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> She describes civil society groups that pressure international institutions and also organize local events. Local groups can take responsibility for environmental governance in place of governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/hawaii/howwework/community-based-marine-conservation.xml |title=Community-Based Marine Conservation | The Nature Conservancy |publisher=Nature.org |access-date=2013-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905194141/http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/hawaii/howwework/community-based-marine-conservation.xml |archive-date=2013-09-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.flacso.org.ec/docs/WP_005_AndradeM_01_2.pdf |title=Andrade Mendoza, Karen; La gobernanza ambiental en el Ecuador: El conflicto alrededor de la licencia Ambiental en el bloque 31, en el parque nacional Yasuní (Environmental Governance in Ecuador: the conflict concerning the environmental license for block 31 in the Yasuní National Park); FLACSO; Observatorio Socioambiental; Quito; 2008. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2011-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719134507/http://www.flacso.org.ec/docs/WP_005_AndradeM_01_2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
According to Bengoa,<ref>Bengoa, José; et al. Movimientos sociales, gobernanza ambiental y desarrollo territorial (Social Movements, Environmental Governance and Territorial Development) ; Catalonia; 2007.</ref> “social movements have contributed decisively to the creation of an institutional platform wherein the fight against poverty and exclusion has become an inescapable benchmark.” But despite successes in this area, “these institutional changes have not produced the processes for transformation that could have made substantial changes to the opportunities available to rural inhabitants, particularly the poorest and those excluded from society.” He cites several reasons:
* conflict between in-group cohesion and openness to outside influence;
* limited trust between individuals;
* contradiction between social participation and innovation;
* criticisms without credible alternatives to environmentally damaging activities
A successful initiative in Ecuador involved the establishment of stakeholder federations and management committees (NGOs, communities, municipalities and the ministry) for the management of a protected forest.<ref name=poats/>
==Proposals==
The [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] proposed an agenda for global governance. These objectives are:<ref name=Najam/>
* expert leadership;
* positioning science as the authoritative basis of sound environmental policy;
* coherence and reasonable coordination;
* well-managed institutions;
* incorporate environmental concerns and actions within other areas of international policy and action
=== Coherence and coordination ===
Despite the increase in efforts, actors, agreements and treaties, the global environment continue to degrade at a rapid rate. From the big hole in Earth's ozone layer to over-fishing to the uncertainties of climate change, the world is confronted by several intrinsically global challenges.<ref name="ProsConsMultiplicity">{{cite web
| title=The Architecture of Global Environmental Governance: Pros and Cons of Multiplicity
| url=http://www.centerforunreform.org/?q=node/234
| date=January 2007
| publisher=[[Center for UN Reform Education]]
| first1=Maria
| last1=Ivanova
| first2=Jennifer
| last2=Roy
| access-date=30 March 2018
}}</ref> However, as the environmental agenda becomes more complicated and extensive, the current system has proven ineffective in addressing and tackling problems related to trans-boundary externalities and the environment is still experiencing degradation at unprecedented levels.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wilkinson | first = Rorden | title = Global governance : critical perspectives | publisher = Routledge | location = London New York | year = 2002 | isbn = 9780203302804 }}</ref>
Inforesources<ref>[http://www.inforesources.ch/pdf/focus_3_05_e.pdf ''Global Conventions and Environmental Governance'']</ref> identifies four major obstacles to global environmental governance, and describes measures in response. The four obstacles are:
* parallel structures and competition, without a coherent strategy
* contradictions and incompatibilities, without appropriate compromise
* competition between multiple agreements with incompatible objectives, regulations and processes
* integrating policy from macro- to micro- scales.
Recommended measures:
* MDGs (Millennium Development Goals)<ref>[https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ UN Millennium Goals]</ref> and conventions, combining sustainability and reduction of poverty and equity;
* country-level approach linking global and local scales
* coordination and division of tasks in a multilateral approach that supports developing countries and improves coordination between donor countries and institutions
* use of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs)<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/prsp.aspx Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers]</ref> in development planning
* transform conflicts into tradeoffs, synergies and win-win options
Contemporary debates surrounding global environmental governance have converged on the idea of developing a stronger and more effective institutional framework. The views on how to achieve this, however, still hotly debated. Currently, rather than teaming up with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), international environmental responsibilities have been spread across many different agencies including: a) specialised agencies within the UN system such as the World Meteorological Organisation, the International Maritime Organisation and others; b) the programs in the UN system such as the UN Development Program; c) the UN regional economic and social commission; d) the Bretton Woods institutions; e) the World Trade Organisation and; f) the environmentally focused mechanisms such as the Global Environment Facility and close to 500 international environmental agreements.<ref name="ProsConsMultiplicity"/>
Some analysts also argue that multiple institutions and some degree of overlap and duplication in policies is necessary to ensure maximum output from the system.<ref>{{cite web
| title=Environment and Globalization: Five Propositions
| first1=Adil
| last1=Najam
| first2=David
| last2=Runnalls
| first3=Mark
| last3=Halle
| url=http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/trade_environment_globalization.pdf
| publisher=[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]]
| year=2007
| access-date=30 March 2018
}}</ref> Others, however, claim that institutions have become too dispersed and lacking in coordination which can be damaging to their effectiveness in global environmental governance.<ref>{{cite web
| title=Transforming Governance and Institutions for Global Sustainability
| url=http://www.ieg.earthsystemgovernance.org/sites/default/files/files/publications/ESG-WorkingPaper-17_Biermann-et-al.pdf
| first=Frank
| last=Biermann
| publisher=[[Earth System Governance Project]]
| date=November 2011
}}</ref> Whilst there are various arguments for and against a WEO, the key challenge, however, remains the same: how to develop a rational and effective framework that will protect the global environment efficiently.
=== Democratization ===
Starting in 2002, Saward<ref name=Saward/> and others began to view the [[Earth Summit]] process as capable opening up the possibility of stakeholder democracy. The summits were deliberative rather than simply participative, with NGOs, women, men, indigenous peoples and businesses joining the decision-making process alongside states and international organizations, characterized by:
* the importance given to scientific and technical considerations
* the official and unofficial participation of many actors with heterogeneous activity scopes
* growing uncertainty
* a new interpretation of [[international law]] and [[social organization]] models<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Behnassi | first1 = Mohamed |title= Les négociations environnementales multilatérales: Vers une gouvernance environnementale mondiale (Multilateral Environmental Negotiations: towards world environmental governance) |journal= C Durable: Doctoral Thesis Summary Paper|date= 2003|url=http://cdurable.info/Les-Negociations-Environnementales-Multinationales-NEM-vers-une-Gouvernance-Environnementale-Mondiale-GEM,1136.html}}</ref>
As of 2013, the absence of joint rules for composing such fora leads to the development of non-transparent relations that favour the more powerful stakeholders. Criticisms<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Johal | first1 = Surjinder | last2 = Ulph | first2 = Alistair | title = Globalization, lobbying, and international environmental governance | journal = Review of International Economics | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 387–403 | doi = 10.1111/1467-9396.00339 | date = August 2002 }}</ref> assert that they act more as a lobbying platform, wherein specific interest groups attempt to influence governments.
===Institutional reform===
Actors inside and outside the United Nations are discussing possibilities for global environmental governance that provides a solution to current problems of fragility, coordination and coherence.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN021755.pdf |title=Resolution 60/1 of the United Nations General Assembly. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2012-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227035534/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN021755.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Deliberation is focusing on the goal of making UNEP more efficient. A 2005 resolution recognizes “the need for more efficient environmental activities in the United Nations system, with enhanced coordination, improved policy advice and guidance, strengthened scientific knowledge, assessment and cooperation, better treaty compliance, while respecting the legal autonomy of the treaties, and better integration of environmental activities in the broader sustainable development framework.”
Proposals include:<ref>[https://www.un.org/ga/president/62/issues/environmentalgov/resolution230708.pdf UN environmental governance report]</ref>
* greater and better coordination between agencies;
* strengthen and acknowledge UNEP's scientific role;
* identify MEA areas to strengthen coordination, cooperation and teamwork between different agreements;
* increase regional presence;
* implement the [[Bali Strategic Plan]] on improving technology training and support for the application of environmental measures in poor countries;
* demand that UNEP and MEAs participate formally in all relevant WTO committees as observers.
* strengthen its financial situation;
* improve secretariats' efficiency and effectiveness.
One of the main studies addressing this issue proposes:
* clearly divide tasks between development organizations, UNEP and the MEAs
* adopt a political direction{{clarify|date=September 2013}} for environmental protection and sustainable development
* authorize the UNEP Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum to adopt the UNEP medium-term strategy
* allow Member States to formulate and administer MEAs an independent secretariat for each convention
* support UNEP in periodically assessing MEAs and ensure coordination and coherence
* establish directives for setting up national/regional platforms capable of incorporating MEAs in the Common Country Assessment (CCA) process and [[United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF)]]<ref>The CCA is the main diagnostic tool available for teams working in UN countries and their partners. It is used to assess and create a shared understanding of the underlying challenges facing a country during its development. The UNDAF is a product of the CCA analysis and collaboration process and provides the basis for UN cooperation programmes. (Source: ISDR; Words into Action: A Guide for Implementing the Hyogo Framework; United Nations; 2007; chapter 4; p. 81-120).</ref>
* establish a global joint planning framework
* study the aptitude and efficiency of environmental activities' funding, focusing on differential costs
* examine and redefine the concept of funding differential costs as applicable to existing financial mechanisms
* reconsider remits, division of tasks and responsibilities between entities that provide services to the multipartite conferences. Clearly define the services that UN offices provide to MEA secretariats
* propose measures aiming to improve personnel provision and geographic distribution for MEA secretariats
* improve transparency resource use for supporting programmes and in providing services to MEAs. Draw up a joint budget for services supplied to MEAs.
===Education===
A 2001 Alliance 21 report proposes six fields of action:<ref>Ziaka, Yolanda; Robicon, Philippe; Souchon, Christian; Environmental Education: Six Proposals for Citizens’ Action. Proposal Paper, [http://www.alliance21.org Alliance for a Responsible, Plural and United World]; 2001.</ref>
* strengthen citizens' critical faculties to ensure greater democratic control of political orientations
* develop a global and critical approach
* develop civic education training for teachers
* develop training for certain socio-professional groups
* develop environmental education for the entire population;
* assess the resulting experiences of civil society
===Transform daily life===
Individuals can modify consumption, based on [[voluntary simplicity]]: changes in purchasing habits, simplified lifestyles (less work, less consumption, more socialization and constructive leisure time). But individual actions must not replace vigilance and pressure on policies.<ref name=boug/> Notions of responsible consumption developed over decades, revealing the political nature of individual purchases, according to the principle that consumption should satisfy the population's basic needs. These needs comprise the physical wellbeing of individuals and society, a healthy diet, access to drinking water and plumbing, education, healthcare and physical safety.<ref name=boug/> The general attitude centres on the need to reduce consumption and reuse and recycle materials. In the case of food consumption, local, organic and fair trade products which avoid ill treatment of animals has become a major trend.
Alternatives to the personal automobile are increasing, including public transport, car sharing and bicycles and alternative propulsion systems.
Alternative energy sources are becoming less costly.
Ecological industrial processes turn the waste from one industry into raw materials for another.
Governments can reduce subsidies/increase taxes/tighten regulation on unsustainable activities.<ref name=boug/>
The [[Community Environmental governance Global Alliance]] encourages holistic approaches to environmental and economic challenges, incorporating indigenous knowledge. [[Okotoks]], [[Alberta]] capped population growth based on the carrying capacity of the Sheep River.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.okotoks.ca/default.aspx?cid=208&lang=1 |title=Okotoks - 1. Water Management |publisher=Okotoks.ca |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> The Fraser Basin Council Watershed Governance<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/ |title=Fraser Basin Council - Home |publisher=Fraserbasin.bc.ca |access-date=2013-09-15}}</ref> in British Columbia, Canada, manages issues that span municipal jurisdictions. [[Smart Growth]] is an international movement that employs key tenets of Environmental governance in [[urban planning]].
