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Veneto, 18th Century Bronze, marble base height 30 cm - 11 3/4 in (with base) height 18 cm - 7 1/4 in (without base) Perhaps cast in an Italian workshop in the Veneto region, this fine bronze sculpture mounted on a circular giallo antico base represents a young figure carrying a goat on his shoulders. The figure can easily be identified as a satyr thanks to the pointed ears and goat-like legs and feet. Bronze depictions of satyrs and putti were quite popular in northern Italy and important examples of these representations are today housed in international museum collections. However, other examples of this specific subject have yet to be found. The scene here might depict the young Greek divinity Pan carrying a goat on his shoulder, as represented in a 2nd Century BC terracotta sculpture in the British Museum, accession number 1926,0939.44 Alternatively, the subject of this sculpture is perhaps linked to the ritual of the Dithyramb, the ancient Greek hymn sung and danced in honour of Dionysus by a chorus of singers disguised as goats and called Satyrs. According to Plutarch (Moralia, 257), the ritual featured a parade, in which a satyr holding an urn full of wine and some branches of vine was leading, followed by a satyr carrying a goat, then by a satyr carrying figs and at last by a satyr holding a phallus – all symbols of the worshipped God. Delevery information : We can provide assistance with international shipments. All items listed on our page can be shipped worlwide.

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Word Search Game Word Search Game is a captivating and educational HTML5 game designed to provide entertainment while enhancing child development. This fun-filled game challenges players to find hidden words within a grid of letters. With its vibrant and visually appealing designs, Word Search Game offers an engaging experience for players of all ages. How to PlayThe objective of Word Search Game is to locate and highlight words hidden within a grid of letters. The game features a variety of categories, including animals, fruits, colors, and more, catering to the diverse interests of players. Here's how to play: - Grid Selection: Start by selecting a grid size based on your preference or difficulty level. The game offers various grid sizes, ranging from 8x8 to 12x12. - Word Category Selection: Choose a word category from the available options. Each category contains a unique set of words related to the chosen theme. - Word Search: Once you've selected the grid size and word category, the game generates a grid filled with random letters. Hidden within these letters are the words you need to find. The words can be placed horizontally, vertically, diagonally, or even backward. - Word Highlighting: To find a word, simply click and drag your cursor over the letters that form the word. As you highlight the correct letters, the word will be revealed and marked as found. - Score and Time Limit: Word Search Game tracks your score and displays it at the end of each round. Additionally, there is a time limit to make the game more challenging. Try to find all the words within the given time to achieve a high score. Child Development BenefitsWord Search Game offers numerous benefits for child development. While having fun, children can enhance various cognitive and language skills, including: - Vocabulary Expansion: Playing Word Search Game exposes children to a wide range of words from different categories. By locating and learning new words, children can expand their vocabulary and improve their language skills. - Word Recognition: The game improves word recognition as children visually scan the grid to find specific words. This enhances their ability to identify and differentiate between different letter patterns. - Focus and Concentration: Word Search Game requires players to concentrate and focus on finding hidden words amidst a sea of letters. Regular gameplay can help improve a child's attention span and concentration skills. - Pattern Recognition: The game encourages children to recognize patterns within the grid, such as particular letter combinations or sequences. This skill can be beneficial in various aspects of learning, including reading and problem-solving. - Cognitive Skills: Word Search Game stimulates critical thinking and problem-solving abilities as children strategize and analyze the grid to locate words efficiently. It promotes logical reasoning and improves cognitive skills.

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COVID-19 Vaccination for Children Children Can Get COVID-19 Some children with COVID-19 feel fine. Some children with COVID-19 feel bad. Some children with COVID-19 get really sick. Children can spread COVID-19 to family and other people. COVID-19 vaccination for children is important COVID-19 vaccines help keep children from getting really sick from COVID-19. Your child can get the COVID-19 vaccine even if they already have other medical conditions. Children who have already had COVID-19 should still get vaccinated. COVID-19 vaccination helps keep children safer in school. COVID-19 vaccination is for children 6 months and older and is safe COVID-19 vaccination is safe for children 6 months and older. Children cannot get COVID-19 from the vaccine. After children get the COVID-19 vaccine Some children will feel fine after getting the COVID-19 vaccine. Some children may feel sick after getting the COVID-19 vaccine. Some children may feel tired after getting the COVID-19 vaccine. Your child should feel better in a few days. Call your doctor if you are worried about how your child feels. Finding the COVID-19 vaccine for your child is easy Ask your doctor or a local pharmacy, clinic, or health department if they have the COVID-19 vaccine for your child or teen. Text your ZIP code to 438829 or call 1-800-232-0233 to find COVID-19 vaccines for children and teens near you. For more information visit Stay Up to Date with COVID-19 Vaccines Development of these materials was supported by a grant from the CDC Foundation, using funding provided by its donors. The materials were created by the Center for Literacy & Disability Studies, Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the Center for Inclusive Design and Innovation at Georgia Tech. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provided subject matter expertise and approved the content. The use of the names of private entities, products, or enterprises is for identification purposes only and does not imply CDC endorsement. Project funding ended 9/30/2021. All edits after that date are completed solely by CDC.

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Information Note #10: United Nations support to Cambodia’s Education Sector in the context of COVID-19 20 July 2021 Education is critical for children’s personal development and lifetime prospects. It is key for escaping poverty, reducing inequality and it drives sustainable development. The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted education and school attendance globally. In Cambodia, since March 2020, schools have been closed for over 200 days, interrupting learning for approximately 3.2 million learners. Education losses drive drastic declines in human development, with estimates of Cambodia’s Human Development Index (HDI) for 2020 revealing a decline of 3.93% from 2019, equivalent to erasing all progress made in the past four years. Prior to the pandemic Cambodia was already off-track to meet sustainable development goal (SDG) 4 on quality learning and the pandemic risks undermining any progress made. It is not yet known when schools might reopen. The risk of children never returning to school increases with time, especially for children from vulnerable groups. The pandemic has exacerbated existing inequalities and risks deepening the digital divide. School closures have an impact beyond learning, affecting the ability of many parents and carers, especially women, to work, reducing access to nutritious food for many children and increasing the risks of violence against children. Global evidence continues to show that schools are not the main drivers of transmission and can be reopened safely. The United Nations has been partnering with the Royal Government of Cambodia since the start of the pandemic, through the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) to assist the country to adapt, respond and recover from the impacts of COVID-19 on education. The United Nations’ efforts are aimed at providing a holistic package of support to children to foster continued access to quality education for all learners across the country and to ensure that no child is left behind. A Joint Education Needs Assessment conducted jointly by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) and the Education Sector Working Group (ESWG), which the United Nations chairs, demonstrated that children have unequal opportunities to continue their learning, leading to substantive learning losses across all levels. While around 70% have been able to continue their education, only around 30% have access to online learning materials and 32% rely only on paper-based materials. Children from IDPoor households or with disabilities continue to face the greatest challenges. Analysis shows that 40% of households report having less food than before and 20% of boys and girls self-report having faced increased risk of violence or abuse due to school closures. To assist children to continue learning during school closures, the United Nations and its partners work to produce inclusive distance learning materials for children at all levels. These include online platforms, television and radio. Paper-based distance learning materials have been regularly distributed to students across the country, particularly benefitting disadvantaged students without access to the internet or other information sharing platforms. Where relevant, learning materials have been translated into four indigenous ethnic minority languages, braille, and Cambodian sign language. Home learning packages for all public-school children in Grades 1 and 2 (approximately 750,000 children), have also been procured, given the vulnerability of this age group to learning losses. A complementary package in four minority languages will reach 5,000 children in the northeast. COVID-19 prevention and vaccination related information is also included in this package to support the vaccination efforts. In the non-formal sub-sector, the United Nations is scaling up efforts to ensure that at least 300,000 (50% female) lower secondary school students and out-of-school youth can continue to access the most up-to-date learning resources through the Basic Education Equivalency Programme (BEEP) platform. In partnership with the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS), the United Nations is upgrading the BEEP platform to ensure continued learning of more learners; opened new BEEP Learning Centres in remote areas; digitized content; and provided supplementary, alternative and flexible learning opportunities to students currently enrolled at lower secondary schools. The United Nations has also provided significant support to teachers. For example, a Continuous Professional Development has been developed, in alignment with the Teacher Career Pathway. The United Nations has been supporting distance and online learning by procuring tablets with free mobile internet data for all Provincial Teacher Training College (PTTC) teacher trainers. The United Nations coordinates the ongoing development and implementation of blended in-service training to upgrade PTTC teacher trainers’ ICT and innovative teaching methodology for distance, online education. Recognizing the impact that COVID-19 restrictions have had on the ability of poor households to meet household food and nutrition needs during school closures, the United Nations has re-purposed school feeding resources to provide household food rations to poor families who usually participate in the pre-primary and primary school meals programme. To date, the United Nations, in partnership with Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS), has provided assistance four times to over 90,000 households across ten provinces, complementing other COVID19 relief efforts, helping households meet food needs and encouraging poor families to keep children learning. To support the safe re-opening of schools during 2020, the United Nations provided basic cleaning and hygiene supplies to all of Cambodia’s 13,300 public schools, benefitting 3.2 million students. With funding partners, the United Nations distributed US$4.2 million as block grants to primary and lower secondary schools nationwide prior to the start of the new school year in January 2021 to assist schools to meet additional costs associated with education service provision in the context of COVID19. Risk communication and engagement with school communities have been supported by the United Nations. In September 2020, the United Nations, together with Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS), launched a nationwide Back to School campaign, stressing the importance of good hygiene and COVID19 preventive measures. School infrastructure projects focusing on WASH infrastructure were scaled up to ensure adequate facilities for a safe return to school. A second phase of the nationwide Back to School campaign commenced in January 2021, addressing all aspects of children’s wellbeing: education, health, nutrition and protection. The development of a “Safe School Operations handbook” (113,006 copies), and its distribution to over 16,000 schools in Cambodia, ensured that all teachers and school directors were able to start the school year prepared. To complement the campaign, the United Nations invested in a 12-month Communication for Education (C4E) initiative to promote community demand for education and accountability of local authorities for the delivery of COVID-19 safe education. This initiative is working to reach and connect with vulnerable communities in six target provinces (Ratanakiri, Mondulkiri, Stueng Treng, Kratie, Kampong Chhnang and Koh Kong). Since the 20 March 2021 school closures, both the Back to School campaign and C4E initiative were adjusted to include messages encouraging children to continue learning via distance learning programmes with support from parents and teachers. The United Nations commends Cambodia’s initiative to prioritize vaccinations for teachers. Cambodia is one of the 17 countries to have prioritized vaccination among teachers, and to date approximately 85% of both public and private teachers have been fully vaccinated. The United Nations acknowledges the recent announcement by the Royal Government that the country is considering COVID-19 vaccinations for children aged 12-17 years. Evidence and guiding policies on COVID-19 vaccination among children are however still emerging. In line with current global WHO guidance, and given the constrained global supply of COVID-19 vaccines, the United Nations recommends that adults and those with higher risk to infection and the most vulnerable should continue to be prioritized for vaccination. Children with underlying medical risks to develop severe Covid-19 infection are recommended to be vaccinated, but only after adults with underlying medical conditions have been reached at a high coverage with two doses. Planning ahead is encouraged and countries considering the vaccination of younger age groups also need to consider the safety and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines for children given potential risks and benefits. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport’s active participation in the Global Education Coalition, which was established in response to COVID-19, is also acknowledged, along with the commitment by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport’s to reach an allocation of 20% of total Government budget expenditure to education, up from a current 18.38%, from 2022. Ensuring sufficient financing for education is vital for recovery and to help offset losses in educational attainment during the pandemic. Education is a fundamental human right and a driver of progress across all 17 sustainable development goals. The United Nations continues to encourage and support the Royal Government of Cambodia to prioritise the safe reopening of schools at the earliest moment possible and to keep them open to the extent possible, in order to avoid further declines in human development. The recent Prakas enabling small-group learning is welcomed as a first step. The COVID-19 pandemic is an opportunity to improve systems to deliver quality education to ensure that each child can reach their full potential. To achieve this, the Royal Government should continue its efforts to build a more inclusive and responsive education system that is resilient to future crisis and disruptions. This includes increasing investments in quality digital literacy, connectivity, and infrastructure to support continued learning, along with upskilling teachers to integrate ICT into teaching and learning practices. Greater focus should be placed on targeting children at risk of being left behind, recovering learning losses and nurturing children’s development and wellbeing. The United Nations remains committed to partnering with the Royal Government and other partners to promote inclusive, equitable and quality education as well as a more resilient recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. UN Cambodia’s Response to COVID-19 Information Notes are official documents from the United Nations in Cambodia intended for the media and other partners. They are prepared by the Office of the UN Resident Coordinator. UNDP, “Projected impacts of COVID19 on the 2020 human development index in Cambodia and its neighbors”, https://www.kh.undp.org/content/cambodia/en/home/library/projected-impa…. UNICEF and UNESCO, “Re-opening schools cannot wait’, https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/statement-reopening-schools-canno…

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"Comunidad" or "comunitat", if this is your co-official language preference, has the same meaning as the English "community". The words have each followed the same linguistic path from Latin "communitas" with divergences such as the Old French "comuneté". In terms of human society, it is one of the most powerful words and concepts to have come from Latin. It is the sharing of something in common - a place, a belief, a value, an identity, a government. When Spain moved into its democratic, post-Franco era, it placed community at the centre of this democratic renewal. Regions, such as the Balearics, officially became communities. In English, because it aids better understanding, it is convenient to refer to the Balearics as a region. A community, in wider social terms, is more understandable in being applied, say, to the British or German communities in Mallorca or to all sorts of other communities. They are on the internet, there is a farming or banking community, a gay community. All of them are defined by having something in common, as is a political community. But English can stumble somewhat in acknowledging community as an actual political entity. Hence, why region is a convenience. Not, however, that it is inaccurate. The Balearics is still a region, just as Catalonia or Andalusia are. But they are more than this. They are communities. Their official political denomination is "comunidad autónoma" - autonomous community - and their constitutions are enshrined in their statutes of autonomy. The Balearic parliament has been engaged in a debate into the "state of the community". Linguistically, a trick might be said to be being played here. State has its dual meanings of condition and "nation". A debate into the state of the nation that is the community, that of the Balearics. To what extent is there a Balearic community? Is the term a form of artifice, a kind of deception to portray the sharing of things in common? A political expedient, therefore, to engineer a sense of common identity? There is undoubtedly greater power in conveying cohesion through community, a greater sense of purpose than merely being an anonymous, if autonomous, "region". But how real is it? Historically, if one goes back far enough, there was no community. Primitive societies would not necessarily have allowed it anyway, but in the Balearic archipelago there was separate development and evolution. Ibiza entered the Classical World far earlier than either Mallorca or Menorca. Its Carthage association saw to that. Much later, Ibiza was to express its separateness through the identity of architecture, transported to Mallorca only by degree, such as to Cala d'Or. At the time of the Catalan conquest, Ibiza and Formentera submitted to the Catalan aristocracy in the form of the Bishop of Tarragona six years after the assault on Mallorca by Jaume I. Menorca and its Muslim community accepted the sovereignty of Aragonese nobles two years after the Mallorca takeover. The island wasn't to definitively be "Catalanised" for a further fifty or more years. The events that created a Catalan society in the Balearics are revered mostly in Mallorca. 1229 and all that do not carry the same weight elsewhere. In far more contemporary times, Menorca held out as a Republican stronghold during the Civil War. In the years immediately before the war, Ibiza and Menorca had great reservations about tentative moves to establish autonomous government for the Balearics during the time of the Second Republic. Both feared that it was a move to give Mallorca dominance. When mass tourism arrived, the mass mostly descended on Mallorca. Balearisation, the development of the coasts, was predominantly a Mallorcan phenomenon. The magnet for tourism society was Mallorca. It became a global byword in ways that neither Ibiza nor Menorca did. Ibiza experienced its own curious evolution, that of hippy colonies. While there are common linguistic connections, there are also differences. These are most evident in Menorca, the legacy of British and French influences. Likewise, these occupiers bequeathed architectural styles, at variance with those, say, of Ibiza. The president of the Council of Mallorca, Miquel Ensenyat, speaking on the occasion of Mallorca Day, referred to the original institutions of autonomy - the islands' councils (with the exception of Formentera, which wasn't to get one until much later). These councils came before the formation of the autonomous community and so the founding of regional government. Ensenyat stressed the importance of the councils in responding to the idiosyncratic needs of the islands. With that one word, idiosyncratic, Ensenyat spoke volumes. Something peculiar to the individual islands. Specific differences, be they cultural, economic or political. When surveys are undertaken of identity, they reveal overwhelming identity with the specific islands rather than with the Balearics: this sense of belonging is greater away from Mallorca. So is there genuinely a "community"? Maybe Nel Marti (Més per Menorca) summed it up during parliament's debate: the complete absence of mention of "his" island.

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Spider plants (aka Chlorophytum, airplane plant or ribbon plant) are attractive tropical plants, nicknamed for their long, arched, narrow leaves. Their cascading nature looks great in hanging planters or placed on a sill or near a ledge to create a waterfall effect. They are originally native to Africa but gained popularity as a houseplant in the Victorian era as fashionable living décor. Spider plants make a great addition for both novice and experienced plant parents alike because they are easy to care for and propagate, can tolerate moderate and indirect sunlight, and have been proven to be especially good at helping to purify the air in indoor environments. Although they bear a similar resemblance to Dracaenas, Dracaena plants tend to have wider leaves and a taller, more upright growing habit. Mature Spider plants also can produce many visible offspring, called “pups” or “spiderettes” which trail down from the mother plant. Regular watering, indirect sunlight and regular fertilization are all key to keeping your Spider plant looking its best. Follow this guide to learn more about caring for your Spider plants. When placed indoors, Spider plants do best in bright to moderate indirect light. Ensure that your plant is not exposed to full or direct sunlight without being acclimated first, as their leaves can quickly burn and cause damage to the plant. Spider plants can grow in a variety of different soil types. However, they do best in loose soil with optimal drainage. Spider plants prefer a neutral pH Balance but can handle slightly acidic or higher alkaline mixed soil. These plants like their soil to be kept moist but not overly saturated. Be sure not to overwater your spider plant as it can quickly lead to root rot. These plants are also sensitive to excess fluoride and chlorine commonly found in tap water. Excess mineral salts can cause brown tips at the end of its leaves. It is therefore best to give your spider plant filtered water or rainwater. Also ensure that the temperature of the water is room temperature as any excessively cold or hot water can damage your plant. Temperature & Humidity Giving your spider plant a temperature and humidity that matches its natural habitat is how they will thrive the best. Don’t expose them to cooler temperatures below 50 degrees Fahrenheit and try to keep them away from any cold or hot drafts. Regular misting or running a humidifier in the room can help increase the ambient humidity and keep your plant from developing brown leaf tips. During their active growing season, spider plants can benefit from regular fertilization. Feeding them once a month using an all-purpose liquid fertilizer that is formulated for indoor plants. Spider plants are quite easy to propagate, which make them a great plant for a beginner to grow and share with friends. Follow the below steps to ensure a successful propagation. 1. Once your plant has matured and grown pups, you can separate the pups from the mother plant and replant them. Using a sterile sharp knife or pruning tool, carefully cut off a small plantlet off the stem ensuring to keep its roots intact. Be sure that the roots are at least an inch or two long. 2. Place this new cutting into a pot with fresh new moist potting mix. Ensure the soil stays moist but not overly saturated. 3. Once you start to see this new cutting start to grow. You can begin to water and care for it as you would a regular spider plant. Potting & Repotting Spider plants will still grow well when slightly root-bound; however, once your plant’s root system and root ball start to overgrow your planter, it’s time to repot. Ensure that your new planter is about 1”-2” inches wider in diameter than the old pot and has good-sized drainage holes at the bottom. Generally, Spider plants will need to be repotted about once every 2 to 3 years. The best time to report is when your plant is in its active growth stage around the spring or early summertime. To repot, fill your new pot halfway with fresh moist potting mix. Remove your Spider plant from its old container. Trim any damaged or decayed roots and fill in the rest of the space around the plant using loosely packed indoor potting mix. If the soil is dry, you can water the plant after repotting, otherwise water as normal. If you see your plant wilting shortly after repotting, the soil may be too dry. 1. How long does a spider plant live? The length of time a spider plant can live is based on how well it is cared for and maintained. Spider plants are known for their longevity, and if cared for properly can live up to 20 or even 50 years(!). Keeping your plant’s soil lightly moist and ensuring it gets an adequate amount of indirect sunlight are the most important factors in maintaining a healthy plant. 2. Does a spider plant really clean the air? According to the NASA clean air study, Spider plants are listed as one of the best natural home air purifying plants, capable of helping filter common household VOC’s (Volatile Organic Compounds) including formaldehyde, xylene, and toluene from indoor environments. 3. Can a spider plant survive outdoors? Spider plants can be grown outdoors in warm climate zones (i.e.: USDA zones 9 – 11) , and will not tolerate frost or freezing.

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Alexander's Campaign > Cophen Campaign The Cophen Campaign was a military excursion conducted by Alexander III the Great as part of the Indian Campaign between May of 327 BCE and March of 326 BCE. The expedition occurred in the present area of Swat, Pakistan in the Punjab region and was meant to help establish a successful line of communications and supplies before continuing the advance into Indus Valley. In order to keep his army well fed and supplied he needed constant replenishing through the Baggage Train which was a slow and vulnerable procession that carried all of the supplies for the Macedonian Army. In order to establish a secure line of contact between the territories they conquered Alexander needed to take down a series of fortresses embedded into the mountains. The conflict would eventually be successful following the Siege of Aornos. It had been Alexander's purpose to conquer the whole of the Persian Empire for some time, who claimed the fealty of—at least in name—as far as Gandara. Darius the Great in former days had sent a commander by the name of Skylax sailed down the Indus. As a result of this expedition, Darius was able to conquer the Indian country up to this neighborhood—and received 350 Euboic talents from it per annum—an extravagant sum. Relatively little is known about the Punjab in Alexander's day. There were a variety of princelings and Republics, which the Indians called, "Kingless" peoples—but they were all vying for power over the region with each other. The Indians, had contempt for these Republics. The King of Taxila, whom the Macedonians just called Taxila—but in fact his name was Omphis— had invited Alexander to come to his aid in his struggle against the neighboring potentate Porus—who was deemed the most powerful prince in the region, in addition to being capable in his own right. In addition to this, the Indian King, Sisicotus—who had served at Gaugumela in the Persian Army— and had afterwords been Alexander's vassal in some capacity. Allegedly, Alexander received plenty of information concerning the region from these individuals. What information he received is not mentioned. Alexander had begun planning the expedition two years before, in 329 BC, but had been held up due to a series of revolts that had taken place in Aria, Sogdiana and Bactria. However, he was held up in putting down this revolt as he had been marching through the Hindu Kush mid-winter and decided to camp in the mountains. It was during this time that he founded the city of Alexandria ad Caucasum. This city is some twenty five miles northwest of modern Kabul, in Afghanistan. Returning to Alexandria ad Caucasum in May 327 BC there was a surfeit of victual and supplies ready for the army for its expedition into India. However, there were administrative matters that required his attention. Both the satrap of the parapamisus Proëxes, and the commander of the garrison Neiloxinus were replaced due to their unsatisfactory conduct. There were a number of tribes that were shuffled around, and other necessary affairs were taken up. At this moment, before he set out for Nicea, he is alleged to have had 150,000 soldiers at this point. Critical scholarship however, is dubious of these numbers. Regardless, the ancient sources universally ascribe a leaven of Oriental troops partaking in the campaigns by this point. These included soldiers from Greece, Thrace, Agriania and a healthy leaven of Oriental soldiers from the new sections of his empire. It has been alleged that 50-60,000 of these were Europeans. Leaving Alexandria ad Caucasum, he marched to Nicea, where he sacrificed to Athena—which was his habit at the beginning of every campaign and began his advance towards the Indus via the Cophen river. First Phase: AspasiansWhile on the march Alexander sent ambassadors ahead to the various tribes that were in his front—ordering them to submit and report to him with hostages. Not only Taxila, but a number of other princes came to him bringing him gifts in proof of their vassalage and paying tribute with gifts for the Macedonians—a proof that they were ready to serve him. Including other gifts that the Macedonians had never seen before, the Indian potentates furnished Alexander with a number of Elephants—twenty-five of which were on hand. As he had now effectively replaced Darius as King of Persia, he had replaced him as overlord of the Empire and this region right where Alexander was at present situated was the eastern most Persian province. As a result of this particular outlook, Alexander was enabled to treat any who resisted him as in revolt against him. While descending into the Cophen valley, Alexander informed his new vassals of his intentions; He planned to spend the rest of the Summer and Autumn in reducing the region in his front up to the Indus river, in modern Pakistan. However, as matters eventuated, he found that the campaign he proposed was going to be far more difficult then he had anticipated. From there, he was going to proceed beyond the Indus and punish the Indian nations and tribes which had not recognized him as their overlord and sent him ambassadors with tribute.At Nicea, he took the time to split his army into two separate forces with two objects in mind; to retain the interior lines so that he could reinforce his army at any point should any particular section of his army become threatened during the course of his campaign in the valley of the Cophen. In addition to this, these two forces were to keep the Indians in the region from combining their forces and coordinating against the Macedonians. This is the sign of Alexander's conception of strategy, especially considering the nature of the topography of the region. The army that was going to march along the river Cophen was going to be commanded by Perdiccas and Haphaestion; they were going to have the king of Taxila with them so that they had his knowledge of the region at their disposal. They were to proceed along the right, or southern bank, of the Cophen and the forces they were to have at their disposal were as follows; the three brigades of Gorgias, Clitus (The White One) and Meleager, half the Companion (mostly Macedonian noblemen who were equipped with a spear, a shield and were disciplined to such an extent that they've been called, "the first real cavalry") and all the Greek mercenary Cavalry. Their instructions were as follows; to follow the river as fast as they could to the Indus—reducing all the cities and oppidums to submission on the way—through either systematic reduction or by terms.—and immediately build a bridge upon their arrival at the Indus so that when the King arrived and after the winter when the King had wintered his army in the region—as planned—they could proceed to cross the river and punish the tribes across the Indus.The King, meanwhile had at his disposal the bulk of the forces in his army. These forces were as follows; the shield bearing guards (at this time, they had become known as the "silver shields"), four regiments of Companion cavalry, the Phalanx minus what marched with the first column, the foot agema, the archers, the other half of the horse archers (or Daans) the Agrianians and the horse lancers. Now, Alexander's plan was to march up and down all the valleys that were in between Nicea and the river Indus. To subdue those tribes that had not paid tribute and bring them to heal. Alexander clearly considered this the most difficult work at hand, and took it up. Taking up the task he deemed to be the most difficult is a habit of his that he constantly displays in the course of all his campaigns.Alexander received information to the effect that the Aspasians, the first tribe whose lands he had entered had raced off to their capital. Eager to defeat them, the Macedonians crossed the first river with all the cavalry and eight hundred Macedonian infantry mounted on horses. The arrived quickly enough to kill a number of the Indians and drive them within their walls. The rest of the Army came up the next day, and they took the city. However, a number of the Indians decided to make their exit before the city was taken, seeing their cause as lost. The Macedonians followed them up and killed a great many of them. Following up a victory and exploiting it to the utmost capacity, was another habit of Alexander's, as with his father. Alexander's men, who were enraged as their King had been injured during the course of the siege, razed the city to the ground. The Macedonians marched off to the next town, Andaca, which capitulated.The King's campaign through the Aspasians territory.There being so many valleys in this particular region, Alexander came to appreciate that if he held the head of each of these regions with a suitable garrison, he could hold the entirety of each of these valleys. He therefore left Craterus—whom he had probably kept in hand in case of just such an occasion—in command of a force suitable to this task, and continued on his way. Now, the Indians of this region were largely herders and were in possession of very large flocks. These were probably a species of hostages in their own right for the good behavior for the Indians, since at any point which they misbehaved the Macedonians could march into their flocks and slaughter their herds and thereby destroy their livelihoods. As they were in valleys, there is nowhere they could take these herds in time to escape the vengeance of the Macedonians. It is not known whether Craterus received instructions to this effect.Alexander's next destination was Euspla, where the King of the Aspasians was. At this point, deeming their cause lost, the Aspasians burned this city and fled. The Macedonians pursued them, during which an interesting combat took place between Ptolemy I Soter, The Aspasian King and Alexander. One of the barbarians with the Aspasian King thrust his spear right through Ptolemy's breast plate, but the spear did not make contact with him due to the armour stopping the severity of the blow. It was at this point that Ptolemy killed the King of the Aspasians himself by thrusting his spear through both of his thigh's. At this point, in a combat between Alexander, Ptolemy and the Aspasian Kings body guard they fought over the corpse of the fallen king. Second Phase: GuraeansAfter slaying the Aspasians to a satisfactory capacity to put his lines of communication to a point of security beyond peradventure the Macedonians marched towards the Indian oppidum of Arigaeum—which hearing news of Alexander's capacity as a general and besieger—they had burned. It was at this particular point that Craterus returned from settling the affairs of the Aspasian valleys—specifically having left Andaca in a state that Alexander was satisfied with. Alexander put Craterus back to work, ordering him to set up a number of new colonies in the region, including Arigaeum. This city, and Andaca were geographically advantageous for controlling the Choaspes river, and the possession of oppidums with healthy garrisons would prove advantageous in the case of revolts.The Guraeans had retreated after burning their city to join some of their fellow tribesmen. These tribes had effectuated a junction and were preparing to face Alexander.Combat at ArigaeumThe King's force takes up the center of the Macedonian line while Ptolemy and Leonnatus' forces take a circuit to catch the barbarians by surprise.Ptolemy, who had been sent ahead to forage for victual came back to the main contingent of the army under Alexander and reported to the King that there was a very large force of barbarians assembled and preparing to face the Macedonians. The forces not only from the oppidum of Arigaum itself, but also the neighboring vicinity had taken up arms against the Macedonians. The King raced off to meet this force with his wonted speed.When the Macedonians arrived, Alexander divided his army into three parts; Ptolemy taking up the left, had a third of the hypaspists, the brigades of Philip and Philotas, two squadrons of horse archers (a new unit for the Macedonians, an idea they stole from the Persians), the Agrianians and half the other cavalry; Leonnatus was ordered to take up the right flank, with Attalus' and Balacrus' brigades; and the King himself took up the most difficult work in the center—as was his habit—opposed to the Barbarian center. Alexander sent Ptolemy and Leonnatus to their respective flanks by hidden routes that the barbarians could not see, thus hiding these two particular flanks of his army—lined roughly obliquely with his center line—from the eyes and more importantly, the knowledge of the barbarians. Alexander's contingent was comparatively small, and his plan was to lure them out and to fight them in their front while Leonnatus and Ptolemy took them on both of their flanks respectively.As predicted, the Barbarians attacked Alexander's small contingent and after Ptolemy faced rough fighting in his front he was able to effectuate a victory on his flank of the barbarians. Leonnatus' victory was comparatively easier, after which time the barbarians surrendered. Allegedly, all told there were 40,000 captured. This number is highly unlikely. Third Phase: AssaceniansProceeding from his most recent victory, Alexander marched down the river by the name of Garaeus—with the intention of subdueing the tribes of this region to tribute paying status. From here he proceeded into the valley of the Suastos—where there was a force of two thousand cavalry, thirty thousand infantry and thirty elephants. Alexander raced forward with the van, planning to do all he could to upset their preparations, while Craterus followed up at a more methodical pace with the main force. It is specifically mentioned that he had the siege engines with him. It was in this region that the results of the Indus flattening the topography started to bear results on the surrounding country, and it must have been a great relief for the Macedonians to proceed into the relatively flat lands of this region compared to the mountainous regions of the proceeding area they had been in. The speed with which the Macedonian van proceeded was such that he was able to prevent a full junction of the enemy from taking place, and each of the barbarian tribes raced off to their respective territories. + Balkan Battles + Persian Battles - Battle of the Granicus (334 BC) - Siege of Miletus (334 BC) - Siege of Halicarnassus (334 BC) - Battle of Issus (333 BC) - Siege of Tyre (332 BC) - Siege of Gaza (332 BC) - Battle of Guagamela (331 BC) - Battle of the Uxian Defile (331 BC) - Battle of the Persian Gate (330 BC) - Siege of Cyropolis (329 BC) - Battle of Jaxartes (329 BC) - Battle of Gabai (328 BC) - Siege of Sogdian Rock (327 BC)