===Policies and regulations===
Establish policies and regulations that promote "infrastructures for well-being" whilst addressing the political, physical and cultural levels.
Eliminate subsidies that have a negative environmental impact and tax pollution
Promoting workers' personal and family development.<ref name=boug/>
===Coordination===
A programme of national workshops on synergies between the three Rio Conventions launched in late 2000, in collaboration with the relevant secretariats. The goal was to strengthen coordination at the local level by:
* sharing information
* promoting political dialogue to obtain financial support and implement programmes
* enabling the secretariats to update their joint work programmes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sommetjohannesburg.org/initiatives/gouvernance-environnementale.html |title=Diallo, Hama Arba; La gouvernance environnementale et la synergie entre les trois conventions globales (Environmental Governance and the Synergy between the Three Global Conventions); Johannesburg Summit document; 2002. |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630080411/http://www.sommetjohannesburg.org/initiatives/gouvernance-environnementale.html |archive-date=2012-06-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
According to Campbell,<ref>Campbell, Laura B.; The Effectiveness of WTO and WIPO: Lessons for Environmental Governance? in {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> “In the context of globalization, the question of linking up environmental themes with other subjects, such as trade, investment and conflict resolution mechanisms, as well as the economic incentives to participate in and apply agreements would seem to provide an important lesson for the effective development of environmental governance structures.” Environmental concerns would become part of the global economic system. “These problems also contain the seeds of a new generation of international conflicts that could affect both the stability of international relations and collective security. Which is why the concept of ‘collective security’ has arisen.”
Moving local decisions to the global level is as important as the way in which local initiatives and best practices are part of a global system. Kanie<ref>Kanie, Norichika; Global Environmental Governance in Terms of Vertical Linkages; pp. 86-113 {{harvnb|Kanie|Haas|2004}}</ref> points out that NGOs, scientists, international institutions and stakeholder partnerships can reduce the distance that separates the local and international levels.
==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Climate governance]]
* [[Earth system governance]]
* [[Ecological modernization]]
* [[Environmental globalization]]
* [[Environmental policy]]
* [[Environmental politics]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Global governance]]
* [[List of international environmental agreements]]
* [[Political ecology]]
* [[Territorialisation of carbon governance]]
}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
*{{cite book |last1=Kanie |first1=Norichika |last2=Haas |first2=Peter M. |title=Emerging Forces in Environmental Governance |publisher=UNU Press |year=2004 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150119065814/http://www.world-governance.org/ Forum for a New World Governance]
* Lennart J. Lundqvist (2004), ''Sweden and Environmental governance: Straddling the Fence''. Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-6902-5}}
* Ostrom, Elinor. (1990). Governing the commons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Srivastwa, Amit. (2017). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313676707_Environmental_governance_in_21st_century_a_case_study_of_China's_environmental_governance "Environmental governance in the 21st century: a case study of China's environmental governance"] (pdf), ''researchgate.net''.
{{sustainability}}
{{environmental social science}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Forest governance| ]]
[[Category:Transboundary environmental issues]] |
Green national product | {{refimprove|date=April 2023}}
{{short description|Economic indicator}}
The '''green national product''' is an economic metric that seeks to include environmental features such as [[environmental degradation]] and [[resource depletion]] with a country's [[Measures of national income and output|national product]].
== Criticism of gross national product ==
The [[gross national product]] (GNP) measures the [[Welfare economics|welfare]] of a nation's economy through the aggregate of products and services produced in that nation. Although GNP is a proficient measurement of the magnitude of the economy, many economists, environmentalists and citizens have been arguing the validity of the GNP in respect to measuring [[Welfare economics|welfare]]. [[Joseph Stiglitz]], [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|Nobel Prize–winning economist]], states that this standard measurement for any national economy has become deficient as a measure of long-term economic health in the recently resource-driven and [[Globalization|globalizing]] world.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/10/02/8387507/index.htm?postversion=2006092508 | title=Good Numbers Gone Bad | publisher=CNN | accessdate=2008-04-02 | date=2006-10-02 | first=Joseph | last=Stiglitz}}</ref> Critics suggest that GNP often includes the environment on the wrong side of the balance sheet because if someone first pollutes and then another person cleans the pollution, both activities add to GNP making environmental degradation frequently look good for the economy.<ref name="Green Accounting">{{cite web | url=http://www.gwagner.com/research/green_accounting/index.html | title=Green Accounting | publisher=[[Gernot Wagner]] | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-04-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307223603/http://www.gwagner.com/research/green_accounting/index.html | archive-date=2008-03-07 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Critics of [[mainstream economics]] complain that GNP compiles spending that makes us worse off, spending that allows us to stay in the same place, and spending that makes us better off all in a single measure, giving a nation no clue if they are making progress or not.<ref name="Cobb Clifford p.2">Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. "The Green National Product", [[University Press of America]], c1994. p.2 "Introduction"</ref> [[Manfred Max-Neef]], Chilean economist, explains that politicians feel that it is irrelevant whether the spending is productive, unproductive, or destructive.<ref name="Cobb Clifford p.2"/> In this sense, it is common to see political policies that call to depredate a natural resource in order to increase the GNP. To take into account the environmental depredation and resource depletion, there is a call to shift away from the traditional GNP and construct an assessment of national product that takes into account environmental effects.
== History ==
=== Measure of economic welfare ===
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, scientists and economists have warned of an [[inflection point]] for the United States economy where expansion is inevitably limited by the steadily decreasing availability of natural resources. In 1973, [[William D. Nordhaus]] and [[James Tobin]], [[Yale University|Yale]] economists, were the first to question the GNP in "Is growth obsolete?". Nordhaus and Tobin developed a [[Measure of Economic Welfare]] (MEW) and stated that welfare must be sustainable, in the sense that nations that devour their stock of capital are not as "well" as the national income would suggest.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c3621/c3621.pdf | title=Is Growth Obsolete? | publisher=Milton Moss | year=1973 | accessdate=2022-01-02}}</ref>
=== Index of sustainable economic welfare ===
However, in "The Green National Product", Clifford Cobb and John Cobb argue that the Measure of Economic Welfare failed to encompass the depletion of [[natural capital]].<ref>Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. "The Green National Product", University Press of America, c1994. p.10-11 "How to Measure Welfare: Some Options"</ref> In 1989, [[Herman Daly]], John Cobb, and Clifford Cobb created what is known as the [[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]] (ISEW). This new measurement of welfare was created in the hopes that it would replace the flawed GNP. Herman Daly stated that the key flaw of the traditional GNP was that it ignored core accounting principles of business where all revenues and expenses are allocated to income.<ref name="National Public Radio">{{cite web | url=http://www.gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | title=Fixing GDP: Green Accounting in the United States | publisher=National Public Radio | date=April 9, 2004 | accessdate=2008-04-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402233502/http://www.gwagner.com/writing/2004/04/fixing-gdp-green-accounting-in-united.html | archive-date=2008-04-02 | url-status=dead }}</ref> ISEW called for ecological and economic sustainability to coincide since the economy is ultimately dependent on the natural resources that the earth provides.<ref name="Cobb Clifford p.280">Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. "The Green National Product", University Press of America, c1994. p.280 "Bridging Economics and Ecology"</ref> Rather than the original GNP, ISEW takes into account costs that are naturally unsustainable. By creating ISEW, they wanted to expand the current national product so that individuals, businesses, and governments could take actions that will generally enhance welfare, rather than merely enhancing the traditional GNP.<ref>Cobb Clifford, and Cobb, John. "The Green National Product", University Press of America, c1994. p.280-281 "Bridging Economics and Ecology"</ref>
=== Genuine progress indicator ===
In 1995, Redefining Progress created the [[genuine progress indicator]] (GPI) as an alternative to the traditional GNP. This new measurement of national income would allow policymakers to gauge how well citizens are, economically and socially.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rprogress.org/sustainability_indicators/genuine_progress_indicator.htm | title=Genuine Progress Indicator | publisher=Redifining Progress | year=2008 | accessdate=2008-04-02}}</ref> Unlike welfare adjustments in the past like MEW and ISEW, GPI adjusts not only for environmental depredation, but also for income distribution, housework, volunteering, crime, changes in leisure time, and life-span of consumer durables and public infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rprogress.org/sustainability_indicators/genuine_progress_indicator.htm | title=Genuine Progress Indicator | publisher=Redefining Progress | year=2008 | accessdate=2008-04-02}}</ref> This was one of the first alternatives to the traditional GNP to be used by the scientific community and governmental organizations globally.
=== In the United States ===
In 1992, the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA) of the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]] initiated intensive work to create an environmental accounting system.<ref name="Eolss Publishers">{{cite web | url=http://rcted.ncu.edu.tw/speech/On%20Green%20NP%202007%201117[1].pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210100338/http://rcted.ncu.edu.tw/speech/On%20Green%20NP%202007%201117%5b1%5d.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=2017-02-10 | title=On "Green National Product": Theories and a Comparison Among Difference Approaches | publisher=Eolss Publishers | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-04-02 }}</ref> The BEA began by creating satellite accounts with easily measurable commodities such as petroleum and coal. The first BEA publication was the U.S. Integrated Environmental and Economic Satellite Accounts (IEESA) in 1994.<ref name="Eolss Publishers"/> The initial results were quite significant, and showed how GNP was overestimating the impact of mining industries in respect to the nations economic wealth.<ref name="National Public Radio"/> Mining companies didn't care for the initial publications, for obvious reasons, and soon [[Alan Mollohan]], a Democratic House Representative from [[West Virginia]]'s coal country, sponsored an amendment to the 1995 [[Appropriation Bill]]. In response, Congress directed the BEA to suspend further work in [[Sustainability measurement|environmental accounting]], and to obtain an external review on their findings.<ref name="Eolss Publishers"/>
== Need ==
Many people are calling for a green national product that would indicate if activities benefit or harm the economy and well-being. This green national product would revolve around the social and economic issues on which many green movements have focused: care for the earth and all that sustain it.<ref name="Green Accounting"/> This new national product would differ from the traditional GNP by addressing both the sustainability and well-being of the planet and its inhabitants.<ref name="Cobb Clifford p.280"/> It is essential that this system takes into account natural capital, which is currently hidden from our traditional measurement.
== See also ==
*[[Bhutan GNH Index]]
*[[Genuine progress indicator]]
*[[Green gross domestic product]]
*[[Gross National Happiness]]
*[[Happiness economics]]
*[[Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare]]
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Economic data]]
[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental indices]] |
Tropical Modernism | {{Short description|Architectural style}}
{{Infobox art movement
|name=Tropical Modernism
|alt=Tropic Modernism
|yearsactive=1953 —
|country=International
|influences=[[Modern Architecture]], [[Vernacular Architecture]]
|majorfigures=[[Geoffrey Bawa]], [[Charles Correa]], [[Vladimir Ossipoff]], [[Lúcio Costa]], [[Oscar Niemeyer]], [[Maxwell Fry]], [[Jane Drew]], [[Paulo Mendes da Rocha]]
|image=File:Planalto panorama.jpg
|caption=[[Palácio do Planalto]] by architect [[Oscar Niemeyer]]}}
'''Tropical Modernism,''' or '''Tropical Modern''' is a style of architecture that merges [[Modern architecture|modernist architecture]] principles with tropical [[Vernacular architecture|vernacular]] traditions, emerging in the mid-20th century. This movement responded to the unique climatic and cultural conditions of tropical regions, primarily in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Pacific Islands.<ref name="Architropics">{{cite web |title=Tropical Modernism: A Design that Blurs Boundaries |url=https://architropics.com/tropical-modern-architecture/ |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=Architropics}}</ref> Pioneering architects like [[Geoffrey Bawa]] in Sri Lanka, and [[Charles Correa]] in India balanced modern architectural techniques with traditional building practices of their respective regions.<ref name="Commune Design">{{cite web |title=Geoffrey Bawa’s Tropical Modernism |url=https://www.communedesign.com/post/geoffrey-bawas-tropical-modernism |publisher=Commune Design |access-date=2023-10-26}}</ref> Today, Tropical Modernism's legacy continues to influence contemporary architectural practices, especially in the quest for [[sustainable design]] solutions in tropical climates.<ref name="Architropics"/><ref name="Indonesia Design">{{cite web |title=Architects and the Tropical Modernism Movement |url=https://indonesiadesign.com/story/tropical-architecture |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=Indonesia Design}}</ref>
==Historical development==
{{main article|Modern architecture}}
Tropical Modernism originated in the mid-20th century, a period marked by post-war modernization and decolonization, which saw emerging national identities across the Global South. The movement was a response to the modernist architectural approaches of the time, aiming to adapt them to the unique environmental and cultural contexts of tropical regions.<ref name="Architropics"/><ref name="ArchDaily Tanzania">{{cite web |title=The Legacy of Modernist Architecture in Tanzania: Anthony Almeida and Beda Amuli |url=https://www.archdaily.com/960564/the-global-legacy-of-modernism-in-tanzania |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=ArchDaily}}</ref>
===Origins and early pioneers===
The early pioneers of Tropical Modernism include architects like Geoffrey Bawa in Sri Lanka, whose work demonstrated a profound understanding of the local climate and culture, blending modernist principles with traditional vernacular architecture.<ref name="Commune Design"/> Similarly, architects like Charles Correa in India contributed to the movement by integrating modern architectural forms with traditional Indian architectural elements.
===Post-war modernization===
The post-war era saw a surge in modernization efforts across many tropical countries. The need for new infrastructure and urban development provided a fertile ground for the adaptation and evolution of modernist architectural principles in tropical contexts.<ref name="ArchDaily Tanzania"/>
===Decolonization and national identity===
The period of decolonization in many tropical regions contributed to the rise of Tropical Modernism, as emerging nations sought to express their newly found national identities through architecture. The movement became a means to reflect a blend of modernity and tradition in architectural designs.<ref name="V&A">{{cite web |title=Tropical Modernism: Architecture and power in West Africa |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/museum-life/tropical-modernism-architecture-and-power-in-west-africa |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Warwick |date=2021-03-26 |title=Decolonizing the Foundation of Tropical Architecture |url=https://journals.openedition.org/abe/9215 |journal=ABE Journal. Architecture beyond Europe |language=en |issue=18 |doi=10.4000/abe.9215 |issn=2275-6639|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Regional variations and evolution===
Tropical Modernism manifested differently across various regions, reflecting the unique cultural, political, and environmental conditions of each area. In West Africa, for instance, the movement was intertwined with political power and national identity.<ref name="V&A"/> Similarly, in regions like Latin America and Southeast Asia, Tropical Modernism evolved to reflect the distinct vernacular traditions and modernization agendas.
== Characteristics ==
Tropical Modernism is characterized by its seamless integration of modernist principles with tropical vernacular architectures. The style places a significant emphasis on environmental responsiveness, often characterized by extensive use of local materials, passive cooling strategies, and a strong indoor-outdoor connection.
=== Environmental responsiveness ===
A defining characteristic of Tropical Modernism is its responsiveness to the local climate. The design approach often incorporates passive cooling strategies, such as natural ventilation, shading, and water features, to mitigate the harsh tropical climate. Buildings designed in this style are typically oriented to maximize natural ventilation and minimize solar heat gain, thereby reducing the reliance on mechanical cooling systems.<ref name="Commune Design" />
=== Use of local materials ===
The use of local materials is a hallmark of Tropical Modernism, reflecting a commitment to sustainability and a respect for local traditions. Materials such as timber, stone, and thatch are commonly used, often in innovative ways that reflect both modernist and traditional craftsmanship.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pmapdx.com/blog-pmafindings/14037/part-i-tropical-modernism-in-a-multicultural-context-at-the-docomomo-us-national-symposium |title=Tropical Modernism in a Multicultural Context at the Docomomo US National Symposium |access-date=2021-10-25 |website=Peter Meijer Architect, PC}}</ref>
=== Indoor-outdoor connection ===
One of the quintessential features of Tropical Modernism is the blurring of indoor and outdoor spaces to promote natural ventilation and a sense of openness. This is often achieved through the use of large openings, verandas, courtyards, and other transitional spaces, which encourage the flow of air and the extension of living spaces into the landscape.
=== Architectural elements ===
Tropical Modernism often incorporates architectural elements that are characteristic of the local vernacular, such as pitched roofs, wide eaves, and raised floor levels, which are adapted to modernist sensibilities. The juxtaposition of modern and traditional elements creates a distinctive architectural language that reflects a synthesis of global modernist trends with local building traditions.
== Notable practitioners ==
Tropical Modernism has been significantly shaped by a number of architects who melded modern architectural principles with tropical vernacular designs. Some notable practitioners include:
* '''[[Geoffrey Bawa]]''': A Sri Lankan architect known for pioneering Tropical Modernism. His work exemplifies the integration of modernist design principles with the traditional architectural elements of Sri Lanka, creating a unique, locally adapted style of modern architecture.<ref name="Commune Design" />
* '''[[Vladimir Ossipoff]]''': Known as the “master of Hawaiian architecture,” Ossipoff’s work prominently features the elements of Tropical Modernism. His designs emphasize natural ventilation, indoor-outdoor integration, and the use of local materials to create buildings suited for Hawaii’s climate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archinect.com/news/article/150114197/what-is-tropical-modernism-and-how-did-it-find-its-way-to-hawaii |title=What is Tropical Modernism, and how did it find its way to Hawaii? |website=Archinect}}</ref>
* '''[[Charles Correa]]''': An Indian architect who significantly contributed to Tropical Modernism by integrating modern architectural forms with traditional Indian architectural elements. His design for the Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad is a notable example.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://www.archdaily.com/tag/tropical-architecture |title=Tropical Architecture |website=ArchDaily}}</ref>
* '''[[Lúcio Costa]]''' and '''[[Oscar Niemeyer]]''': These Brazilian architects were instrumental in the development of Tropical Modernism in Brazil, with their design for the city of Brasília showcasing modernist architectural principles adapted to the tropical climate.
== Exemplary projects ==
Tropical Modernism is epitomized in various projects that showcase the movement's key characteristics of environmental responsiveness, use of local materials, and indoor-outdoor connectivity. Here are some exemplary projects:
* '''[[Heritance Kandalama|Kandalama Hotel]], Sri Lanka''': Designed by Geoffrey Bawa, this hotel is a quintessential example of Tropical Modernism. Its design incorporates the natural landscape, local materials, and modern architectural principles.<ref name="Commune Design" />
* '''[[Liljestrand House]], Hawaii''': Designed by Vladimir Ossipoff, this house exemplifies the seamless integration of indoor and outdoor spaces, a hallmark of Tropical Modernism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archinect.com/news/article/150114197/what-is-tropical-modernism-and-how-did-it-find-its-way-to-hawaii |title=What is Tropical Modernism, and how did it find its way to Hawaii? |website=Archinect}}</ref>
* '''[[Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya]], Ahmedabad, India''': This museum, designed by Charles Correa, reflects the principles of Tropical Modernism with its use of local materials, passive cooling techniques, and integration of indoor and outdoor spaces.<ref name=":0" />
* '''[[Palácio do Planalto]], Brasília, Brazil''': Designed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer, this presidential palace showcases Tropical Modernism with its modernist design adapted to the tropical climate.
* '''[[Salk Institute for Biological Studies|The Salk Institute]], La Jolla, California''': Although not located in a tropical region, the design by [[Louis Kahn]] incorporates key principles of Tropical Modernism.
* '''[[Pearl Bank Apartments]], Singapore''': Designed by Tan Cheng Siong, this residential high-rise is a hallmark of Tropical Modernism in Southeast Asia. * '''Faculty of Architecture Building, Khon Kaen University, Thailand''': This building is a fine example of how Tropical Modernism can be integrated into educational infrastructure.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150" caption="Examples of Tropical Modern Architecture">
File:Cooper Apartments 413 seaside Avenue, Honolulu, HI.jpg|[[Cooper Apartments|Cooper Apartment]] (1939) by architectural firm Dahl & Conrad
File:LiljestrandHouse-from-driveway-near.jpg|[[Liljestrand House]] (1952) by architect [[Vladimir Ossipoff]]
File:Planalto panorama.jpg|[[Palácio do Planalto]] by architect [[Oscar Niemeyer]] (1958-1960)
File:Gandhi Ashram 1227.JPG|''[[Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya|Gandhi Memorial Institution]] by architect [[Charles Correa]]'' (1958-1963)
File:Dialogue-hochi-building.jpg|[[Hawai'i Hochi Building]] (1972) by architect [[Kenzō Tange]]
File:Pearl Bank Apartments, Singapore.jpg|[[Pearl Bank Apartments]] (1976) Designed by Tan Cheng Siong
</gallery>
== Regional variations ==
Tropical Modernism, though rooted in modernist architectural principles, has been diversified and enlivened by its interaction with various regional vernacular traditions. Below are some regional variations:
* '''Hawaii''': In Hawaii, the style became prominent through the works of architects like [[Vladimir Ossipoff]], who blended Modernism with local vernacular styles. His designs highlighted the importance of environmental responsiveness and cultural sensitivity, which are now considered as seminal examples of Tropical Modernism in the Pacific region.<ref name=":8">{{cite web|title=Tropical Modernism in a Multicultural Context at the Docomomo US National Symposium|url=https://pmapdx.com/blog-pmafindings/14037/part-i-tropical-modernism-in-a-multicultural-context-at-the-docomomo-us-national-symposium|website=PMA}}</ref>
* '''West Africa''': The style was also adapted in West Africa where it was used as a tool to assert a modern identity post-independence. Architects such as [[Maxwell Fry]] and [[Jane Drew]] utilized Tropical Modern principles to design buildings suited to the local climate while embodying a modern aesthetic.<ref name="V&A" />
* '''Brazil''': In Brazil, architects like [[Paulo Mendes da Rocha]] gained international recognition for sustainable designs embodying Tropical Modernism. This regional variant emphasized functionality, aesthetic appeal, and incorporation of natural elements, reflecting a synthesis of Modernism and "Brasilidade" or Brazilian-ness.<ref name=":17">{{cite web|title=Concrete Jungle: Tropical Modernism|url=https://magazine.thebrunoeffect.com/concrete-jungle-tropical-modernism/|website=The Bruno Effect}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{cite web|title=Paulo Mendes da Rocha: Brutalist master of Brazilian architecture|url=https://www.architonic.com/en/story/italo-rota-paulo-mendes-da-rocha-brutalist-master-of-brazilian-architecture/7001517|website=Architonic}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{cite web |title=The Edifício Copan |url=https://www.archdaily.com/909420/architecture-classics-copan-building-oscar-niemeyer |website=Arch Daily}}</ref>
== Criticism and colonial legacy ==
Tropical Modernism has faced criticism for its colonial roots, particularly in regions such as West Africa. Initially, this architectural style was employed by colonial powers, representing a form of colonial imposition, especially in British West Africa. The design principles of Tropical Modernism were largely tailored to cater to the comfort of colonial administrators, fostering a notion of a more productive colonial subject to counter calls for independence. Despite its Eurocentric beginnings, post-independence leaders like [[Kwame Nkrumah]] recognized the potential of Tropical Modernism for nation-building, intertwining it with Pan-African ideologies to foster a sense of national identity and progress.<ref name="V&A" />
Perspectives surrounding [[Vladimir Ossipoff]] and Tropical Modernism in Hawaii are nuanced. Ossipoff, often dubbed as the "master of Hawaiian architecture," played a pivotal role in bringing the essence of Tropical Modernism to the Hawaiian Islands. His work is known for its environmental sensitivity, cultural contextualization, and appropriateness to Hawaii's unique landscape characteristics, portraying a harmonious blend between modern architectural principles and local cultural and geographic contexts.<ref name="Digs">{{cite web |title=Tropical Modernism: The Enduring Legacy of Vladimir Ossipoff in Hawaii |url=https://digs.net/vladimir-ossipoff-changes-the-hawaiian-landscape/ |website=Digs.net}}</ref><ref name="UH">{{cite web |title=Vladimir Ossipoff’s Legacy on Hawaii’s Modern Architecture |url=https://guides.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/c.php?g=975178 |website=University of Hawaii}}</ref> He was known for his conviction-driven, no-nonsense approach towards architecture, waging what he called a "war on ugliness," which was brought on by dismal architectural design and rampant over-development in the Hawaiian Islands.<ref name="Digs" />
However, it's essential to note that the term "Tropical Modernism" itself, as a broader movement beyond Ossipoff's work, has faced criticisms for potentially carrying colonial or Eurocentric undertones, especially when applied in non-Western contexts like Africa. Critics argue that the movement, while aiming to blend modernist and local vernacular architectures, might inadvertently perpetuate a form of architectural colonialism or exhibit a Eurocentric bias, often by dismissing or undervaluing local architectural traditions in favor of modernist principles.<ref name="Jazeel">{{cite web|title=Postcolonialism and architecture|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1572576/14/Jazeel_revision%20-%20final%20submission.pdf|website=UCL Discovery}}</ref><ref name="V&A" />
== Contemporary relevance ==
The contemporary relevance of Tropical Modernism lies in its ability to address climate-related challenges inherent to tropical regions. Several aspects underscore its modern-day significance:
* '''Sustainable development''': Approximately 50% of the world's population resides in the tropical belt, where the fastest-growing cities are located, along with 70% of the forests that help contain CO2 emissions. The principles of Tropical Modernism are crucial for designing coherent and adapted architecture in these regions, recognizing the values of tropicality along with its specificities.<ref name=":21">{{cite web |title=Design Guidelines for Contemporary Tropical Architecture |url=https://www.archdaily.com/928807/design-guidelines-for-contemporary-tropical-architecture |website=ArchDaily}}</ref>
* '''Environmental responsiveness''': The style emphasizes passive design elements to achieve [[thermal comfort]], an approach that is critical in tropical climates characterized by high temperatures and humidity. Features such as sunshades, overhangs, and the use of local materials contribute to energy efficiency and [[environmental sustainability]].<ref name=":22">{{cite web|title=Tropical Modern Architecture|url=https://architropics.com/tropical-modern-architecture/|website=Architropics}}</ref>
* '''Regional architectural expressions''': The resurgence of regional architectures, including Tropical Modernism, is noted in international architectural discourse. This style allows for the exploration of regionalized aesthetics, encouraging reflective design practices that contemplate environmental and human contingencies. It challenges the globalized mainstream architectural aesthetics, promoting a more contextual and thoughtful architectural practice.