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- 1 Understanding Body Coun - 2 Exploring the Historical Contex - 3 Impact on Society and Cultur - 4 Interpreting the Significanc - 5 Implications for Policy and Decision Makin - 6 The Role of Body Count in Medi - 7 Q&A Understanding Body Coun Body Count refers to the total number of deaths that have occurred in a particular context. It is a significant and often controversial measure that can reveal important information about various aspects of our society. Context and Implications Body Count can be used to understand the impact of violence, conflict, or disasters. In the context of war, for example, counting the number of casualties provides a measure of the human cost and helps us comprehend the scale of suffering. Understanding Body Count can also shed light on social issues such as crime rates, public health crises, or accidents. By examining the number of deaths, authorities can identify patterns and formulate appropriate policies and interventions to address these issues. Controversies and Limitations However, the use of Body Count is not without controversy. Some argue that focusing solely on numbers can dehumanize the victims and reduce their lives and experiences to mere statistics. Others question the reliability and accuracy of the data, particularly in situations where information is limited or manipulated. It is also important to note that Body Count does not capture the full extent of the impact. Behind each number are grieving families, broken communities, and long-lasting emotional and psychological trauma. Additionally, certain deaths may be underreported or overlooked, leading to an incomplete understanding of the situation. - Use of Body Count as a political tool - Ethical considerations when reporting and discussing numbers - Importance of context in interpreting Body Count While Body Count can provide valuable insights, it is essential to approach it with caution, recognizing its limitations and acknowledging the human stories behind the numbers. Exploring the Historical Contex Understanding the historical context of body count is crucial in order to fully grasp its meaning and importance. Examining the origins and evolution of body count reveals its significance in various historical events and societal shifts. World War II and the Holocaust One of the earliest and most infamous instances of body count is associated with World War II and the Holocaust. The systematic murder of millions of people, primarily Jews, by the Nazis showcased the extreme consequences of body count. This tragic event demonstrated the utter disregard for human life and the dehumanizing effects of large-scale killings. The Cold War and Nuclear Arms Race During the Cold War, body count took on a new meaning in the context of nuclear weapons. The constant threat of nuclear warfare between the United States and the Soviet Union heightened the significance of body count, as it became a measure of potential destruction. The possibility of counting the casualties resulting from a nuclear strike served as a stark reminder of the devastating consequences that could arise from political tensions. The nuclear arms race also led to the development of the concept of “acceptable losses”, whereby governments justified potential casualties in the pursuit of military superiority. This notion further underscored the importance of body count as a tool for measuring and justifying the violence inflicted during this period. Modern Conflicts and Terrorism In more recent history, body count has continued to play a role in understanding and assessing the impact of modern conflicts and acts of terrorism. The death tolls resulting from events such as the September 11 attacks, the Iraq War, and the ongoing conflicts in Syria and Yemen demonstrate the enduring significance of body count in comprehending the scope of violence and its consequences. Furthermore, the rise of terrorism and extremist ideologies has highlighted the need to confront the ideology behind body count. Understanding the motivations and beliefs that lead individuals or groups to inflict mass casualties is crucial in order to prevent future acts of violence. In conclusion, exploring the historical context of body count provides valuable insights into its meaning and importance. From the Holocaust to the Cold War to modern conflicts and terrorism, body count has been both a measure of destruction and a reminder of the value of human life. By examining its historical significance, we can better understand the context and implications of body count in today’s world. Impact on Society and Cultur The concept of body count has a significant impact on society and culture. It serves as a powerful measure of the value placed on human life and the consequences of violence. The acknowledgment and interpretation of body count can shape public opinion, influence political decisions, and contribute to broader societal attitudes towards conflict and war. Body count statistics not only provide a quantitative understanding of the number of lives lost, but they also have the potential to convey the human cost of violence. As these numbers are reported in the media and discussed in public discourse, they can evoke emotions and empathy among the general public, fostering a sense of collective mourning, anger, or compassion. Moreover, the body count can shape public perceptions of the nature and outcomes of a conflict. Higher body counts may be interpreted as an indicator of a more intense or severe conflict, potentially affecting public support for military interventions or peacekeeping efforts. Conversely, a low body count can be used to justify the necessity or effectiveness of a particular military action. These interpretations can have profound implications for public opinion and policy decisions. The body count also plays a significant role in shaping cultural narratives around violence. Through artistic and cultural expressions such as literature, film, and music, the body count can become a recurring motif that reflects and interrogates society’s relationship with violence. It can serve as a symbol of loss, trauma, or resistance and be used to challenge prevailing norms and assumptions regarding the value and sanctity of human life. However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations and ethical considerations associated with the body count. The act of reducing lives lost to a mere statistic can risk objectifying and dehumanizing the individuals behind the numbers. It is crucial to remember that every body represents a unique story, and the importance of honoring and respecting the individual lives lost should not be overshadowed by the broader statistical analysis. In conclusion, the body count has a profound impact on society and culture. It influences public opinion, shapes political decisions, and contributes to cultural narratives surrounding violence. However, it is essential to approach the topic ethically and with sensitivity, recognizing the inherent value of every individual life. Interpreting the Significanc Understanding the significance of body count requires a nuanced and contextual interpretation. It is important to approach this topic with sensitivity and a critical mindset. Body count refers to the number of deaths attributed to a particular event or action, and it can hold various meanings depending on the context. Firstly, body count can serve as a measure of the severity or impact of an event. For example, in the context of wars or natural disasters, a high body count can indicate the magnitude of the devastation caused. This information can be crucial for assessing the need for assistance, resources, and support in affected areas. Furthermore, body count can also be used to gauge accountability or responsibility. In cases of violence or crime, knowing the number of victims can help hold perpetrators accountable and seek justice for the affected individuals and their families. It can also serve as evidence to support legal proceedings and ensure that appropriate actions are taken to prevent further harm. The Importance of Context However, it is essential to consider the context in which body count is presented. Numbers alone may not provide a complete understanding of the situation and can be easily manipulated or misinterpreted. It is necessary to analyze factors such as demographics, motives, and the historical background to gain a comprehensive perspective. Moreover, the cultural, social, and political implications of body count cannot be overlooked. The way in which the media or authorities report and interpret these numbers can shape public perception and influence public opinion. Therefore, it is crucial to approach body count information critically and consider multiple sources and perspectives to avoid biases and misrepresentation. Moving Beyond the Numbers While body count can provide valuable information, it is important to remember that behind each number is a human life lost. It is necessary to recognize the inherent tragedy and mourn the loss of these individuals. Additionally, focusing solely on body count can overshadow other important aspects, such as the long-term effects on survivors and communities. In conclusion, interpreting the significance of body count requires a cautious approach and an understanding of the broader context. Numbers alone cannot capture the full impact and complexity of a situation. It is crucial to consider the cultural, social, and political implications, as well as to remember the human lives that are affected by these statistics. Implications for Policy and Decision Makin The exploration of body count and its meaning has significant implications for policy and decision making. Understanding the context and significance of body count data can help policymakers and decision makers develop informed strategies and approaches in various domains. 1. Conflict Resolution The body count can provide valuable insights into the intensity and scope of a conflict. Policymakers can use this information to assess the effectiveness of peacekeeping efforts and develop strategies to de-escalate tensions and reduce violence. Additionally, understanding the distribution of casualties can help identify patterns and engage in targeted interventions to protect vulnerable populations. 2. Humanitarian Aid and Assistance Body count data can aid in the allocation of humanitarian aid and resources. Policymakers can analyze the geographical distribution of casualties to identify areas in need of immediate assistance. Additionally, understanding the causes of death can help prioritize resources and interventions, such as medical supplies and trauma care, to address the most prevalent causes of fatalities. Furthermore, policymakers can use body count data to advocate for increased funding and support for humanitarian initiatives. By highlighting the scale and impact of conflicts and disasters, decision makers can garner political and financial support for interventions and aid programs. 3. Public Health and Safety A thorough analysis of body count data can contribute to public health and safety policies. Decision makers can identify trends and patterns in causes of death to develop targeted interventions and preventive measures. By understanding the specific risk factors contributing to high body counts, policy initiatives can focus on reducing these risks and improving overall public health outcomes. Overall, an informed understanding of the meaning and importance of body count is crucial for policymakers and decision makers in formulating strategies and approaches that can effectively mitigate conflicts, allocate resources, and improve public health and safety. The Role of Body Count in Medi Body count is a numeric representation of the number of deaths that occur in a specific context, such as a movie, TV show, video game, or news report. It is a frequently used element in media to depict violence, tragedy, and the overall impact of certain events or actions. The portrayal of body count in media serves several important roles that shape audience perception, storytelling, and social commentary. 1. Conveying the Severity of Situations The body count in media acts as a visual and statistical indicator of the severity of a given situation. By showcasing the number of deaths, media creators can communicate the magnitude of violence or tragedy that has occurred. This helps to create a sense of urgency and impact within the narrative, enabling the audience to better understand the gravity of the depicted events. 2. Enhancing Drama and Tension Body count also plays a crucial role in enhancing drama and tension within a media piece. The depiction of higher body counts can intensify the emotional impact on viewers, increasing suspense, and creating a sense of danger or urgency. By escalating the stakes through the portrayal of increasing death tolls, media creators can grab the audience’s attention and keep them engaged in the story. 3. Reflecting Societal Issues The use of body count in media can also serve as a reflection of societal issues and provide social commentary. Whether in news reports addressing real-world conflicts or in fictional narratives exploring themes of violence and justice, body count can shed light on larger issues related to public safety, political unrest, or the consequences of certain actions. By presenting these issues through the lens of body count, media can spark discussions and raise awareness about important topics. In conclusion, the role of body count in media is multifaceted. While it can convey the severity of situations, enhance drama and tension, and reflect societal issues, it is important to use this narrative tool responsibly. Media creators should consider the potential impacts and implications of depicting high body counts, and the audience should critically analyze the context and messages surrounding such portrayals. What is the meaning and importance of body count? The meaning of body count refers to the number of individuals who have been killed, often in a specific context or timeframe. The importance of body count lies in its ability to provide information about the scale and impact of violence or conflict. How is body count measured and documented? Body count can be measured and documented through various means, such as government records, reports from human rights organizations, forensic investigations, and eyewitness accounts. The specifics of how body count is measured may vary depending on the context and available resources. What are some implications of high body counts? High body counts can have significant implications, including loss of life, destruction of communities, psychological trauma, and political instability. They may also result in humanitarian crises and the need for international intervention. How does body count impact public perception? The body count can shape public perception by conveying the severity and brutality of a particular event or conflict. It can influence public opinion, generate outrage, and call for action from governments and international bodies. There are ethical concerns related to documenting and discussing body count, as it can be a sensitive and traumatic subject. Care should be taken to avoid sensationalizing or exploiting the victims, and to ensure respectful and responsible reporting.

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Presentation on theme: "This quiz will test your knowledge about health and fitness. Click to start."— Presentation transcript: This quiz will test your knowledge about health and fitness. Click to start Question 1. What is the definition of calorie? 1. A calorie is the amount of energy that it takes your body to heat 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. 2. A calorie is a group of creatures that sew your clothes a little tighter every night. 3. A calorie is a mathematical term for butter. CORRECT! Teenage males aged years need an intake of 2,755 calories per day. Teenage females aged years need an intake of 2,110 calories per day. CONTINUE TO QUESTION 2: INCORRECT! TRY AGAIN BACK TO QUESTION 1: Question 2. What type of activities should people of your age take part in? 1. Chess Club: Go twice a week and interact with the pensioners. 2. Aerobic activities: Something to get your hearts pumping! 3. Nothing: Watch your favourite TV programmes whilst munching on crisps. CORRECT! Regular physical activity is an important part of getting healthy and staying healthy. People who don’t get enough physical activity are at a greater risk of becoming overweight or obese. This makes it harder for them to be active and keep up in sport or play. CONTINUE TO QUESTION 3: INCORRECT! TRY AGAIN GO BACK TO QUESTION 2: Question 3. What does BMI stand for? 1. Big Muscles Inside 2. Body Mass Index 3. Banana Monkey’s Igloo CORRECT! BMI is a easy way for someone to find out how healthy they are by simply entering their height and weight, which is calculated by a person’s weight (pounds) divided by a person’s height (inches). Continue to Question 4: INCORRECT! TRY AGAIN. GO BACK TO QUESTION 3: Question 4. Which activity burns more calories in an hour? 1. Swimming 2. Jogging 3. Walking 4. Skipping CORRECT! Swimming burns 300 calories an hour, try and swim as much as possible, this is good for your health and so much fun with your friends! CONTINUE TO QUESTION 5: INCORRECT! TRY AGAIN. GO BACK TO QUESTION 4: Question 5. Why is exercise important? 1. Because it’s fun 2. It gives you something to do 3. It can reduce your risk of major illnesses, such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and cancer by up to 50% and lower your risk of early death by up to 30%. CORRECT! Exercise is very important for you whether you’re young or old, make sure you do as much exercise as possible to guarantee you a healthier life. GO ONTO LAST PAGE: INCORRECT! TRY AGAIN. GO BACK TO QUESTION 5: THANK YOU FOR TAKING PART IN THIS QUIZ. I HOPE YOU HAVE LEARNED MORE ABOUT FITNESS AND THIS HAS WIDENED YOUR KNOWLEDGE ON HOW TO LIVE A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE. GOODBYE …..AND REMEMBER….

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Enriching the Sea to Death; The Oceans; Scientific American Presents; by Nixon, sidebar by Schmiedeskamp; 6 Page(s) The widespread pollution of Narragansett Bay began with a great celebration on Thanksgiving Day, 1871. For 10 full minutes, the church bells of Providence, R.I., rang out, and a 13-gun salute sounded. The townspeople were giving thanks for the completed construction of their first public water supply. Soon afterward clean water flowed through taps and flush toilets, liberating residents forever from backbreaking trips to the well and freezing visits to the privy. Millions learned the joys of running water between about 1850 and 1920, as towns throughout North America and Europe threw similar parties. But homeowners gave scant thought to how their gleaming new water closets would change the makeup of the oceans. With the wonder of running water came the unpleasant problem of running waste. No longer was human excrement deposited discreetly in dry ground; the new flush toilets discharged streams of polluted water that often flowed through the streets. Town elders coped with the unhappy turn of events by building expensive networks of sewers, which invariably routed waste to the most convenient body of water nearby. In this way, towns quickly succeeded in diverting the torrent of waste from backyards and city streets to fishing spots, swimming holes and adjacent ocean shores. In many cases, the results were disastrous for the aquatic environment. And as the flow continues, society still struggles with the repercussions for the plants and animals that inhabit coastal waters.

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Punjab is famous for its agriculture, livestock, forestry, industries, minerals, tourism, all together they constitute Punjab’s economy. Punjab’s economy is mainly agriculture based and has a low industrial output. The deficiency of the basic minerals which includes fuels is the major cause for poor industrial progress. Punjab is famous for its huge production of wheat. The agro-based industries includes food products, beverages, cotton, wood and paper. The second important segment of Punjab’s economy is the livestock. It is one of the largest producers in India. The third important segment is the wildlife and forestry. It attracts tourists and hence enriches Punjab’s economy. For Punjab forest and various animal products earns revenue Industry of course form an important part of Punjab’s economy but there are not many outstanding prospects in this field due to several unavoidable obstacles. Minerals and energy resources also contribute to Punjab’s economy to a very less extend . Banking, Finance, Tourism and Real Estates are other important segments. Punjab’s economy is mostly dependent upon the agricultural sector. There is effective implementation of modern techniques in this field. The future towards betterment and the prospects are high. Punjab is world famous for its agriculture. High percentage of land is cultivated in Punjab . High agricultural production Punjab is because it is free from physical handicaps. The shortage of rainfall has been compensated by irrigation facilities. - The chief products of agriculture are wheat, maize, rice and bajra. - Wheat dominates the production of crop . The cultivation of rice and bajra is restricted to certain regions only. - Rice is an important agriculture of Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Kapurthala districts . - Cotton is the main cash crop produced in Punjab. - Groundnut, Sugarcane and Potatoes are among the other important crops . Banking and Finance For a continuous economy of the state , an efficient system of banking and finance is required. There are some important features that can make this sector more efficient: - Proper trading - Specialization of production - Efficient use of resources Forestry and Wildlife Forestry and Wildlife are major component of the natural resources. Punjab shares an important portion of the forestry and wildlife of India. Punjab forestry and wildlife is mainly restricted to the following vegetation types: - Coniferous Forests - Scrub Forests - Range Lands - Irrigated Plantations - Riverine Forests - Canal Side Plantations - Roadside Plantations - Rail side Plantations - Miscellaneous Linear Plantations Industry and Infrastructure Punjab is now giving more importance to Punjab’s industry and infrastructure. Industry and infrastructure of a country or a state helps in economic growth. Punjab is majorly an agrarian economy that have a poor industrial output. This is due to the shortage of the fundamental minerals. Small-sized industrial units are particular characteristic of the industrial scenario of Punjab. The most important industries of Punjab are: - Agro-based industrial units e.g. food products, beverages, cotton, wood and paper industries. - Machinery units - Chemical units Punjab is well known to the world for its immense wealth of livestock. Punjab houses the world famous Nili-Ravi buffalo and Sahi-wal cattle. The livestock in Punjab includes other cattle breeds that are : - Kundi buffalo - Red Sindhi - Lohani cattle

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I was a vegetarian until I started leaning toward the sunlight. Rita Rudner Who has been closest to the sun? It’s not the men who walked on the moon, but some of our earliest ancestors. The Earth orbits the sun in an ellipse, so we’re forever moving closer and farther away. The closest point is called the perihelion (from the Greek peri, “about”, and helios, “sun”). Studies of the gravitational influence of the other planets show that Earth’s orbit was once even more elliptical, so its perihelion was closer to the sun than it is now. Dr Stuart Eves of Surrey Satellite Technology has calculated that in the time since modern humans evolved in Africa 70,000 years ago, the perihelion has moved almost three million miles farther away. Given that the Apollo astronauts travelled just 225,000 miles from Earth, it is these unnamed Africans who hold the record of “closest to the sun” at 146 million km. Can you tell which way is north from the sun? If you face the sunrise in the east, north is 90 degrees to your left, isn’t it? This isn’t foolproof. The sun only rises exactly in the east on two days a year, at the spring and autumn equinoxes, when night and day are of equal length. (Equinox is Latin for “equal night”.) In Britain, the sun rises in the south east and sets in the south west in winter; and rises in the north east and sets in the north west in the summer. We’re all told at school that white reflects sunlight and black absorbs it, so that the paler your clothes are, the cooler you’ll be. But in many hot countries, locals often wear dark colours. Peasants in China and old ladies in southern Europe, for instance, traditionally wear black, and the Tuareg, the nomadic people of the Sahara, favour indigo blue. This is because although light clothes are better at reflecting the sun’s heat, dark clothes are better at radiating the body’s heat. Given that no one born in a hot climate willingly stands in direct sunlight, dark clothing has the edge because it keeps the body cooler when in the shade. Given even a modest breeze, loose black clothes will carry heat away from your body faster than they absorb it. A sunflower is actually hundreds of tiny flowers clustered together. Each tiny flower has both male and female components. After pollination, they all produce seeds. Jerusalem artichokes aren’t artichokes, but a kind of sunflower – they once grew wild on the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, and were brought to Europe in the 17th century. The Jerusalem part of their name is a misprision of girasole, the Italian word for sunflower (“turns to the sun”). The Jerusalem artichoke is almost the only food plant that originated in North America. John Singer Sargent took more than a year to paint Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, his masterpiece of two children dressed in a garden at sunset, playing with glowing Chinese lanterns. He wanted to capture the moment at sunset when the light from the sun was in perfect equilibrium with the Chinese lanterns. This only happened for a few minutes at dusk each day. From August to November 1885, he, the children and the rest of the family would play tennis each afternoon, and at the perfect time he’d call the game to a halt and the children would take their positions. He would furiously paint for 10 minutes, then the tennis would restart. The Norwegian winter means five months of near darkness. The inhabitants of the town of Rjukan have put up a giant mirror on the top of a mountain outside the town that reflects what light there is into the middle of the town square to create a little light-filled oasis where people can skate. A similar scheme has been introduced in Viganella in the Italian Alps. There they installed an 8m x 5m mirror on a nearby peak to reflect sunlight into the main square with a computer programme that follows the path of the sun. The village is at the bottom of a valley and so for several months has all its natural sunlight blocked by the surrounding mountains. The Carrington Event, a widely observed series of aurorae across North America in 1859, is thought to have been caused by a “flare”, a “splash” of material from the sun after the impact of a comet or asteroid. A similar event today might destroy electrical and communication wires, and bring the entire continent to a standstill. '1,227 QI Facts to Blow Your Socks Off' by John Lloyd, John Mitchinson & James Harkin (Faber & Faber) and 'The Secret Museum' by Molly Oldfield' (HarperCollins) are available from Telegraph Books (0844 871 1515) Next week QI celebrates birthdays

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Echoes of Eden Rabbi Ari Kahn The road from Egypt to Mount Sinai was not an easy one. The difficulty was not only due to the nature of the terrain the Israelites had to cross, or even the fact that their former masters pursued them in a murderous frenzy; the basic logistics of the care and feeding of such a large populace proved to be a formidable challenge. Having Divine logistical support proved quite advantageous, as they made their way under the protective cover of clouds of glory, the sea split miraculously at their approach, and their drinking water flowed from a rock. While all of this help was, quite literally, a Godsend, there was one type of assistance that went beyond their physical needs, providing sustenance that was spiritually transformative as well: the manna. The manna fell every morning, six days a week, with a double portion on the sixth day; on the seventh day, no manna fell. The lesson of Shabbat was “hard wired” into the food they ate, giving their most basic physical sustenance religious significance. Although Shabbat was first introduced in the early verses of Bereishit, we have no evidence that the Divine perspective on creation to which Shabbat bears witness – that God created the universe in six days and rested on the seventh by ceasing to create - had somehow trickled down to human awareness or practice. Before they left Egypt, did the Jews know about the Sabbath day? There is a rabbinic teaching (Sh’mot Rabbah 1:28) that the Israelite slaves were granted a weekly day of rest in Egypt. On the advice of an Egyptian prince named Moshe, Pharaoh instituted a six-day workweek for the empire’s slaves, as a means of increasing their productivity. It is altogether possible that no one, Egyptian or Israelite, suspected that this day of rest had religious significance, not to mention religious origins or motivation: Pharaoh would most certainly not have acquiesced to Moshe’s suggestion had he known that he was granting a religious freedom. But what of the slaves themselves? Did they see their day of rest from the toils and tribulations of slavery in physical/social terms, or as a religious/spiritual necessity? Once freed, did they conclude that their new society had no need for a day of rest because they were no longer physical laborers? Their new reality was so completely different to the reality they had known in Egypt: Their food fell from heaven, and the “work” they had to do to access the manna only vaguely resembled standard agriculture. They “harvested” fresh produce each day without the back-breaking tilling and sowing, planting, pruning, and myriad other laborious tasks that every farmer knows so well. In fact, their food did not even grow from the ground; it came down from heaven. In a sense, there was something almost “Eden – like” about their existence. Was there a need for a day of rest in this idyllic existence, they might well have wondered? The manna gave a clear and resounding answer: Yes, even in the desert, protected and sustained by miracles, there is Shabbat. Apparently the Shabbat experience in the desert was designed to be very different from the Shabbat they had known in the dark days of slavery. In Egypt, the most important element of the seventh day had been the cessation of labor; the spiritual and theological experience of emulating God and giving testament to His act of Creation was arguably eclipsed by the sheer relief from excruciating physical labor. In the desert, when they are free almost entirely of physical constraints, God comes into focus. The manna is the ultimate teaching aid: The first lesson is that all food ultimately comes from God. Consider the slave mentality: They had, for hundreds of years, been building great edifices for the Egyptian empire. Despite the misery of their lives, they were able to see the tangible results of their labor, and to draw a direct correlation between effort and result. Though they did not benefit from their accomplishments, they were able to measure their progress and perhaps even take pride in what they had built. But the slave can feel alienated from God; slaves do not sense a partnership with the Almighty. On the other hand, the farmer, whose livelihood is dependent upon the cooperation of “nature,” is acutely aware of each and every one of the problems that can destroy a crop. The farmer has a far more organic sense of partnership with God, and a far more natural need to pray, to communicate with his or her “senior partner.” In the desert, the Israelites were not farmers; they had no need to do work of any kind - and yet, they “harvested” the manna. Their sustenance would still be the result of a sort of partnership with God, and the method through which their physical needs were met served as both a respite from the years of servitude and an introduction to the new reality that awaited them in the Promised Land. The desert experience allowed them to internalize the concept of a partnership with God, and to prepare themselves for the reality that awaited them in the Land of Israel – a reality that combines physical and spiritual sustenance; a reality which taught them to look heavenward for sustenance. Through the manna, they learned the most basic lessons: God created the universe and everything in it in six days and rested on the seventh. He alone is the source of all sustenance, both physical and spiritual, and on Shabbat, when we give testament to God as Creator and Sustainer of the universe, we recharge not only our physical strength, but our spiritual resources as well. For a more in-depth analysis see:

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The idea behind reusing packaging is that it prevents using many single-use packaging by using it repeatedly. Often this means that reusable packaging is collected, inspected and/or cleaned before being used again for the same purpose. Potential benefits of reusable packaging are: - Reduction of waste, including littering - Reduction of CO2 emissions (dependant on transport distance, the energy needed for cleaning, etc.) - Reduction in packaging cost (dependant on number of cycles per packaging, return rate, etc.) Check functionality as a function of the number of cycles. Issues are material aging (mechanical properties) damage (micro scratch leading to mechanical failure and or loss of efficiency of closing system). Check aspect as a function of number of cycles issues are scratch, opacity, coloration. Check food contact properties as a function of the number of cycles. issues (for packaging containing polymer components) are absorption and retromigration of food and non-food components, aging of the material leading to increase of low molecular weight compounds (migrants) Check cleaning/disinfection efficiency to improve the balance cleaning efficiency and packaging damage. Evaluate the environmental benefits compared to a single-use situation World Economic Forum report on reusable plastic packaging (2019) Reusable vs single-use packaging: a review of environmental impact - University of Utrecht, Reloop & Zero Waste Europe, 02-Dec-20. Utrecht University publication “Sustainability of reusable packaging – Current situation and trends” Community of Practice for Reusable Packaging by KIDV (Netherlands Institute for Sustainable Packaging). Among other developed a calculation tool Design Guidelines for designers, developers, brand owners & manufacturers of reusable packaging "Reuse" means any operation through which a package, conceived and designed to accomplish, within its life cycle, a minimum number of trips or rotations, is refilled or used for the same purpose for which it was conceived, with or without the support of auxiliary products present on the market enabling the packaging to be refilled. Such reused packaging will become packaging waste when no longer subject to reuse.

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Balloon Breaths is a mindful breathing exercise for children, that allows kids to practice focus and deep breathing. Balloon breathing not only can help us to feel calm, but it fills our body with energising oxygen. It can help promote restful sleep and help us to learn to notice and manage our emotions. Pin Balloon Breaths Mindful Breathing for Later Please be aware that this post contains some affiliate links. These are products and services that I truly love and using the link brings no extra cost to you and helps fund Calm Ahoy Kids. Thank you. Sign up and get Balloon Breaths plus 2 other mindful breathing activity kits for kids for free. In this free printable I have included a balloon breaths poster, flash card, rhyme, mindful colouring page and quote. I’ve also included a full script to help parents and teachers introduce the activity and a short lesson guide. Giving you everything you need to teach and practice this calming coping strategy for kids. What is Balloon Breathing? Balloon breaths is a fun themed deep breathing aka belly breathing exercise. The idea of the exercise is for children to use their imaginations to help them visualise a balloon in their bellies. When they are able to imagine the balloon in their belly, then it easier for them to focus their attention on directing the air they inhale deeper and breathing in fuller. Imaging that you are inflating a brightly coloured balloon also makes the breathing exercise playful and fun. What the Difference between Deep, Belly and Diaphragmatic Breathing? Deep Breathing is the opposite to shallow breathing, shallow breaths are breaths that we feel in our chest area. When we breathe deeply, we direct our breath deep into our bellies, which is actually the bottom of our lungs, but feels like our bellies, so is often called Belly Breathing. In between the bottom of our lungs and the top of our bellies is a muscle called the Diaphragm. When we practice Diaphragmatic Breathing the muscle flattens when we inhale and relaxes when we exhale. So regardless of whether the breathing technique is called deep, belly, diaphragmatic or balloon breathing, the aim is to use the diaphragm muscle when we breath. What are the Benefits of Diaphragmatic Breathing? Using Diaphragmatic aka Balloon Breaths sends a signal to our brain via the Vagus nerve that our body is safe by triggering the relaxation response and lowering the stress response. This can be a really helpful way for us to cope with and manage stress and anxiety. Below is a child friendly video explaining the very important vagus nerve. How to Introduce Balloon Breathing Below you will also find a detailed script on how to initially introduce Balloon breaths to children. I hope that this will be a useful activity for you to use with your own children at home or in a school classroom. When I teach this activity I first introduce the Balloon Breaths rhyme below. Mindful Breathing Script for Parents and Teachers “We are going to try a fun activity called Balloon Breaths, we are going to use our breath to fill our bellies and expand them like a balloon.” Spark the Imagination: “Imagine that you are holding a brightly coloured balloon between your hands, as it fills with air your hands expand and as the air deflates from the balloon your hands get closer, that’s how our bellies will feel.” (You can model expanding and decreasing the imaginary balloon between your hands or use a Hoberman sphere if you have one available.) “Now let me show you first, I relax my shoulders and sit up tall, put my hand on my belly and take a big breath in, I can feel my belly getting bigger and slowly as I breathe out the balloon is deflates.” 1) Wiggle your shoulders and Sit up tall. pop your hand on your belly. 2) Imagine that your belly is a balloon. Take in a slow, deep breath and imagine filling up the balloon. 3) Then exhale slowly, deflating the balloon in your belly. 4) Let’s try that again, but this time if you feel comfortable you can close your eyes. Really focus on filling your belly with air and noticing the belly getting bigger. 5) As you exhale, imagine the balloon slowly floating away high up into the sky. Discuss the Balloon Breaths Activity - Invite children to describe how they felt afterwards. - Could they feel their belly get bigger? How could they tell? - What colour would their balloons be? - What would it be like to float like a balloon? *share the quote below How is Breathing being Mindful? Mindful breathing is also a really handy tool for children, as you can do it anywhere, even in the hardest situation. You don’t need to sit down and close your eyes for five minutes, it can just be one or two breathes. You can practice without drawing attention to your self or causing any embarrassment, whether its anxiety before a test or dealing with hard feelings from not being picked in a sports team, the breath is always there to help bring some calm in these situations. The key to incorporating mindful breathing into your life is to remember. Try adding themed activities to the breathing exercise to really build the practice in to your child’s memory. Benefits of Mindful Breathing - When we breathe more mindfully and stay connected to the present moment, we release endorphins, chemicals that have a calming effect. - Mindful breathing improves our immune systems. - Mindful breathing lowers our blood pressure and our heart rate. - Mindful breathing helps us to cope with the stress by activating the vagus nerve, which calms the stress response - Mindful breathing can reduce the symptoms of depression and anxiety - Mindful breathing can increase our empathy and compassion both for others and ourselves Mindful breathing supports us mentally, emotionally and physically and is a very simple, free and effective tool. Evidence That It Work – While research on the effects of mindfulness on children is still in the early stages, a 2016 review of 12 studies suggests some promising outcomes for young children relative to attention, self-regulation, and motor skills. https://ggie.berkeley.edu/ Fun activities to extend the Balloon Breathing activity and make belly breathing a healthy, daily habit. - Handout a colouring sheet to each child. Ask children to pay attention as they choose the colours for their balloons. - Make DIY sensory balloon eggs / stress balls - End the session with a balloon themed story and practice balloon breaths during the story. - Play balloon volleyball. Get children to practice mindful movement and slowly hit the balloon in the air, trying to keep it from touching the floor. - Use a card deck and props – I absolutely love this set from IMYOGI Try out lots of breathing activities! There are many types of breathing exercise and techniques, so its a good idea to try and practice a few different breathing exercises with your child. Once they find a few that they like, its easier to incorporate them in to every day life. The idea is that taking a mindful, deep breath becomes as habitual as brushing our teeth or riding a bike. It takes practice, but it can become a healthy, natural response to dealing with stressors. I hope you enjoy this activity. Thanks Emma x

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High Cholesterol Diet When moving from a high cholesterol diet to a healthier eating plan, there are two important factors in keep in mind: - Cholesterol is only found in animal-based foods, such as meats and dairy products - Certain fats have also been shown to increase cholesterol, regardless of whether they came from an animal. Given these factors, people looking for something healthier should focus on: - Eating more foods with no cholesterol (plant-based products) - Cutting back on foods from animals - Decreasing saturated fat and trans fat. A high cholesterol diet can raise blood cholesterol. Therefore, you can decrease cholesterol by increasing the amount of foods you eat that don't have any. Foods that contain no cholesterol include: - Whole grains and legumes. You should be eating at least three to five servings of fruits and vegetables each day as part of a low cholesterol diet. Fruits and vegetables are low in saturated fat and total fat, and have no cholesterol. A diet high in fruit and vegetables may also help keep cholesterol levels low. Breads, cereals, rice, pasta, and other grains, as well as dry beans and peas, are generally high in starch and fiber and low in saturated fat and calories. They also have no dietary cholesterol, except for some bakery breads and sweet bread products made with high-fat, high-cholesterol milk, butter and eggs. Like fruits and vegetables, naturally low-fat, low-cholesterol breads and other foods in this group are also good choices as part of a low cholesterol diet. You should be eating 6 to 11 servings of foods from this group each day. If you have high triglycerides and/or low HDL, you should keep your carbohydrate intake below the maximum of 60 percent of total calories. You can choose a diet up to 35 percent fat, substituting unsaturated fat for saturated fat. If you're moving from a high cholesterol diet to a diet to lower cholesterol, you need to eat more plant-based foods. The following are some suggestions for getting more plant-based foods into your diet: - Buy fruits and vegetables to eat as snacks, desserts, salads, side dishes, and main dishes. - Display fresh fruit in a bowl in the kitchen to make it easier to grab as a snack. - Add a variety of vegetables to meat stews or casseroles, or make a vegetarian main dish. - Wash and cut up raw vegetables (carrot, broccoli, cauliflower, etc.) and store in the refrigerator for quick and easy use in cooking or snacking. - Serve fresh fruit (banana, berries, melon, grapes, etc.) for dessert or freeze it for a delicious frozen treat. - Keep naturally low-fat vegetables low in fat and saturated fat by seasoning with herbs, spices, lemon juice, vinegar, or fat-free or low-fat mayonnaise or salad dressing. - Choose whole-grain breads and rolls more frequently. They have more fiber than white breads. - Buy dry cereals, most of which are low in fat. Limit the high fat granola, muesli, and oat bran varieties that are made with coconut or coconut oil and nuts, which increases the saturated fat content. - Use pasta and rice as entrées. Hold the high-fat sauces (butter, cheese, cream, white, etc.). - Limit sweet baked goods that are made with lots of saturated fat -- mostly from butter, eggs, and whole milk -- such as croissants, pastries, muffins, biscuits, butter rolls, and doughnuts. These are also high in cholesterol.