== See also ==
* [[Modern architecture]]
* [[Vernacular architecture]]
* [[Sustainable architecture]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Modern architecture|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Architectural styles]]
[[Category:1950s architecture]]
[[Category:20th-century architectural styles]]
[[Category:Modernist architecture]]
[[Category:Sustainable architecture]]
[[Category:Low-energy building]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Society & Organizations Institute | {{Infobox university
|image = Logo_of_the_Society_&_Organizations_Institute.png
|name = Society & Organizations Institute
|established = 2008
|type =
|director = Rodolphe Durand
|city = [[Jouy-en-Josas]]
|country = [[France]]
|students =
|campus = Jouy-en-Josas
|website= [https://www.hec.edu/en/faculty-research-lp/research-centers/society-organizations-center/about Official website]
}}
The '''Society & Organizations Institute''' is an interdisciplinary center, unique in [[Europe]],<ref>[https://www.b4ig.org/inclusive-business-report-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters-released-by-the-hec-paris-society-and-organizations-institute/ “Inclusive Business Report: What it is and why it matters” released by the HEC Paris Society and Organizations Institute]</ref> which members, professors and researchers, work on societal and environmental issues. Their research, teaching activities and experiments are applied to companies. It is located on the [[HEC Paris]] campus in [[Jouy-en-Josas]].<ref>[https://career-center.aom.org/jobs/19203831/hec-paris-society-organizations-s-o-institute-academic-director HEC Paris, Society & Organizations (S&O) Institute, Academic Director]</ref>
== Details ==
The center is part of HEC Paris. It is located in [[Jouy-en-Josas]]. Around 60 academics work on questions of [[Meaning of life|meaning]], [[Inclusion (disability rights)|social inclusion]] and [[sustainable development]] inside companies.<ref>[https://www.signalhire.com/companies/hec-paris-society-organizations-institute-s-o HEC Paris Society & Organizations Institute (S&O) Overview]</ref> The Institute bases its research around three main topics :
* Purposeful Leadership
* Inclusive Economy
* Climate & Environment.
The center has several programs for undergraduate and graduate students as well as for faculty to promote the concept of society. Several initiatives that the center has started has raised awareness for both society and [[Social inclusion|inclusivity]] in both the community of [[Jouy-en-Josas]] and throughout the country.<ref>[https://www.nexans.com/en/newsroom/news/details/2023/04/nexans-hec-paris-and-hec-foundation-have-joined-forces-to-help-companies-become-more-sustainable.html Nexans, HEC Paris and the HEC Foundation have joined forces to help companies become more sustainable]</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [https://www.hec.edu/en/faculty-research-lp/research-centers/society-organizations-center/about Official website]
{{Authority control}}
{{coord|48.75910186767578|2.169628143310547|type:edu_globe:earth_region:FRA|display=title}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Society and Organizations Institute}}
[[Category:Research organizations]]
[[Category:HEC Paris]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in France]] |
Integrated Conservation and Development Project | {{Short description|Type of biodiversity conservation project}}
{{copyedit|date=January 2024}}'''Integrated conservation and development projects''' (ICDPs), are [[biodiversity]] [[conservation ethic|conservation]] projects with rural development components. It is an approach that aspires to combine social development with conservation goals.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Ross |url=https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/9080IIED.pdf |title=Integrating Conservation and Development Experience: A Review and Bibliography of the ICDP Literature |last2=Flintan |first2=Fiona |access-date=January 5, 2024 |publisher=Simmons Printers |year=2001 |isbn=1-899825-77-0 |location=Chelmsford}}</ref> These projects look to deal with biodiversity conservation objectives through the use of socio-economic investment tools. The [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF), first introduced ICDPs in the mid 1980s. They wanted to attend to some of the problems associated with the “fines and fences” (non-participatory) approach to conservation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ndiaye |first=Abdoulaye |date=2001 |title=A Practitioner's View of Conservation and Development in Africa: Integrated Management and the Djoudj National Park in Senegal |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/3/article/3078 |journal=Africa Today |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=101–109 |doi=10.1353/at.2001.0017 |issn=1527-1978}}</ref>
== ICDPs under WWF ==
The [[Wildlands & Human Needs Program]] was initiated in 1985 by WWF, and incorporated 19 ICDPs in 12 countries in Africa and South America. They wanted to improve the quality of life of rural people through projects that integrated the management of natural resources with economic development. Today, there are around 300 ICDPs.<ref name=":2" />
== Various names of ICDPs ==
ICDPs have many different names, like “People-Centered Conservation and Development”, “Eco-development”, “grassroots conservation”, community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), and community wildlife management (CWM), all of which were created by the conservation organizations, rather than the indigenous people.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2016-07-07 |title=Sharing the best in global development research for policy and practice. |url=https://www.eldis.org/node/46 |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=Eldis |language=en}}</ref>
== Characteristics of ICDPs ==
Biodiversity conservation is the primary goal, but ICDPs also like to deal with the social and economic requirements of communities who might threaten biodiversity. They wish to improve the relationships between state-managed protected areas and their neighbors, but do not inevitably seek to delegate ownership of protected area resources to local communities. They usually receive funding from external sources and are externally motivated and initiated by conservation organizations and development agencies. ICDPs are normally linked to a protected area, usually a [[national park]].<ref name=":2" /> ICDPs, through benefit sharing, are believed to discourage poaching and promote economic development. ICDPs try to benefit indigenous populations in several ways: through the transfer of money from tourism, the creation of jobs, and the stimulation of productivity in [[agriculture]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-07-07 |title=Sharing the best in global development research for policy and practice. |url=https://www.eldis.org/node/46 |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=Eldis |language=en}}</ref>
== ICDP assumptions ==
ICDPs make many assumptions during their project implementations, each of which may prove true or false. They are:<ref name=":2" />
# Diversified local livelihood options will reduce human pressures on [[biodiversity]], leading to improved conservation.
# Local people and their livelihood practices comprise the most important threat to the biodiversity resources of the area in question.
# ICDPs offer [[sustainable]] alternatives to traditional approaches of protected areas management.
== Critiques of ICDPs ==
Conservation organizations do not necessarily understand the social and economic arenas they are trying to work in. They are the ones to start the ICDPs, rather than the rural people, and have little experience working with communities. They are also unwilling to bear or support legal battles over land and are not willing to strengthen rural organizations because they find it to be “too political”.<ref name=":2" /> However, WWF claims that ICDPs strengthen local organizations and "broker new land-use agreements between governments and communities, and helping communities challenge encroachment upon their natural resources, ICDPs involve local communities to improve livelihoods and conservation".<ref>{{Cite web |title=WWF welcomes new national park in Madagascar |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?2693/WWF-welcomes-new-national-park-in-Madagascar |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=wwf.panda.org |language=en}}</ref>
[[Agroforestry]] and organic gardening projects do not work as well, because it is difficult for indigenous peoples to market what is grown.<ref>{{cite web|last=Marcus and Kull|title=Setting the Stage: The Politics of Madagascar's Environmental Efforts|url=http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v3/v3i2a2.htm|work=African Studies Quarterly|accessdate=15 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021201718/http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v3/v3i2a2.htm|archive-date=21 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Minority ethnic groups and women are many times not accounted for in the redistribution of costs and benefits. There are many limitations on participation by women, so many feel there are not equal opportunities for all people within the community.
External effects like a growing market demand for forest and wildlife products, demographic pressures and vested interests like [[illegal logging]], [[mineral extraction]] and [[ranching]] often go disregarded by ICDPs. In addition, [[community-based conservation]] projects are often found to be divergent to the goals of [[biodiversity]] conservation, and should be based more on biological sciences. As stated by Katrina Brandon with, “Not all things can be preserved through use”.<ref name=":1" /> Another problem is that some of the ICDPs that are funded internationally may not be financially or economically sustainable once their external funding has been exhausted.
=== Integrated conservation and development practices in Madagascar ===
The ICDP in Madagascar has unintentionally led to [[environmental sustainability]] and degradation simultaneously. The organization relies on the cheap and local labor of select individuals to enforce their conservation practices among the communities near the forests. Problems occur due to the disparity in wages and lack of communication between the local conservation agents and the government. The conservation agents are placed in the difficult position of doing their duties as workers for the ICDP and their duties as members of the community. On one hand, the conservation agents are required to monitor the forests, and prevent peasants and other locals from farming portions of the land, which can become violent and dangerous. These encounters between the hired locals and the rest of the community causes friction between them, and run the risk of being shunned.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sodikoff|first=Genese|date=2009-11-17|title=The Low-Wage Conservationist: Biodiversity and Perversities of Value in Madagascar|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01154.x|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=111|issue=4|pages=443–455|doi=10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01154.x|issn=0002-7294}}</ref>
The local agents are also aware of the wage gap between them and the external officials who work for the ICDP. The high paying jobs are universally given to foreign workers who come into the community while the low paying, harder working jobs are given to the local conservation agents. This recognition has led many local conservation agents to turn a blind eye to illegal logging and unapproved agricultural practices by other peasants. These interactions lead to further destruction of the environment which contradicts the motives and goals of the ICDP.
Additionally, the arrival of another conservation organization, ANGAP, has also discouraged locals from continuing their conservation work and are beginning to quit their jobs despite the economic ramifications. These labor tensions surrounding conservation help are rarely discussed as Western authorities continually emphasize the successes while diminishing any failures. This is to continue the ideology that all conservation endeavors are inherently beneficial to everyone involved. However, the Malagasy people are aware of these fallacies, and many feel that these conservation organizations are profiteering land for personal gain. Ideas like these continue to cause hesitation among local communities to participate with organizations such as the ICDP.<ref name=":0" />
The ICDP, however, has introduced many conservation activities encouraging participation among local communities. Tools such as lesson plans, trainings, and increasing communications between themselves and the local community have occurred in order to ease tensions and build a better relationship. The Malagasy people hope this will encourage the ICDP to allow them to take over some of the labor given to foreign workers. By replacing these kinds of positions, the locals will achieve better compensation for their work which will ultimately strengthen relationships.<ref name=":0" />
== Examples of ICDPs ==
*Annapurna Conservation Area Project, [[Nepal]]
*Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, [[Uganda]]
*Lake Mburo National Park, [[Uganda]]
*Amboro National Park, [[Bolivia]]
*Yancheng Coastal Zone Biosphere Reserve, [[China]]
*Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area, [[Papua New Guinea]]
*Mount Elgon, [[Uganda]]
*Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzanla
*Kilim Ijum, [[Cameroon]]
*Ostional Wildlife Refuge, [[Costa Rica]]
*Projects funded by the UK [[Department for International Development]] (DFID)
For ICDPs to be successful, Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E), systems need to be institutionalized, and unnecessary data collection avoided.
== Related books ==
*''In the Dust of Kilimanjaro'' - David Western
*''Indonesia'' - [[World Bank]]
*''Investing in Biodiversity'' - Michael Wells
==See also==
*[[Conservation International]]
*[[World Wildlife Fund]]
*[[The Nature Conservancy]]
*[[Ford Foundation]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
Case Studies:
* http://app.iucn.org/congress/documents/kmcd/reports/Changqing%20Yu%20-%20Pingwu.pdf{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* http://webh01.ua.ac.be/crc/great_apes_cameroon.html{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* https://web.archive.org/web/20110725050327/http://bcnet.org/text/projects.htm
* http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/asia/mapping/mapping.pdf
{{Conservation of species}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Integrated Conservation And Development Project}}
[[Category:Conservation projects]]
[[Category:Rural development]]
[[Category:World Wide Fund for Nature]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]] |
Malaysian Green Transition | The '''Malaysia Green Transition''' refers to the [[sustainable development]] strategy implemented by the [[Government of Malaysia|Malaysian government]] to combat [[Climate change in Malaysia|climate change]], stimulate economic growth, and improve societal well-being. The shift towards a [[Green economy|greener economy]] began in earnest in the early 2020s, with ambitious targets set to drastically reduce [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and incorporate [[renewable energy]] sources into the national grid.
== Overview ==
Following global trends and increasing environmental concerns, Malaysia recognized the pressing need for a transition to a green, sustainable economy. The Malaysian government announced a comprehensive plan that centered on sustainable development, green technology, [[Conservation biology|biodiversity preservation]], and [[climate change mitigation]]. This shift, known as the Malaysia Green Transition, aims to decarbonize various sectors, promote renewable energy sources, and establish a [[circular economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The transition to green energy – Malaysian Green Technology And Climate Change Corporation |url=https://www.mgtc.gov.my/2023/03/the-transition-to-green-energy/ |access-date=2023-06-06 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=OECD |title=Facilitating the green transition for ASEAN SMEs. A toolkit for policymakers |publisher=OECD |year=2021 |location=Canada}}</ref>
== Policy framework and initiatives ==
=== Green Technology Master Plan (2021–2030) ===
The Green Technology Master Plan was one of the first significant policy frameworks laid out by the government to guide the green transition. This blueprint highlights six sectors: energy, manufacturing, building, transport, waste, and water. The plan set specific goals, including achieving 40% renewable energy in the electricity mix by 2035 and enhancing energy efficiency in the manufacturing and building sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Six ways that governments can drive the green transition |url=https://www.ey.com/en_my/government-public-sector/six-ways-that-governments-can-drive-the-green-transition |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=www.ey.com |language=en-MY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Federal Government Administrative Centre |title=Green Technology Master Plan Malaysia 2017–2030 |publisher=Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Watr (KeTTHA) |year=2017 |location=Putrajaya, Malaysia}}</ref>
=== National Biodiversity Policy (2022–2030) ===
The National Biodiversity Policy seeks to protect and manage Malaysia's rich biodiversity while harnessing its potential for sustainable economic development. The policy aims to integrate biodiversity considerations into all relevant sectors and decision-making processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saudi |first=Mohd Haizam Mohd |last2=Sinaga |first2=Obsatar |last3=Roespinoedji |first3=Djoko |last4=Razimi |first4=Mohd Shahril Ahmad |date=2019-09-01 |title=ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE NEXUS BETWEEN GREEN PRODUCT AND GREEN PROCESS INNOVATION |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.8281 |journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=363–370 |doi=10.32479/ijeep.8281 |issn=2146-4553|doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Sustainable and Circular Economy Roadmap (2023-2040) ===
The government introduced the Sustainable and Circular Economy Roadmap to transition the country towards a circular economy. The approach promotes the efficient use of resources, waste minimization, and the regeneration of natural systems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/dave-sivaprasad |last2=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/vincent-chin |last3=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/hitesh-tak |last4=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/ming-teck-kong |last5=https://www.bcg.com/about/people/experts/ching-fong-ong |date=2021-11-23 |title=Securing Our Future: Net Zero Pathways for Malaysia |url=https://www.bcg.com/net-zero-pathways-malaysia |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=BCG Global |language=en}}</ref>
== Progress and achievements ==
Since the onset of the Malaysia Green Transition, notable progress has been made in several sectors.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=Fadhli Wong Mohd Hasan |last2=Foley |first2=Aoife |last3=Del Rio |first3=Dylan Furszyfer |last4=Rooney |first4=David |last5=Shariff |first5=Shahidah |last6=Dolfi |first6=Andrea |last7=Srinivasan |first7=Geetha |date=December 2022 |title=Public perception of transitioning to a low-carbon nation: a Malaysian scenario |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10098-022-02345-7 |journal=Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy |language=en |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=3077–3092 |doi=10.1007/s10098-022-02345-7 |issn=1618-954X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The country made significant strides in expanding its renewable energy portfolio, particularly in solar and hydroelectric power. By 2023, the share of renewable energy in the national grid rose to 22%, a significant increase from the previous decade.<ref name=":0" />
Energy efficiency measures have been implemented across various sectors, with considerable progress in the building and industrial sectors. Mandatory energy audits, green building index certifications, and efficient energy management systems have reduced the energy intensity of these sectors.<ref name=":0" />
Malaysia has implemented several waste-to-energy projects, transforming municipal waste into energy. An increase in recycling rates and the introduction of policies targeting single-use plastics have contributed to a shift towards a circular economy.<ref name=":0" />
== Challenges and future directions ==
While the Malaysia Green Transition has seen significant achievements, it faces several challenges, including economic restructuring, financing green technologies, and public awareness and participation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Abdullah |first=Hussin |last2=Abu Bakar |first2=Nor' Aznin |last3=Mohd Jali |first3=Mohd Razani |last4=Ibrahim |first4=Fatimah Wati |date=2017 |title=The Current State of Malaysia’s Journey towards a Green Economy: The Perceptions of the Companies on Environmental Efficiency and Sustainability |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/361710 |journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy |volume=1 |issue=7 |issn=2146-4553 |via=Econjournal.com}}</ref>
The Malaysian government plans to continue strengthening its green policies and initiatives, focusing on a just transition that ensures equitable opportunities and benefits for all citizens. Future directions include greater emphasis on nature-based solutions, blue economy, and digitalization in the [[green economy]].<ref name=":1" />
== See also ==
* [[Environmental issues in Malaysia]]
* [[Energy policy of Malaysia|Renewable energy in Malaysia]]
* [[Economy of Malaysia]]
* [[Circular economy]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Economy of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Renewable energy in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Climate change in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Energy policy of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:2020s in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Renewable energy commercialization]]
[[Category:Environmental policies approved in 2021]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Malaysia]] |
Climate Change Isn't Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism | {{short description | Non-fiction book published in 2023}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism
| pub_date = 2023
| publisher = [[Polity Press]]
| isbn = 9781509556168
| author = [[Mike Hulme]]
| pages = 208
| language = English
| subjects = [[Climate change]]
}}
'''''Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism''''' is a book by [[Mike Hulme]] published in 2023 by [[Polity Press]].
== Synopsis==
''Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism''<ref name="book">Hulme, Mike. 2023. Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism. 1st edition. Medford: Polity.</ref> is a book by Mike Hulme, Professor of Human Geography at the [[University of Cambridge]], where the author introduces the readers to his meaning of the term / neologism ‘climatism’. According to a blurb for the book offered by [[Ted Nordhaus]] of the [[Breakthrough Institute]] climatism reduces the condition of the world to the fate of global temperature or to the atmospheric concentration of Carbon dioxide, to the detriment of tackling serious issues as varied as poverty, liberty, biodiversity loss, inequality and international diplomacy. Hulme notes that the term has been used before, and noticeably in Steve Goreham’s ''Climatism, Science, Common Sense and the 21st Century Hottest Topic'', New Lenox Books 2010. While Goreham contest the human origin of climate change, Hulme holds the opposite view, p. 168.<ref name="book"/>
==Main==
The author opens the book with a discussion of how the [[Syrian Civil War]], started in March 2011 after civil unrest following the torture by [[Bashar al-Assad|President Assad]]'s security agents of young Syrians schoolboys, was blamed on climate change: according to the narrative, a multi-year draught had displaced agricultural labourers to towns and cities, with a consequent unrest for lack of available jobs.
The narrative was upheld by authoritative figures such as the US secretary of state [[John Kerry]], President [[Barack Obama]], [[Prince Charles]] and important institutions such as the [[World Bank]], [[Friends of the Earth]]. As a result, in the following years the flux of migrants escaping the civil war was likewise blamed on climate change by the President of the European Commission [[Jean-Claude Juncker]], p. 2.<ref name="book"/>
Hulme disagrees with this narrative and argues that blaming the civil war in Syria, the increase of hate speech and racist tweets on Twitter, or floods devastation on climate is ultimately a distraction from tackling their major underlying causes. p. 2.<ref name="book"/>
According to a review<ref name="rev1">Jennifer Bernstein, 2013, Mike Hulme: ''Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism'', Journal of Environmental Studies and Science, 1–4</ref> Hulme is clear that he believes human behaviour is changing the climate and that society should move toward net zero emissions.
Hulme compares ‘climatic determinism’ to [[racial determinism]] in presenting value-based judgments as science, and offers an alternative based on what he calls ''climatic pragmatism'', as a recipe that is ''contextually sensitive, diverse and pragmatic'' (p. 11 of Hulme's book).<ref name="book"/>
Still for review<ref name="rev1"/> the author – ''living a tension between critique and sympathy regarding climate change'' – is aware of the risk of his work being appropriated by [[Climate change denial|climate deniers]], and has accepted the risk to fight what he perceives as the dangers of climatism.<ref name="rev1"/>
Each chapter ends with a section entitled ‘Retort’ where likely objections are discussed, and a ‘Further Reading’ section at the end of the book offers suggestions relating to climate science, the relation between expertise, politics and democracy, the different meanings of climate change, the power of narratives, climate reductionism and climate anxieties.