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These few points are mainly prepared with important facts and information to provide you exact knowledge. The language of the set is kept simple and adaptable so that every reader can easily adopt it. India was accustomed to invaders by the time the English arrived in the seventeenth century. Beginning with the great Indo-Aryan invasion (2400-1500 B. Bengal was then a prosperous province and Company wanted to have its subjugation over Bengal. What happened next will be clear in following sets of 10 lines. We have created a set of 10 lines on the Battle of Plassey. 5) Now Clive started to bribe the people of Bengal and manipulated them. 6) Due to Mir Jafar’s association with British, the Battle was already in the favour of East India Company. 3) According to the sources, the Army of Nawab constituted 50000 soldiers whereas the Army of Company had only 3000 soldiers. 4) Robert Clive knew that it was impossible for him to win the Battle of Plassey.

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July 06, 2011 How deeply can we penetrate into the details of the visible world with optical microscopes? Previously, the law formulated by Ernst Abbe in 1873 was regarded as the absolute lower limit. Objects lying closer to each other than 200 millionths of a millimetre, i.e. about one two hundredth of a hair's breadth, can no longer be distinguished from one another. The reason for this is the wave nature of light, the half wavelength of which roughly corresponds to those 200 nanometres. The STED (Stimulated Emission Depletion) microscopy, which the Göttingen based physicist Stefan Hell invented and developed to application readiness, allows scientists to gain insights into the nano world far beyond this limit. Biologists and physiologists in particular value this breakthrough, because living cells or tissue can only be observed using optical microscopes. In 2008, for instance, neurophysiologists using the new resolution of only a few dozen nanometres succeeded in visualising the movements of tiny synaptic components for the first time. In addition, the concept underlying STED microscopy opened up new prospects for the further development of optical Stefan Hell overcame Abbe's barrier in the imaging of fluorescent objects. In this process, which is used widely in biology and medical research, the specimens to be examined are marked with fluorescent molecules and illuminated – e.g. with a focussed laser beam. The beam excites the molecules so that they emit fluorescent light, thereby making the marked cell components visible. Here too, the fluorescent light emitted by the closely adjoining dots also becomes an indistinct blur, but Hell found a simple trick to break through Abbe's barrier. This ensures that the cell components illuminated by the excitation beam do not emit fluorescence simultaneously, but sequentially. To achieve this, Hell applies a second beam (STED beam) which temporarily prevents the fluorescent markers from emitting light, i.e. it switches them off.

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In Drosophila, as in many other organisms, primordial germ cells show invasive and migratory behavior moving from their site of origin to the somatic component of the gonad. At a characteristic time in development, the primordial germ cells pass across the primordium of the gut and migrate on its outer surface toward the mesoderm, where they eventually associate with the somatic tissues of the gonad. Here we demonstrate that the exit and migration are specific behaviors of the primordial germ cells and that they are controlled by the somatic tissue of the embryo rather than by a germ cell autonomous clock. Using mutations, we show that these controlling somatic events probably occur in the tissue of the gut primordium itself. Mendeley saves you time finding and organizing research Choose a citation style from the tabs below

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Bitcoin (BTC) is a consensus network that enables a new payment system and a completely digital currency. Powered by its users, it is a peer to peer payment network that requires no central authority to operate. On October 31st, 2008, an individual or group of individuals operating under the pseudonym "Satoshi Nakamoto" published the Bitcoin Whitepaper and described it as: "a purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash, which would allow online payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a financial institution." The “requesting a transaction” means you want to transfers some coins (let’s say bitcoin) to someone else. When you make the request the request is broadcasted to all the nodes. Then the nodes verify that (from all the history of transactions) you are not double spending your coins. When verified successfully the transaction is added in a block which is then mined by a miner. When the block is mined, your transaction is confirmed and the coins are transfered. Bitcoin is a digital asset designed to work in peer-to-peer transactions as a currency. Bitcoins have three qualities useful in a currency, according to The Economist in January 2015: they are "hard to earn, limited in supply and easy to verify." Per some researchers, as of 2015, bitcoin functions more as a payment system than as a currency. Darknet markets present challenges in regard to legality. Bitcoins and other forms of cryptocurrency used in dark markets are not clearly or legally classified in almost all parts of the world. In the U.S., bitcoins are labelled as "virtual assets". This type of ambiguous classification puts pressure on law enforcement agencies around the world to adapt to the shifting drug trade of dark markets. Ethereum’s core innovation, the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a Turing complete software that runs on the Ethereum network. It enables anyone to run any program, regardless of the programming language given enough time and memory. The Ethereum Virtual Machine makes the process of creating blockchain applications much easier and efficient than ever before. Instead of having to build an entirely original blockchain for each new application, Ethereum enables the development of potentially thousands of different applications all on one platform. Cryptocurrencies are digital gold. Sound money that is secure from political influence. Money that promises to preserve and increase its value over time. Cryptocurrencies are also a fast and comfortable means of payment with a worldwide scope, and they are private and anonymous enough to serve as a means of payment for black markets and any other outlawed economic activity. But while cryptocurrencies are more used for payment, its use as a means of speculation and a store of value dwarfs the payment aspects. Cryptocurrencies gave birth to an incredibly dynamic, fast-growing market for investors and speculators. Exchanges like Okcoin, Poloniex or shapeshift enables the trade of hundreds of cryptocurrencies. Their daily trade volume exceeds that of major European stock exchanges. ^ Iansiti, Marco; Lakhani, Karim R. (January 2017). "The Truth About Blockchain". Harvard Business Review. Harvard University. Retrieved 17 January 2017. The technology at the heart of bitcoin and other virtual currencies, blockchain is an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way. Ethereum can also be used to build Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAO). A DAO is fully autonomous, decentralized organization with no single leader. DAO’s are run by programming code, on a collection of smart contracts written on the Ethereum blockchain. The code is designed to replace the rules and structure of a traditional organization, eliminating the need for people and centralized control. A DAO is owned by everyone who purchases tokens, but instead of each token equating to equity shares & ownership, tokens act as contributions that give people voting rights. Properties of cryptocurrencies gave them popularity in applications such as a safe haven in banking crises and means of payment, which also led to the cryptocurrency use in controversial settings in the form of online black markets, such as Silk Road. The original Silk Road was shut down in October 2013 and there have been two more versions in use since then. In the year following the initial shutdown of Silk Road, the number of prominent dark markets increased from four to twelve, while the amount of drug listings increased from 18,000 to 32,000. Despite the fallout from The DAO hack, Ethereum is moving forward and looking to a bright future. By providing a user-friendly platform that enables people to harness the power of blockchain technology, Ethereum is speeding up the decentralization of the world economy. Decentralized applications have the potential to profoundly disrupt hundreds of industries including finance, real estate, academia, insurance, healthcare and the public sector amongst many others. Bitcoin is a new currency that was created in 2009 by an unknown person using the alias Satoshi Nakamoto. Transactions are made with no middle men – meaning, no banks! Bitcoin can be used to book hotels on Expedia, shop for furniture on Overstock and buy Xbox games. But much of the hype is about getting rich by trading it. The price of bitcoin skyrocketed into the thousands in 2017. There are many ways you can plug into the Ethereum network, one of the easiest ways is to use its native Mist browser. Mist provides a user-friendly interface & digital wallet for users to trade & store Ether as well as write, manage, deploy and use smart contracts. Like web browsers give access and help people navigate the internet, Mist provides a portal into the world of decentralized blockchain applications. In 1983, the American cryptographer David Chaum conceived an anonymous cryptographic electronic money called ecash. Later, in 1995, he implemented it through Digicash, an early form of cryptographic electronic payments which required user software in order to withdraw notes from a bank and designate specific encrypted keys before it can be sent to a recipient. This allowed the digital currency to be untraceable by the issuing bank, the government, or any third party. According to the European Central Bank, the decentralization of money offered by bitcoin has its theoretical roots in the Austrian school of economics, especially with Friedrich von Hayek in his book Denationalisation of Money: The Argument Refined, in which Hayek advocates a complete free market in the production, distribution and management of money to end the monopoly of central banks.:22 Ethereum was officially with an unusually long list of founders. Anthony Di Iorio wrote "Ethereum was founded by Vitalik Buterin, Myself, Charles Hoskinson, Mihai Alisie, & Amir Chetrit (the initial 5) in December 2013. Joseph Lubin, Gavin Wood, & Jeffrey Wilke were added in early 2014 as founders." Formal development of the Ethereum software project began in early 2014 through a Swiss company, Ethereum Switzerland GmbH (EthSuisse). The basic idea of putting executable smart contracts in the blockchain needed to be specified before the software could be implemented; this work was done by Gavin Wood, then chief technology officer, in the Ethereum Yellow Paper that specified the Ethereum Virtual Machine. Subsequently, a Swiss non-profit foundation, the Ethereum Foundation (Stiftung Ethereum), was created as well. Development was funded by an online public crowdsale during July–August 2014, with the participants buying the Ethereum value token (ether) with another digital currency, bitcoin. Ethereum is also being used as a platform to launch other cryptocurrencies. Because of the ERC20 token standard defined by the Ethereum Foundation, other developers can issue their own versions of this token and raise funds with an initial coin offering (ICO). In this fundraising strategy, the issuers of the token set an amount they want to raise, offer it in a crowdsale, and receive Ether in exchange. Billions of dollars have been raised by ICOs on the Ethereum platform in the last two years, and one of the most valuable cryptocurrencies in the world, EOS, is an ERC20 token. Venture capitalists, such as Peter Thiel's Founders Fund, which invested US$3 million in BitPay, do not purchase bitcoins themselves, but instead fund bitcoin infrastructure that provides payment systems to merchants, exchanges, wallet services, etc. In 2012, an incubator for bitcoin-focused start-ups was founded by Adam Draper, with financing help from his father, venture capitalist Tim Draper, one of the largest bitcoin holders after winning an auction of 30,000 bitcoins, at the time called "mystery buyer". The company's goal is to fund 100 bitcoin businesses within 2–3 years with $10,000 to $20,000 for a 6% stake. Investors also invest in bitcoin mining. According to a 2015 study by Paolo Tasca, bitcoin startups raised almost $1 billion in three years (Q1 2012 – Q1 2015). The "Metropolis Part 1: Byzantium" soft fork took effect on 16 October 2017, and included changes to reduce the complexity of the EVM and provide more flexibility for smart contract developers. Byzantium also added supports for zk-SNARKs (from Zcash), with the first zk-SNARK transaction occurring on testnet on September 19, 2017. A cryptocurrency (or crypto currency) is a digital asset designed to work as a medium of exchange that uses strong cryptography to secure financial transactions, control the creation of additional units, and verify the transfer of assets. Cryptocurrencies use decentralized control as opposed to centralized digital currency and central banking systems. According to the Library of Congress, an "absolute ban" on trading or using cryptocurrencies applies in eight countries: Algeria, Bolivia, Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Nepal, Pakistan, and the United Arab Emirates. An "implicit ban" applies in another 15 countries, which include Bahrain, Bangladesh, China, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Indonesia, Iran, Kuwait, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macau, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Taiwan. The rapid price increase of Ethereum has not only attracted investors but developers too. Ethereum has tens of thousands of developers in its open source community, each contributing to the many layers of the “Ethereum stack”. This includes code contributions to the core Ethereum clients, second layer scaling tech and the “decentralized applications” (dApps) that are built on top of the platform. The appeal of Ethereum to developers is unique in that it was the first platform to allow anyone in the world to write and deploy code that would run without the risk of censorship. The community of developers which have formed around these core principles have led to the creation of technologies that could not have existed without the inception of Ethereum, many of which were never predicted. Some of the major use-cases of Ethereum so far have been: Despite bringing a number of benefits, decentralized applications aren’t faultless. Because smart contract code is written by humans, smart contracts are only as good as the people who write them. Code bugs or oversights can lead to unintended adverse actions being taken. If a mistake in the code gets exploited, there is no efficient way in which an attack or exploitation can be stopped other than obtaining a network consensus and rewriting the underlying code. This goes against the essence of the blockchain which is meant to be immutable. Also, any action taken by a central party raises serious questions about the decentralized nature of an application. Essentially, any cryptocurrency network is based on the absolute consensus of all the participants regarding the legitimacy of balances and transactions. If nodes of the network disagree on a single balance, the system would basically break. However, there are a lot of rules pre-built and programmed into the network that prevents this from happening. The semi-anonymous nature of cryptocurrency transactions makes them well-suited for a host of nefarious activities, such as money laundering and tax evasion. However, cryptocurrency advocates often value the anonymity highly. Some cryptocurrencies are more private than others. Bitcoin, for instance, is a relatively poor choice for conducting illegal business online, and forensic analysis of bitcoin transactions has led authorities to arrest and prosecute criminals. More privacy-oriented coins do exist, such as Dash, ZCash, or Monero, which are far more difficult to trace. On 3 January 2009, the bitcoin network was created when Nakamoto mined the first block of the chain, known as the genesis block. Embedded in the coinbase of this block was the text "The Times 03/Jan/2009 Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks". This note references a headline published by The Times and has been interpreted as both a timestamp and a comment on the instability caused by fractional-reserve banking.:18

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Not your typical dinosaur exhibition, Ultimate Dinosaurs introduces your students to new and unique dinosaurs that evolved in isolation in South America, Africa, and Madagascar, and are unfamiliar to most North Americans. The exhibition combines rarely seen specimens with augmented reality technology that transforms full-scale dinosaurs into flesh covered animated beasts right before your eyes. Students will be introduced to dozens of dinosaurs and will learn about the break-up of supercontinent Pangaea into the continents that we know today and how continental drift affected the evolution of dinosaurs during the Mesozoic Era. Ultimate Dinosaurs features groundbreaking research from scientists around the world. Your students will have the opportunity to: Field trips may be booked prior to the exhibition opening and throughout the run (closes September 4, 2017). Download the full Educator Guide for an all-inclusive view of what Ultimate Dinosaurs has to offer, including grade-specific activities for guided exploration. In addition, through our Nature to You Loan Program, you can borrow real fossils for your classroom. Mesozoic Mysteries, Pre-K Compare survival techniques of some of the most mysterious animals to have walked the earth. Classify dinosaurs, touch real fossils, and take home dinosaur prints made out of clay. Available at your school. Survivor, Grade 3 Watch how the habitats of San Diego have changed over time. Make observations and inferences and construct arguments about how these changes occurred. Model how animals with special adaptations survive when the environment changes. Available at the Museum or at your school. 3-LS3: Inheritance and Variation of Traits: Life Cycles and Traits 3-LS4: Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity NEW! Rockin' Out with Fossils, Grade 4 Take the long journey through geologic time as rocks and fossils form the Earth’s crust. Model the rock cycle and discover the patterns of fossil formation and solve the mystery behind fossils found in San Diego County. Available at the Museum. 4-ESS2: Earth Systems: Process that Shape the Earth Docent-Led Tour: Explore Fossil Mysteries , Grades 2-8 This region has a rich fossil record. Investigate San Diego’s past by trekking through 75 million years of geologic history. Interpret Museum murals and describe how the flora, fauna, and climate have changed over millions of years. Meet the great granddaddy of your pet dog and swim in the ancient San Diego Bay. Identify types of geologic plate movement by interacting with Museum models and attempt to solve the mysteries that remain as you explore fantastic fossils found in San Diego County. Available at the Museum. For information about all education programs, visit our website or call 619.255.0349.

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Class time – 90 minutes - students will be introduced with ways of knowing in TOK - they will be develop/extend TOK vocabulary and practice listening to instructions - they will understand how ways of knowing are important “tools” in every cognitive process Opening – 15 minutes How do we know? What kind of tools do we use we get to know something? Do we believe more to what we hear, see, touch or to what is told to us? How do we use both of said when construct our knowledge? Do we have any system or principle according to which we check or justify our knowledge? Does assumptions, stereotypes or prejudices play role in building of our pyramid of knowledge? Beside these, there are so many questions that many of us haven`t asked ourselves so far. We take for granted that is truth what we see, what we hear or what we sense. But what if we have more then five sense perception? Have we ever think about it in that manner? What about people who had created so genius theories that later on, after process of justification, become accepted as truths? How did they come to invent such theories? What do we use when classify all information which we get on daily level? Students can follow the instructions: class will be split in few groups as there are too many students to do the activity at the same time. After joining to chosen group team members are asked to think about these questions. The leader of group will offer answers to questions after the discussion between members of group finishes. Development – 60 minutes When the first half of the development part of class finishes, the second half can be split into two parts. In the first part of this part of class (How does this sound?) students introduce explanation of new terms used in TOK, such as reason versus reasoning and sense perception versus perception. Reason is in TOK explained as a possibility to be rational (rationality), when we are able to make an agreement with our reason. On the other hand, reason is in many dictionaries explained as motivation for doing/ thinking of something – although is in TOK understood as rationality. Perception is explained as a way we perceive something and that is different (although connected with understanding of role and power of) then sense perception. Possession of sense perception includes receiving information through senses we have – seeing, hearing, touch,tasting etc. In addition to said students will watch a short video about sensation and perception. There is also one more (among so many others, I have to admit!) so interesting video about “top brain bottom brain”. Time for discussion is open! Students are also introduced with faith, imagination, intuition, emotion and memory as ways of knowing and encouraged to describe, by using an example from personal experience, the way how different ways of knowing work together. The goal of this assignment is to show to them how interactive ways of knowing are. One more assignment for students might be included in this class. First they separate themselves in pairs. Then they should try to explain to a colleague in a pair some scientific theory. They are allowed to choose any they want to. How difficult it might be? To try to explain a scientific theory to someone without use on any kind of language? It is possible at all? Students are also asked which ways of knowing they have to use in order to explain a scientific theory to a colleague in a group? Is it just language or there must be something more? Reason? Memory? Even imagination? Now we see that we use ways of knowing not just for collecting knowledge but for sharing too. Teacher told to students explanation of X scientific theory. He/ she passes knowledge to students then. Students become aware of significant role of ways of knowing. Closure – 15 minutes We do reflection of material taught in this part of a class. Options include summarising the learning achievements/analysing errors; preparation for future assignments etc. Resources used on a class:.

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This guide intends to teach you to Network Bridge Configuration on Debian 12 Linux. First, we want to describe what is a network bridge and then start network configuration and create a bridge on Debian 12 Bookworm. Please follow the rest of the article. What is a Network Bridge on Linux? In simple words, a network bridge is a device that divides a network into segments. Each segment represents a separate collision domain, so the number of collisions on the network is reduced. Each collision domain has its own separate bandwidth, so a bridge also improves the network performance. How Does Network Bridge Work? A bridge works at the Data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. It inspects incoming traffic and decides whether to forward it or filter it. Each incoming Ethernet frame is inspected for the destination MAC address. If the bridge determines that the destination host is on another segment of the network, it forwards the frame to that segment. Steps To Network Bridge Configuration on Debian 12 Linux To create a network bridge on your Debian 12, you must have access to your server as a non-root user with sudo privileges. To do this, you can follow this guide on Initial Server Setup with Debian 12 Bookworm. Then, follow the steps below to complete this guide. Step 1 – Install the bridge-utils package on Debian 12 Linux First, you must run the system update by using the following command: sudo apt update The bridge-utils package contains a utility needed to create and manage bridge devices. Then, use the following command to install the bridge-utils on Debian 12: sudo apt install bridge-utils -y Now you need to make some configuration changes at the /etc/network/interface file. Step 2 – Edit Network Configuration File on Debian 12 At this point, you must edit the network configuration file on your Debian 12 Linux server. First, find your physical interface with the command below: sudo ip -f inet a s Output 2: eth0: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 1500 qdisc pfifo_fast state UP group default qlen 1000 inet ... brd ... scope global eth0 valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever In my case, eth0 is my physical interface. At this point, you need to be sure that only “lo” (loopback) is active in the /etc/network/ interface. Open the file with your favorite text editor, here we use the vi editor: sudo vi /etc/network/interfaces Remove any config related to eth0 and your config file should be similar to this: # This file describes the network interfaces available on your system # and how to activate them. For more information, see interfaces(5). source /etc/network/interfaces.d/* # The loopback network interface auto lo iface lo inet loopback When you are done, save and close the file. Step 3 – Create a Bridge on Debian 12 Now create a file for your bridge on Debian 12 with your favorite text editor, here we use vi: sudo vi /etc/network/interfaces.d/br0 Add the following content to your file: ## static ip config file for br0 ## auto br0 iface br0 inet static address 192.168.2.23 broadcast 192.168.2.255 netmask 255.255.255.0 gateway 192.168.2.254 # If the resolvconf package is installed, you should not edit # the resolv.conf configuration file manually. Set name server here #dns-nameservers 192.168.2.254 # If you have muliple interfaces such as eth0 and eth1 # bridge_ports eth0 eth1 bridge_ports eth0 bridge_stp off # disable Spanning Tree Protocol bridge_waitport 0 # no delay before a port becomes available bridge_fd 0 # no forwarding delay Note: Remember to replace the address, broadcast, netmask, gateway, and bridge ports values. When you are done, save and close the file. Note: If you want a bridge to get an IP address using DHCP on Debian 12, add the following content to the file instead : ## DHCP ip config file for br0 ## auto br0 # Bridge setup iface br0 inet dhcp bridge_ports eth0 Step 4 – Restart Network on Debian 12 Now you need to restart the network service. Before you restart the networking service make sure the firewall is disabled. Use the command below to restart your service: sudo systemctl restart networking Then, verify that the service is started: sudo systemctl status networking Step 5 – Debian Linux brctl Command At this point, you can use the brctl command to view info about your bridges: Also, use the command below to show your current bridges: At this point, you have learned what is a network bridge and how it works and learned to install the bridge-utils package on your Debian 12 to create and manage bridge devices. Hope you enjoy this guide on Network Bridge Configuration on Debian 12 Linux. Also, you may be interested in these articles too:

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1. The Place of Active Occupations in Education. In consequence partly of the efforts of educational reformers, partly of increased interest in child-psychology, and partly of the direct experience of the schoolroom, the course of study has in the past generation undergone considerable modification. The desirability of starting from and with the experience and capacities of learners, a lesson enforced from all three quarters, has led to the introduction of forms of activity, in play and work, similar to those in which children and youth engage outside of school. Modern psychology has substituted for the general, ready-made faculties of older theory a complex group of instinctive and impulsive tendencies. Experience has shown that when children have a chance at physical activities which bring their natural impulses into play, going to school is a joy, management is less of a burden, and learning is easier. Sometimes, perhaps, plays, games, and constructive occupations are resorted to only for these reasons, with emphasis upon relief from the tedium and strain of "regular" school work. There is no reason, however, for using them merely as agreeable diversions. Study of mental life has made evident the fundamental worth of native tendencies to explore, to manipulate tools and materials, to construct, to give expression to joyous emotion, etc. When exercises which are prompted by these instincts are a part of the regular school program, the whole pupil is engaged, the artificial gap between life in school and out is reduced, motives are afforded for attention to a large variety of materials and processes distinctly educative in effect, and cooperative associations which give information in a social setting are provided. In short, the grounds for assigning to play and active work a definite place in the curriculum are intellectual and social, not matters of temporary expediency and momentary agreeableness. Without something of the kind, it is not possible to secure the normal estate of effective learning; namely, that knowledge-getting be an outgrowth of activities having their own end, instead of a school task. More specifically, play and work correspond, point for point, with the traits of the initial stage of knowing, which consists, as we saw in the last chapter, in learning how to do things and in acquaintance with things and processes gained in the doing. It is suggestive that among the Greeks, till the rise of conscious philosophy, the same word, techne, was used for art and science. Plato gave his account of knowledge on the basis of an analysis of the knowledge of cobblers, carpenters, players of musical instruments, etc., pointing out that their art (so far as it was not mere routine) involved an end, mastery of material or stuff worked upon, control of appliances, and a definite order of procedure—all of which had to be known in order that there be intelligent skill or art. Doubtless the fact that children normally engage in play and work out of school has seemed to many educators a reason why they should concern themselves in school with things radically different. School time seemed too precious to spend in doing over again what children were sure to do any way. In some social conditions, this reason has weight. In pioneer times, for example, outside occupations gave a definite and valuable intellectual and moral training. Books and everything concerned with them were, on the other hand, rare and difficult of access; they were the only means of outlet from a narrow and crude environment. Wherever such conditions obtain, much may be said in favor of concentrating school activity upon books. The situation is very different, however, in most communities to-day. The kinds of work in which the young can engage, especially in cities, are largely anti-educational. That prevention of child labor is a social duty is evidence on this point. On the other hand, printed matter has been so cheapened and is in such universal circulation, and all the opportunities of intellectual culture have been so multiplied, that the older type of book work is far from having the force it used to possess. But it must not be forgotten that an educational result is a by-product of play and work in most out-of-school conditions. It is incidental, not primary. Consequently the educative growth secured is more or less accidental. Much work shares in the defects of existing industrial society—defects next to fatal to right development. Play tends to reproduce and affirm the crudities, as well as the excellencies, of surrounding adult life. It is the business of the school to set up an environment in which play and work shall be conducted with reference to facilitating desirable mental and moral growth. It is not enough just to introduce plays and games, hand work and manual exercises. Everything depends upon the way in which they are employed. 2. Available Occupations. A bare catalogue of the list of activities which have already found their way into schools indicates what a rich field is at hand. There is work with paper, cardboard, wood, leather, cloth, yarns, clay and sand, and the metals, with and without tools. Processes employed are folding, cutting, pricking, measuring, molding, modeling, pattern-making, heating and cooling, and the operations characteristic of such tools as the hammer, saw, file, etc. Outdoor excursions, gardening, cooking, sewing, printing, book-binding, weaving, painting, drawing, singing, dramatization, story-telling, reading and writing as active pursuits with social aims (not as mere exercises for acquiring skill for future use), in addition to a countless variety of plays and games, designate some of the modes of occupation. The problem of the educator is to engage pupils in these activities in such ways that while manual skill and technical efficiency are gained and immediate satisfaction found in the work, together with preparation for later usefulness, these things shall be subordinated to education—that is, to intellectual results and the forming of a socialized disposition. What does this principle signify? In the first place, the principle rules out certain practices. Activities which follow definite prescription and dictation or which reproduce without modification ready-made models, may give muscular dexterity, but they do not require the perception and elaboration of ends, nor (what is the same thing in other words) do they permit the use of judgment in selecting and adapting means. Not merely manual training specifically so called but many traditional kindergarten exercises have erred here. Moreover, opportunity for making mistakes is an incidental requirement. Not because mistakes are ever desirable, but because overzeal to select material and appliances which forbid a chance for mistakes to occur, restricts initiative, reduces judgment to a minimum, and compels the use of methods which are so remote from the complex situations of life that the power gained is of little availability. It is quite true that children tend to exaggerate their powers of execution and to select projects that are beyond them. But limitation of capacity is one of the things which has to be learned; like other things, it is learned through the experience of consequences. The danger that children undertaking too complex projects will simply muddle and mess, and produce not merely crude results (which is a minor matter) but acquire crude standards (which is an important matter) is great. But it is the fault of the teacher if the pupil does not perceive in due season the inadequacy of his performances, and thereby receive a stimulus to attempt exercises which will perfect his powers. Meantime it is more important to keep alive a creative and constructive attitude than to secure an external perfection by engaging the pupil's action in too minute and too closely regulated pieces of work. Accuracy and finish of detail can be insisted upon in such portions of a complex work as are within the pupil's capacity. Unconscious suspicion of native experience and consequent overdoing of external control are shown quite as much in the material supplied as in the matter of the teacher's orders. The fear of raw material is shown in laboratory, manual training shop, Froebelian kindergarten, and Montessori house of childhood. The demand is for materials which have already been subjected to the perfecting work of mind: a demand which shows itself in the subject matter of active occupations quite as well as in academic book learning. That such material will control the pupil's operations so as to prevent errors is true. The notion that a pupil operating with such material will somehow absorb the intelligence that went originally to its shaping is fallacious. Only by starting with crude material and subjecting it to purposeful handling will he gain the intelligence embodied in finished material. In practice, overemphasis upon formed material leads to an exaggeration of mathematical qualities, since intellect finds its profit in physical things from matters of size, form, and proportion and the relations that flow from them. But these are known only when their perception is a fruit of acting upon purposes which require attention to them. The more human the purpose, or the more it approximates the ends which appeal in daily experience, the more real the knowledge. When the purpose of the activity is restricted to ascertaining these qualities, the resulting knowledge is only technical. To say that active occupations should be concerned primarily with wholes is another statement of the same principle. Wholes for purposes of education are not, however, physical affairs. Intellectually the existence of a whole depends upon a concern or interest; it is qualitative, the completeness of appeal made by a situation. Exaggerated devotion to formation of efficient skill irrespective of present purpose always shows itself in devising exercises isolated from a purpose. Laboratory work is made to consist of tasks of accurate measurement with a view to acquiring knowledge of the fundamental units of physics, irrespective of contact with the problems which make these units important; or of operations designed to afford facility in the manipulation of experimental apparatus. The technique is acquired independently of the purposes of discovery and testing which alone give it meaning. Kindergarten employments are calculated to give information regarding cubes, spheres, etc., and to form certain habits of manipulation of material (for everything must always be done "just so"), the absence of more vital purposes being supposedly compensated for by the alleged symbolism of the material used. Manual training is reduced to a series of ordered assignments calculated to secure the mastery of one tool after another and technical ability in the various elements of construction—like the different joints. It is argued that pupils must know how to use tools before they attack actual making,—assuming that pupils cannot learn how in the process of making. Pestalozzi's just insistence upon the active use of the senses, as a substitute for memorizing words, left behind it in practice schemes for "object lessons" intended to acquaint pupils with all the qualities of selected objects. The error is the same: in all these cases it is assumed that before objects can be intelligently used, their properties must be known. In fact, the senses are normally used in the course of intelligent (that is, purposeful) use of things, since the qualities perceived are factors to be reckoned with in accomplishment. Witness the different attitude of a boy in making, say, a kite, with respect to the grain and other properties of wood, the matter of size, angles, and proportion of parts, to the attitude of a pupil who has an object-lesson on a piece of wood, where the sole function of wood and its properties is to serve as subject matter for the lesson. The failure to realize that the functional development of a situation alone constitutes a "whole" for the purpose of mind is the cause of the false notions which have prevailed in instruction concerning the simple and the complex. For the person approaching a subject, the simple thing is his purpose—the use he desires to make of material, tool, or technical process, no matter how complicated the process of execution may be. The unity of the purpose, with the concentration upon details which it entails, confers simplicity upon the elements which have to be reckoned with in the course of action. It furnishes each with a single meaning according to its service in carrying on the whole enterprise. After one has gone through the process, the constituent qualities and relations are elements, each possessed with a definite meaning of its own. The false notion referred to takes the standpoint of the expert, the one for whom elements exist; isolates them from purposeful action, and presents them to beginners as the "simple" things. But it is time for a positive statement. Aside from the fact that active occupations represent things to do, not studies, their educational significance consists in the fact that they may typify social situations. Men's fundamental common concerns center about food, shelter, clothing, household furnishings, and the appliances connected with production, exchange, and consumption. Representing both the necessities of life and the adornments with which the necessities have been clothed, they tap instincts at a deep level; they are saturated with facts and principles having a social quality. To charge that the various activities of gardening, weaving, construction in wood, manipulation of metals, cooking, etc., which carry over these fundamental human concerns into school resources, have a merely bread and butter value is to miss their point. If the mass of mankind has usually found in its industrial occupations nothing but evils which had to be endured for the sake of maintaining existence, the fault is not in the occupations, but in the conditions under which they are carried on. The continually increasing importance of economic factors in contemporary life makes it the more needed that education should reveal their scientific content and their social value. For in schools, occupations are not carried on for pecuniary gain but for their own content. Freed from extraneous associations and from the pressure of wage-earning, they supply modes of experience which are intrinsically valuable; they are truly liberalizing in quality. Gardening, for example, need not be taught either for the sake of preparing future gardeners, or as an agreeable way of passing time. It affords an avenue of approach to knowledge of the place farming and horticulture have had in the history of the race and which they occupy in present social organization. Carried on in an environment educationally controlled, they are means for making a study of the facts of growth, the chemistry of soil, the role of light, air, and moisture, injurious and helpful animal life, etc. There is nothing in the elementary study of botany which cannot be introduced in a vital way in connection with caring for the growth of seeds. Instead of the subject matter belonging to a peculiar study called botany, it will then belong to life, and will find, moreover, its natural correlations with the facts of soil, animal life, and human relations. As students grow mature, they will perceive problems of interest which may be pursued for the sake of discovery, independent of the original direct interest in gardening—problems connected with the germination and nutrition of plants, the reproduction of fruits, etc., thus making a transition to deliberate intellectual investigations. The illustration is intended to apply, of course, to other school occupations,—wood-working, cooking, and on through the list. It is pertinent to note that in the history of the race the sciences grew gradually out from useful social occupations. Physics developed slowly out of the use of tools and machines; the important branch of physics known as mechanics testifies in its name to its original associations. The lever, wheel, inclined plane, etc., were among the first great intellectual discoveries of mankind, and they are none the less intellectual because they occurred in the course of seeking for means of accomplishing practical ends. The great advance of electrical science in the last generation was closely associated, as effect and as cause, with application of electric agencies to means of communication, transportation, lighting of cities and houses, and more economical production of goods. These are social ends, moreover, and if they are too closely associated with notions of private profit, it is not because of anything in them, but because they have been deflected to private uses:—a fact which puts upon the school the responsibility of restoring their connection, in the mind of the coming generation, with public scientific and social interests. In like ways, chemistry grew out of processes of dying, bleaching, metal working, etc., and in recent times has found innumerable new uses in industry. Mathematics is now a highly abstract science; geometry, however, means literally earth-measuring: the practical use of number in counting to keep track of things and in measuring is even more important to-day than in the times when it was invented for these purposes. Such considerations (which could be duplicated in the history of any science) are not arguments for a recapitulation of the history of the race or for dwelling long in the early rule of thumb stage. But they indicate the possibilities—greater to-day than ever before—of using active occupations as opportunities for scientific study. The opportunities are just as great on the social side, whether we look at the life of collective humanity in its past or in its future. The most direct road for elementary students into civics and economics is found in consideration of the place and office of industrial occupations in social life. Even for older students, the social sciences would be less abstract and formal if they were dealt with less as sciences (less as formulated bodies of knowledge) and more in their direct subject-matter as that is found in the daily life of the social groups in which the student shares. Connection of occupations with the method of science is at least as close as with its subject matter. The ages when scientific progress was slow were the ages when learned men had contempt for the material and processes of everyday life, especially for those concerned with manual pursuits. Consequently they strove to develop knowledge out of general principles—almost out of their heads—by logical reasons. It seems as absurd that learning should come from action on and with physical things, like dropping acid on a stone to see what would happen, as that it should come from sticking an awl with waxed thread through a piece of leather. But the rise of experimental methods proved that, given control of conditions, the latter operation is more typical of the right way of knowledge than isolated logical reasonings. Experiment developed in the seventeenth and succeeding centuries and became the authorized way of knowing when men's interests were centered in the question of control of nature for human uses. The active occupations in which appliances are brought to bear upon physical things with the intention of effecting useful changes is the most vital introduction to the experimental method. 3. Work and Play. What has been termed active occupation includes both play and work. In their intrinsic meaning, play and industry are by no means so antithetical to one another as is often assumed, any sharp contrast being due to undesirable social conditions. Both involve ends consciously entertained and the selection and adaptations of materials and processes designed to effect the desired ends. The difference between them is largely one of time-span, influencing the directness of the connection of means and ends. In play, the interest is more direct—a fact frequently indicated by saying that in play the activity is its own end, instead of its having an ulterior result. The statement is correct, but it is falsely taken, if supposed to mean that play activity is momentary, having no element of looking ahead and none of pursuit. Hunting, for example, is one of the commonest forms of adult play, but the existence of foresight and the direction of present activity by what one is watching for are obvious. When an activity is its own end in the sense that the action of the moment is complete in itself, it is purely physical; it has no meaning (See p. 77). The person is either going through motions quite blindly, perhaps purely imitatively, or else is in a state of excitement which is exhausting to mind and nerves. Both results may be seen in some types of kindergarten games where the idea of play is so highly symbolic that only the adult is conscious of it. Unless the children succeed in reading in some quite different idea of their own, they move about either as if in a hypnotic daze, or they respond to a direct excitation. The point of these remarks is that play has an end in the sense of a directing idea which gives point to the successive acts. Persons who play are not just doing something (pure physical movement); they are trying to do or effect something, an attitude that involves anticipatory forecasts which stimulate their present responses. The anticipated result, however, is rather a subsequent action than the production of a specific change in things. Consequently play is free, plastic. Where some definite external outcome is wanted, the end has to be held to with some persistence, which increases as the contemplated result is complex and requires a fairly long series of intermediate adaptations. When the intended act is another activity, it is not necessary to look far ahead and it is possible to alter it easily and frequently. If a child is making a toy boat, he must hold on to a single end and direct a considerable number of acts by that one idea. If he is just "playing boat" he may change the material that serves as a boat almost at will, and introduce new factors as fancy suggests. The imagination makes what it will of chairs, blocks, leaves, chips, if they serve the purpose of carrying activity forward. From a very early age, however, there is no distinction of exclusive periods of play activity and work activity, but only one of emphasis. There are definite results which even young children desire, and try to bring to pass. Their eager interest in sharing the occupations of others, if nothing else, accomplishes this. Children want to "help"; they are anxious to engage in the pursuits of adults which effect external changes: setting the table, washing dishes, helping care for animals, etc. In their plays, they like to construct their own toys and appliances. With increasing maturity, activity which does not give back results of tangible and visible achievement loses its interest. Play then changes to fooling and if habitually indulged in is demoralizing. Observable results are necessary to enable persons to get a sense and a measure of their own powers. When make-believe is recognized to be make-believe, the device of making objects in fancy alone is too easy to stimulate intense action. One has only to observe the countenance of children really playing to note that their attitude is one of serious absorption; this attitude cannot be maintained when things cease to afford adequate stimulation. When fairly remote results of a definite character are foreseen and enlist persistent effort for their accomplishment, play passes into work. Like play, it signifies purposeful activity and differs not in that activity is subordinated to an external result, but in the fact that a longer course of activity is occasioned by the idea of a result. The demand for continuous attention is greater, and more intelligence must be shown in selecting and shaping means. To extend this account would be to repeat what has been said under the caption of aim, interest, and thinking. It is pertinent, however, to inquire why the idea is so current that work involves subordination of an activity to an ulterior material result. The extreme form of this subordination, namely drudgery, offers a clew. Activity carried on under conditions of external pressure or coercion is not carried on for any significance attached to the doing. The course of action is not intrinsically satisfying; it is a mere means for avoiding some penalty, or for gaining some reward at its conclusion. What is inherently repulsive is endured for the sake of averting something still more repulsive or of securing a gain hitched on by others. Under unfree economic conditions, this state of affairs is bound to exist. Work or industry offers little to engage the emotions and the imagination; it is a more or less mechanical series of strains. Only the hold which the completion of the work has upon a person will keep him going. But the end should be intrinsic to the action; it should be its end—a part of its own course. Then it affords a stimulus to effort very different from that arising from the thought of results which have nothing to do with the intervening action. As already mentioned, the absence of economic pressure in schools supplies an opportunity for reproducing industrial situations of mature life under conditions where the occupation can be carried on for its own sake. If in some cases, pecuniary recognition is also a result of an action, though not the chief motive for it, that fact may well increase the significance of the occupation. Where something approaching drudgery or the need of fulfilling externally imposed tasks exists, the demand for play persists, but tends to be perverted. The ordinary course of action fails to give adequate stimulus to emotion and imagination. So in leisure time, there is an imperious demand for their stimulation by any kind of means; gambling, drink, etc., may be resorted to. Or, in less extreme cases, there is recourse to idle amusement; to anything which passes time with immediate agreeableness. Recreation, as the word indicates, is recuperation of energy. No demand of human nature is more urgent or less to be escaped. The idea that the need can be suppressed is absolutely fallacious, and the Puritanic tradition which disallows the need has entailed an enormous crop of evils. If education does not afford opportunity for wholesome recreation and train capacity for seeking and finding it, the suppressed instincts find all sorts of illicit outlets, sometimes overt, sometimes confined to indulgence of the imagination. Education has no more serious responsibility than making adequate provision for enjoyment of recreative leisure; not only for the sake of immediate health, but still more if possible for the sake of its lasting effect upon habits of mind. Art is again the answer to this demand. Summary. In the previous chapter we found that the primary subject matter of knowing is that contained in learning how to do things of a fairly direct sort. The educational equivalent of this principle is the consistent use of simple occupations which appeal to the powers of youth and which typify general modes of social activity. Skill and information about materials, tools, and laws of energy are acquired while activities are carried on for their own sake. The fact that they are socially representative gives a quality to the skill and knowledge gained which makes them transferable to out-of-school situations. It is important not to confuse the psychological distinction between play and work with the economic distinction. Psychologically, the defining characteristic of play is not amusement nor aimlessness. It is the fact that the aim is thought of as more activity in the same line, without defining continuity of action in reference to results produced. Activities as they grow more complicated gain added meaning by greater attention to specific results achieved. Thus they pass gradually into work. Both are equally free and intrinsically motivated, apart from false economic conditions which tend to make play into idle excitement for the well to do, and work into uncongenial labor for the poor. Work is psychologically simply an activity which consciously includes regard for consequences as a part of itself; it becomes constrained labor when the consequences are outside of the activity as an end to which activity is merely a means. Work which remains permeated with the play attitude is art—in quality if not in conventional designation. Chapter Sixteen: The Significance of Geography and History 1. Extension of Meaning of Primary Activities. Nothing is more striking than the difference between an activity as merely physical and the wealth of meanings which the same activity may assume. From the outside, an astronomer gazing through a telescope is like a small boy looking through the same tube. In each case, there is an arrangement of glass and metal, an eye, and a little speck of light in the distance. Yet at a critical moment, the activity of an astronomer might be concerned with the birth of a world, and have whatever is known about the starry heavens as its significant content. Physically speaking, what man has effected on this globe in his progress from savagery is a mere scratch on its surface, not perceptible at a distance which is slight in comparison with the reaches even of the solar system. Yet in meaning what has been accomplished measures just the difference of civilization from savagery. Although the activities, physically viewed, have changed somewhat, this change is slight in comparison with the development of the meanings attaching to the activities. There is no limit to the meaning which an action may come to possess. It all depends upon the context of perceived connections in which it is placed; the reach of imagination in realizing connections is inexhaustible. The advantage which the activity of man has in appropriating and finding meanings makes his education something else than the manufacture of a tool or the training of an animal. The latter increase efficiency; they do not develop significance. The final educational importance of such occupations in play and work as were considered in the last chapter is that they afford the most direct instrumentalities for such extension of meaning. Set going under adequate conditions they are magnets for gathering and retaining an indefinitely wide scope of intellectual considerations. They provide vital centers for the reception and assimilation of information. When information is purveyed in chunks simply as information to be retained for its own sake, it tends to stratify over vital experience. Entering as a factor into an activity pursued for its own sake—whether as a means or as a widening of the content of the aim—it is informing. The insight directly gained fuses with what is told. Individual experience is then capable of taking up and holding in solution the net results of the experience of the group to which he belongs—including the results of sufferings and trials over long stretches of time. And such media have no fixed saturation point where further absorption is impossible. The more that is taken in, the greater capacity there is for further assimilation. New receptiveness follows upon new curiosity, and new curiosity upon information gained. The meanings with which activities become charged, concern nature and man. This is an obvious truism, which however gains meaning when translated into educational equivalents. So translated, it signifies that geography and history supply subject matter which gives background and outlook, intellectual perspective, to what might otherwise be narrow personal actions or mere forms of technical skill. With every increase of ability to place our own doings in their time and space connections, our doings gain in significant content. We realize that we are citizens of no mean city in discovering the scene in space of which we are denizens, and the continuous manifestation of endeavor in time of which we are heirs and continuers. Thus our ordinary daily experiences cease to be things of the moment and gain enduring substance. Of course if geography and history are taught as ready-made studies which a person studies simply because he is sent to school, it easily happens that a large number of statements about things remote and alien to everyday experience are learned. Activity is divided, and two separate worlds are built up, occupying activity at divided periods. No transmutation takes place; ordinary experience is not enlarged in meaning by getting its connections; what is studied is not animated and made real by entering into immediate activity. Ordinary experience is not even left as it was, narrow but vital. Rather, it loses something of its mobility and sensitiveness to suggestions. It is weighed down and pushed into a corner by a load of unassimilated information. It parts with its flexible responsiveness and alert eagerness for additional meaning. Mere amassing of information apart from the direct interests of life makes mind wooden; elasticity disappears. Normally every activity engaged in for its own sake reaches out beyond its immediate self. It does not passively wait for information to be bestowed which will increase its meaning; it seeks it out. Curiosity is not an accidental isolated possession; it is a necessary consequence of the fact that an experience is a moving, changing thing, involving all kinds of connections with other things. Curiosity is but the tendency to make these conditions perceptible. It is the business of educators to supply an environment so that this reaching out of an experience may be fruitfully rewarded and kept continuously active. Within a certain kind of environment, an activity may be checked so that the only meaning which accrues is of its direct and tangible isolated outcome. One may cook, or hammer, or walk, and the resulting consequences may not take the mind any farther than the consequences of cooking, hammering, and walking in the literal—or physical—sense. But nevertheless the consequences of the act remain far-reaching. To walk involves a displacement and reaction of the resisting earth, whose thrill is felt wherever there is matter. It involves the structure of the limbs and the nervous system; the principles of mechanics. To cook is to utilize heat and moisture to change the chemical relations of food materials; it has a bearing upon the assimilation of food and the growth of the body. The utmost that the most learned men of science know in physics, chemistry, physiology is not enough to make all these consequences and connections perceptible. The task of education, once more, is to see to it that such activities are performed in such ways and under such conditions as render these conditions as perceptible as possible. To "learn geography" is to gain in power to perceive the spatial, the natural, connections of an ordinary act; to "learn history" is essentially to gain in power to recognize its human connections. For what is called geography as a formulated study is simply the body of facts and principles which have been discovered in other men's experience about the natural medium in which we live, and in connection with which the particular acts of our life have an explanation. So history as a formulated study is but the body of known facts about the activities and sufferings of the social groups with which our own lives are continuous, and through reference to which our own customs and institutions are illuminated. 2. The Complementary Nature of History and Geography. History and geography—including in the latter, for reasons about to be mentioned, nature study—are the information studies par excellence of the schools. Examination of the materials and the method of their use will make clear that the difference between penetration of this information into living experience and its mere piling up in isolated heaps depends upon whether these studies are faithful to the interdependence of man and nature which affords these studies their justification. Nowhere, however, is there greater danger that subject matter will be accepted as appropriate educational material simply because it has become customary to teach and learn it. The idea of a philosophic reason for it, because of the function of the material in a worthy transformation of experience, is looked upon as a vain fancy, or as supplying a high-sounding phraseology in support of what is already done. The words "history" and "geography" suggest simply the matter which has been traditionally sanctioned in the schools. The mass and variety of this matter discourage an attempt to see what it really stands for, and how it can be so taught as to fulfill its mission in the experience of pupils. But unless the idea that there is a unifying and social direction in education is a farcical pretense, subjects that bulk as large in the curriculum as history and geography, must represent a general function in the development of a truly socialized and intellectualized experience. The discovery of this function must be employed as a criterion for trying and sifting the facts taught and the methods used. The function of historical and geographical subject matter has been stated; it is to enrich and liberate the more direct and personal contacts of life by furnishing their context, their background and outlook. While geography emphasizes the physical side and history the social, these are only emphases in a common topic, namely, the associated life of men. For this associated life, with its experiments, its ways and means, its achievements and failures, does not go on in the sky nor yet in a vacuum. It takes place on the earth. This setting of nature does not bear to social activities the relation that the scenery of a theatrical performance bears to a dramatic representation; it enters into the very make-up of the social happenings that form history. Nature is the medium of social occurrences. It furnishes original stimuli; it supplies obstacles and resources. Civilization is the progressive mastery of its varied energies. When this interdependence of the study of history, representing the human emphasis, with the study of geography, representing the natural, is ignored, history sinks to a listing of dates with an appended inventory of events, labeled "important"; or else it becomes a literary phantasy—for in purely literary history the natural environment is but stage scenery. Geography, of course, has its educative influence in a counterpart connection of natural facts with social events and their consequences. The classic definition of geography as an account of the earth as the home of man expresses the educational reality. But it is easier to give this definition than it is to present specific geographical subject matter in its vital human bearings. The residence, pursuits, successes, and failures of men are the things that give the geographic data their reason for inclusion in the material of instruction. But to hold the two together requires an informed and cultivated imagination. When the ties are broken, geography presents itself as that hodge-podge of unrelated fragments too often found. It appears as a veritable rag-bag of intellectual odds and ends: the height of a mountain here, the course of a river there, the quantity of shingles produced in this town, the tonnage of the shipping in that, the boundary of a county, the capital of a state. The earth as the home of man is humanizing and unified; the earth viewed as a miscellany of facts is scattering and imaginatively inert. Geography is a topic that originally appeals to imagination—even to the romantic imagination. It shares in the wonder and glory that attach to adventure, travel, and exploration. The variety of peoples and environments, their contrast with familiar scenes, furnishes infinite stimulation. The mind is moved from the monotony of the customary. And while local or home geography is the natural starting point in the reconstructive development of the natural environment, it is an intellectual starting point for moving out into the unknown, not an end in itself. When not treated as a basis for getting at the large world beyond, the study of the home geography becomes as deadly as do object lessons which simply summarize the properties of familiar objects. The reason is the same. The imagination is not fed, but is held down to recapitulating, cataloguing, and refining what is already known. But when the familiar fences that mark the limits of the village proprietors are signs that introduce an understanding of the boundaries of great nations, even fences are lighted with meaning. Sunlight, air, running water, inequality of earth's surface, varied industries, civil officers and their duties—all these things are found in the local environment. Treated as if their meaning began and ended in those confines, they are curious facts to be laboriously learned. As instruments for extending the limits of experience, bringing within its scope peoples and things otherwise strange and unknown, they are transfigured by the use to which they are put. Sunlight, wind, stream, commerce, political relations come from afar and lead the thoughts afar. To follow their course is to enlarge the mind not by stuffing it with additional information, but by remaking the meaning of what was previously a matter of course. The same principle coordinates branches, or phases, of geographical study which tend to become specialized and separate. Mathematical or astronomical, physiographic, topographic, political, commercial, geography, all make their claims. How are they to be adjusted? By an external compromise that crowds in so much of each? No other method is to be found unless it be constantly borne in mind that the educational center of gravity is in the cultural or humane aspects of the subject. From this center, any material becomes relevant in so far as it is needed to help appreciate the significance of human activities and relations. The differences of civilization in cold and tropical regions, the special inventions, industrial and political, of peoples in the temperate regions, cannot be understood without appeal to the earth as a member of the solar system. Economic activities deeply influence social intercourse and political organization on one side, and reflect physical conditions on the other. The specializations of these topics are for the specialists; their interaction concerns man as a being whose experience is social. To include nature study within geography doubtless seems forced; verbally, it is. But in educational idea there is but one reality, and it is pity that in practice we have two names: for the diversity of names tends to conceal the identity of meaning. Nature and the earth should be equivalent terms, and so should earth study and nature study. Everybody knows that nature study has suffered in schools from scrappiness of subject matter, due to dealing with a large number of isolated points. The parts of a flower have been studied, for example, apart from the flower as an organ; the flower apart from the plant; the plant apart from the soil, air, and light in which and through which it lives. The result is an inevitable deadness of topics to which attention is invited, but which are so isolated that they do not feed imagination. The lack of interest is so great that it was seriously proposed to revive animism, to clothe natural facts and events with myths in order that they might attract and hold the mind. In numberless cases, more or less silly personifications were resorted to. The method was silly, but it expressed a real need for a human atmosphere. The facts had been torn to pieces by being taken out of their context. They no longer belonged to the earth; they had no abiding place anywhere. To compensate, recourse was had to artificial and sentimental associations. The real remedy is to make nature study a study of nature, not of fragments made meaningless through complete removal from the situations in which they are produced and in which they operate. When nature is treated as a whole, like the earth in its relations, its phenomena fall into their natural relations of sympathy and association with human life, and artificial substitutes are not needed. 3. History and Present Social Life. The segregation which kills the vitality of history is divorce from present modes and concerns of social life. The past just as past is no longer our affair. If it were wholly gone and done with, there would be only one reasonable attitude toward it. Let the dead bury their dead. But knowledge of the past is the key to understanding the present. History deals with the past, but this past is the history of the present. An intelligent study of the discovery, explorations, colonization of America, of the pioneer movement westward, of immigration, etc., should be a study of the United States as it is to-day: of the country we now live in. Studying it in process of formation makes much that is too complex to be directly grasped open to comprehension. Genetic method was perhaps the chief scientific achievement of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Its principle is that the way to get insight into any complex product is to trace the process of its making,—to follow it through the successive stages of its growth. To apply this method to history as if it meant only the truism that the present social state cannot be separated from its past, is one-sided. It means equally that past events cannot be separated from the living present and retain meaning. The true starting point of history is always some present situation with its problems. This general principle may be briefly applied to a consideration of its bearing upon a number of points. The biographical method is generally recommended as the natural mode of approach to historical study. The lives of great men, of heroes and leaders, make concrete and vital historic episodes otherwise abstract and incomprehensible. They condense into vivid pictures complicated and tangled series of events spread over so much space and time that only a highly trained mind can follow and unravel them. There can be no doubt of the psychological soundness of this principle. But it is misused when employed to throw into exaggerated relief the doings of a few individuals without reference to the social situations which they represent. When a biography is related just as an account of the doings of a man isolated from the conditions that aroused him and to which his activities were a response, we do not have a study of history, for we have no study of social life, which is an affair of individuals in association. We get only a sugar coating which makes it easier to swallow certain fragments of information. Much attention has been given of late to primitive life as an introduction to learning history. Here also there is a right and a wrong way of conceiving its value. The seemingly ready-made character and the complexity of present conditions, their apparently hard and fast character, is an almost insuperable obstacle to gaining insight into their nature. Recourse to the primitive may furnish the fundamental elements of the present situation in immensely simplified form. It is like unraveling a cloth so complex and so close to the eyes that its scheme cannot be seen, until the larger coarser features of the pattern appear. We cannot simplify the present situations by deliberate experiment, but resort to primitive life presents us with the sort of results we should desire from an experiment. Social relationships and modes of organized action are reduced to their lowest terms. When this social aim is overlooked, however, the study of primitive life becomes simply a rehearsing of sensational and exciting features of savagery. Primitive history suggests industrial history. For one of the chief reasons for going to more primitive conditions to resolve the present into more easily perceived factors is that we may realize how the fundamental problems of procuring subsistence, shelter, and protection have been met; and by seeing how these were solved in the earlier days of the human race, form some conception of the long road which has had to be traveled, and of the successive inventions by which the race has been brought forward in culture. We do not need to go into disputes regarding the economic interpretation of history to realize that the industrial history of mankind gives insight into two important phases of social life in a way which no other phase of history can possibly do. It presents us with knowledge of the successive inventions by which theoretical science has been applied to the control of nature in the interests of security and prosperity of social life. It thus reveals the successive causes of social progress. Its other service is to put before us the things that fundamentally concern all men in common—the occupations and values connected with getting a living. Economic history deals with the activities, the career, and fortunes of the common man as does no other branch of history. The one thing every individual must do is to live; the one thing that society must do is to secure from each individual his fair contribution to the general well being and see to it that a just return is made to him. Economic history is more human, more democratic, and hence more liberalizing than political history. It deals not with the rise and fall of principalities and powers, but with the growth of the effective liberties, through command of nature, of the common man for whom powers and principalities exist. Industrial history also offers a more direct avenue of approach to the realization of the intimate connection of man's struggles, successes, and failures with nature than does political history—to say nothing of the military history into which political history so easily runs when reduced to the level of youthful comprehension. For industrial history is essentially an account of the way in which man has learned to utilize natural energy from the time when men mostly exploited the muscular energies of other men to the time when, in promise if not in actuality, the resources of nature are so under command as to enable men to extend a common dominion over her. When the history of work, when the conditions of using the soil, forest, mine, of domesticating and cultivating grains and animals, of manufacture and distribution, are left out of account, history tends to become merely literary—a systematized romance of a mythical humanity living upon itself instead of upon the earth. Perhaps the most neglected branch of history in general education is intellectual history. We are only just beginning to realize that the great heroes who have advanced human destiny are not its politicians, generals, and diplomatists, but the scientific discoverers and inventors who have put into man's hands the instrumentalities of an expanding and controlled experience, and the artists and poets who have celebrated his struggles, triumphs, and defeats in such language, pictorial, plastic, or written, that their meaning is rendered universally accessible to others. One of the advantages of industrial history as a history of man's progressive adaptation of natural forces to social uses is the opportunity which it affords for consideration of advance in the methods and results of knowledge. At present men are accustomed to eulogize intelligence and reason in general terms; their fundamental importance is urged. But pupils often come away from the conventional study of history, and think either that the human intellect is a static quantity which has not progressed by the invention of better methods, or else that intelligence, save as a display of personal shrewdness, is a negligible historic factor. Surely no better way could be devised of instilling a genuine sense of the part which mind has to play in life than a study of history which makes plain how the entire advance of humanity from savagery to civilization has been dependent upon intellectual discoveries and inventions, and the extent to which the things which ordinarily figure most largely in historical writings have been side issues, or even obstructions for intelligence to overcome. Pursued in this fashion, history would most naturally become of ethical value in teaching. Intelligent insight into present forms of associated life is necessary for a character whose morality is more than colorless innocence. Historical knowledge helps provide such insight. It is an organ for analysis of the warp and woof of the present social fabric, of making known the forces which have woven the pattern. The use of history for cultivating a socialized intelligence constitutes its moral significance. It is possible to employ it as a kind of reservoir of anecdotes to be drawn on to inculcate special moral lessons on this virtue or that vice. But such teaching is not so much an ethical use of history as it is an effort to create moral impressions by means of more or less authentic material. At best, it produces a temporary emotional glow; at worst, callous indifference to moralizing. The assistance which may be given by history to a more intelligent sympathetic understanding of the social situations of the present in which individuals share is a permanent and constructive moral asset. Summary. It is the nature of an experience to have implications which go far beyond what is at first consciously noted in it. Bringing these connections or implications to consciousness enhances the meaning of the experience. Any experience, however trivial in its first appearance, is capable of assuming an indefinite richness of significance by extending its range of perceived connections. Normal communication with others is the readiest way of effecting this development, for it links up the net results of the experience of the group and even the race with the immediate experience of an individual. By normal communication is meant that in which there is a joint interest, a common interest, so that one is eager to give and the other to take. It contrasts with telling or stating things simply for the sake of impressing them upon another, merely in order to test him to see how much he has retained and can literally reproduce. Geography and history are the two great school resources for bringing about the enlargement of the significance of a direct personal experience. The active occupations described in the previous chapter reach out in space and time with respect to both nature and man. Unless they are taught for external reasons or as mere modes of skill their chief educational value is that they provide the most direct and interesting roads out into the larger world of meanings stated in history and geography. While history makes human implications explicit and geography natural connections, these subjects are two phases of the same living whole, since the life of men in association goes on in nature, not as an accidental setting, but as the material and medium of development. Chapter Seventeen: Science in the Course of Study 1. The Logical and the Psychological. By science is meant, as already stated, that knowledge which is the outcome of methods of observation, reflection, and testing which are deliberately adopted to secure a settled, assured subject matter. It involves an intelligent and persistent endeavor to revise current beliefs so as to weed out what is erroneous, to add to their accuracy, and, above all, to give them such shape that the dependencies of the various facts upon one another may be as obvious as possible. It is, like all knowledge, an outcome of activity bringing about certain changes in the environment. But in its case, the quality of the resulting knowledge is the controlling factor and not an incident of the activity. Both logically and educationally, science is the perfecting of knowing, its last stage. Science, in short, signifies a realization of the logical implications of any knowledge. Logical order is not a form imposed upon what is known; it is the proper form of knowledge as perfected. For it means that the statement of subject matter is of a nature to exhibit to one who understands it the premises from which it follows and the conclusions to which it points (See ante, p. 190). As from a few bones the competent zoologist reconstructs an animal; so from the form of a statement in mathematics or physics the specialist in the subject can form an idea of the system of truths in which it has its place. To the non-expert, however, this perfected form is a stumbling block. Just because the material is stated with reference to the furtherance of knowledge as an end in itself, its connections with the material of everyday life are hidden. To the layman the bones are a mere curiosity. Until he had mastered the principles of zoology, his efforts to make anything out of them would be random and blind. From the standpoint of the learner scientific form is an ideal to be achieved, not a starting point from which to set out. It is, nevertheless, a frequent practice to start in instruction with the rudiments of science somewhat simplified. The necessary consequence is an isolation of science from significant experience. The pupil learns symbols without the key to their meaning. He acquires a technical body of information without ability to trace its connections with the objects and operations with which he is familiar—often he acquires simply a peculiar vocabulary. There is a strong temptation to assume that presenting subject matter in its perfected form provides a royal road to learning. What more natural than to suppose that the immature can be saved time and energy, and be protected from needless error by commencing where competent inquirers have left off? The outcome is written large in the history of education. Pupils begin their study of science with texts in which the subject is organized into topics according to the order of the specialist. Technical concepts, with their definitions, are introduced at the outset. Laws are introduced at a very early stage, with at best a few indications of the way in which they were arrived at. The pupils learn a "science" instead of learning the scientific way of treating the familiar material of ordinary experience. The method of the advanced student dominates college teaching; the approach of the college is transferred into the high school, and so down the line, with such omissions as may make the subject easier. The chronological method which begins with the experience of the learner and develops from that the proper modes of scientific treatment is often called the "psychological" method in distinction from the logical method of the expert or specialist. The apparent loss of time involved is more than made up for by the superior understanding and vital interest secured. What the pupil learns he at least understands. Moreover by following, in connection with problems selected from the material of ordinary acquaintance, the methods by which scientific men have reached their perfected knowledge, he gains independent power to deal with material within his range, and avoids the mental confusion and intellectual distaste attendant upon studying matter whose meaning is only symbolic. Since the mass of pupils are never going to become scientific specialists, it is much more important that they should get some insight into what scientific method means than that they should copy at long range and second hand the results which scientific men have reached. Students will not go so far, perhaps, in the "ground covered," but they will be sure and intelligent as far as they do go. And it is safe to say that the few who go on to be scientific experts will have a better preparation than if they had been swamped with a large mass of purely technical and symbolically stated information. In fact, those who do become successful men of science are those who by their own power manage to avoid the pitfalls of a traditional scholastic introduction into it. The contrast between the expectations of the men who a generation or two ago strove, against great odds, to secure a place for science in education, and the result generally achieved is painful. Herbert Spencer, inquiring what knowledge is of most worth, concluded that from all points of view scientific knowledge is most valuable. But his argument unconsciously assumed that scientific knowledge could be communicated in a ready-made form. Passing over the methods by which the subject matter of our ordinary activities is transmuted into scientific form, it ignored the method by which alone science is science. Instruction has too often proceeded upon an analogous plan. But there is no magic attached to material stated in technically correct scientific form. When learned in this condition it remains a body of inert information. Moreover its form of statement removes it further from fruitful contact with everyday experiences than does the mode of statement proper to literature. Nevertheless that the claims made for instruction in science were unjustifiable does not follow. For material so taught is not science to the pupil. Contact with things and laboratory exercises, while a great improvement upon textbooks arranged upon the deductive plan, do not of themselves suffice to meet the need. While they are an indispensable portion of scientific method, they do not as a matter of course constitute scientific method. Physical materials may be manipulated with scientific apparatus, but the materials may be disassociated in themselves and in the ways in which they are handled, from the materials and processes used out of school. The problems dealt with may be only problems of science: problems, that is, which would occur to one already initiated in the science of the subject. Our attention may be devoted to getting skill in technical manipulation without reference to the connection of laboratory exercises with a problem belonging to subject matter. There is sometimes a ritual of laboratory instruction as well as of heathen religion. 1 It has been mentioned, incidentally, that scientific statements, or logical form, implies the use of signs or symbols. The statement applies, of course, to all use of language. But in the vernacular, the mind proceeds directly from the symbol to the thing signified. Association with familiar material is so close that the mind does not pause upon the sign. The signs are intended only to stand for things and acts. But scientific terminology has an additional use. It is designed, as we have seen, not to stand for the things directly in their practical use in experience, but for the things placed in a cognitive system. Ultimately, of course, they denote the things of our common sense acquaintance. But immediately they do not designate them in their common context, but translated into terms of scientific inquiry. Atoms, molecules, chemical formulae, the mathematical propositions in the study of physics—all these have primarily an intellectual value and only indirectly an empirical value. They represent instruments for the carrying on of science. As in the case of other tools, their significance can be learned only by use. We cannot procure understanding of their meaning by pointing to things, but only by pointing to their work when they are employed as part of the technique of knowledge. Even the circle, square, etc., of geometry exhibit a difference from the squares and circles of familiar acquaintance, and the further one proceeds in mathematical science the greater the remoteness from the everyday empirical thing. Qualities which do not count for the pursuit of knowledge about spatial relations are left out; those which are important for this purpose are accentuated. If one carries his study far enough, he will find even the properties which are significant for spatial knowledge giving way to those which facilitate knowledge of other things—perhaps a knowledge of the general relations of number. There will be nothing in the conceptual definitions even to suggest spatial form, size, or direction. This does not mean that they are unreal mental inventions, but it indicates that direct physical qualities have been transmuted into tools for a special end—the end of intellectual organization. In every machine the primary state of material has been modified by subordinating it to use for a purpose. Not the stuff in its original form but in its adaptation to an end is important. No one would have a knowledge of a machine who could enumerate all the materials entering into its structure, but only he who knew their uses and could tell why they are employed as they are. In like fashion one has a knowledge of mathematical conceptions only when he sees the problems in which they function and their specific utility in dealing with these problems. "Knowing" the definitions, rules, formulae, etc., is like knowing the names of parts of a machine without knowing what they do. In one case, as in the other, the meaning, or intellectual content, is what the element accomplishes in the system of which it is a member. 2. Science and Social Progress. Assuming that the development of the direct knowledge gained in occupations of social interest is carried to a perfected logical form, the question arises as to its place in experience. In general, the reply is that science marks the emancipation of mind from devotion to customary purposes and makes possible the systematic pursuit of new ends. It is the agency of progress in action. Progress is sometimes thought of as consisting in getting nearer to ends already sought. But this is a minor form of progress, for it requires only improvement of the means of action or technical advance. More important modes of progress consist in enriching prior purposes and in forming new ones. Desires are not a fixed quantity, nor does progress mean only an increased amount of satisfaction. With increased culture and new mastery of nature, new desires, demands for new qualities of satisfaction, show themselves, for intelligence perceives new possibilities of action. This projection of new possibilities leads to search for new means of execution, and progress takes place; while the discovery of objects not already used leads to suggestion of new ends. That science is the chief means of perfecting control of means of action is witnessed by the great crop of inventions which followed intellectual command of the secrets of nature. The wonderful transformation of production and distribution known as the industrial revolution is the fruit of experimental science. Railways, steamboats, electric motors, telephone and telegraph, automobiles, aeroplanes and dirigibles are conspicuous evidences of the application of science in life. But none of them would be of much importance without the thousands of less sensational inventions by means of which natural science has been rendered tributary to our daily life. It must be admitted that to a considerable extent the progress thus procured has been only technical: it has provided more efficient means for satisfying preexistent desires, rather than modified the quality of human purposes. There is, for example, no modern civilization which is the equal of Greek culture in all respects. Science is still too recent to have been absorbed into imaginative and emotional disposition. Men move more swiftly and surely to the realization of their ends, but their ends too largely remain what they were prior to scientific enlightenment. This fact places upon education the responsibility of using science in a way to modify the habitual attitude of imagination and feeling, not leave it just an extension of our physical arms and legs. The advance of science has already modified men's thoughts of the purposes and goods of life to a sufficient extent to give some idea of the nature of this responsibility and the ways of meeting it. Science taking effect in human activity has broken down physical barriers which formerly separated men; it has immensely widened the area of intercourse. It has brought about interdependence of interests on an enormous scale. It has brought with it an established conviction of the possibility of control of nature in the interests of mankind and thus has led men to look to the future, instead of the past. The coincidence of the ideal of progress with the advance of science is not a mere coincidence. Before this advance men placed the golden age in remote antiquity. Now they face the future with a firm belief that intelligence properly used can do away with evils once thought inevitable. To subjugate devastating disease is no longer a dream; the hope of abolishing poverty is not utopian. Science has familiarized men with the idea of development, taking effect practically in persistent gradual amelioration of the estate of our common humanity. The problem of an educational use of science is then to create an intelligence pregnant with belief in the possibility of the direction of human affairs by itself. The method of science engrained through education in habit means emancipation from rule of thumb and from the routine generated by rule of thumb procedure. The word empirical in its ordinary use does not mean "connected with experiment," but rather crude and unrational. Under the influence of conditions created by the non-existence of experimental science, experience was opposed in all the ruling philosophies of the past to reason and the truly rational. Empirical knowledge meant the knowledge accumulated by a multitude of past instances without intelligent insight into the principles of any of them. To say that medicine was empirical meant that it was not scientific, but a mode of practice based upon accumulated observations of diseases and of remedies used more or less at random. Such a mode of practice is of necessity happy-go-lucky; success depends upon chance. It lends itself to deception and quackery. Industry that is "empirically" controlled forbids constructive applications of intelligence; it depends upon following in an imitative slavish manner the models set in the past. Experimental science means the possibility of using past experiences as the servant, not the master, of mind. It means that reason operates within experience, not beyond it, to give it an intelligent or reasonable quality. Science is experience becoming rational. The effect of science is thus to change men's idea of the nature and inherent possibilities of experience. By the same token, it changes the idea and the operation of reason. Instead of being something beyond experience, remote, aloof, concerned with a sublime region that has nothing to do with the experienced facts of life, it is found indigenous in experience:—the factor by which past experiences are purified and rendered into tools for discovery and advance. The term "abstract" has a rather bad name in popular speech, being used to signify not only that which is abstruse and hard to understand, but also that which is far away from life. But abstraction is an indispensable trait in reflective direction of activity. Situations do not literally repeat themselves. Habit treats new occurrences as if they were identical with old ones; it suffices, accordingly, when the different or novel element is negligible for present purposes. But when the new element requires especial attention, random reaction is the sole recourse unless abstraction is brought into play. For abstraction deliberately selects from the subject matter of former experiences that which is thought helpful in dealing with the new. It signifies conscious transfer of a meaning embedded in past experience for use in a new one. It is the very artery of intelligence, of the intentional rendering of one experience available for guidance of another. Science carries on this working over of prior subject matter on a large scale. It aims to free an experience from all which is purely personal and strictly immediate; it aims to detach whatever it has in common with the subject matter of other experiences, and which, being common, may be saved for further use. It is, thus, an indispensable factor in social progress. In any experience just as it occurs there is much which, while it may be of precious import to the individual implicated in the experience, is peculiar and unreduplicable. From the standpoint of science, this material is accidental, while the features which are widely shared are essential. Whatever is unique in the situation, since dependent upon the peculiarities of the individual and the coincidence of circumstance, is not available for others; so that unless what is shared is abstracted and fixed by a suitable symbol, practically all the value of the experience may perish in its passing. But abstraction and the use of terms to record what is abstracted put the net value of individual experience at the permanent disposal of mankind. No one can foresee in detail when or how it may be of further use. The man of science in developing his abstractions is like a manufacturer of tools who does not know who will use them nor when. But intellectual tools are indefinitely more flexible in their range of adaptation than other mechanical tools. Generalization is the counterpart of abstraction. It is the functioning of an abstraction in its application to a new concrete experience,—its extension to clarify and direct new situations. Reference to these possible applications is necessary in order that the abstraction may be fruitful, instead of a barren formalism ending in itself. Generalization is essentially a social device. When men identified their interests exclusively with the concerns of a narrow group, their generalizations were correspondingly restricted. The viewpoint did not permit a wide and free survey. Men's thoughts were tied down to a contracted space and a short time,—limited to their own established customs as a measure of all possible values. Scientific abstraction and generalization are equivalent to taking the point of view of any man, whatever his location in time and space. While this emancipation from the conditions and episodes of concrete experiences accounts for the remoteness, the "abstractness," of science, it also accounts for its wide and free range of fruitful novel applications in practice. Terms and propositions record, fix, and convey what is abstracted. A meaning detached from a given experience cannot remain hanging in the air. It must acquire a local habitation. Names give abstract meanings a physical locus and body. Formulation is thus not an after-thought or by-product; it is essential to the completion of the work of thought. Persons know many things which they cannot express, but such knowledge remains practical, direct, and personal. An individual can use it for himself; he may be able to act upon it with efficiency. Artists and executives often have their knowledge in this state. But it is personal, untransferable, and, as it were, instinctive. To formulate the significance of an experience a man must take into conscious account the experiences of others. He must try to find a standpoint which includes the experience of others as well as his own. Otherwise his communication cannot be understood. He talks a language which no one else knows. While literary art furnishes the supreme successes in stating of experiences so that they are vitally significant to others, the vocabulary of science is designed, in another fashion, to express the meaning of experienced things in symbols which any one will know who studies the science. Aesthetic formulation reveals and enhances the meaning of experiences one already has; scientific formulation supplies one with tools for constructing new experiences with transformed meanings. To sum up: Science represents the office of intelligence, in projection and control of new experiences, pursued systematically, intentionally, and on a scale due to freedom from limitations of habit. It is the sole instrumentality of conscious, as distinct from accidental, progress. And if its generality, its remoteness from individual conditions, confer upon it a certain technicality and aloofness, these qualities are very different from those of merely speculative theorizing. The latter are in permanent dislocation from practice; the former are temporarily detached for the sake of wider and freer application in later concrete action. There is a kind of idle theory which is antithetical to practice; but genuinely scientific theory falls within practice as the agency of its expansion and its direction to new possibilities. 3. Naturalism and Humanism in Education. There exists an educational tradition which opposes science to literature and history in the curriculum. The quarrel between the representatives of the two interests is easily explicable historically. Literature and language and a literary philosophy were entrenched in all higher institutions of learning before experimental science came into being. The latter had naturally to win its way. No fortified and protected interest readily surrenders any monopoly it may possess. But the assumption, from whichever side, that language and literary products are exclusively humanistic in quality, and that science is purely physical in import, is a false notion which tends to cripple the educational use of both studies. Human life does not occur in a vacuum, nor is nature a mere stage setting for the enactment of its drama (ante, p. 211). Man's life is bound up in the processes of nature; his career, for success or defeat, depends upon the way in which nature enters it. Man's power of deliberate control of his own affairs depends upon ability to direct natural energies to use: an ability which is in turn dependent upon insight into nature's processes. Whatever natural science may be for the specialist, for educational purposes it is knowledge of the conditions of human action. To be aware of the medium in which social intercourse goes on, and of the means and obstacles to its progressive development is to be in command of a knowledge which is thoroughly humanistic in quality. One who is ignorant of the history of science is ignorant of the struggles by which mankind has passed from routine and caprice, from superstitious subjection to nature, from efforts to use it magically, to intellectual self-possession. That science may be taught as a set of formal and technical exercises is only too true. This happens whenever information about the world is made an end in itself. The failure of such instruction to procure culture is not, however, evidence of the antithesis of natural knowledge to humanistic concern, but evidence of a wrong educational attitude. Dislike to employ scientific knowledge as it functions in men's occupations is itself a survival of an aristocratic culture. The notion that "applied" knowledge is somehow less worthy than "pure" knowledge, was natural to a society in which all useful work was performed by slaves and serfs, and in which industry was controlled by the models set by custom rather than by intelligence. Science, or the highest knowing, was then identified with pure theorizing, apart from all application in the uses of life; and knowledge relating to useful arts suffered the stigma attaching to the classes who engaged in them (See below, Ch. XIX). The idea of science thus generated persisted after science had itself adopted the appliances of the arts, using them for the production of knowledge, and after the rise of democracy. Taking theory just as theory, however, that which concerns humanity is of more significance for man than that which concerns a merely physical world. In adopting the criterion of knowledge laid down by a literary culture, aloof from the practical needs of the mass of men, the educational advocates of scientific education put themselves at a strategic disadvantage. So far as they adopt the idea of science appropriate to its experimental method and to the movements of a democratic and industrial society, they have no difficulty in showing that natural science is more humanistic than an alleged humanism which bases its educational schemes upon the specialized interests of a leisure class. For, as we have already stated, humanistic studies when set in opposition to study of nature are hampered. They tend to reduce themselves to exclusively literary and linguistic studies, which in turn tend to shrink to "the classics," to languages no longer spoken. For modern languages may evidently be put to use, and hence fall under the ban. It would be hard to find anything in history more ironical than the educational practices which have identified the "humanities" exclusively with a knowledge of Greek and Latin. Greek and Roman art and institutions made such important contributions to our civilization that there should always be the amplest opportunities for making their acquaintance. But to regard them as par excellence the humane studies involves a deliberate neglect of the possibilities of the subject matter which is accessible in education to the masses, and tends to cultivate a narrow snobbery: that of a learned class whose insignia are the accidents of exclusive opportunity. Knowledge is humanistic in quality not because it is about human products in the past, but because of what it does in liberating human intelligence and human sympathy. Any subject matter which accomplishes this result is humane, and any subject matter which does not accomplish it is not even educational. Summary. Science represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in experience. Instead of contenting itself with a mere statement of what commends itself to personal or customary experience, it aims at a statement which will reveal the sources, grounds, and consequences of a belief. The achievement of this aim gives logical character to the statements. Educationally, it has to be noted that logical characteristics of method, since they belong to subject matter which has reached a high degree of intellectual elaboration, are different from the method of the learner—the chronological order of passing from a cruder to a more refined intellectual quality of experience. When this fact is ignored, science is treated as so much bare information, which however is less interesting and more remote than ordinary information, being stated in an unusual and technical vocabulary. The function which science has to perform in the curriculum is that which it has performed for the race: emancipation from local and temporary incidents of experience, and the opening of intellectual vistas unobscured by the accidents of personal habit and predilection. The logical traits of abstraction, generalization, and definite formulation are all associated with this function. In emancipating an idea from the particular context in which it originated and giving it a wider reference the results of the experience of any individual are put at the disposal of all men. Thus ultimately and philosophically science is the organ of general social progress. 1 Upon the positive side, the value of problems arising in work in the garden, the shop, etc., may be referred to (See p. 200). The laboratory may be treated as an additional resource to supply conditions and appliances for the better pursuit of these problems. Chapter Eighteen: Educational Values The considerations involved in a discussion of educational values have already been brought out in the discussion of aims and interests. The specific values usually discussed in educational theories coincide with aims which are usually urged. They are such things as utility, culture, information, preparation for social efficiency, mental discipline or power, and so on. The aspect of these aims in virtue of which they are valuable has been treated in our analysis of the nature of interest, and there is no difference between speaking of art as an interest or concern and referring to it as a value. It happens, however, that discussion of values has usually been centered about a consideration of the various ends subserved by specific subjects of the curriculum. It has been a part of the attempt to justify those subjects by pointing out the significant contributions to life accruing from their study. An explicit discussion of educational values thus affords an opportunity for reviewing the prior discussion of aims and interests on one hand and of the curriculum on the other, by bringing them into connection with one another. 1. The Nature of Realization or Appreciation. Much of our experience is indirect; it is dependent upon signs which intervene between the things and ourselves, signs which stand for or represent the former. It is one thing to have been engaged in war, to have shared its dangers and hardships; it is another thing to hear or read about it. All language, all symbols, are implements of an indirect experience; in technical language the experience which is procured by their means is "mediated." It stands in contrast with an immediate, direct experience, something in which we take part vitally and at first hand, instead of through the intervention of representative media. As we have seen, the scope of personal, vitally direct experience is very limited. If it were not for the intervention of agencies for representing absent and distant affairs, our experience would remain almost on the level of that of the brutes. Every step from savagery to civilization is dependent upon the invention of media which enlarge the range of purely immediate experience and give it deepened as well as wider meaning by connecting it with things which can only be signified or symbolized. It is doubtless this fact which is the cause of the disposition to identify an uncultivated person with an illiterate person—so dependent are we on letters for effective representative or indirect experience. At the same time (as we have also had repeated occasion to see) there is always a danger that symbols will not be truly representative; danger that instead of really calling up the absent and remote in a way to make it enter a present experience, the linguistic media of representation will become an end in themselves. Formal education is peculiarly exposed to this danger, with the result that when literacy supervenes, mere bookishness, what is popularly termed the academic, too often comes with it. In colloquial speech, the phrase a "realizing sense" is used to express the urgency, warmth, and intimacy of a direct experience in contrast with the remote, pallid, and coldly detached quality of a representative experience. The terms "mental realization" and "appreciation" (or genuine appreciation) are more elaborate names for the realizing sense of a thing. It is not possible to define these ideas except by synonyms, like "coming home to one" "really taking it in," etc., for the only way to appreciate what is meant by a direct experience of a thing is by having it. But it is the difference between reading a technical description of a picture, and seeing it; or between just seeing it and being moved by it; between learning mathematical equations about light and being carried away by some peculiarly glorious illumination of a misty landscape. We are thus met by the danger of the tendency of technique and other purely representative forms to encroach upon the sphere of direct appreciations; in other words, the tendency to assume that pupils have a foundation of direct realization of situations sufficient for the superstructure of representative experience erected by formulated school studies. This is not simply a matter of quantity or bulk. Sufficient direct experience is even more a matter of quality; it must be of a sort to connect readily and fruitfully with the symbolic material of instruction. Before teaching can safely enter upon conveying facts and ideas through the media of signs, schooling must provide genuine situations in which personal participation brings home the import of the material and the problems which it conveys. From the standpoint of the pupil, the resulting experiences are worth while on their own account; from the standpoint of the teacher they are also means of supplying subject matter required for understanding instruction involving signs, and of evoking attitudes of open-mindedness and concern as to the material symbolically conveyed. In the outline given of the theory of educative subject matter, the demand for this background of realization or appreciation is met by the provision made for play and active occupations embodying typical situations. Nothing need be added to what has already been said except to point out that while the discussion dealt explicitly with the subject matter of primary education, where the demand for the available background of direct experience is most obvious, the principle applies to the primary or elementary phase of every subject. The first and basic function of laboratory work, for example, in a high school or college in a new field, is to familiarize the student at first hand with a certain range of facts and problems—to give him a "feeling" for them. Getting command of technique and of methods of reaching and testing generalizations is at first secondary to getting appreciation. As regards the primary school activities, it is to be borne in mind that the fundamental intent is not to amuse nor to convey information with a minimum of vexation nor yet to acquire skill,—though these results may accrue as by-products,—but to enlarge and enrich the scope of experience, and to keep alert and effective the interest in intellectual progress. The rubric of appreciation supplies an appropriate head for bringing out three further principles: the nature of effective or real (as distinct from nominal) standards of value; the place of the imagination in appreciative realizations; and the place of the fine arts in the course of study. 1. The nature of standards of valuation. Every adult has acquired, in the course of his prior experience and education, certain measures of the worth of various sorts of experience. He has learned to look upon qualities like honesty, amiability, perseverance, loyalty, as moral goods; upon certain classics of literature, painting, music, as aesthetic values, and so on. Not only this, but he has learned certain rules for these values—the golden rule in morals; harmony, balance, etc., proportionate distribution in aesthetic goods; definition, clarity, system in intellectual accomplishments. These principles are so important as standards of judging the worth of new experiences that parents and instructors are always tending to teach them directly to the young. They overlook the danger that standards so taught will be merely symbolic; that is, largely conventional and verbal. In reality, working as distinct from professed standards depend upon what an individual has himself specifically appreciated to be deeply significant in concrete situations. An individual may have learned that certain characteristics are conventionally esteemed in music; he may be able to converse with some correctness about classic music; he may even honestly believe that these traits constitute his own musical standards. But if in his own past experience, what he has been most accustomed to and has most enjoyed is ragtime, his active or working measures of valuation are fixed on the ragtime level. The appeal actually made to him in his own personal realization fixes his attitude much more deeply than what he has been taught as the proper thing to say; his habitual disposition thus fixed forms his real "norm" of valuation in subsequent musical experiences. Probably few would deny this statement as to musical taste. But it applies equally well in judgments of moral and intellectual worth. A youth who has had repeated experience of the full meaning of the value of kindliness toward others built into his disposition has a measure of the worth of generous treatment of others. Without this vital appreciation, the duty and virtue of unselfishness impressed upon him by others as a standard remains purely a matter of symbols which he cannot adequately translate into realities. His "knowledge" is second-handed; it is only a knowledge that others prize unselfishness as an excellence, and esteem him in the degree in which he exhibits it. Thus there grows up a split between a person's professed standards and his actual ones. A person may be aware of the results of this struggle between his inclinations and his theoretical opinions; he suffers from the conflict between doing what is really dear to him and what he has learned will win the approval of others. But of the split itself he is unaware; the result is a kind of unconscious hypocrisy, an instability of disposition. In similar fashion, a pupil who has worked through some confused intellectual situation and fought his way to clearing up obscurities in a definite outcome, appreciates the value of clarity and definition. He has a standard which can be depended upon. He may be trained externally to go through certain motions of analysis and division of subject matter and may acquire information about the value of these processes as standard logical functions, but unless it somehow comes home to him at some point as an appreciation of his own, the significance of the logical norms—so-called—remains as much an external piece of information as, say, the names of rivers in China. He may be able to recite, but the recital is a mechanical rehearsal. It is, then, a serious mistake to regard appreciation as if it were confined to such things as literature and pictures and music. Its scope is as comprehensive as the work of education itself. The formation of habits is a purely mechanical thing unless habits are also tastes—habitual modes of preference and esteem, an effective sense of excellence. There are adequate grounds for asserting that the premium so often put in schools upon external "discipline," and upon marks and rewards, upon promotion and keeping back, are the obverse of the lack of attention given to life situations in which the meaning of facts, ideas, principles, and problems is vitally brought home. 2. Appreciative realizations are to be distinguished from symbolic or representative experiences. They are not to be distinguished from the work of the intellect or understanding. Only a personal response involving imagination can possibly procure realization even of pure "facts." The imagination is the medium of appreciation in every field. The engagement of the imagination is the only thing that makes any activity more than mechanical. Unfortunately, it is too customary to identify the imaginative with the imaginary, rather than with a warm and intimate taking in of the full scope of a situation. This leads to an exaggerated estimate of fairy tales, myths, fanciful symbols, verse, and something labeled "Fine Art," as agencies for developing imagination and appreciation; and, by neglecting imaginative vision in other matters, leads to methods which reduce much instruction to an unimaginative acquiring of specialized skill and amassing of a load of information. Theory, and—to some extent—practice, have advanced far enough to recognize that play-activity is an imaginative enterprise. But it is still usual to regard this activity as a specially marked-off stage of childish growth, and to overlook the fact that the difference between play and what is regarded as serious employment should be not a difference between the presence and absence of imagination, but a difference in the materials with which imagination is occupied. The result is an unwholesome exaggeration of the phantastic and "unreal" phases of childish play and a deadly reduction of serious occupation to a routine efficiency prized simply for its external tangible results. Achievement comes to denote the sort of thing that a well-planned machine can do better than a human being can, and the main effect of education, the achieving of a life of rich significance, drops by the wayside. Meantime mind-wandering and wayward fancy are nothing but the unsuppressible imagination cut loose from concern with what is done. An adequate recognition of the play of imagination as the medium of realization of every kind of thing which lies beyond the scope of direct physical response is the sole way of escape from mechanical methods in teaching. The emphasis put in this book, in accord with many tendencies in contemporary education, upon activity, will be misleading if it is not recognized that the imagination is as much a normal and integral part of human activity as is muscular movement. The educative value of manual activities and of laboratory exercises, as well as of play, depends upon the extent in which they aid in bringing about a sensing of the meaning of what is going on. In effect, if not in name, they are dramatizations. Their utilitarian value in forming habits of skill to be used for tangible results is important, but not when isolated from the appreciative side. Were it not for the accompanying play of imagination, there would be no road from a direct activity to representative knowledge; for it is by imagination that symbols are translated over into a direct meaning and integrated with a narrower activity so as to expand and enrich it. When the representative creative imagination is made merely literary and mythological, symbols are rendered mere means of directing physical reactions of the organs of speech. 3. In the account previously given nothing was explicitly said about the place of literature and the fine arts in the course of study. The omission at that point was intentional. At the outset, there is no sharp demarcation of useful, or industrial, arts and fine arts. The activities mentioned in Chapter XV contain within themselves the factors later discriminated into fine and useful arts. As engaging the emotions and the imagination, they have the qualities which give the fine arts their quality. As demanding method or skill, the adaptation of tools to materials with constantly increasing perfection, they involve the element of technique indispensable to artistic production. From the standpoint of product, or the work of art, they are naturally defective, though even in this respect when they comprise genuine appreciation they often have a rudimentary charm. As experiences they have both an artistic and an esthetic quality. When they emerge into activities which are tested by their product and when the socially serviceable value of the product is emphasized, they pass into useful or industrial arts. When they develop in the direction of an enhanced appreciation of the immediate qualities which appeal to taste, they grow into fine arts. In one of its meanings, appreciation is opposed to depreciation. It denotes an enlarged, an intensified prizing, not merely a prizing, much less—like depreciation—a lowered and degraded prizing. This enhancement of the qualities which make any ordinary experience appealing, appropriable—capable of full assimilation—and enjoyable, constitutes the prime function of literature, music, drawing, painting, etc., in education. They are not the exclusive agencies of appreciation in the most general sense of that word; but they are the chief agencies of an intensified, enhanced appreciation. As such, they are not only intrinsically and directly enjoyable, but they serve a purpose beyond themselves. They have the office, in increased degree, of all appreciation in fixing taste, in forming standards for the worth of later experiences. They arouse discontent with conditions which fall below their measure; they create a demand for surroundings coming up to their own level. They reveal a depth and range of meaning in experiences which otherwise might be mediocre and trivial. They supply, that is, organs of vision. Moreover, in their fullness they represent the concentration and consummation of elements of good which are otherwise scattered and incomplete. They select and focus the elements of enjoyable worth which make any experience directly enjoyable. They are not luxuries of education, but emphatic expressions of that which makes any education worth while. 2. The Valuation of Studies. The theory of educational values involves not only an account of the nature of appreciation as fixing the measure of subsequent valuations, but an account of the specific directions in which these valuations occur. To value means primarily to prize, to esteem; but secondarily it means to apprise, to estimate. It means, that is, the act of cherishing something, holding it dear, and also the act of passing judgment upon the nature and amount of its value as compared with something else. To value in the latter sense is to valuate or evaluate. The distinction coincides with that sometimes made between intrinsic and instrumental values. Intrinsic values are not objects of judgment, they cannot (as intrinsic) be compared, or regarded as greater and less, better or worse. They are invaluable; and if a thing is invaluable, it is neither more nor less so than any other invaluable. But occasions present themselves when it is necessary to choose, when we must let one thing go in order to take another. This establishes an order of preference, a greater and less, better and worse. Things judged or passed upon have to be estimated in relation to some third thing, some further end. With respect to that, they are means, or instrumental values. We may imagine a man who at one time thoroughly enjoys converse with his friends, at another the hearing of a symphony; at another the eating of his meals; at another the reading of a book; at another the earning of money, and so on. As an appreciative realization, each of these is an intrinsic value. It occupies a particular place in life; it serves its own end, which cannot be supplied by a substitute. There is no question of comparative value, and hence none of valuation. Each is the specific good which it is, and that is all that can be said. In its own place, none is a means to anything beyond itself. But there may arise a situation in which they compete or conflict, in which a choice has to be made. Now comparison comes in. Since a choice has to be made, we want to know the respective claims of each competitor. What is to be said for it? What does it offer in comparison with, as balanced over against, some other possibility? Raising these questions means that a particular good is no longer an end in itself, an intrinsic good. For if it were, its claims would be incomparable, imperative. The question is now as to its status as a means of realizing something else, which is then the invaluable of that situation. If a man has just eaten, or if he is well fed generally and the opportunity to hear music is a rarity, he will probably prefer the music to eating. In the given situation that will render the greater contribution. If he is starving, or if he is satiated with music for the time being, he will naturally judge food to have the greater worth. In the abstract or at large, apart from the needs of a particular situation in which choice has to be made, there is no such thing as degrees or order of value. Certain conclusions follow with respect to educational values. We cannot establish a hierarchy of values among studies. It is futile to attempt to arrange them in an order, beginning with one having least worth and going on to that of maximum value. In so far as any study has a unique or irreplaceable function in experience, in so far as it marks a characteristic enrichment of life, its worth is intrinsic or incomparable. Since education is not a means to living, but is identical with the operation of living a life which is fruitful and inherently significant, the only ultimate value which can be set up is just the process of living itself. And this is not an end to which studies and activities are subordinate means; it is the whole of which they are ingredients. And what has been said about appreciation means that every study in one of its aspects ought to have just such ultimate significance. It is true of arithmetic as it is of poetry that in some place and at some time it ought to be a good to be appreciated on its own account—just as an enjoyable experience, in short. If it is not, then when the time and place come for it to be used as a means or instrumentality, it will be in just that much handicapped. Never having been realized or appreciated for itself, one will miss something of its capacity as a resource for other ends. It equally follows that when we compare studies as to their values, that is, treat them as means to something beyond themselves, that which controls their proper valuation is found in the specific situation in which they are to be used. The way to enable a student to apprehend the instrumental value of arithmetic is not to lecture him upon the benefit it will be to him in some remote and uncertain future, but to let him discover that success in something he is interested in doing depends upon ability to use number. It also follows that the attempt to distribute distinct sorts of value among different studies is a misguided one, in spite of the amount of time recently devoted to the undertaking. Science for example may have any kind of value, depending upon the situation into which it enters as a means. To some the value of science may be military; it may be an instrument in strengthening means of offense or defense; it may be technological, a tool for engineering; or it may be commercial—an aid in the successful conduct of business; under other conditions, its worth may be philanthropic—the service it renders in relieving human suffering; or again it may be quite conventional—of value in establishing one's social status as an "educated" person. As matter of fact, science serves all these purposes, and it would be an arbitrary task to try to fix upon one of them as its "real" end. All that we can be sure of educationally is that science should be taught so as to be an end in itself in the lives of students—something worth while on account of its own unique intrinsic contribution to the experience of life. Primarily it must have "appreciation value." If we take something which seems to be at the opposite pole, like poetry, the same sort of statement applies. It may be that, at the present time, its chief value is the contribution it makes to the enjoyment of leisure. But that may represent a degenerate condition rather than anything necessary. Poetry has historically been allied with religion and morals; it has served the purpose of penetrating the mysterious depths of things. It has had an enormous patriotic value. Homer to the Greeks was a Bible, a textbook of morals, a history, and a national inspiration. In any case, it may be said that an education which does not succeed in making poetry a resource in the business of life as well as in its leisure, has something the matter with it—or else the poetry is artificial poetry. The same considerations apply to the value of a study or a topic of a study with reference to its motivating force. Those responsible for planning and teaching the course of study should have grounds for thinking that the studies and topics included furnish both direct increments to the enriching of lives of the pupils and also materials which they can put to use in other concerns of direct interest. Since the curriculum is always getting loaded down with purely inherited traditional matter and with subjects which represent mainly the energy of some influential person or group of persons in behalf of something dear to them, it requires constant inspection, criticism, and revision to make sure it is accomplishing its purpose. Then there is always the probability that it represents the values of adults rather than those of children and youth, or those of pupils a generation ago rather than those of the present day. Hence a further need for a critical outlook and survey. But these considerations do not mean that for a subject to have motivating value to a pupil (whether intrinsic or instrumental) is the same thing as for him to be aware of the value, or to be able to tell what the study is good for. In the first place, as long as any topic makes an immediate appeal, it is not necessary to ask what it is good for. This is a question which can be asked only about instrumental values. Some goods are not good for anything; they are just goods. Any other notion leads to an absurdity. For we cannot stop asking the question about an instrumental good, one whose value lies in its being good for something, unless there is at some point something intrinsically good, good for itself. To a hungry, healthy child, food is a good of the situation; we do not have to bring him to consciousness of the ends subserved by food in order to supply a motive to eat. The food in connection with his appetite is a motive. The same thing holds of mentally eager pupils with respect to many topics. Neither they nor the teacher could possibly foretell with any exactness the purposes learning is to accomplish in the future; nor as long as the eagerness continues is it advisable to try to specify particular goods which are to come of it. The proof of a good is found in the fact that the pupil responds; his response is use. His response to the material shows that the subject functions in his life. It is unsound to urge that, say, Latin has a value per se in the abstract, just as a study, as a sufficient justification for teaching it. But it is equally absurd to argue that unless teacher or pupil can point out some definite assignable future use to which it is to be put, it lacks justifying value. When pupils are genuinely concerned in learning Latin, that is of itself proof that it possesses value. The most which one is entitled to ask in such cases is whether in view of the shortness of time, there are not other things of intrinsic value which in addition have greater instrumental value. This brings us to the matter of instrumental values—topics studied because of some end beyond themselves. If a child is ill and his appetite does not lead him to eat when food is presented, or if his appetite is perverted so that he prefers candy to meat and vegetables, conscious reference to results is indicated. He needs to be made conscious of consequences as a justification of the positive or negative value of certain objects. Or the state of things may be normal enough, and yet an individual not be moved by some matter because he does not grasp how his attainment of some intrinsic good depends upon active concern with what is presented. In such cases, it is obviously the part of wisdom to establish consciousness of connection. In general what is desirable is that a topic be presented in such a way that it either have an immediate value, and require no justification, or else be perceived to be a means of achieving something of intrinsic value. An instrumental value then has the intrinsic value of being a means to an end. It may be questioned whether some of the present pedagogical interest in the matter of values of studies is not either excessive or else too narrow. Sometimes it appears to be a labored effort to furnish an apologetic for topics which no longer operate to any purpose, direct or indirect, in the lives of pupils. At other times, the reaction against useless lumber seems to have gone to the extent of supposing that no subject or topic should be taught unless some quite definite future utility can be pointed out by those making the course of study or by the pupil himself, unmindful of the fact that life is its own excuse for being; and that definite utilities which can be pointed out are themselves justified only because they increase the experienced content of life itself. 3. The Segregation and Organization of Values. It is of course possible to classify in a general way the various valuable phases of life. In order to get a survey of aims sufficiently wide (See ante, p. 110) to give breadth and flexibility to the enterprise of education, there is some advantage in such a classification. But it is a great mistake to regard these values as ultimate ends to which the concrete satisfactions of experience are subordinate. They are nothing but generalizations, more or less adequate, of concrete goods. Health, wealth, efficiency, sociability, utility, culture, happiness itself are only abstract terms which sum up a multitude of particulars. To regard such things as standards for the valuation of concrete topics and process of education is to subordinate to an abstraction the concrete facts from which the abstraction is derived. They are not in any true sense standards of valuation; these are found, as we have previously seen, in the specific realizations which form tastes and habits of preference. They are, however, of significance as points of view elevated above the details of life whence to survey the field and see how its constituent details are distributed, and whether they are well proportioned. No classification can have other than a provisional validity. The following may prove of some help. We may say that the kind of experience to which the work of the schools should contribute is one marked by executive competency in the management of resources and obstacles encountered (efficiency); by sociability, or interest in the direct companionship of others; by aesthetic taste or capacity to appreciate artistic excellence in at least some of its classic forms; by trained intellectual method, or interest in some mode of scientific achievement; and by sensitiveness to the rights and claims of others—conscientiousness. And while these considerations are not standards of value, they are useful criteria for survey, criticism, and better organization of existing methods and subject matter of instruction. The need of such general points of view is the greater because of a tendency to segregate educational values due to the isolation from one another of the various pursuits of life. The idea is prevalent that different studies represent separate kinds of values, and that the curriculum should, therefore, be constituted by gathering together various studies till a sufficient variety of independent values have been cared for. The following quotation does not use the word value, but it contains the notion of a curriculum constructed on the idea that there are a number of separate ends to be reached, and that various studies may be evaluated by referring each study to its respective end. "Memory is trained by most studies, but best by languages and history; taste is trained by the more advanced study of languages, and still better by English literature; imagination by all higher language teaching, but chiefly by Greek and Latin poetry; observation by science work in the laboratory, though some training is to be got from the earlier stages of Latin and Greek; for expression, Greek and Latin composition comes first and English composition next; for abstract reasoning, mathematics stands almost alone; for concrete reasoning, science comes first, then geometry; for social reasoning, the Greek and Roman historians and orators come first, and general history next. Hence the narrowest education which can claim to be at all complete includes Latin, one modern language, some history, some English literature, and one science." There is much in the wording of this passage which is irrelevant to our point and which must be discounted to make it clear. The phraseology betrays the particular provincial tradition within which the author is writing. There is the unquestioned assumption of "faculties" to be trained, and a dominant interest in the ancient languages; there is comparative disregard of the earth on which men happen to live and the bodies they happen to carry around with them. But with allowances made for these matters (even with their complete abandonment) we find much in contemporary educational philosophy which parallels the fundamental notion of parceling out special values to segregated studies. Even when some one end is set up as a standard of value, like social efficiency or culture, it will often be found to be but a verbal heading under which a variety of disconnected factors are comprised. And although the general tendency is to allow a greater variety of values to a given study than does the passage quoted, yet the attempt to inventory a number of values attaching to each study and to state the amount of each value which the given study possesses emphasizes an implied educational disintegration. As matter of fact, such schemes of values of studies are largely but unconscious justifications of the curriculum with which one is familiar. One accepts, for the most part, the studies of the existing course and then assigns values to them as a sufficient reason for their being taught. Mathematics is said to have, for example, disciplinary value in habituating the pupil to accuracy of statement and closeness of reasoning; it has utilitarian value in giving command of the arts of calculation involved in trade and the arts; culture value in its enlargement of the imagination in dealing with the most general relations of things; even religious value in its concept of the infinite and allied ideas. But clearly mathematics does not accomplish such results, because it is endowed with miraculous potencies called values; it has these values if and when it accomplishes these results, and not otherwise. The statements may help a teacher to a larger vision of the possible results to be effected by instruction in mathematical topics. But unfortunately, the tendency is to treat the statement as indicating powers inherently residing in the subject, whether they operate or not, and thus to give it a rigid justification. If they do not operate, the blame is put not on the subject as taught, but on the indifference and recalcitrancy of pupils. This attitude toward subjects is the obverse side of the conception of experience or life as a patchwork of independent interests which exist side by side and limit one another. Students of politics are familiar with a check and balance theory of the powers of government. There are supposed to be independent separate functions, like the legislative, executive, judicial, administrative, and all goes well if each of these checks all the others and thus creates an ideal balance. There is a philosophy which might well be called the check and balance theory of experience. Life presents a diversity of interests. Left to themselves, they tend to encroach on one another. The ideal is to prescribe a special territory for each till the whole ground of experience is covered, and then see to it each remains within its own boundaries. Politics, business, recreation, art, science, the learned professions, polite intercourse, leisure, represent such interests. Each of these ramifies into many branches: business into manual occupations, executive positions, bookkeeping, railroading, banking, agriculture, trade and commerce, etc., and so with each of the others. An ideal education would then supply the means of meeting these separate and pigeon-holed interests. And when we look at the schools, it is easy to get the impression that they accept this view of the nature of adult life, and set for themselves the task of meeting its demands. Each interest is acknowledged as a kind of fixed institution to which something in the course of study must correspond. The course of study must then have some civics and history politically and patriotically viewed: some utilitarian studies; some science; some art (mainly literature of course); some provision for recreation; some moral education; and so on. And it will be found that a large part of current agitation about schools is concerned with clamor and controversy about the due meed of recognition to be given to each of these interests, and with struggles to secure for each its due share in the course of study; or, if this does not seem feasible in the existing school system, then to secure a new and separate kind of schooling to meet the need. In the multitude of educations education is forgotten. The obvious outcome is congestion of the course of study, overpressure and distraction of pupils, and a narrow specialization fatal to the very idea of education. But these bad results usually lead to more of the same sort of thing as a remedy. When it is perceived that after all the requirements of a full life experience are not met, the deficiency is not laid to the isolation and narrowness of the teaching of the existing subjects, and this recognition made the basis of reorganization of the system. No, the lack is something to be made up for by the introduction of still another study, or, if necessary, another kind of school. And as a rule those who object to the resulting overcrowding and consequent superficiality and distraction usually also have recourse to a merely quantitative criterion: the remedy is to cut off a great many studies as fads and frills, and return to the good old curriculum of the three R's in elementary education and the equally good and equally old-fashioned curriculum of the classics and mathematics in higher education. The situation has, of course, its historic explanation. Various epochs of the past have had their own characteristic struggles and interests. Each of these great epochs has left behind itself a kind of cultural deposit, like a geologic stratum. These deposits have found their way into educational institutions in the form of studies, distinct courses of study, distinct types of schools. With the rapid change of political, scientific, and economic interests in the last century, provision had to be made for new values. Though the older courses resisted, they have had at least in this country to retire their pretensions to a monopoly. They have not, however, been reorganized in content and aim; they have only been reduced in amount. The new studies, representing the new interests, have not been used to transform the method and aim of all instruction; they have been injected and added on. The result is a conglomerate, the cement of which consists in the mechanics of the school program or time table. Thence arises the scheme of values and standards of value which we have mentioned. This situation in education represents the divisions and separations which obtain in social life. The variety of interests which should mark any rich and balanced experience have been torn asunder and deposited in separate institutions with diverse and independent purposes and methods. Business is business, science is science, art is art, politics is politics, social intercourse is social intercourse, morals is morals, recreation is recreation, and so on. Each possesses a separate and independent province with its own peculiar aims and ways of proceeding. Each contributes to the others only externally and accidentally. All of them together make up the whole of life by just apposition and addition. What does one expect from business save that it should furnish money, to be used in turn for making more money and for support of self and family, for buying books and pictures, tickets to concerts which may afford culture, and for paying taxes, charitable gifts and other things of social and ethical value? How unreasonable to expect that the pursuit of business should be itself a culture of the imagination, in breadth and refinement; that it should directly, and not through the money which it supplies, have social service for its animating principle and be conducted as an enterprise in behalf of social organization! The same thing is to be said, mutatis mutandis, of the pursuit of art or science or politics or religion. Each has become specialized not merely in its appliances and its demands upon time, but in its aim and animating spirit. Unconsciously, our course of studies and our theories of the educational values of studies reflect this division of interests. The point at issue in a theory of educational value is then the unity or integrity of experience. How shall it be full and varied without losing unity of spirit? How shall it be one and yet not narrow and monotonous in its unity? Ultimately, the question of values and a standard of values is the moral question of the organization of the interests of life. Educationally, the question concerns that organization of schools, materials, and methods which will operate to achieve breadth and richness of experience. How shall we secure breadth of outlook without sacrificing efficiency of execution? How shall we secure the diversity of interests, without paying the price of isolation? How shall the individual be rendered executive in his intelligence instead of at the cost of his intelligence? How shall art, science, and politics reinforce one another in an enriched temper of mind instead of constituting ends pursued at one another's expense? How can the interests of life and the studies which enforce them enrich the common experience of men instead of dividing men from one another? With the questions of reorganization thus suggested, we shall be concerned in the concluding chapters. Summary. Fundamentally, the elements involved in a discussion of value have been covered in the prior discussion of aims and interests. But since educational values are generally discussed in connection with the claims of the various studies of the curriculum, the consideration of aim and interest is here resumed from the point of view of special studies. The term "value" has two quite different meanings. On the one hand, it denotes the attitude of prizing a thing finding it worth while, for its own sake, or intrinsically. This is a name for a full or complete experience. To value in this sense is to appreciate. But to value also means a distinctively intellectual act—an operation of comparing and judging—to valuate. This occurs when direct full experience is lacking, and the question arises which of the various possibilities of a situation is to be preferred in order to reach a full realization, or vital experience. We must not, however, divide the studies of the curriculum into the appreciative, those concerned with intrinsic value, and the instrumental, concerned with those which are of value or ends beyond themselves. The formation of proper standards in any subject depends upon a realization of the contribution which it makes to the immediate significance of experience, upon a direct appreciation. Literature and the fine arts are of peculiar value because they represent appreciation at its best—a heightened realization of meaning through selection and concentration. But every subject at some phase of its development should possess, what is for the individual concerned with it, an aesthetic quality. Contribution to immediate intrinsic values in all their variety in experience is the only criterion for determining the worth of instrumental and derived values in studies. The tendency to assign separate values to each study and to regard the curriculum in its entirety as a kind of composite made by the aggregation of segregated values is a result of the isolation of social groups and classes. Hence it is the business of education in a democratic social group to struggle against this isolation in order that the various interests may reinforce and play into one another. Chapter Nineteen: Labor and Leisure 1. The Origin of the Opposition. The isolation of aims and values which we have been considering leads to opposition between them. Probably the most deep-seated antithesis which has shown itself in educational history is that between education in preparation for useful labor and education for a life of leisure. The bare terms "useful labor" and "leisure" confirm the statement already made that the segregation and conflict of values are not self-inclosed, but reflect a division within social life. Were the two functions of gaining a livelihood by work and enjoying in a cultivated way the opportunities of leisure, distributed equally among the different members of a community, it would not occur to any one that there was any conflict of educational agencies and aims involved. It would be self-evident that the question was how education could contribute most effectively to both. And while it might be found that some materials of instruction chiefly accomplished one result and other subject matter the other, it would be evident that care must be taken to secure as much overlapping as conditions permit; that is, the education which had leisure more directly in view should indirectly reinforce as much as possible the efficiency and the enjoyment of work, while that aiming at the latter should produce habits of emotion and intellect which would procure a worthy cultivation of leisure. These general considerations are amply borne out by the historical development of educational philosophy. The separation of liberal education from professional and industrial education goes back to the time of the Greeks, and was formulated expressly on the basis of a division of classes into those who had to labor for a living and those who were relieved from this necessity. The conception that liberal education, adapted to men in the latter class, is intrinsically higher than the servile training given to the latter class reflected the fact that one class was free and the other servile in its social status. The latter class labored not only for its own subsistence, but also for the means which enabled the superior class to live without personally engaging in occupations taking almost all the time and not of a nature to engage or reward intelligence. That a certain amount of labor must be engaged in goes without saying. Human beings have to live and it requires work to supply the resources of life. Even if we insist that the interests connected with getting a living are only material and hence intrinsically lower than those connected with enjoyment of time released from labor, and even if it were admitted that there is something engrossing and insubordinate in material interests which leads them to strive to usurp the place belonging to the higher ideal interests, this would not—barring the fact of socially divided classes—lead to neglect of the kind of education which trains men for the useful pursuits. It would rather lead to scrupulous care for them, so that men were trained to be efficient in them and yet to keep them in their place; education would see to it that we avoided the evil results which flow from their being allowed to flourish in obscure purlieus of neglect. Only when a division of these interests coincides with a division of an inferior and a superior social class will preparation for useful work be looked down upon with contempt as an unworthy thing: a fact which prepares one for the conclusion that the rigid identification of work with material interests, and leisure with ideal interests is itself a social product. The educational formulations of the social situation made over two thousand years ago have been so influential and give such a clear and logical recognition of the implications of the division into laboring and leisure classes, that they deserve especial note. According to them, man occupies the highest place in the scheme of animate existence. In part, he shares the constitution and functions of plants and animals—nutritive, reproductive, motor or practical. The distinctively human function is reason existing for the sake of beholding the spectacle of the universe. Hence the truly human end is the fullest possible of this distinctive human prerogative. The life of observation, meditation, cogitation, and speculation pursued as an end in itself is the proper life of man. From reason moreover proceeds the proper control of the lower elements of human nature—the appetites and the active, motor, impulses. In themselves greedy, insubordinate, lovers of excess, aiming only at their own satiety, they observe moderation—the law of the mean—and serve desirable ends as they are subjected to the rule of reason. Such is the situation as an affair of theoretical psychology and as most adequately stated by Aristotle. But this state of things is reflected in the constitution of classes of men and hence in the organization of society. Only in a comparatively small number is the function of reason capable of operating as a law of life. In the mass of people, vegetative and animal functions dominate. Their energy of intelligence is so feeble and inconstant that it is constantly overpowered by bodily appetite and passion. Such persons are not truly ends in themselves, for only reason constitutes a final end. Like plants, animals and physical tools, they are means, appliances, for the attaining of ends beyond themselves, although unlike them they have enough intelligence to exercise a certain discretion in the execution of the tasks committed to them. Thus by nature, and not merely by social convention, there are those who are slaves—that is, means for the ends of others. 1 The great body of artisans are in one important respect worse off than even slaves. Like the latter they are given up to the service of ends external to themselves; but since they do not enjoy the intimate association with the free superior class experienced by domestic slaves they remain on a lower plane of excellence. Moreover, women are classed with slaves and craftsmen as factors among the animate instrumentalities of production and reproduction of the means for a free or rational life. Individually and collectively there is a gulf between merely living and living worthily. In order that one may live worthily he must first live, and so with collective society. The time and energy spent upon mere life, upon the gaining of subsistence, detracts from that available for activities that have an inherent rational meaning; they also unfit for the latter. Means are menial, the serviceable is servile. The true life is possible only in the degree in which the physical necessities are had without effort and without attention. Hence slaves, artisans, and women are employed in furnishing the means of subsistence in order that others, those adequately equipped with intelligence, may live the life of leisurely concern with things intrinsically worth while. To these two modes of occupation, with their distinction of servile and free activities (or "arts") correspond two types of education: the base or mechanical and the liberal or intellectual. Some persons are trained by suitable practical exercises for capacity in doing things, for ability to use the mechanical tools involved in turning out physical commodities and rendering personal service. This training is a mere matter of habituation and technical skill; it operates through repetition and assiduity in application, not through awakening and nurturing thought. Liberal education aims to train intelligence for its proper office: to know. The less this knowledge has to do with practical affairs, with making or producing, the more adequately it engages intelligence. So consistently does Aristotle draw the line between menial and liberal education that he puts what are now called the "fine" arts, music, painting, sculpture, in the same class with menial arts so far as their practice is concerned. They involve physical agencies, assiduity of practice, and external results. In discussing, for example, education in music he raises the question how far the young should be practiced in the playing of instruments. His answer is that such practice and proficiency may be tolerated as conduce to appreciation; that is, to understanding and enjoyment of music when played by slaves or professionals. When professional power is aimed at, music sinks from the liberal to the professional level. One might then as well teach cooking, says Aristotle. Even a liberal concern with the works of fine art depends upon the existence of a hireling class of practitioners who have subordinated the development of their own personality to attaining skill in mechanical execution. The higher the activity the more purely mental is it; the less does it have to do with physical things or with the body. The more purely mental it is, the more independent or self-sufficing is it. These last words remind us that Aristotle again makes a distinction of superior and inferior even within those living the life of reason. For there is a distinction in ends and in free action, according as one's life is merely accompanied by reason or as it makes reason its own medium. That is to say, the free citizen who devotes himself to the public life of his community, sharing in the management of its affairs and winning personal honor and distinction, lives a life accompanied by reason. But the thinker, the man who devotes himself to scientific inquiry and philosophic speculation, works, so to speak, in reason, not simply by *. Even the activity of the citizen in his civic relations, in other words, retains some of the taint of practice, of external or merely instrumental doing. This infection is shown by the fact that civic activity and civic excellence need the help of others; one cannot engage in public life all by himself. But all needs, all desires imply, in the philosophy of Aristotle, a material factor; they involve lack, privation; they are dependent upon something beyond themselves for completion. A purely intellectual life, however, one carries on by himself, in himself; such assistance as he may derive from others is accidental, rather than intrinsic. In knowing, in the life of theory, reason finds its own full manifestation; knowing for the sake of knowing irrespective of any application is alone independent, or self-sufficing. Hence only the education that makes for power to know as an end in itself, without reference to the practice of even civic duties, is truly liberal or free. 2. The Present Situation. If the Aristotelian conception represented just Aristotle's personal view, it would be a more or less interesting historical curiosity. It could be dismissed as an illustration of the lack of sympathy or the amount of academic pedantry which may coexist with extraordinary intellectual gifts. But Aristotle simply described without confusion and without that insincerity always attendant upon mental confusion, the life that was before him. That the actual social situation has greatly changed since his day there is no need to say. But in spite of these changes, in spite of the abolition of legal serfdom, and the spread of democracy, with the extension of science and of general education (in books, newspapers, travel, and general intercourse as well as in schools), there remains enough of a cleavage of society into a learned and an unlearned class, a leisure and a laboring class, to make his point of view a most enlightening one from which to criticize the separation between culture and utility in present education. Behind the intellectual and abstract distinction as it figures in pedagogical discussion, there looms a social distinction between those whose pursuits involve a minimum of self-directive thought and aesthetic appreciation, and those who are concerned more directly with things of the intelligence and with the control of the activities of others. Aristotle was certainly permanently right when he said that "any occupation or art or study deserves to be called mechanical if it renders the body or soul or intellect of free persons unfit for the exercise and practice of excellence." The force of the statement is almost infinitely increased when we hold, as we nominally do at present, that all persons, instead of a comparatively few, are free. For when the mass of men and all women were regarded as unfree by the very nature of their bodies and minds, there was neither intellectual confusion nor moral hypocrisy in giving them only the training which fitted them for mechanical skill, irrespective of its ulterior effect upon their capacity to share in a worthy life. He was permanently right also when he went on to say that "all mercenary employments as well as those which degrade the condition of the body are mechanical, since they deprive the intellect of leisure and dignity,"—permanently right, that is, if gainful pursuits as matter of fact deprive the intellect of the conditions of its exercise and so of its dignity. If his statements are false, it is because they identify a phase of social custom with a natural necessity. But a different view of the relations of mind and matter, mind and body, intelligence and social service, is better than Aristotle's conception only if it helps render the old idea obsolete in fact—in the actual conduct of life and education. Aristotle was permanently right in assuming the inferiority and subordination of mere skill in performance and mere accumulation of external products to understanding, sympathy of appreciation, and the free play of ideas. If there was an error, it lay in assuming the necessary separation of the two: in supposing that there is a natural divorce between efficiency in producing commodities and rendering service, and self-directive thought; between significant knowledge and practical achievement. We hardly better matters if we just correct his theoretical misapprehension, and tolerate the social state of affairs which generated and sanctioned his conception. We lose rather than gain in change from serfdom to free citizenship if the most prized result of the change is simply an increase in the mechanical efficiency of the human tools of production. So we lose rather than gain in coming to think of intelligence as an organ of control of nature through action, if we are content that an unintelligent, unfree state persists in those who engage directly in turning nature to use, and leave the intelligence which controls to be the exclusive possession of remote scientists and captains of industry. We are in a position honestly to criticize the division of life into separate functions and of society into separate classes only so far as we are free from responsibility for perpetuating the educational practices which train the many for pursuits involving mere skill in production, and the few for a knowledge that is an ornament and a cultural embellishment. In short, ability to transcend the Greek philosophy of life and education is not secured by a mere shifting about of the theoretical symbols meaning free, rational, and worthy. It is not secured by a change of sentiment regarding the dignity of labor, and the superiority of a life of service to that of an aloof self-sufficing independence. Important as these theoretical and emotional changes are, their importance consists in their being turned to account in the development of a truly democratic society, a society in which all share in useful service and all enjoy a worthy leisure. It is not a mere change in the concepts of culture—or a liberal mind—and social service which requires an educational reorganization; but the educational transformation is needed to give full and explicit effect to the changes implied in social life. The increased political and economic emancipation of the "masses" has shown itself in education; it has effected the development of a common school system of education, public and free. It has destroyed the idea that learning is properly a monopoly of the few who are predestined by nature to govern social affairs. But the revolution is still incomplete. The idea still prevails that a truly cultural or liberal education cannot have anything in common, directly at least, with industrial affairs, and that the education which is fit for the masses must be a useful or practical education in a sense which opposes useful and practical to nurture of appreciation and liberation of thought. As a consequence, our actual system is an inconsistent mixture. Certain studies and methods are retained on the supposition that they have the sanction of peculiar liberality, the chief content of the term liberal being uselessness for practical ends. This aspect is chiefly visible in what is termed the higher education—that of the college and of preparation for it. But is has filtered through into elementary education and largely controls its processes and aims. But, on the other hand, certain concessions have been made to the masses who must engage in getting a livelihood and to the increased role of economic activities in modern life. These concessions are exhibited in special schools and courses for the professions, for engineering, for manual training and commerce, in vocational and prevocational courses; and in the spirit in which certain elementary subjects, like the three R's, are taught. The result is a system in which both "cultural" and "utilitarian" subjects exist in an inorganic composite where the former are not by dominant purpose socially serviceable and the latter not liberative of imagination or thinking power. In the inherited situation, there is a curious intermingling, in even the same study, of concession to usefulness and a survival of traits once exclusively attributed to preparation for leisure. The "utility" element is found in the motives assigned for the study, the "liberal" element in methods of teaching. The outcome of the mixture is perhaps less satisfactory than if either principle were adhered to in its purity. The motive popularly assigned for making the studies of the first four or five years consist almost entirely of reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic, is, for example, that ability to read, write, and figure accurately is indispensable to getting ahead. These studies are treated as mere instruments for entering upon a gainful employment or of later progress in the pursuit of learning, according as pupils do not or do remain in school. This attitude is reflected in the emphasis put upon drill and practice for the sake of gaining automatic skill. If we turn to Greek schooling, we find that from the earliest years the acquisition of skill was subordinated as much as possible to acquisition of literary content possessed of aesthetic and moral significance. Not getting a tool for subsequent use but present subject matter was the emphasized thing. Nevertheless the isolation of these studies from practical application, their reduction to purely symbolic devices, represents a survival of the idea of a liberal training divorced from utility. A thorough adoption of the idea of utility would have led to instruction which tied up the studies to situations in which they were directly needed and where they were rendered immediately and not remotely helpful. It would be hard to find a subject in the curriculum within which there are not found evil results of a compromise between the two opposed ideals. Natural science is recommended on the ground of its practical utility, but is taught as a special accomplishment in removal from application. On the other hand, music and literature are theoretically justified on the ground of their culture value and are then taught with chief emphasis upon forming technical modes of skill. If we had less compromise and resulting confusion, if we analyzed more carefully the respective meanings of culture and utility, we might find it easier to construct a course of study which should be useful and liberal at the same time. Only superstition makes us believe that the two are necessarily hostile so that a subject is illiberal because it is useful and cultural because it is useless. It will generally be found that instruction which, in aiming at utilitarian results, sacrifices the development of imagination, the refining of taste and the deepening of intellectual insight—surely cultural values—also in the same degree renders what is learned limited in its use. Not that it makes it wholly unavailable but that its applicability is restricted to routine activities carried on under the supervision of others. Narrow modes of skill cannot be made useful beyond themselves; any mode of skill which is achieved with deepening of knowledge and perfecting of judgment is readily put to use in new situations and is under personal control. It was not the bare fact of social and economic utility which made certain activities seem servile to the Greeks but the fact that the activities directly connected with getting a livelihood were not, in their days, the expression of a trained intelligence nor carried on because of a personal appreciation of their meaning. So far as farming and the trades were rule-of-thumb occupations and so far as they were engaged in for results external to the minds of agricultural laborers and mechanics, they were illiberal—but only so far. The intellectual and social context has now changed. The elements in industry due to mere custom and routine have become subordinate in most economic callings to elements derived from scientific inquiry. The most important occupations of today represent and depend upon applied mathematics, physics, and chemistry. The area of the human world influenced by economic production and influencing consumption has been so indefinitely widened that geographical and political considerations of an almost infinitely wide scope enter in. It was natural for Plato to deprecate the learning of geometry and arithmetic for practical ends, because as matter of fact the practical uses to which they were put were few, lacking in content and mostly mercenary in quality. But as their social uses have increased and enlarged, their liberalizing or "intellectual" value and their practical value approach the same limit. Doubtless the factor which chiefly prevents our full recognition and employment of this identification is the conditions under which so much work is still carried on. The invention of machines has extended the amount of leisure which is possible even while one is at work. It is a commonplace that the mastery of skill in the form of established habits frees the mind for a higher order of thinking. Something of the same kind is true of the introduction of mechanically automatic operations in industry. They may release the mind for thought upon other topics. But when we confine the education of those who work with their hands to a few years of schooling devoted for the most part to acquiring the use of rudimentary symbols at the expense of training in science, literature, and history, we fail to prepare the minds of workers to take advantage of this opportunity. More fundamental is the fact that the great majority of workers have no insight into the social aims of their pursuits and no direct personal interest in them. The results actually achieved are not the ends of their actions, but only of their employers. They do what they do, not freely and intelligently, but for the sake of the wage earned. It is this fact which makes the action illiberal, and which will make any education designed simply to give skill in such undertakings illiberal and immoral. The activity is not free because not freely participated in. Nevertheless, there is already an opportunity for an education which, keeping in mind the larger features of work, will reconcile liberal nurture with training in social serviceableness, with ability to share efficiently and happily in occupations which are productive. And such an education will of itself tend to do away with the evils of the existing economic situation. In the degree in which men have an active concern in the ends that control their activity, their activity becomes free or voluntary and loses its externally enforced and servile quality, even though the physical aspect of behavior remain the same. In what is termed politics, democratic social organization makes provision for this direct participation in control: in the economic region, control remains external and autocratic. Hence the split between inner mental action and outer physical action of which the traditional distinction between the liberal and the utilitarian is the reflex. An education which should unify the disposition of the members of society would do much to unify society itself. Summary. Of the segregations of educational values discussed in the last chapter, that between culture and utility is probably the most fundamental. While the distinction is often thought to be intrinsic and absolute, it is really historical and social. It originated, so far as conscious formulation is concerned, in Greece, and was based upon the fact that the truly human life was lived only by a few who subsisted upon the results of the labor of others. This fact affected the psychological doctrine of the relation of intelligence and desire, theory and practice. It was embodied in a political theory of a permanent division of human beings into those capable of a life of reason and hence having their own ends, and those capable only of desire and work, and needing to have their ends provided by others. The two distinctions, psychological and political, translated into educational terms, effected a division between a liberal education, having to do with the self-sufficing life of leisure devoted to knowing for its own sake, and a useful, practical training for mechanical occupations, devoid of intellectual and aesthetic content. While the present situation is radically diverse in theory and much changed in fact, the factors of the older historic situation still persist sufficiently to maintain the educational distinction, along with compromises which often reduce the efficacy of the educational measures. The problem of education in a democratic society is to do away with the dualism and to construct a course of studies which makes thought a guide of free practice for all and which makes leisure a reward of accepting responsibility for service, rather than a state of exemption from it. 1 Aristotle does not hold that the class of actual slaves and of natural slaves necessarily coincide. Chapter Twenty: Intellectual and Practical Studies 1. The Opposition of Experience and True Knowledge. As livelihood and leisure are opposed, so are theory and practice, intelligence and execution, knowledge and activity. The latter set of oppositions doubtless springs from the same social conditions which produce the former conflict; but certain definite problems of education connected with them make it desirable to discuss explicitly the matter of the relationship and alleged separation of knowing and doing. The notion that knowledge is derived from a higher source than is practical activity, and possesses a higher and more spiritual worth, has a long history. The history so far as conscious statement is concerned takes us back to the conceptions of experience and of reason formulated by Plato and Aristotle. Much as these thinkers differed in many respects, they agreed in identifying experience with purely practical concerns; and hence with material interests as to its purpose and with the body as to its organ. Knowledge, on the other hand, existed for its own sake free from practical reference, and found its source and organ in a purely immaterial mind; it had to do with spiritual or ideal interests. Again, experience always involved lack, need, desire; it was never self-sufficing. Rational knowing on the other hand, was complete and comprehensive within itself. Hence the practical life was in a condition of perpetual flux, while intellectual knowledge concerned eternal truth. This sharp antithesis is connected with the fact that Athenian philosophy began as a criticism of custom and tradition as standards of knowledge and conduct. In a search for something to replace them, it hit upon reason as the only adequate guide of belief and activity. Since custom and tradition were identified with experience, it followed at once that reason was superior to experience. Moreover, experience, not content with its proper position of subordination, was the great foe to the acknowledgment of the authority of reason. Since custom and traditionary beliefs held men in bondage, the struggle of reason for its legitimate supremacy could be won only by showing the inherently unstable and inadequate nature of experience. The statement of Plato that philosophers should be kings may best be understood as a statement that rational intelligence and not habit, appetite, impulse, and emotion should regulate human affairs. The former secures unity, order, and law; the latter signify multiplicity and discord, irrational fluctuations from one estate to another. The grounds for the identification of experience with the unsatisfactory condition of things, the state of affairs represented by rule of mere custom, are not far to seek. Increasing trade and travel, colonizations, migrations and wars, had broadened the intellectual horizon. The customs and beliefs of different communities were found to diverge sharply from one another. Civil disturbance had become a custom in Athens; the fortunes of the city seemed given over to strife of factions. The increase of leisure coinciding with the broadening of the horizon had brought into ken many new facts of nature and had stimulated curiosity and speculation. The situation tended to raise the question as to the existence of anything constant and universal in the realm of nature and society. Reason was the faculty by which the universal principle and essence is apprehended; while the senses were the organs of perceiving change,—the unstable and the diverse as against the permanent and uniform. The results of the work of the senses, preserved in memory and imagination, and applied in the skill given by habit, constituted experience. Experience at its best is thus represented in the various handicrafts—the arts of peace and war. The cobbler, the flute player, the soldier, have undergone the discipline of experience to acquire the skill they have. This means that the bodily organs, particularly the senses, have had repeated contact with things and that the result of these contacts has been preserved and consolidated till ability in foresight and in practice had been secured. Such was the essential meaning of the term "empirical." It suggested a knowledge and an ability not based upon insight into principles, but expressing the result of a large number of separate trials. It expressed the idea now conveyed by "method of trial and error," with especial emphasis upon the more or less accidental character of the trials. So far as ability of control, of management, was concerned, it amounted to rule-of-thumb procedure, to routine. If new circumstances resembled the past, it might work well enough; in the degree in which they deviated, failure was likely. Even to-day to speak of a physician as an empiricist is to imply that he lacks scientific training, and that he is proceeding simply on the basis of what he happens to have got out of the chance medley of his past practice. Just because of the lack of science or reason in "experience" it is hard to keep it at its poor best. The empiric easily degenerates into the quack. He does not know where his knowledge begins or leaves off, and so when he gets beyond routine conditions he begins to pretend—to make claims for which there is no justification, and to trust to luck and to ability to impose upon others—to "bluff." Moreover, he assumes that because he has learned one thing, he knows others—as the history of Athens showed that the common craftsmen thought they could manage household affairs, education, and politics, because they had learned to do the specific things of their trades. Experience is always hovering, then, on the edge of pretense, of sham, of seeming, and appearance, in distinction from the reality upon which reason lays hold. The philosophers soon reached certain generalizations from this state of affairs. The senses are connected with the appetites, with wants and desires. They lay hold not on the reality of things but on the relation which things have to our pleasures and pains, to the satisfaction of wants and the welfare of the body. They are important only for the life of the body, which is but a fixed substratum for a higher life. Experience thus has a definitely material character; it has to do with physical things in relation to the body. In contrast, reason, or science, lays hold of the immaterial, the ideal, the spiritual. There is something morally dangerous about experience, as such words as sensual, carnal, material, worldly, interests suggest; while pure reason and spirit connote something morally praiseworthy. Moreover, ineradicable connection with the changing, the inexplicably shifting, and with the manifold, the diverse, clings to experience. Its material is inherently variable and untrustworthy. It is anarchic, because unstable. The man who trusts to experience does not know what he depends upon, since it changes from person to person, from day to day, to say nothing of from country to country. Its connection with the "many," with various particulars, has the same effect, and also carries conflict in its train. Only the single, the uniform, assures coherence and harmony. Out of experience come warrings, the conflict of opinions and acts within the individual and between individuals. From experience no standard of belief can issue, because it is the very nature of experience to instigate all kinds of contrary beliefs, as varieties of local custom proved. Its logical outcome is that anything is good and true to the particular individual which his experience leads him to believe true and good at a particular time and place. Finally practice falls of necessity within experience. Doing proceeds from needs and aims at change. To produce or to make is to alter something; to consume is to alter. All the obnoxious characters of change and diversity thus attach themselves to doing while knowing is as permanent as its object. To know, to grasp a thing intellectually or theoretically, is to be out of the region of vicissitude, chance, and diversity. Truth has no lack; it is untouched by the perturbations of the world of sense. It deals with the eternal and the universal. And the world of experience can be brought under control, can be steadied and ordered, only through subjection to its law of reason. It would not do, of course, to say that all these distinctions persisted in full technical definiteness. But they all of them profoundly influenced men's subsequent thinking and their ideas about education. The contempt for physical as compared with mathematical and logical science, for the senses and sense observation; the feeling that knowledge is high and worthy in the degree in which it deals with ideal symbols instead of with the concrete; the scorn of particulars except as they are deductively brought under a universal; the disregard for the body; the depreciation of arts and crafts as intellectual instrumentalities, all sought shelter and found sanction under this estimate of the respective values of experience and reason—or, what came to the same thing, of the practical and the intellectual. Medieval philosophy continued and reinforced the tradition. To know reality meant to be in relation to the supreme reality, or God, and to enjoy the eternal bliss of that relation. Contemplation of supreme reality was the ultimate end of man to which action is subordinate. Experience had to do with mundane, profane, and secular affairs, practically necessary indeed, but of little import in comparison with supernatural objects of knowledge. When we add to this motive the force derived from the literary character of the Roman education and the Greek philosophic tradition, and conjoin to them the preference for studies which obviously demarcated the aristocratic class from the lower classes, we can readily understand the tremendous power exercised by the persistent preference of the "intellectual" over the "practical" not simply in educational philosophies but in the higher schools. 2. The Modern Theory of Experience and Knowledge. As we shall see later, the development of experimentation as a method of knowledge makes possible and necessitates a radical transformation of the view just set forth. But before coming to that, we have to note the theory of experience and knowledge developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In general, it presents us with an almost complete reversal of the classic doctrine of the relations of experience and reason. To Plato experience meant habituation, or the conservation of the net product of a lot of past chance trials. Reason meant the principle of reform, of progress, of increase of control. Devotion to the cause of reason meant breaking through the limitations of custom and getting at things as they really were. To the modern reformers, the situation was the other way around. Reason, universal principles, a priori notions, meant either blank forms which had to be filled in by experience, by sense observations, in order to get significance and validity; or else were mere indurated prejudices, dogmas imposed by authority, which masqueraded and found protection under august names. The great need was to break way from captivity to conceptions which, as Bacon put it, "anticipated nature" and imposed merely human opinions upon her, and to resort to experience to find out what nature was like. Appeal to experience marked the breach with authority. It meant openness to new impressions; eagerness in discovery and invention instead of absorption in tabulating and systematizing received ideas and "proving" them by means of the relations they sustained to one another. It was the irruption into the mind of the things as they really were, free from the veil cast over them by preconceived ideas. The change was twofold. Experience lost the practical meaning which it had borne from the time of Plato. It ceased to mean ways of doing and being done to, and became a name for something intellectual and cognitive. It meant the apprehension of material which should ballast and check the exercise of reasoning. By the modern philosophic empiricist and by his opponent, experience has been looked upon just as a way of knowing. The only question was how good a way it is. The result was an even greater "intellectualism" than is found in ancient philosophy, if that word be used to designate an emphatic and almost exclusive interest in knowledge in its isolation. Practice was not so much subordinated to knowledge as treated as a kind of tag-end or aftermath of knowledge. The educational result was only to confirm the exclusion of active pursuits from the school, save as they might be brought in for purely utilitarian ends—the acquisition by drill of certain habits. In the second place, the interest in experience as a means of basing truth upon objects, upon nature, led to looking at the mind as purely receptive. The more passive the mind is, the more truly objects will impress themselves upon it. For the mind to take a hand, so to speak, would be for it in the very process of knowing to vitiate true knowledge—to defeat its own purpose. The ideal was a maximum of receptivity. Since the impressions made upon the mind by objects were generally termed sensations, empiricism thus became a doctrine of sensationalism—that is to say, a doctrine which identified knowledge with the reception and association of sensory impressions. In John Locke, the most influential of the empiricists, we find this sensationalism mitigated by a recognition of certain mental faculties, like discernment or discrimination, comparison, abstraction, and generalization which work up the material of sense into definite and organized forms and which even evolve new ideas on their own account, such as the fundamental conceptions of morals and mathematics. (See ante, p. 61.) But some of his successors, especially in France in the latter part of the eighteenth century, carried his doctrine to the limit; they regarded discernment and judgment as peculiar sensations made in us by the conjoint presence of other sensations. Locke had held that the mind is a blank piece of paper, or a wax tablet with nothing engraved on it at birth (a tabula rasa) so far as any contents of ideas were concerned, but had endowed it with activities to be exercised upon the material received. His French successors razed away the powers and derived them also from impressions received. As we have earlier noted, this notion was fostered by the new interest in education as method of social reform. (See ante, p. 93.) The emptier the mind to begin with, the more it may be made anything we wish by bringing the right influences to bear upon it. Thus Helvetius, perhaps the most extreme and consistent sensationalist, proclaimed that education could do anything—that it was omnipotent. Within the sphere of school instruction, empiricism found its directly beneficial office in protesting against mere book learning. If knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind. Words, all kinds of linguistic symbols, in the lack of prior presentations of objects with which they may be associated, convey nothing but sensations of their own shape and color—certainly not a very instructive kind of knowledge. Sensationalism was an extremely handy weapon with which to combat doctrines and opinions resting wholly upon tradition and authority. With respect to all of them, it set up a test: Where are the real objects from which these ideas and beliefs are received? If such objects could not be produced, ideas were explained as the result of false associations and combinations. Empiricism also insisted upon a first-hand element. The impression must be made upon me, upon my mind. The further we get away from this direct, first-hand source of knowledge, the more numerous the sources of error, and the vaguer the resulting idea. As might be expected, however, the philosophy was weak upon the positive side. Of course, the value of natural objects and firsthand acquaintance was not dependent upon the truth of the theory. Introduced into the schools they would do their work, even if the sensational theory about the way in which they did it was quite wrong. So far, there is nothing to complain of. But the emphasis upon sensationalism also operated to influence the way in which natural objects were employed, and to prevent full good being got from them. "Object lessons" tended to isolate the mere sense-activity and make it an end in itself. The more isolated the object, the more isolated the sensory quality, the more distinct the sense-impression as a unit of knowledge. The theory worked not only in the direction of this mechanical isolation, which tended to reduce instruction to a kind of physical gymnastic of the sense-organs (good like any gymnastic of bodily organs, but not more so), but also to the neglect of thinking. According to the theory there was no need of thinking in connection with sense-observation; in fact, in strict theory such thinking would be impossible till afterwards, for thinking consisted simply in combining and separating sensory units which had been received without any participation of judgment. As a matter of fact, accordingly, practically no scheme of education upon a purely sensory basis has ever been systematically tried, at least after the early years of infancy. Its obvious deficiencies have caused it to be resorted to simply for filling in "rationalistic" knowledge (that is to say, knowledge of definitions, rules, classifications, and modes of application conveyed through symbols), and as a device for lending greater "interest" to barren symbols. There are at least three serious defects of sensationalistic empiricism as an educational philosophy of knowledge. (a) the historical value of the theory was critical; it was a dissolvent of current beliefs about the world and political institutions. It was a destructive organ of criticism of hard and fast dogmas. But the work of education is constructive, not critical. It assumes not old beliefs to be eliminated and revised, but the need of building up new experience into intellectual habitudes as correct as possible from the start. Sensationalism is highly unfitted for this constructive task. Mind, understanding, denotes responsiveness to meanings (ante, p. 29), not response to direct physical stimuli. And meaning exists only with reference to a context, which is excluded by any scheme which identifies knowledge with a combination of sense-impressions. The theory, so far as educationally applied, led either to a magnification of mere physical excitations or else to a mere heaping up of isolated objects and qualities. (b) While direct impression has the advantage of being first hand, it also has the disadvantage of being limited in range. Direct acquaintance with the natural surroundings of the home environment so as to give reality to ideas about portions of the earth beyond the reach of the senses, and as a means of arousing intellectual curiosity, is one thing. As an end-all and be-all of geographical knowledge it is fatally restricted. In precisely analogous fashion, beans, shoe pegs, and counters may be helpful aids to a realization of numerical relations, but when employed except as aids to thought—the apprehension of meaning—they become an obstacle to the growth of arithmetical understanding. They arrest growth on a low plane, the plane of specific physical symbols. Just as the race developed especial symbols as tools of calculation and mathematical reasonings, because the use of the fingers as numerical symbols got in the way, so the individual must progress from concrete to abstract symbols—that is, symbols whose meaning is realized only through conceptual thinking. And undue absorption at the outset in the physical object of sense hampers this growth. (c) A thoroughly false psychology of mental development underlay sensationalistic empiricism. Experience is in truth a matter of activities, instinctive and impulsive, in their interactions with things. What even an infant "experiences" is not a passively received quality impressed by an object, but the effect which some activity of handling, throwing, pounding, tearing, etc., has upon an object, and the consequent effect of the object upon the direction of activities. (See ante, p. 140.) Fundamentally (as we shall see in more detail), the ancient notion of experience as a practical matter is truer to fact that the modern notion of it as a mode of knowing by means of sensations. The neglect of the deep-seated active and motor factors of experience is a fatal defect of the traditional empirical philosophy. Nothing is more uninteresting and mechanical than a scheme of object lessons which ignores and as far as may be excludes the natural tendency to learn about the qualities of objects by the uses to which they are put through trying to do something with them. It is obvious, accordingly, that even if the philosophy of experience represented by modern empiricism had received more general theoretical assent than has been accorded to it, it could not have furnished a satisfactory philosophy of the learning process. Its educational influence was confined to injecting a new factor into the older curriculum, with incidental modifications of the older studies and methods. It introduced greater regard for observation of things directly and through pictures and graphic descriptions, and it reduced the importance attached to verbal symbolization. But its own scope was so meager that it required supplementation by information concerning matters outside of sense-perception and by matters which appealed more directly to thought. Consequently it left unimpaired the scope of informational and abstract, or "rationalistic" studies. 3. Experience as Experimentation. It has already been intimated that sensational empiricism represents neither the idea of experience justified by modern psychology nor the idea of knowledge suggested by modern scientific procedure. With respect to the former, it omits the primary position of active response which puts things to use and which learns about them through discovering the consequences that result from use. It would seem as if five minutes' unprejudiced observation of the way an infant gains knowledge would have sufficed to overthrow the notion that he is passively engaged in receiving impressions of isolated ready-made qualities of sound, color, hardness, etc. For it would be seen that the infant reacts to stimuli by activities of handling, reaching, etc., in order to see what results follow upon motor response to a sensory stimulation; it would be seen that what is learned are not isolated qualities, but the behavior which may be expected from a thing, and the changes in things and persons which an activity may be expected to produce. In other words, what he learns are connections. Even such qualities as red color, sound of a high pitch, have to be discriminated and identified on the basis of the activities they call forth and the consequences these activities effect. We learn what things are hard and what are soft by finding out through active experimentation what they respectively will do and what can be done and what cannot be done with them. In like fashion, children learn about persons by finding out what responsive activities these persons exact and what these persons will do in reply to the children's activities. And the combination of what things do to us (not in impressing qualities on a passive mind) in modifying our actions, furthering some of them and resisting and checking others, and what we can do to them in producing new changes constitutes experience. The methods of science by which the revolution in our knowledge of the world dating from the seventeenth century, was brought about, teach the same lesson. For these methods are nothing but experimentation carried out under conditions of deliberate control. To the Greek, it seemed absurd that such an activity as, say, the cobbler punching holes in leather, or using wax and needle and thread, could give an adequate knowledge of the world. It seemed almost axiomatic that for true knowledge we must have recourse to concepts coming from a reason above experience. But the introduction of the experimental method signified precisely that such operations, carried on under conditions of control, are just the ways in which fruitful ideas about nature are obtained and tested. In other words, it is only needed to conduct such an operation as the pouring of an acid on a metal for the purpose of getting knowledge instead of for the purpose of getting a trade result, in order to lay hold of the principle upon which the science of nature was henceforth to depend. Sense perceptions were indeed indispensable, but there was less reliance upon sense perceptions in their natural or customary form than in the older science. They were no longer regarded as containing within themselves some "form" or "species" of universal kind in a disguised mask of sense which could be stripped off by rational thought. On the contrary, the first thing was to alter and extend the data of sense perception: to act upon the given objects of sense by the lens of the telescope and microscope, and by all sorts of experimental devices. To accomplish this in a way which would arouse new ideas (hypotheses, theories) required even more general ideas (like those of mathematics) than were at the command of ancient science. But these general conceptions were no longer taken to give knowledge in themselves. They were implements for instituting, conducting, interpreting experimental inquiries and formulating their results. The logical outcome is a new philosophy of experience and knowledge, a philosophy which no longer puts experience in opposition to rational knowledge and explanation. Experience is no longer a mere summarizing of what has been done in a more or less chance way in the past; it is a deliberate control of what is done with reference to making what happens to us and what we do to things as fertile as possible of suggestions (of suggested meanings) and a means for trying out the validity of the suggestions. When trying, or experimenting, ceases to be blinded by impulse or custom, when it is guided by an aim and conducted by measure and method, it becomes reasonable—rational. When what we suffer from things, what we undergo at their hands, ceases to be a matter of chance circumstance, when it is transformed into a consequence of our own prior purposive endeavors, it becomes rationally significant—enlightening and instructive. The antithesis of empiricism and rationalism loses the support of the human situation which once gave it meaning and relative justification. The bearing of this change upon the opposition of purely practical and purely intellectual studies is self-evident. The distinction is not intrinsic but is dependent upon conditions, and upon conditions which can be regulated. Practical activities may be intellectually narrow and trivial; they will be so in so far as they are routine, carried on under the dictates of authority, and having in view merely some external result. But childhood and youth, the period of schooling, is just the time when it is possible to carry them on in a different spirit. It is inexpedient to repeat the discussions of our previous chapters on thinking and on the evolution of educative subject matter from childlike work and play to logically organized subject matter. The discussions of this chapter and the prior one should, however, give an added meaning to those results. (i) Experience itself primarily consists of the active relations subsisting between a human being and his natural and social surroundings. In some cases, the initiative in activity is on the side of the environment; the human being undergoes or suffers certain checkings and deflections of endeavors. In other cases, the behavior of surrounding things and persons carries to a successful issue the active tendencies of the individual, so that in the end what the individual undergoes are consequences which he has himself tried to produce. In just the degree in which connections are established between what happens to a person and what he does in response, and between what he does to his environment and what it does in response to him, his acts and the things about him acquire meaning. He learns to understand both himself and the world of men and things. Purposive education or schooling should present such an environment that this interaction will effect acquisition of those meanings which are so important that they become, in turn, instruments of further learnings. (ante, Ch. XI.) As has been repeatedly pointed out, activity out of school is carried on under conditions which have not been deliberately adapted to promoting the function of understanding and formation of effective intellectual dispositions. The results are vital and genuine as far as they go, but they are limited by all kinds of circumstances. Some powers are left quite undeveloped and undirected; others get only occasional and whimsical stimulations; others are formed into habits of a routine skill at the expense of aims and resourceful initiative and inventiveness. It is not the business of the school to transport youth from an environment of activity into one of cramped study of the records of other men's learning; but to transport them from an environment of relatively chance activities (accidental in the relation they bear to insight and thought) into one of activities selected with reference to guidance of learning. A slight inspection of the improved methods which have already shown themselves effective in education will reveal that they have laid hold, more or less consciously, upon the fact that "intellectual" studies instead of being opposed to active pursuits represent an intellectualizing of practical pursuits. It remains to grasp the principle with greater firmness. (ii) The changes which are taking place in the content of social life tremendously facilitate selection of the sort of activities which will intellectualize the play and work of the school. When one bears in mind the social environment of the Greeks and the people of the Middle Ages, where such practical activities as could be successfully carried on were mostly of a routine and external sort and even servile in nature, one is not surprised that educators turned their backs upon them as unfitted to cultivate intelligence. But now that even the occupations of the household, agriculture, and manufacturing as well as transportation and intercourse are instinct with applied science, the case stands otherwise. It is true that many of those who now engage in them are not aware of the intellectual content upon which their personal actions depend. But this fact only gives an added reason why schooling should use these pursuits so as to enable the coming generation to acquire a comprehension now too generally lacking, and thus enable persons to carry on their pursuits intelligently instead of blindly. (iii) The most direct blow at the traditional separation of doing and knowing and at the traditional prestige of purely "intellectual" studies, however, has been given by the progress of experimental science. If this progress has demonstrated anything, it is that there is no such thing as genuine knowledge and fruitful understanding except as the offspring of doing. The analysis and rearrangement of facts which is indispensable to the growth of knowledge and power of explanation and right classification cannot be attained purely mentally—just inside the head. Men have to do something to the things when they wish to find out something; they have to alter conditions. This is the lesson of the laboratory method, and the lesson which all education has to learn. The laboratory is a discovery of the condition under which labor may become intellectually fruitful and not merely externally productive. If, in too many cases at present, it results only in the acquisition of an additional mode of technical skill, that is because it still remains too largely but an isolated resource, not resorted to until pupils are mostly too old to get the full advantage of it, and even then is surrounded by other studies where traditional methods isolate intellect from activity. Summary. The Greeks were induced to philosophize by the increasing failure of their traditional customs and beliefs to regulate life. Thus they were led to criticize custom adversely and to look for some other source of authority in life and belief. Since they desired a rational standard for the latter, and had identified with experience the customs which had proved unsatisfactory supports, they were led to a flat opposition of reason and experience. The more the former was exalted, the more the latter was depreciated. Since experience was identified with what men do and suffer in particular and changing situations of life, doing shared in the philosophic depreciation. This influence fell in with many others to magnify, in higher education, all the methods and topics which involved the least use of sense-observation and bodily activity. The modern age began with a revolt against this point of view, with an appeal to experience, and an attack upon so-called purely rational concepts on the ground that they either needed to be ballasted by the results of concrete experiences, or else were mere expressions of prejudice and institutionalized class interest, calling themselves rational for protection. But various circumstances led to considering experience as pure cognition, leaving out of account its intrinsic active and emotional phases, and to identifying it with a passive reception of isolated "sensations." Hence the education reform effected by the new theory was confined mainly to doing away with some of the bookishness of prior methods; it did not accomplish a consistent reorganization. Meantime, the advance of psychology, of industrial methods, and of the experimental method in science makes another conception of experience explicitly desirable and possible. This theory reinstates the idea of the ancients that experience is primarily practical, not cognitive—a matter of doing and undergoing the consequences of doing. But the ancient theory is transformed by realizing that doing may be directed so as to take up into its own content all which thought suggests, and so as to result in securely tested knowledge. "Experience" then ceases to be empirical and becomes experimental. Reason ceases to be a remote and ideal faculty, and signifies all the resources by which activity is made fruitful in meaning. Educationally, this change denotes such a plan for the studies and method of instruction as has been developed in the previous chapters.