For Hulme climate change has become the lens through which we perceive and address societal challenges.<ref name="Escobedo"/> This has made climate as a "self-sufficient" narrative capable of explaining political, socio-ecological, and ethical dilemmas.<ref name="Escobedo"/>
Hulme dedicates a chapter to reconstruct the genesis of climatism in ten "moves",<ref name="Pielke-Hahn"/> Among these, the adoption of global temperature as a "flawed index for capturing the full range of complex relationships between climate and human welfare and ecological integrity" (move 3) appear as especially relevant.<ref name="Pielke-Hahn"/>
For Hulme the moves have led to the ideology of climatism, making climate change into the "leitmotif of contemporary politics."<ref name="Pielke-Hahn"/>
A final chapter entitled "If Not Climatism, Then What?" offers Hulme's recipes, under the banner that "Wicked problems need clumsy solutions": these include foregrounding scientific uncertainty, defusing deadline-ism, and acknowledging the plurality of values and goals as.<ref name="Pielke-Hahn"/>
==The chapters==
A succinct summary of the book chapter by chapter is offered in:<ref name="Maxwell"/>
# ‘From Climate to climatism’, ''How an Ideology is Made''. Introduces climatism as an ideology.
# ‘How did Climatism Arise’, ''Fetishizing Global Temperature''. Describes the ascent of climatism in ten "moves".
# ‘Are the Sciences Climatist’, ''The Noble Lie and Other Misdemeanors''.Presents use and misuse of climate scenarios, with particular attention to [[IPCC]]'s [[Representative Concentration Pathway]] 8.5.
# ‘Why is Climatism So Alluring’, ''Master-Narratives and Polarizing Moralism''. The main ingredient of climatism: climatism as a [[Metanarrative|master narrative]], its [[Manichaeism|Manichean]] worldview and its apocalyptic rhetoric.
# ‘Why is Climatism Dangerous’, ''The Narrowing of Political Vision''. Exemplifies the perverse effects of compressing all ailment of the world under a single heading, unlike the broad spectrum of the [[sustainable development goals]]. The case of deforestation in Indonesia driven by European Union biofuel policies.
# ‘If Not Climatism, Then What’, ''[[Wicked problem|Wicked Problems]] Need Clumsy Solutions''. Gives a recipe for progress: replace a culture of [[hubris]] with one of humility, discontinue presenting the future in terms of cliff-edges or no-return points, embrace a plurality of values and perspectives, including site-, culture- and context-specific values and perspectives.
# ‘Some Objections’, ''You sound Just Like…''. Anticipates objections to the positions expressed in the book.
==Reception==
The reception of the book is varied. For Teresa de León:<ref name="Escobedo">de León Escobedo, T. G. (2023). Scalar dissonances, knowledge-making, sense of urgency, and social narratives about the future. Contours of the climate change debate in Latin America. Tapuya: Latin American Science, Technology and Society, 6(1), 2278839.</ref><blockquote>Hulme has the merit of having shown how the social encounter with nature has been narrowed by a generic distinction of villains and saviors of the Earth, which has triggered ethical reflections about what is more socially sensitive to nature and what is not. </blockquote>For Volker Hahn, writing in the blog<ref>http://rogerpielkejr.blogspot.com/</ref> of [[Roger Pielke Jr.]]:<ref name="Pielke-Hahn">Roger Pielke Jr. 2023. 'Book Review: Climate Change Isn’t Everything'. Substack newsletter. The Honest Broker (blog). 7 August 2023. https://rogerpielkejr.substack.com/p/book-review-climate-change-isnt-everything.</ref><blockquote>Hulme’s book may not deliver radically new or surprising insights. But it is a concise digest of the current climate discourse and depicts where things are going wrong. </blockquote>
For Nicholas Clairmont<ref name="Clairmont">{{Citation | vauthors=((Clairmont, N.)) | year=2023 | title=A warming planet needs cooler heads. | url=https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/warm-planet-cool-heads | access-date=7 December 2023}}</ref> writing in [[The New Atlantis (journal)|The New Atlantis]]:<blockquote> The book is a welcome remedy for a climate discourse beset by scientization, the antidemocratic process by which “scientific statements substitute — or at least become a short-hand — for ethical or political reasoning and argument.”</blockquote>
A more critical view is offered by Simon Maxwell:<ref name="Maxwell">Maxwell, Simon. n.d. 'Climate Change Isn’t Everything by Mike Hulme'. Simonmaxwell: Bridging Research & Policy (blog). Accessed 11 January 2024. https://simonmaxwell.net/blog/climate-change-isnt-everything-by-mike-hulme.html.</ref><blockquote>It’s hard to decide whether Mike Hulme’s new book is: (a) a salutary warning to over-enthusiastic advocates of climate action, (b) a case of over-egging the pudding in regard to same, or (c) and despite protestations to the contrary, a gift to climate deniers. The book has elements of all three, but I confess Hulme’s central assertion, that ‘climatism’ has emerged as a technocratic, pervasive and apocalyptic ‘ideology’ which explains all the world’s ills and claims pre-eminence in policy, strikes me mainly as a case of over-egging the pudding.</blockquote>
== See also ==
* [[Climate Change]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*https://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/people/hulme/ Prof. Hulme page at the [[University of Cambridge]]
*[https://www.politybooks.com/blog-detail/climate-change-isnt-everything-liberating-climate-politics-from-alarmism Book page] at [[Polity Press]]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]]
[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Environmental science]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
[[Category:World Bank]]
[[Category:History of environmentalism]]
[[Category:Environmental policy]]
[[Category:Global governance]] |
Ghazi Barotha water supply project | {{distinguish|Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project}}
The '''Ghazi Brotha Water Supply Project''' is a long-term proposed initiative aimed at providing adequate water supply to the twin cities of [[Rawalpindi]] and [[Islamabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2448190/mega-water-project-far-from-taking-off|title=Mega water project far from taking off|date=November 29, 2023|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://propakistani.pk/proproperty/wasa-proposes-ghazi-barotha-water-supply-project-for-twin-cities-water-needs/|title=Wasa Proposes Ghazi Barotha Water Supply Project for Twin Cities' Water Needs - ProProperty}}</ref> The project was initially conceptualized in 2008 and has been in the works for over 15 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://propakistani.pk/proproperty/cda-urges-investment-in-water-related-projects-instead-of-roads-and-interchanges/|title=CDA Urges Investment in Water-Related Projects Instead of Roads and Interchanges - ProProperty}}</ref> It is designed to supply 200 million gallons of water per day to the twin cities from the [[Indus River]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2422133/wasa-seeks-leg-up-for-mega-water-project|title=WASA seeks leg up for 'mega' water project|date=June 17, 2023|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref>
==Background==
The twin cities of [[Rawalpindi]] and [[Islamabad]] are facing a water crisis as water levels in the [[Rawal Dam|Rawal]] and [[Khanpur dam]]s are rapidly depleting due to prolonged drought. The ongoing construction and growing population in Rawalpindi city and cantonment areas have increased the demand for water. Lack of progress on the Ghazibrotha water supply project has further aggravated the expected crisis.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2452509/drought-sparks-water-shortage-fears | title=Drought sparks water shortage fears | date=8 January 2024 }}</ref>
==Project details==
The project envisages providing 600 million gallons per day (MGD) to the twin cities after completion in three phases. The estimated cost of the first phase of the project is 22 billion 98 crore 23 lakh rupees. However, due to long delay, the cost of the proposed project has reached 150 billion rupees. The project involves the construction of a 24 km long water pipeline from [[Ghazi Brotha]] to the water treatment and storage site at [[Sangjani]].
In July 2021, the [[Capital Development Authority (Islamabad)|Capital Development Authority]] (CDA) and the [[Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources]] (PCRWR) collaborated to assess groundwater, create a regulatory framework and recharge groundwater. A memorandum of understanding has been signed. The cooperation was expected to last for three years. The government has also planned to bring 100 MGD from [[Ghazi Brotha Dam]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/869765-100mgd-water-from-ghazi-barotha-dam-to-islamabad-cda-pcrwr-sign-mou-on-technical-support-supply | title=100MGD water from Ghazi Barotha Dam to Islamabad: CDA-PCRWR sign MoU on technical support, supply }}</ref><ref>https://pcrwr.gov.pk/consultative-meeting-on-demonstration-of-nature-based-solution-for-improving-the-resilience-of-groundwater/</ref>
===Cost===
As the project will be developed in three phases, the [[Water and Sanitation Agency]] (WASA) has proposed that the [[Government of Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab government]] bear only 25 percent of the construction cost of the Ghazi Brotha project. Vasa has also agreed to contribute 25 percent for the project.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/amp/1663699 | title=Wasa asks Punjab to bear only 25pc cost of Ghazi Barotha water project | date=14 December 2021 }}</ref> The total estimated cost of the first phase of the project is estimated at Rs 22.98 billion. As part of Phase I and II, 200 million gallons of additional water per day (MGD) will be made available to the people of the Twin Cities. After completion of Phase III, water supply will increase to 250 MGD per day.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2422133/wasa-seeks-leg-up-for-mega-water-project | title=WASA seeks leg up for 'mega' water project | date=17 June 2023 }}</ref>
===PC-1 phase 1===
In December 2021, the PC-1 of the project, involving land acquisition of Rs 3.1 billion, has been given clearance. The first phase of the project is estimated to cost Rs 80 billion, to be completed in three years and will culminate in a collective supply of 200 mgd of clean water to Islamabad and Rawalpindi, with each city getting an equal share.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2332496/pc-1-of-ghazi-barotha-project-okayed | title=PC-1 of Ghazi Barotha project okayed | date=5 December 2021 }}</ref>
==Current status==
Despite its importance, the Ghazi Brotha water supply project has suffered setbacks, with progress limited to briefings and discussions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2452509/drought-sparks-water-shortage-fears|title=Drought sparks water shortage fears|date=January 8, 2024|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref> The project was excluded from the [[Annual Development Program]] (ADP) submitted by the [[Water and Sanitation Agency]] (WASA) for the financial year 2023–24.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2424745/mega-water-project-for-twin-cities-scrapped|title=Mega water project for twin cities scrapped|date=July 5, 2023|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref> However, the government has planned to start this project with an investment of 150 billion rupees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/govt-to-initiate-rs-150b-project-of-water-sup-1020764.html|title=Govt To Initiate Rs 150b Project Of Water Supply To Federal Capital From Ghazi Barotha Dam: Ali Nawaz|website=UrduPoint}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Proposed infrastructure in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Proposed water supply infrastructure]]
[[Category:Environmental issues in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Water scarcity]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Urban planning in Pakistan]] |
Voie verte | {{Short description|Autonomous communication route used in France.}}
{{Confusion|Coulée verte}}
[[File:CEVA-Voie verte-37.jpg|thumb|Voie verte between [[Chêne-Bourg]] (Geneva, Switzerland) and [[Ambilly]] (Haute-Savoie, France)]]
A '''voie verte''' is an autonomous communication route reserved for non-motorized traffic, such as [[Pedestrian|pedestrians]] and [[Cycling|cyclists]]. Voies vertes are developed with a view to integrated development that enhances the [[:fr:Environnement|environment]], heritage, quality of life, and user-friendliness. In Europe, they have been organized since October 1997 within the framework of the European Green Network<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ministère de la transition écologique et solidaire |date=2001 |title=Circulaire du 31 mai 2001 relative à la mise en œuvre du schéma national de véloroutes et voies vertes. - Élaboration des volets régionaux |url=https://www.af3v.org/IMG/pdf/circulaire-vv-mai2001.pdf |journal=Bulletin du ministère |language=fr |issue=1-6: N°21}}</ref><ref>[http://www.aevv-egwa.org/ Site de l'Association Européenne des voies vertes]</ref> to coordinate and regulate uses often prohibited in certain countries or that compete with motorized practices.<ref>Cartographie des chemins accessibles et constats d'infractions pour suivre à vtt la parade des bateaux lors des "Voiles de la Liberté" de Rouen à l'Estuaire de la Seine; CRCommerceIndustrie, DRJeunesses-Sports, PlanèteVtt, CNAvironRouen; Ports/Préfet 1989/1994.</ref>
== Context ==
In this regard, [[Towpath|towpaths]], old rural paths, and disused [[Railway track|railway tracks]] are privileged mediums for the development of voies vertes.<ref>[http://www.aevv-egwa.org/fr/declaration-pour-un-reseau-vert-europeen/ ''Déclaration de Lille''], September 12, 2000.</ref> If managed appropriately (through [[sustainable gardening]] and [[restoration ecology]], and without the use of pesticides in the surroundings, which can then potentially play a role in the [[Green infrastructure|green infraestructure]] and blue network), voires vertes are one of the elements of [[sustainable development]] policies in the relevant areas.
For English speakers, [[Greenway (landscape)|greenways]] refers to voies vertes, but also more generally to "a road that is good from an environmental point of view" (Turner, 1995,<ref>Turner quoted by himself in TURNER T., 2006, ''Greenway planning'' ''in Britain: recent work and future plans'', vol. 76, no. 1-4, pp.240-251 ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204604001434 Abstract)]</ref> or - in England, according to a survey cited by Turner in 2006: "a linear space containing elements planned, designed, and managed for multiple purposes, including ecological, recreational, cultural, aesthetic, and others compatible with the concept of sustainable land use") or a wide range of landscape and urban planning strategies including, to varying degrees, an environmental concern associated with transportation infrastructure,<ref>Jack Ahern (Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, University of Massachusetts), ''Greenways as a planning strategy'' ; Landscape and Urban Planning Volume 33, Issues 1-3, October 1995, Pages 131-155 Greenways doi:10.1016/0169-2046(95)02039-V ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016920469502039V Abstract])</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fábos |first=J.G. |year=1995 |title=Introduction and overview: the greenway movement, uses and potentials of greenways |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |volume=33 |issue=1–3 |pages=1–13|doi=10.1016/0169-2046(95)02035-R }}</ref> the edges of which have often acquired special value<ref>Hobden D.W., Laughton G.E. et Morgan K.E., 2004, ''Green space borders, a tangible benefit ? Evidence from four neighbourhoods in Surrey, British Columbia, 1980-2001'', Land Use Policy, vol. 21, no. 2, pp.129-138</ref> and are sometimes associated with the concept of a biological corridor in Europe.<ref>Jongman R.H.G., Külvik M. et Kristiansen I., 2004, ''European ecological networks and greenways'', Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 68, no. 2-3, pp.305-319.</ref>
== History and Evolution ==
From 1975 to 1995, voies vertes proliferated significantly in the urban [[Landscape|landscapes]] of so-called ''developed'' countries.<ref name="histSearns95">Robert M. Searns, ''The evolution of greenways as an adaptive urban landscape'' ; Landscape and Urban Planning Volume 33, Issues 1-3, October 1995, Pages 65-80 Greenways doi:10.1016/0169-2046(94)02014-7 online 23 February 2000.</ref> For example, by 1995, more than 500 communities were building them in North America alone. They address new human needs while also extending some of the functions of ancient rural roads. More than simple facilities or landscaping, they increasingly aim to provide a counterbalance to the loss of natural landscape in the context of increasing urbanization and agricultural industrialization. As times changed, the notion of ''chemins verts'' ou ''corridors verts'' evolved to meet new needs and challenges.<ref name="histSearns95" />
Three distinct stages (or "generations") of voies vertes can be identified as forms of urban and peri-urban landscape:
# The first generation consisted of wooded paths, bordered by grassy and flowered embankments or ancestral walking paths,<ref name="histSearns95" /> complementary to road networks;
# Recreational and discovery trails, or routes away from traffic zones, providing access to rivers, streams, ridges, and urban fabric, allotment gardens, etc., followed. Generally, automobiles were excluded<ref name="histSearns95" /> (''[[Reserved lanes]]'');
# The latest generation is often more multifunctional, primarily reserved for soft travel and leisure, sometimes also for landscape enhancement, while also seeking to address certain vital needs of fauna, and flora (and sometimes fungi, with the conservation of deadwood). Ditches, swales, and flood-prone areas can also play a roleb in water and flood management (in urban or rural areas). Path edges are designed and managed to act as wildlife corridors with a potential [[buffer strip]]. Like [[grassy strips]] or other types of buffer zones, some voies vertes also contribute to improving water quality (with, for example, ditches and swales serving as [[Wetland|natural wetland]]). They also provide resources for outdoor education, landscape discovery, and interpretation. Planners must therefore adopt multidisciplinary approaches, sometimes merging formerly opposing disciplines such as [[civil engineering]], [[architecture]], [[landscape ecology]], [[sustainable gardening]], or [[Wetland|wetland ecology]].<ref name="histSearns95" /> In France, the term ''voies vertes'' tends to overlap with that of the voies vertes in the cycle route and voies vertes network.<ref>[http://asso.proxiland.fr/ffct-sarthe/default.asp?a=10425 Qu'est-ce qu'une voie verte ?] Illustrated sheet (Comité départemental de cyclotourisme FFCT de la Sarthe)</ref>
== Network status ==
=== {{Country|Belgium}} ===
In Belgium, a network of {{Value|2200|u=km}} of voies vertes was already defined in 2003, of which {{Value|900|u=km}} were developed.<ref>Source : 4° Conférence européenne sur les Voies vertes au Palais des Congrès de Liège, in Belgium.</ref>
In the [[Wallonia|Walloon Region]], they form the [[RAVeL network]].
In [[Flanders]], there is a network of [[Towpath|towpaths]], [[Train|railway trails]], and other independent cycle paths. Most are integrated into the [[Numbered-node cycle network|numbered-node cycle networks]] of the [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]], or belong to [[LF-routes]] (Dutch: ''lange-afstandsfietsrout''e, long-distance tourist cycle routes) or the [[bicycle highway]] network (Dutch: ''fietssnelweg'', utilitarian voies vertes providing direct routes between and around cities).
=== {{Country|Netherlands}} ===
In the Netherlands, the situation and terminology are comparable to Flanders, with the difference that there are few rail trails and many other independent cycle paths.
[[File:Voies vertes et véloroutes.svg|thumb|208x208px|Voie verte and cycle routes in [[France]], open or planned in 2011.]]
=== {{Country|France}} ===
In France, a decree of September 16, 2004 introduced voies vertes into the Highway Code: voies vertes are defined as roads "{{Text|exclusively reserved for the circulation of non-motorized vehicles, pedestrians and horse riders}}<ref name=":1">Marie-Pierre Genecand, [https://www.letemps.ch/societe/geneve-voie-verte-viretelle-deja-noir « À Genève, la Voie verte vire-t-elle déjà au noir ? »], ''[[:fr:Le_Temps_(quotidien_suisse)|Le temps]]'', October 16, 2018 (page consulted on October 16, 2018).</ref>."
=== {{Country|Switzerland}} ===
In Switzerland, there's a cross-border voie verte from [[Geneva]] to [[Annemasse]].<ref name=":1" /> A voie verte through [[Lausanne]] (along the railroad tracks) is programmed for completion in 2018.<ref>Laurent Antonoff, [https://www.24heures.ch/vaud-regions/cyclistes-coulent-verte-long-voies-cff/story/26108869 « Les cyclistes se la coulent verte le long des voies CFF »], ''[[24 heures (Suisse)|24 heures]]'', 20 juin 2018 (page consultée le 16 octobre 2018).</ref>
== Features and Benefits ==
They are most often developed on old railway lines,<ref name="Hecker">{{cite web |author=Antoine Beyer |date=November 2021 |title=Grandeur, décadence et possible renouveau du réseau ferroviaire secondaire français |url=https://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-thematiques/mobilites-flux-et-transports/articles-scientifiques/reseau-ferroviaire-secondaire-france |website=Géoconfluences}}<!-- auto-translated from French by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> [[Towpath|towpaths]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Hecker |first=Anne |date=2006 |title=Véloroutes et voies vertes : supports, ou objets touristiques ? |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/edyte_1762-4304_2006_num_4_1_982 |journal=Cahiers de géographie |volume=4 |language=fr |issue=Transport et tourisme |pages=199–208 |doi=10.3406/edyte.2006.982 |via=EDYTEM}}</ref> roads closed to automobile traffic, and cultural routes ([[Roman roads]], [[pilgrimage]] routes). They have certain characteristics:
# ''Ease of access'': their low or nonexistent slopes allow for use by all types of users, including those with reduced mobility;<ref name=":0" />
# ''Safety due'' to their physical separation from roadways and appropriate intersection design;
# ''Continuity'' of routes with alternative solutions in case of obstacles;
# ''Environmental respect'' along the paths and encouragement for users to respect it.
Voies vertes also offer services, located in preserved old facilities such as former railway stations and [[Lock (water navigation)|lockkeeper's]] houses. These services can be of various types: accommodation, [[Museum|museums]], bike rental, equestrian accommodation, community centers, etc. They cater to both local users and tourists. voies vertes are provided with information (maps, brochures, etc.) about the route itself and nearby sites. For example, several tens of kilometers of the former [[Coastal railway line of Var|coastal railway]] of the [[Chemins de fer de Provence|Chemins de Fer de Provence]] have been converted into a cycle path between [[Toulon]] and Pramousquier (in the municipality of [[Le Lavandou]]).
This example illustrates the main criticism of voies vertes, namely the fact that they sometimes contribute to downgrading and therefore definitively condemning railway lines that could potentially be reopened for collectivization and decarbonization of travel in peri-urban or rural areas, instead of taking up space on roads. This competition between two complementary modes in an era of [[energy transition]] inducing increasing decarbonization of travel can therefore be ironic.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://esprit.presse.fr/actualites/diane-delaurens/des-velos-et-des-trains-42262 | title=Revue Esprit }}</ref>
== Photographs ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Nová Bystřice, Greenways Praha-Wien.jpg|Voie verte from [[Prague]] to [[Vienna]] ([[Nová Bystřice]], [[Czech Republic]])
File:France road sign C115.svg|French voie verte[[signage]]
File:110langresgreenwayhouse.jpg|Voie verte built on a former railway line in [[Langres]]
File:Littoral varois 05.JPG|Cycling path arranged on the former [[coastal railway line of Var]].
File:High Trestle Trail Bridge, Madrid, Iowa, United States (Unsplash F9o7u-CnDJk).jpg|[[High Trestle Trail]], [[Railway track|rail trail]] in [[Madrid, Iowa|Madrid]], Iowa, USA.