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Nunavut - Four of 12 new moons discovered around Saturn in the fall of 2000 have now officially been given Inuktitut names. Kavelaars' moons appear as little more than points in a telescope. The decision was announced late last month at the Astronomical Union's meeting in Sydney Australia. Canadian J.J. Kavelaars was one of the three astronomers who discovered the new moons. He named one of them after Ijiraq, a mythological Inuit creature he had read about in a children's book written by Michael Kusugak. Kusugak says he read an article about Kavelaars and found out the astronomer was looking for Inuit names for three more moons. "Apparently this Canadian, J.J. Kavelaars reads my books to his children and he wanted to name one of those moons 'Ijiraq' after a character in one of my books," Two of the moons are named after the mythological characters Kiviuq and Siarnaq, or Sedna. A third is named after Paaliaq, a character Kusugak created for a novel he is working on. The newly-discovered satellites are about 50 km across and likely icy moons; the remnants of asteroids or comets captured by the planet's gravity long-ago. The satellites orbit Saturn at distances of around 15 million kilometers from the "These are chunks of material left over from the formation of the solar system",

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1. How does the temperature of an object affect the rate at which it emits infared radiation ? - The higher the temperature the greater it emits infared. - The Lower the temperature the greater it emits infared. 1 of 8 Other questions in this quiz 2. Why are houses in hot countries often painted white ? - They reflect heat and sun - They absorb heat and sun - It makes them look pretty 3. Where does convection occur ? 4. What is the best colour for central heating radiator ? - Dull Black - Glossy Black - Glossy White - Dull White 5. Why does a solid have a fixed volume ? - All the particles are held together in fixed positions - Solid particles move around so the volume stays the same - Solids don't move and they are hard

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If the weather is clear, skywatchers across most of the Americas, Europe and Africa will have a view of one of nature's most beautiful spectacles: a total eclipse of the moon. The moon's phases are caused by changes in the amount of illumination from the moon that is visible from the Earth's surface as the moon orbits our planet each month. There are eight distinct phases every month, four of them occurring roughly a week apart. They are: the New Moon; Waxng Crescent; First Quarter (or half-full; Waxing Gibbous; Full Moon; Waning Gibbous; Last Quarter (half-full on other side); Waning Crescent. You can read definitions for these moon phases here. When the moon is full and at its closest point to the Earth in it's orbit, it is known as a "Supermoon." Lunar eclipses occur during full moons, when the moon passes through all or part of Earth's shadow. During New Moons, the moon can cover part or all of the sun's disk, creating a solar eclipse. Learn more about the moon's phases here. Related Topics: The Moon This year's first lunar eclipse — one of two — will be able to be seen across the majority of the Americas. Skywatchers across parts of the Southern Hemisphere were treated to the first partial eclipse of the year today (April 30). Reference May's full moon, known as the Flower Moon, will undergo an eclipse on the night of May 15-16. Find out about viewing opportunities in our observer's guide. Reference This year's Black Moon will occur on April 30. The rare occurrence will cause a partial solar eclipse for some parts of South America. Reference A Blue Moon is a rare occurrence that depends on the timings of full moons during the year. The moon is not blue during a Blue Moon. The quarter-phase moon points to a stunning set of planets low in the sky: Saturn, Mars, Venus and Jupiter. Our lunar neighbor shines beneath the Arc de Triomphe, a French monument inspired by Roman architecture. See amazing photos of the Full Pink Moon of April 2022 over Easter, Passover and Ramadan on April 16. The full moon of April, called the Pink Moon, occurs Monday, April 26 at 11:32 p.m. EDT (0332 GMT on Tuesday, April 27). It will also be a "supermoon." Venus, Saturn and Mars will be visible and very close together this week in the predawn sky. Here's how to see it. Reference March 2022 full moon observer's guide. Everything you need to know about this year's "Worm Moon" and the planetary trio it will share the sky with. The moon will pass by the Seven Sisters and other famous parts of Taurus as it crosses through the constellation this week. Reference August's Full Sturgeon Moon will appear full on Aug. 11 at 9:35 p.m. EDT (0101 GMT). The moon will then make a close pass by Saturn the same night. Reference The full moon of September 2022 also carries the title of the Harvest Moon for those living in the Northern Hemisphere.

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Time zones. Blecch. It's bad enough that we have to remember that there are nine standard time zones in the United States and its territories. Then there's that [horrid] system we call Daylight Saving Time, which effectively adds seven more time zones. Most of Arizona is the same way, but there are exceptions. How to Determine What Time It Is in the United States All times can be easily calculated since they are based on UTC (Universal Time Coordinated) which is used worldwide. UTC never changes; it is not a time zone. Regional time zones make adjustments to the relationship of their times to UTC. For example, California is 8 hours behind UTC during Standard Time and 7 hours behind UTC during Daylight Saving. UTC never changes, only the local time changes. Arizona is 7 hours behind UTC, or UTC-7. You can use this time zone converter to see what time it is in any city compared to another city. First Sunday in November through Second Sunday in March All U.S. states are on Standard Time. The time in Phoenix is one hour later than it is in California, for example, Phoenix is two hours earlier than it is in New York. Arizona is three hours later than Hawaii. During this time, Standard Time, Arizona's local time is the same as New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming and Montana, all of which are also UTC-7. Second Sunday in March through First Sunday in November All U.S. states except Arizona and Hawaii observe Daylight Saving Time (DST) by setting their clocks ahead one hour. Phoenix is the same as it is in California, for example, Phoenix is three hours earlier than it is is New York. Because neither Hawaii or Arizona observe DST, Arizona is always three hours ahead of Hawaii (UTC-7 vs. UTC-10). During Daylight Saving Time, Arizona's local time is the same as California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington., all of which are UTC-7. Exceptions to MST in Arizona The Navajo Nation in Northern Arizona DOES observe Daylight Saving Time. That means that for half the year there are parts of Arizona that are on different times. Even worse, I stayed at a resort on Navajo land that actually opted out of Daylight Saving Time. It was so confusing! When I asked about it I was told that since most of their guests were expecting them to use Arizona's time zone they decided to stick with Mountain Standard Time. Myth: Arizona Changes to Pacific Time for Half the Year This is a common myth. Arizona doesn't change time zones, ever. It just so happens that MST and PDT, as you can see on the chart above, are on the same time, UTC-7, for half the year. Tip: All the major cities in Arizona, including Tucson, Mesa, Scottsdale, Glendale and Flagstaff, are always the same time as Phoenix.

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A global community of nature enthusiasts photographing and learning about wildlife There are two or more generations a year in eastern North America (Wagner 2005). They overwinter in the egg stage. Eggs Eggs are laid in a single mass over the cocoon of the female, and covered in a froth (Wagner 2005). Up to 300 eggs are laid at a time. Larvae The larvae are brightly coloured, with tufts of hair-like setae. The head is bright red, the body has yellow or white stripes, with a black stripe along the middle of the back. There are bright red defensive glands on the hind end of the back. Four white toothbrush-like tufts stand out from the back, and there is a grey-brown hair pencil at the hind end. Touching the hairs will set off an allergic reaction in many humans (Wagner 2005). Young larvae skeletonize the surface of the leaf, while older larvae eat everything except the larger veins (Rose and Lindquist, 1982). They grow to about 35 mm. Pupae The caterpillars spin a grayish cocoon in bark crevices and incorporate setae in it (Rose and Lindquist, 1982). The moths emerge after 2 weeks. Adults The females have reduced wings and do not leave the vicinity of the cocoon. The males are grey with wavy black lines and a white spot on the forewings. (The vapourer, Orgyia antiqua, is similar but is a rusty colour.) The antennae are very feathery. Moths are found from June to October. The caterpillars may be found feeding on an extremely wide variety of trees, both deciduous and coniferous, including apple birch, black locust, cherry, elm, fir, hackberry, hemlock, hickory, larch, oak, rose, spruce, chestnut, and willow (Wagner 2005). Defoliating outbreaks are occasionally reported especially on Manitoba maple and elm in urban areas (Rose and Lindquist, 1982). Outbreaks are usually ended by viral disease

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When babies are born with a hole in their heart (either between the upper or lower chambers), they have a septal defect, the most common form of congenital heart disease. Although it's not clear what causes all septal defects, genetic studies primarily utilizing large families have led to the discovery of several causative genes. Vidu Garg, MD, the study's lead author, previously reported that a single nucleotide change in the GATA4 gene in humans causes atrial and ventricular septal defects along with pulmonary valve stenosis. In mice, the GATA4 gene has been shown to be necessary for normal heart development and its deletion leads to abnormal heart development. "While GATA4 has been shown to be important for several critical processes during early heart formation, the mechanism for the heart malformations found in humans with the mutation we previously reported is not well understood," said Dr. Garg, a pediatric cardiologist in The Heart Center and principal investigator in the Center for Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Research at The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital. To better characterize the mutation, Dr. Garg and colleagues generated a mouse model harboring the same human disease-causing mutation. They saw heart abnormalities in the mice that were consistent with those seen in humans with GATA4 mutations. Upon further examination, they found that the mutant protein leads to functional deficits in the ability for heart cells to increase in number during embryonic development. "Our findings suggest that cardiomyocyte proliferation deficits could be a mechanism for the septal defects seen in this mouse model and may contribute to septal defects in humans with mutations in GATA4," said Dr. Garg, also a faculty member at The Ohio State University College of Medicine. "This mouse model will be valuable in studying how septation and heart valve defects arise and serve as a useful tool to study the impact of environmental factors on GATA4 functions during heart development." Mary Ellen Peacock | EurekAlert! ‘Farming’ bacteria to boost growth in the oceans 24.10.2016 | Max-Planck-Institut für marine Mikrobiologie Calcium Induces Chronic Lung Infections 24.10.2016 | Universität Basel Terahertz excitation of selected crystal vibrations leads to an effective magnetic field that drives coherent spin motion Controlling functional properties by light is one of the grand goals in modern condensed matter physics and materials science. A new study now demonstrates how... Researchers from the Institute for Quantum Computing (IQC) at the University of Waterloo led the development of a new extensible wiring technique capable of controlling superconducting quantum bits, representing a significant step towards to the realization of a scalable quantum computer. "The quantum socket is a wiring method that uses three-dimensional wires based on spring-loaded pins to address individual qubits," said Jeremy Béjanin, a PhD... In a paper in Scientific Reports, a research team at Worcester Polytechnic Institute describes a novel light-activated phenomenon that could become the basis for applications as diverse as microscopic robotic grippers and more efficient solar cells. A research team at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) has developed a revolutionary, light-activated semiconductor nanocomposite material that can be used... By forcefully embedding two silicon atoms in a diamond matrix, Sandia researchers have demonstrated for the first time on a single chip all the components needed to create a quantum bridge to link quantum computers together. "People have already built small quantum computers," says Sandia researcher Ryan Camacho. "Maybe the first useful one won't be a single giant quantum computer... COMPAMED has become the leading international marketplace for suppliers of medical manufacturing. The trade fair, which takes place every November and is co-located to MEDICA in Dusseldorf, has been steadily growing over the past years and shows that medical technology remains a rapidly growing market. In 2016, the joint pavilion by the IVAM Microtechnology Network, the Product Market “High-tech for Medical Devices”, will be located in Hall 8a again and will... 14.10.2016 | Event News 14.10.2016 | Event News 12.10.2016 | Event News 24.10.2016 | Earth Sciences 24.10.2016 | Life Sciences 24.10.2016 | Physics and Astronomy

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Discussion Guide for Student Chapter Facilitation from Racial and Ethnic Relations ( Feagin & Feagin , 2012) Name: Liset Rosas Title of Chapter: English Americans and the Anglo-Protestant Culture 1. Answer the following questions for your assigned chapter and present them in your overview to the class. Submit your this form with completed questions on Blackboard under the assignment tab, “Chapter Facilitation Questions” • Why did this group come to the United States? English people, also referred to as Anglo Protestants, came to the United States to profit from the land acquired form Native Americans. Their motives included establishing new trading posts, sources of raw materials, and markets for English goods. Additionally, some English people had Protestant missionary objectives and wanted to escape from the overpopulation in their country. • What were the push and pull factors involved in immigration/emigration of this group? The push factors involved in the immigration of the English people included overpopulation, poverty, and unemployment in England. The pull factors involved in the immigration of English people were freedom, economic wealth, land ownership, and business advancement. • Historically, what (if any) discrimination did this group face? This group did not face any discrimination. English people colonized North America in large numbers and greatly influenced the dominant culture of America. • Historically, what specific laws and policies impacted their immigration and assimilation into the United States? How did these laws and policies impact their experiences? There were no specific laws or policies that impacted the immigration and assimilation of English people into the United States. Instead, English Americans heavily influenced political and legal institutions, such as the creation of The Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution. These policies positively impacted their experiences by protecting their properties and wealth. Additionally, English Americans created the norms for the assimilation of other immigrant groups. • Describe the current/present day experience of the ethnic group in terms of political, social and economic power. In other words, how has structural power or oppression impacted their current status in the United States? In the present day, English Americans are the third largest ethnic group in the United States. However, structural power has impacted their status in dominance over economic and political institutions in the United States. Statistically, they are highly educated and economically better than off than those in the total U.S. population. They have also had political advantages in officeholding since about two-thirds of the U.S. presidents had English ancestry. American culture is heavily based from the early influence of English people. 2. Create 1-2 questions to facilitate class discussion, after you complete your presentation. Write the question below. Why do you think English Americans have maintained dominance over their influence on America’s religious, economic, and political institutions?