</gallery>
== Notes and references ==
<references responsive="0" group=""></references>
== See also ==
* [[:fr:Aménagement_cyclable|Aménagement cyclable]]
{{Autres projets|commons=category:Voie verte}}
=== Bibliography ===
* {{Cite book |last=Bonduelle |first=Michel |title=La France des voies vertes: cyclistes, rollers, randonneurs |year=2003 |isbn=2-7373-3131-5 |edition=Ouest-France |location=Rennes |page=141 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |title=France à vélo, France des voies vertes: les clefs de la réussite |publisher=ODIT France |year=2006 |isbn=2-915215-26-X |location=Paris |page=104 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last= |url=https://www.mobilservice.ch/admin/data/files/mobility_topic_section_file/file/479/2000_guide-de-bonnes-pratiques-des-voies-vertes-en-europe_fr.pdf?lm=1535101285 |title=Guide de bonnes pratiques des voies vertes en Europe: exemples de réalisations urbaines et périurbaines, Association européenne des voies vertes |publisher=Commission européenne, Direction générale de l'environnement |year=2000 |location=Bruxelles |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mercat |first=Nicolas |title=Voies vertes: fréquentation et impact: panorama de l'offre |publisher=[[AFIT]] |year=2003 |isbn=2-910388-94-8 |location=Paris |page=93 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |url=http://www.enviplans.net/guidelines/reading/mobility/greenwaysBP_EUguide_05_fr.pdf |title=Guide co-rédigé par les ministères français de l'environnement, de l'équipement, des sports : «Fiche "choix techniques"», véloroutes et voies vertes |year=2000 |page=90 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Cahier des charges "Schéma national des véloroutes et voies vertes" |publisher=Ministère de l’Aménagement du territoire et de l’environnement, Ministère de l’Équipement, des transports et du logement, Ministère de la Jeunesse et des sports; Secrétariat d’État au Tourisme |publication-date=May 2001 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last= |title=Pistes cyclables - conception des structures |publisher=[[LCPC, Certu]] |year=1986 |page=50}}
* {{Cite book |title=Recommandations pour les aménagements cyclables |publisher=Certu |publication-date=April 2000 |page=108}}
* {{Cite book |title=Fiches véloroutes et voies vertes 1 "Les relais vélo" et 2 "Traversées d'agglomération" |date= |publisher=MEDD |year= |location=Paris |publication-date= |language=fr |type=October and November, 2001}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mission nationale Véloroutes et voies vertes - MN3V |url=https://www.valleesdesgaves.com/Fichiers/documents/0_mn3v_note.pdf |title=Véloroutes voies vertes l'avenir est aux circulations douces |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |title=Réseau vert européen, actes du colloque de Lille |date=September 2000}}
* {{Cite book |last=Agence française de l’ingénierie touristique (Afit) |url=http://www.afit-tourisme.fr/ |title=Voies vertes: fréquentation et impact |year=2003}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Le Brethon |first=Brigitte |date=March 2004 |title=Propositions pour encourager le développement de la bicyclette en France |journal=La Documentation française}}
=== Related articles ===
* [[Greenway (landscape)]]
* [[RAVeL network]]
* [[Green infrastructure]]
* [[Long-distance cycling route]]
* [[Rail trail]]
* [[Otago Central Rail Trail]]
=== External links ===
* [https://www.helloasso.com/associations/teamvttevasion Team VéloTousTerriens Evasion Rouen]
* [http://www.aevv-egwa.org/fr/ Association Européenne des Voies Vertes]
* [http://www.af3v.org/ Association Française des Véloroutes et Voies Vertes]
* [http://www.francevelotourisme.com/ France Vélo Tourisme]
* [http://www.voies-vertes.info/ Carte de France des voies vertes]
* [http://www.voiesvertes.com/ Le portail touristique national des parcours à vélo et de voies vertes]
* [http://www.oevv-egwo.org/index.php?lng=&page=1 Observatoire Européen des Voies Vertes]
*[http://mrw.wallonie.be/DGATLP/DGATLP/Pages/DAU/Dwnld/RAVeL/Actes_colloque_Liege_2003.pdf 4<sup>e</sup> Conférence européenne sur les voies vertes, Actes du colloque sur les Voies vertes urbaines et périurbaines(6,7,8 novembre 2003), Liège - Belgique]
{{Portal bar|Environment}}
{{Road types}}
[[Category:Traffic signs]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Ecology]] |
Climate change effects on tropical regions | '''Climate change effects on tropical regions''' includes changes in [[marine ecosystem]]s, human [[livelihood]]s, [[biodiversity]], degradation of [[tropical rainforest]]s and effects the environmental stability in these areas. [[Climate change]] is characterized by alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. Tropical areas, located between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and the [[Tropic of Capricorn]], are known for their warm temperatures, high biodiversity, and distinct ecosystems, including rainforests, coral reefs, and mangroves.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Kreier |first=Freda |date=2022-04-01 |title=Tropical forests have big climate benefits beyond carbon storage |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00934-6 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-00934-6|pmid=35365819 |s2cid=247865559 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchard |first=Edward T. A. |date=July 2018 |title=The tropical forest carbon cycle and climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0300-2 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=559 |issue=7715 |pages=527–534 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0300-2 |pmid=30046067 |bibcode=2018Natur.559..527M |s2cid=50785296 |issn=1476-4687|hdl=20.500.11820/1e3b2f39-0c65-49ad-b62c-46655bcbbad9 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Dunne |first=Daisy |date=2018-01-30 |title=Rainforests: Scientists concerned climate change is altering the tropical life cycle |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/rainforests-scientists-concerned-climate-change-is-altering-the-tropical-life-cycle/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Cross-Chapter Paper 7: Tropical Forests |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/ccp7/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=www.ipcc.ch |language=en}}</ref>
== Alterations in the Carbon Cycle of Tropical Forests ==
Tropical forests are crucial in the global carbon cycle, acting as significant [[carbon sinks]] by absorbing CO2 through [[photosynthesis]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> However, climate change is altering this balance.<ref name=":2" /> Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can reduce forest growth rates and change species composition, potentially diminishing the forests' capacity to sequester carbon. Extreme weather events, such as droughts and storms, can lead to increased tree mortality, further reducing the carbon storage capacity of these forests and threatening their biodiversity and ecological services.<ref name=":1"/>
== Degradation of Tropical Rainforests ==
Tropical rainforests are experiencing significant threats from climate change. Changes in rainfall patterns and increased temperatures can lead to droughts, affecting the health and distribution of rainforest species. These changes exacerbate the effects of [[deforestation]] and [[land-use change]], leading to biodiversity loss and affecting the livelihoods of [[indigenous communities]] and local populations dependent on these forests. Moreover, the degradation of rainforests contributes to climate change by releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere, creating a feedback loop that further accelerates [[global warming]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
A study highlighted in a 2022 [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] article underscores the broader climate benefits of tropical forests beyond carbon storage. Tropical forests cool the planet by one-third of a degree through biophysical mechanisms such as humidifying the air and releasing cooling chemicals, in addition to their role in extracting carbon dioxide from the air. This underscores the critical importance of preserving tropical forests not only for their carbon storage capacity but also for their broader role in regulating the Earth's climate.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=3 ways climate change affects tropical rainforests |url=https://www.conservation.org/blog/3-ways-climate-change-affects-tropical-rainforests/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=www.conservation.org}}</ref>
== Changes in Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries ==
The warming of ocean waters has caused [[coral bleaching]] and the degradation of coral reefs, which are vital to marine biodiversity and [[Fishery|fisheries]]. [[Coral reef]]s support a large proportion of the world's fish species, providing food and livelihoods for millions of people. As ocean temperatures rise, the symbiotic relationship between corals and their algae is disrupted, leading to bleaching and, in severe cases, the death of coral colonies. This not only affects the species that directly depend on coral reefs but also impacts the larger marine food web and fisheries productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lam |first1=Vicky W. Y. |last2=Allison |first2=Edward H. |last3=Bell |first3=Johann D. |last4=Blythe |first4=Jessica |last5=Cheung |first5=William W. L. |last6=Frölicher |first6=Thomas L. |last7=Gasalla |first7=Maria A. |last8=Sumaila |first8=U. Rashid |date=September 2020 |title=Climate change, tropical fisheries and prospects for sustainable development |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0071-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=1 |issue=9 |pages=440–454 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0071-9 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..440L |s2cid=220948114 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref> In addition, climate change impacts oceanic currents and sea levels, further altering fish distributions and habitats. Furthermore, [[ocean acidification]], resulting from increased [[CO2]] levels, compromises the ability of shellfish and corals to form shells and skeletons, further endangering marine ecosystems and the communities that depend on them.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |title=The Impact of Rising Ocean Acidification Levels on Fish Migration |eprint=2306.10953 |last1=Gilfoyle |first1=Asuna |last2=Baird |first2=Willow |date=2023 |class=q-bio.PE }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wolfram |first1=Uwe |last2=Peña Fernández |first2=Marta |last3=McPhee |first3=Samuel |last4=Smith |first4=Ewan |last5=Beck |first5=Rainer J. |last6=Shephard |first6=Jonathan D. |last7=Ozel |first7=Ali |last8=Erskine |first8=Craig S. |last9=Büscher |first9=Janina |last10=Titschack |first10=Jürgen |last11=Roberts |first11=J. Murray |last12=Hennige |first12=Sebastian J. |date=2022-05-16 |title=Multiscale mechanical consequences of ocean acidification for cold-water corals |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=8052 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-11266-w |pmid=35577824 |pmc=9110400 |arxiv=2110.01701 |bibcode=2022NatSR..12.8052W |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
== Adaptation and Mitigation ==
Addressing the impacts of climate change on tropical regions requires global cooperation and local action. Strategies include protecting and restoring ecosystems, implementing sustainable land use and fisheries management practices, and reducing [[greenhouse gas]] emissions. Technological innovations, such as satellite monitoring of deforestation and forest fires, along with community-based conservation efforts, can play a crucial role in these strategies. Additionally, promoting sustainable agricultural practices near tropical forests can help preserve these ecosystems while supporting local economies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The impacts of climate change in the Tropics |url=https://www.jcu.edu.au/state-of-the-tropics/publications/2014-state-of-the-tropics-report/2014-essay-pdfs/Essay-2-Corlett.pdf}}</ref>
The [[World Resources Institute]] highlights solutions that serve both adaptation and mitigation purposes, including protecting coastal wetlands, promoting sustainable agroforestry, decentralizing energy distribution, and securing indigenous peoples' land rights. These strategies not only help reduce carbon emissions but also improve resilience to climate impacts. For example, coastal wetlands buffer storm surges and floods while storing significant amounts of carbon. Agroforestry practices enhance land productivity and carbon sequestration, and decentralized energy systems improve resilience to climate variability. Recognizing and securing the land rights of indigenous peoples, who manage a substantial portion of the world's land, can lead to better forest conservation outcomes and lower deforestation rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Suarez |first=Isabella |date=2020-02-10 |title=5 Strategies that Achieve Climate Mitigation and Adaptation Simultaneously |url=https://www.wri.org/insights/5-strategies-achieve-climate-mitigation-and-adaptation-simultaneously |journal=WRI |language=en}}</ref>
In [[Zimbabwe]], for example, a case study of smallholder farmers in the [[Nyanga District]] showcased the integration of traditional grains, drought-resistant crops, and early planting among other adaptation strategies. The involvement of community leaders, professionals, and local residents provided a rich source of knowledge on effective practices to combat the impacts of climate change on food security and livelihoods. This approach emphasizes the importance of local knowledge and community-based strategies in developing resilience to climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mushore |first1=Terence Darlington |last2=Mhizha |first2=Teddious |last3=Manjowe |first3=Moven |last4=Mashawi |first4=Linia |last5=Matandirotya |first5=Electdom |last6=Mashonjowa |first6=Emmanuel |last7=Mutasa |first7=Collen |last8=Gwenzi |first8=Juliet |last9=Mushambi |first9=George Tawanda |date=2021 |title=Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies for Small Holder Farmers: A Case of Nyanga District in Zimbabwe |journal=Frontiers in Climate |volume=3 |doi=10.3389/fclim.2021.676495 |doi-access=free |issn=2624-9553}}</ref>
[[NASA]] plays a critical role in providing the scientific data necessary for understanding and addressing climate change globally. Through missions like GRACE, [[ICESat]], and Sentinel-6, NASA documents crucial changes in the Earth's ice sheets and sea levels, offering invaluable insights for both mitigation and adaptation efforts. Although not directly involved in policy-making, NASA's data supports global climate action by informing decision-makers, scientific communities, and the public.<ref>{{Cite web |last=website |first=NASA's Global Climate Change |title=Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/solutions/adaptation-mitigation |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet |language=en}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Climate change]]
* [[Climate change in the United States]]
* [[Climate change in Australia]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Climate]]
[[Category:Tropics]]
[[Category:Climate action plans]]
[[Category:Climate change and the environment]]
[[Category:Climate change adaptation]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation researchers]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Marine conservation]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Tropical rainforests]]
[[Category:Deforestation]] |