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Tropical rainforests in Central and South America are being overrun by lianas, parasitic woody vines that clamber up trees and smother the forest canopy as they reach for sunlight. But the vines may be doing more than infiltrating the ecosystem — they may actually be protecting it. Some researchers suspect that the vines act like lightning rods, saving trees from damage. Understanding this dynamic could help inform how the rainforests will change in the coming years, especially given the predicted effects of climate change on both lightning and lianas. In July, a group led by Steve Yanoviak, an ecologist at the University of Louisville in Kentucky, will head to Barro Colorado Island in Panama to begin a two-year study of lianas’ potentially protective role in the environment. “Nobody has ever thought of lianas as anything but a structural parasite,” says Yanoviak. “But they might have this unforeseen secondary effect of protecting trees against strikes.” Although lightning often sparks fires when it hits in temperate forests, tropical rainforests are usually too moist to ignite. Instead, lightning strikes are more likely to kill individual trees, leaving holes in the forest canopy, says Mark Cochrane, an ecologist at South Dakota State University in Brookings. Still, there's been very little study of the widespread effects of strikes on a tropical forest. As temperatures increase and droughts become more frequent and prolonged, the risk of lightning-triggered fires in tropical forests could increase, says Stefan Schnitzer, an ecologist at the University of Wisconsin in Milwaukee. One climate-modelling study by NASA researchers estimates that a 4.2 °C increase in global temperature would result in 30% more global lightning1. Meanwhile, climate models predict more extensive drought. Hence, if lianas do have a substantial lightning mitigation effect, their impact could be significant. In recent years, the vines have proliferated. Researchers reported that by 2007, 75% of Barro Colorado Island's trees were covered with lianas, up from 32% in 19682. Lianas capitalize on forest disturbances, taking over quickly when a fallen tree leaves a gap in the canopy and climbing high into trees in dry, light-filled areas created by new roads and clear-cutting. And they grow several times faster than trees during dry weather. Yanoviak’s preliminary experiments in oak-hickory forests near Louisville indicate that vine stems have lower resistance to electricity than tree branches. The data suggest that vines such as lianas could channel the current from a lightning strike, similar to lightning rods on buildings. To test the idea, Yanoviak and his group plan to set up devices to initiate lightning strikes on trees and lianas. The remote-controlled devices are giant balloons containing 1-metre-long metal pistons. When ground-based sensors suggest a strike is imminent, the pistons can be shot up to catch the bolt. The set-up could help the group trigger lightning strikes on specific trees, or specific lianas, so that they can observe the outcome. “It’s an interesting hypothesis,” says Cochrane, who is not involved in the study. “But the only way the vines would shield the tree is if their conductivity was so much higher that almost all of the current flowed through the lianas.” Yanoviak acknowledges that the small difference in electrical resistance between trees and lianas may not make a life-or-death difference during a massive electrical event like lightning. “At that scale they may not matter, but we don’t know that yet,” he says. “It could be that lightning is such a trivial agent of mortality that it doesn’t matter, but at least we’ll know.” - Journal name:

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Non-Monetary Assets Meaning Non-monetary asset, in financial accounting, refers to all tangible and intangible assets that do not have a fixed monetary value. The primary purpose of these assets is to serve as an essential component of the business that aids in its daily operations. These non-monetary assets and liabilities hold a long-term value in the financial records. They provide a source of revenue for the firm. Also, they have a competitive add-on advantage in terms of intangible items. In addition, they can also act as collateral against debt financing. However, it can be challenging to determine non-monetary asset value. Table of contents - Non-monetary assets refer to items that do not hold the feature of liquidity. In short, turning them into cash is not easy. Thus, it is difficult to determine their value. - It includes two types of assets, namely tangible and intangible. - Intangible assets include patents, trademarks, copyrights, intellectual property rights, and more. During mergers, the firms can indulge in non-monetary asset exchange. - Here, entities exchange assets with each other at a boot price and commercial substance. Later, determining gain or loss becomes easy. Non-Monetary Assets Explained The non-monetary asset is a balance sheet item with no fixed value for converting it into cash. In addition, the non-monetary assets’ value keeps on changing daily. Therefore, it means it is difficult to determine the precise value of these assets. However, they play a vital role in the functioning of the business as they have frequent use. This category includes two major types of assets. It includes tangible and intangible assets. Tangible assets include items that have the physical quality to touch and use. Some instances include property, plant, equipment, machinery, and inventory. In contrast, intangible assets consist of items that have no physical appearance. However, they have the utmost importance to the business. It includes patents, trademarks, copyrights, intellectual property rights, and more. It is important to note that both asset types have no fair market value. Moreover, certain factors can influence the fair value of non-monetary assets and liabilities, like inflation level, depreciation rate, and other macroeconomic factors. For example, the value of inventory will depend on the market forces of demand and supply. In contrast, the property value fluctuates in response to inflation. Furthermore, the accounting treatment of non-monetary assets differs in books. Every listed asset incurs associated expenses. However, non-monetary assets have specific issues listed. The constant fluctuation of these assets can cause an improper balance of the company’s portfolio. In addition, it is quite hectic to forecast a precise asset value. Also, these assets bring certain regulatory risks and legal issues to the firm. Hence, for instance, if the company’s intellectual property or patent collides with another firm, it can cause legal hindrances. Thus, an identifiable non-monetary asset meets specific criteria related to control, cost measurability, expected future economic benefits, and separability. Let us look at the examples of non-monetary assets to comprehend the concept better: Let’s consider a fictional scenario involving a marketing agency called Merkle Inc. In the course of its operations, the agency invests in building a strong brand reputation, creating a unique and recognizable logo, and establishing a memorable company slogan. While these elements don’t have a physical presence, they collectively form a valuable non-monetary asset known as goodwill. Hence, the goodwill associated with the agency represents the positive public perception, client relationships, and the reputation it has built over the years. Therefore, this intangible asset becomes an essential component of the agency’s overall value. The agency’s clients are more likely to choose its services over competitors due to the trust and credibility associated with its brand. While goodwill doesn’t appear on the balance sheet as a tangible asset, its impact on client retention and new business opportunities contributes significantly to the agency’s long-term success and market position. Thus, this non-monetary asset showcases how intangible elements can be vital in determining the value and competitiveness of a business. According to OLD Mutual Insurance Company (OMI), its investment strategy has remained heavily weighted towards non-monetary assets, and the company is looking for chances to invest any extra cash in companies that are part of the short-term insurance value chain. The Zimbabwe National Numbers Agency has revealed blended inflation numbers that show monthly inflation increasing uncontrollably in May 2023, up 13.3 percentage points from the rate of 2.4% to 15.7% in April 2023. Moreover, the company claims that despite robust growth in US dollar premiums, clients continued to select plans denominated in US dollars. We kept looking into ways to manage resources wisely and protect shareholder value in an inflationary operating environment. Non-Monetary Assets Exchange The exchange of non-monetary assets refers to transactions in which entities swap assets without involving cash. From the business perspective, non-monetary items are treated as a source of revenue for the firm. However, there can be instances where a business engages in mergers and acquisitions. Non-monetary asset exchanges can occur for strategic reasons, such as when two companies see value in each other’s assets and decide to trade rather than purchase through cash transactions. It allows entities to optimize their asset portfolios, acquire assets that better fit their needs, or divest assets that are no longer aligned with their strategic objectives. There are three types of situations that primarily involve non-monetary asset exchange. It includes transfers between subsidiaries, mergers and acquisitions, and stock or dividend splits. However, each of them involves non-monetary exchange rules. Let us look at them: - Losses are never ignored. - An asset transferred is immediately removed from the books. - Assets transferred must be recorded at their fair value when gains and losses have occurred. - In contrast, if no gains or losses are noted, the asset exchanged must be recorded at the book value. - No gain is recorded when similar assets are exchanged, as the earning period starts after the complete transfer. - Likewise, gains from different assets are noted in the books. In addition, this exchange also includes a commercial substance. It acts as a protective gear if the future cash flows of the firm change due to the asset. For example, if the parties exchange dissimilar assets, the commercial substance has a high chance of occurrence. Non-monetary Assets vs Monetary Assets Although non-monetary and monetary assets comprise the firm’s entire portfolio, they have distinct features. So, let us look at the differences between them: |It refers to assets that do not have a fixed monetary value. |Monetary assets are balance sheet items held as cash in the financial statements. |Businesses can use these assets as a medium of exchange during mergers and acquisitions. |To pay all the expenses, bills, and obligations of the business. |Hence, it takes work to convert them into cash.. |They are already in cash form. Therefore, it has the highest liquidity. |These include tangible and intangible assets like plants, machinery, inventory, and patents. |Cash balance, bank deposits, short-term investments, and others. |As asset transfer during mergers and acquisitions. |Moreover, these assets are used daily. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) Yes, prepayments can be non-monetary assets if the payment is for goods and services deemed to be received in the future. However, if the same advance payment is made to the supplier before the goods are delivered, it is a monetary asset. Thus, prepayments are both non-monetary and monetary assets. Items that fall under these assets are plant, property, machinery, equipment, and inventory. So, if the firm starts production on a particular piece of land, a certain inventory level will be produced with the help of machinery and equipment. As a result, on sales, the firm will earn huge revenues that will add to the future cash flows or net worth. Yes, impairment tests may be performed on these assets, particularly intangible assets. An impairment loss is recorded, lowering the asset’s value on the balance sheet, if the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount. This article has been a guide to Non-Monetary Assets and their meaning. Here, we explain their examples, exchange, and comparison with monetary assets. You may also find some useful articles here –

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As nouns the difference between scream and creek is that scream is a loud, emphatic, exclamation of extreme emotion, usually horror, fear, excitement et cetera can be the exclamation of a word, but is usually a sustained, high-pitched vowel sound, particularly /æ/ or /i/ while creek is one of a native american tribe from the southeastern united states. As a verb scream is to cry out with a shrill voice; to utter a sudden, sharp outcry, or shrill, loud cry, as in fright or extreme pain; to shriek; to screech. As a proper noun creek is the muskogean language of the creek tribe. As an adjective creek is of or pertaining to the creek tribe.

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Creative thinking is divergent, while critical thinking is convergent. Creative Thinking Creative thinking is a way of looking at problems or situations from a fresh perspective to conceive of something new or original. That is, readings should be able to be understood by students, but also challenging. If students learn to think critically, then they can use good thinking as the guide by which they live their lives. The ability to pick and choose where to apply these thinking skills is almost a skill in of itself. And sometimes it is helpful to lay a problem aside, allowing its elements to percolate in the subconscious mind, and return to it later to see what new angles or solutions may emerge. In the normative aspect of decision making, on the other hand, it is focused more on the logical and rational way of making decisions until a choice is made. Those similarities include that people use these skills to solve a problem. Characteristics of Critical Thinking Wade identifies eight characteristics of critical thinking. Students must write questions about the lecture material. The nurse must believe that life should be considered as invaluable regardless of the condition of the patient, with the patient often believing that quality of life is more important than duration. Robertson andRane-Szostak identify two methods of stimulating useful discussions in the classroom: On the other hand, creative thinking is not selective. Teaching writing and research as inseparable: A person needs to understand the similarities and differences between critical thinking and creative problem solving, so he or she can use these skills appropriately. If students learn to think critically, then they can use good thinking as the guide by which they live their lives. Also some cases require the person to think critically instead of letting their imagination wander. Decision making is the key that will help in reaching the right conclusion in problem solving. A negotiation model for teaching critical thinking. The nursing education programs should adopt attitudes that promote critical thinking and mobilize the skills of critical reasoning. It is included in the larger problem process, namely, problem finding and problem shaping. How can we teach critical thinking. Basic theory and instructional structure. To recognize its strengths and weaknesses and, as a result, 2. The major difference between the two is; problem solving is a method while decision making is a process. What is Creative Thinking. A situation may need a concrete resolution, where another situation may require possible solutions. A consensus statement on critical thinking in nursing. People who think critically tend to think vertically, where creative thinkers are more lateral. The teacher does not "teach" the class in the sense of lecturing. Procedures for Applying Criteria: California Academic Press; He argues that to live successfully in a democracy, people must be able to think critically in order to make sound decisions about personal and civic affairs. Here are some samples:. Analytical and creative problem solving abilities rely on different skill sets. Analytical thinking is also referred to as logical thinking, while creative thinking can also be called "lateral" thinking. Sometimes the difference is described in terms of left-brain, or analytical, and right brain, or. "Most formal definitions characterize critical thinking as the intentional application of rational, higher order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, problem recognition and problem solving, inference, and evaluation" (Angelo,p. 6). Huge, huge difference. Pretty much everyone on the planet engages in problem solving on a daily basis. One doesn't need to be a critical thinker to engage in problem solving, one just needs basic knowledge or creativity. In fact, in many ways. solving, according to a Critical Problem solving and critical thinking refers to the ability to use knowledge, facts, and data to effectively solve problems. This Discuss the difference between praise, criticism, and feedback and ask participants for. Creative Thinking vs Critical Thinking. Creative Thinking and Critical Thinking are two expressions that show the difference between them when it comes to their inner meanings. When thinking about problem solving, it can be interesting to think how to use the creative thinking and the creative thinking in each of the stages. Initially some people might think that the stage of generating the ideas is just creative thinking and the stage of choosing which ones to implement is critical thinking.What is the difference between critical thinking and creative problem solving

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What is the Convention of States? Article V of the U.S. Constitution states “…on the application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof…” In plain English, it simply says that state legislatures can amend the U.S. Constitution, provided two thirds of the states agree to do so. States will vote to elect delegates to represent them at the Convention. These delegates will vote on various bills that have been passed by the represented states’ legislatures to be presented at the Convention. If three fourths of the states’ delegates vote in favor of an issue, it passes and goes directly to Congress to be voted on. In this way, the people can amend the U.S. Constitution. The Convention of States is not a new movement or idea. There was also a Convention of States in 1789, through which the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments that protect the basic rights of the citizen, was established. The Modern Movement The modern Convention of States movement seeks to restore state sovereignty, mend the federal debt/spending issues, etc. Dr. Michael P. Farris, Project Director of the Convention of States Project, says, “The only and best solution is for the states to stand together and not merely defy federal power grabs, we can actually remove their power. This is called the Convention of States.” Through the Convention, many are hoping to eliminate executive overreach, impose term limits on Congress and Supreme Justices, etc. This has been sparked by the many executive orders under the Bush and Obama administrations, along with other factors such as the incompetence of Congress to establish a balanced federal budget. While it seems that the country could profit from such a Convention, there are many who are concerned about what could potentially go wrong after delegates are chosen and power is passed out of the hands of the people. They believe that it is likely to become a “runaway convention” in which the people have no voice at all. Some suggest that the delegates might even go as far as to eliminate the Bill of Rights completely. The most weighty arguments against the Convention of States include the idea that Congress pays little mind to what the Constitution currently says, and a Convention to amend it most likely won’t make a difference in the matter. Some even argue that the Constitution isn’t flawed to begin with. There is also a concern as to which party will hold the majority at the Convention, and how that will affect what gets passed into law. As with many projects such as this, there is the question of who will pay for an event of this size, the answer to which seems to be “taxpayers.” The founding fathers recognized that the Constitution would have flaws and so included in the document ways in which it can be amended, one of which is included in Article V. Is this an advisable method? You decide. “The founders inserted this alternative method [the Convention of States] of obtaining constitutional amendments because they knew the Congress would be unwilling to give attention to many issues the people are concerned with, particularly those involving restrictions on the federal government’s own power. The founders foresaw that and they provided the convention as a remedy. If the only way to get that convention is to take this minimal risk, then it is a reasonable one.” – Supreme Justice Antonin Scalia, 1979

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The Gurudwara (Takht) Shri Patna Sahib Bihar is one of the holiest places for the Sikhs as it was the birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh the tenth Guru. Guru Gobind Singh was born on December 22nd 1666 and the Gurudwara was built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) the founder of the Sikh Empire on the banks of the Ganges River in Patna Bihar. This is one of the five takhts or holy seats of authority of the Sikhs. Guru Gobind Singh set up the new order Khalsa Panth with emphasis on unity and integration and baptised the Panj Pyaras representing the different sections of society on Baisakhi day at Anandpur Sahib. The site of the present Takht was originally the palatial house of Salis Rai Johri a middle aged jeweller who was highly influenced by the Divine personality and teachings of Guru Nanak. Guru Tegh Bahadur the ninth Guru stayed in the same place on his visit to Patna. Leaving his enceinte wife here he proceeded for Sangat(religious congregation) to the East. Guru Gobind Singh was born here and spent his childhood here until his departure in 1670 for Punjab. Salis Rai then donated the house as a place of worship. Later on Maharaja Ranjit Singh constructed a Gurudwara which was unfortunately destroyed twice by fire and earthquake and finally he built the Gurudwara as is seen today though he did not survive to see its completion. The temple is also called Harmandir or Hari Ke Mandir which means House of God. The temple was constructed finally by Kar Seva where all Sikhs join together to undertake the task. It is a five storey building built entirely of marble and the sanctum where Guru Gobindji was born has a circumambulatory passage around it. The spacious high ceiling congregation hall is adjacent to it. The arch of the door of the inner sanctum opening on to the congregation hall is covered with gilded copper plates embossed with floral design which matches the marble structure on the interior walls. There are three canopied seats facing the hall and the central one has Guru Granth Sahib placed on it with the Dasam Granth next to it. Both are attended by Granthis holding whisks over them. The Banis (Hymns) are recited seven times a day. There is a hall for Guru ka langar as in all Sikh gurudwaras where Langar is served to all pilgrims. There is a museum housing paintings, relics and artifacts of the Gurus. Relics and Articles preserved at the Gurudwara The following worth seeing historical relics/articles are preserved at Takht Patna Sahib. - “Sri Guru Granth Sahib” called Bare Sahib containing signature of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. - “Chhabi Sahib” oil painting of Sri Guru Gobind Singh during his younger years. - “Panghura Sahib” a small cradle with four stands covered with gold plates on which Sri Guru Gobind Singh used to sit or sleep when he was a child. - A small “Saif” (Sword) of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. - Four iron “Arrows” of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. - One earthen round “Goli” of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. - One small iron “Chakri” of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. - One small iron “Khanda” of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. - One small iron “Baghnakh-khanjer” of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. - One Wooden Comb of Shri Guru Gobindji. - Two Iron ‘Chaker’ of Shri Guru Gobindji. - One pair “Sandal” made of elephant teeth of Sri Guru Gobind Singh of his boyhood. - One pair ‘Sandal’ made of sandalwood of Guru Tegh Bahadur. - Three wooden spinning instruments of Shri Kabir. - One book containing ‘Hukumnamas’ of Shri Guru Tegh Bahadur and Shri Guru Gobind Singh and their pictures, writings etc. How To Reach Air -The distance from Patna international airport and Patna Sahib Gurudwara is 21 kms and one can travel by bus, taxi or auto to reach it. Rail- Patna Railway station is connected to all major cities and one can travel from Patna Station to “Takht Sri Harmandir Sahib Ji” which is around 13 kms. Road- Good roads connect Patna with other cities across Bihar. State Transport Corporation operates regular buses between Patna and other major cities in Bihar. There are accommodation facilities for pilgrims in the temple complex. There are also budget, semi luxury and luxury hotels in the city. The Patna Sahib Takht or Gurudwara is a shrine of extreme importance to Sikhs all over the world as it is a place visited by both Guru Nanak and Guru Tegh Bahadur and also the birth place of Guru Gobind Singh. Thus it has an unmatched reverence for the Sikhs. In ancient times it was also an epicentre for the spread of Sikhism in Eastern India. The faith and devotion of the pilgrims gets enhanced on seeing the holy relics used by the Gurus and the sacred and sublime atmosphere of the place makes it one of the most famous places of pilgrimage for the Sikhs.

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On the Subject of Stars You are presented with 5 buttons, a randomized digit, a clear button, and a submit button. - To solve this module, you must press the buttons in the correct order according to the table below. Step 1: Determining the row First you need to determine the row you must use to find the correct order of button presses. - Start with the digit in the center of the 5 buttons. - Take that digit and use the row corresponding to it. - NOTE: If the bomb has an indicator with the label "CAR", add the number of batteries to the displayed digit, and modulo 10. This is now the row you must use. Step 2: Determining the sequence Once you've determined the correct row, go through each column from left to right, and use the first one that applies. Press the buttons in the order shown, and then press the submit button to solve the module. If you make a wrong button press before submitting, press the clear botton at the bottom right to reset your input. Pressing the submit button with the wrong order or button presses will grant you a strike. - The numbers within the columns refer to the positions of the buttons. - 1 = Top, 2 = Top Right, 3 = Bottom Right, 4 = Bottom Left, 5 = Top Left.

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Biretta – a square cap sometimes surmounted by a tuft. It is also worn by those holding doctoral degrees from some universities, and occasionally used for caps worn by advocates in law courts. The zucchetto (Italian for “small gourd”) is a small skullcap first adopted for practical reasons — to keep the clergy’s tonsured heads warm in cold, damp churches. Its appearance is almost identical to the Jewish Kippah, though its significance is quite different. Msgr. Georg Gänswein, the well-known, photogenic pope’s private secretary, is shown here wanting to play the well-known German back-street, illegal gambling game “under which zucchetto is the pope hidden?” The saturno takes its name from the rings of Saturn. The pope sometimes wears a red one. The Saturno or Capello Romano has many variations, including tassels to tie it on. G. K. Chesterton’s Father Brown was depicted as having worn one. A mitre, from the Greek μίτρα (‘headband’ or ‘turban’), is the ceremonial head-dress of bishops and certain abbots. Here Presiding Bishop Katharine Jefferts Schori is obeying St Paul’s injunction that a woman should keep her head covered in church (1 Cor 10:11) 🙂 The Canterbury cap is Anglican head-covering, essentially the medieval birettum, descended from the ancient pileus headcovering. Make your own conclusions from the Anglican version being soft and foldable, whereas the biretta, its Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation equivalent, is rigid. - Why be Anglican Episcopalian? - mitregate 3D – the movie! - faux bishop? - The Bishop’s Mitre - just a symbol?

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Cleanliness and purification is one of the great privileges of Islam. It has evolved a wonderful system that encompasses Muslim life on individual and social levels. Islam places great emphasis on cleanliness, in both physical and spiritual terms. The attention to hygiene is the aspect which is an unknown concern in any other religion or philosophy before Islam. While people generally consider cleanliness a desirable attribute, Islam insists on it, making it an indispensable fundamental of faith. Cleanliness is an essential part of Islamic life and in fact the meaning and spirit behind the concept of cleanliness is much beyond the superficial concept of the conventional cleanliness. In the Holy Quran, there are a number of verses which shed light at the importance of cleanliness: "Truly, Allah loves those who turn to Him constantly and He loves those who keep themselves pure and clean." (Al Baqarah 2:222) At another place Allah says: “In it (mosque) are men who love to clean and to purify themselves. And Allah loves those who make themselves clean and pure.” (9:108) Cleanliness and purity has been emphasized by various means in hundreds of Hadith of the Prophet (peace be upon him). In a Hadith he said: Cleanliness is half of faith. (Sahih Muslim Book 2, Number 0432) The importance of cleanliness can be estimated from the fact that the books of Hadith as well as the Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) start with a chapter on cleanliness. There are two terms used in Islamic literature: taharah and nazafah. Taharah (Cleanliness from physical impurities) is required by Islam to be observed by each and every Muslim in his and her daily life while nazafah (neatness) is a desirable attribute. There are two kinds of cleanliness; physical and spiritual. As far as physical cleanliness is concerned, it is of two types. One which is related to human body and the other is related to environment, water, house, road and public places. Muslims are required to observe cleanliness from the excretions of the penis, vagina or anus. Semen, sperm, urine, menstruation, vaginal fluid, stool and blood are impure and require compulsory modes of cleanliness. Muslims wash their genitals after passing urine and secretion and take bath every time they have intercourse with their mates. Muslims also enjoined to use water, not paper or anything else after eliminating body wastes. They are categorically prohibited to have sex with their wives during their menses. A Muslim is obliged to make ablution if exposed to minor impurities. This means he must wash off those parts of the body (like hand, feet, face, nostrils etc) which are commonly exposed to dust, dirt and environmental pollution. Before every prayer (at least five times a day) and before recital of the Quran, Muslims are asked to perform this ablution. Likewise, Muslims are enjoined to have a Ghusl (bathe) after ejaculation, sexual intercourse, menstruation and puerperium. While at many other occasions, bathing is recommended as for Friday prayer, festival days, in Hajj etc. Muslims are duty bound to keep the nails clipped, to remove hair from the armpit and from the pubic area as a matter of routine practice. Muslim males are required to get circumcised to avoid even faint traces of urine entrapped in the foreskin of the genitals. They are also instructed to trim their moustaches in order to avert oral intakes. Islam has directed attention in taking care of mouth by using any purifying agent like miswak. Brushing the teeth (once or twice a day) is very recent development of near past, but Muslims are accustomed this herbal brush for the past 1400 years, five times a day prior to each ablution. There are a number of Hadith that lay special stress on cleaning the teeth, hands and hair. Apart from body, Islam requires a Muslim to keep his clothes, houses and streets clean. In fact a Muslim cannot offer his prayers with unclean body, clothes or using dirty premises. They are asked to use clean water and keep it safe from impurities and pollution. The particular chapter of taharah starts with the classification of water and goes on to describe how water gets impure or polluted. Moreover, Islam instructed Muslims to maintain the cleanliness of the roads and streets. This is considered a charity to ridding the streets of impurities and filth. The Prophet (Peace be upon him) strictly warned against it and considered it one of the reasons to provoke Allah's curse and the people's curse, saying: "Beware of the three acts that cause others to curse you: relieving yourselves in a watering place, on foot paths or shaded places." (Abu Dawud, No 26) Apart from physical cleanliness, Islam emphasizes on spiritual cleanliness. This means that one is free from polytheism, hypocrisy and ill manners, love of wealth, love of fame and other carnal desires. The emphasis in Islam is more on the cleanliness of the inner-self that is heart, mind and soul. The external cleaning process and rituals in reality are the preparatory ground work to obtain the more important task and that is cleanliness of the inner-self, which is the ultimate goal of the religion. Islam requires the sincere believer to sanitize and purify his entire way of life. The directives of Zakah (alms) and fasting are nothing but to purify ones wealth and soul. Cleanliness is the pathway to health and strength. Islam wants a healthy and strong Muslim society which is immune against infectious diseases and is capable of understanding and applying God's message and carrying it away to the whole world. The Holy Quran says: You are the best community that hath been raised up for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing In Allah. (Surah Aal-Imran, 3/110) In view of the significance of cleanliness in Islam, Muslims should have the highest standard of cleanliness and personal hygiene of all the people in the world. But, it is highly regrettable that the heap of garbage has become an identity of Muslim homes and localities. The Muslim majority areas are marked with unhygienic and unhealthy conditions.

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The best way to make sure a Web design and development project goes smoothly is to ensure everyone is working toward the same goals. The only way to ensure they’re working toward the same goals is to, early in the project, express the goals in clear, concrete terms and get agreement on them. An effective way to accomplish this is through the creation of use cases. What is a use case? Historically, software developers created use cases to define how individuals were expected to interact with a system. They expressed an interaction between users and the software, but from the perspective of the users rather than the system, the programmers, or the programming language itself. A single use case represented a single task or goal – usually from the perspective of a single user role (called “actors” in geek-speak). However, a single use case could contain several scenarios, which represent variations that could occur in how the system behaves, depending on a specific action or condition of the actor. For instance, let’s take a look at a simple use case for a word processing application. Say we want to define the printing process. The use case can be expressed in the form of a diagram or in plain text, but either way, it identifies key operations and attributes of the system: - Who or what is using the operation? (In use cases, the actor isn’t always a person) - What is the actor’s goal? - What must the actor do to initiate the process we’re defining? - What does the system provide in return… - …when everything is done and set up properly? …when everything is not done and set up properly? Consider the implications of the failure to go through this exercise. It would be very easy to overlook the need for the system to identify the conditions necessary for the successful completion of this task, and, if those conditions aren’t met, to provide adequate feedback that lets the user know: - That an error has occurred, - What the error was, and - What steps the user must take to correct it Ideally, the system would help in this recovery process (e.g., providing a button or wizard to install a printer), but in some cases, it must suffice to tell the user what is wrong in clear language, such as “Your printer is out of paper.” Don’t laugh. It beats the pants off of some strange error messages we still get from time to time that tell us nothing at all. Use cases for the Web Over time, web development teams started to consider a similar approach to website design. They understood that clients were demanding their websites accomplish more. Partially because there were more opportunities for more severe task failure, usability engineers, experience planners, and developers saw the value of introducing use cases for their projects. With use cases, system designers can define what an actor expects when he comes to a website, what the he must do in order to get the result he expects, and what the system must do, in turn, to deliver that expected result. And they also must provide for the means to recover from an error. An example of this is in an online shopping cart, where the user has not filled in all the fields or has entered obviously false credit information. What does the system show in return? Use cases help teams to identify the optimal workflow, provide safeguards that make that workflow the most likely outcome, and anticipate – in spite of those safeguards – what the likely errors are and how to recover from them. The goals of use cases Building a book of use cases during the planning stages of creating a website provides several important benefits: - Helps prioritize. It helps to identify features that provide the highest business value. This is of particular importance, as it helps companies decide what features are most critical to the successful implementation of the overarching business strategy. - Reduces risk. Each feature takes a certain amount of time to develop. With use cases, it’s easier to estimate how much time (and money) it will take to build a feature. Joined with the budget for the project and the estimate of the value of that feature, it makes it easier to decide which high-risk features are expendable, and which are worth the effort. - Improves usability. Because tasks are explicitly defined and assigned a business value early in the process, it is easier to anticipate possible obstacles as well as plan an iterative usability test plan. Each iterative chunk should be designed, as much as practical to reduce effort duplication, to test the highest value use cases first, to give the team more time to make improvements. Web projects will always have a finite budget and a deadline. Use cases help teams establish a common understanding of what user goals are of the highest value to the business and what level of effort is necessary to deliver on the goals. Then it is up to the team to make sure, through their development processes, that the design and interface successfully communicate to the user what they can expect to do and how they can do it. Ultimately this process helps build better websites that meet the needs of the users and the organization and, through the act of meeting (if not exceeding) audience expectations, endear the brand to the individuals who come to the site.

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For phonics today we will begin on our daily recap of our phase 2 and 3 sounds, I have attached our jolly phonics songs and actions for the children to recap and use this morning, even if your child is still working within Phase 2 it is still useful for them to listen and engage in phase 3. Please focus on the sounds which the children are struggling with. Now recap the memory words focusing on the phase that your child is working in. Below is the first 100 High frequency words, these are the words which the children should be able to read without segmenting and blending, please choose a few a week to practise with your child, you can make a note of the ones they know and then continue to build on their knowledge. Today we are focusing on writing, depending on your child and their ability is the task that you will choose, if your child cannot write all pre writing shapes then please focus on these. If your child can form all the pre writing shapes then they can practise writing cvc words using their phonics knowledge, they can write the words below: If your child is confident with writing simple sounds they can move onto caption writing, the children should carefully listen to the sounds in each word to write the caption, between each word there should be a finger space, this makes it easier to read after. Finger spaces is something which we have discussed in school but you may need to discuss further with your child. As always handwriting is a focus and the children should be using their pre cursive handwriting, they should always write on the line and should be presenting their work as best as they can. Here are the captions below, depending on your child they may write 1 or 2 captions or they may write them all. Fantastic learning this morning, now it is time for you to have a break and a healthy snack!

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Usually, when people are not very familiar with the topic, they use terms “translator” and “interpreter” as if they were synonyms, but the truth is that they are not the same. Although it is true that both jobs are linked to languages and to the capacity of building communication bridges between two languages, there are some substantial differences between both tasks that will be explained in today’s article. 2 differences between translators and interpreters As we just said, when people are not very familiar with the topic, they use terms “translator” and “interpreter” as if they were synonyms, when both jobs are completely different even if linked by the role languages play in their development and by the capacity of becoming a communication bridge between languages. In order to better understand the world of languages and what the role of each domain is, we first should have a look at the differences between jobs. Written language versus oral language The first and main difference between a translator and an interpreter in the type of linguistic expression they use and work with. On the one hand, interpreters work orally, while translators are a written bridge between two languages. As you probably imagined, every task requires its own skills in order to provide a proper result. Different skills required Taking into account the fact that translators juggle with written language and interpreters do it verbally, skills and capacities required and recommended to work in these fields are not the same. In the first case, good writing skills, spelling and grammar are a must. As for interpreters, they need to understand language fast and transfer what it is heard to another language automatically.

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A new smartphone that can determine when you are depressed and urge you to reach out to friends is in development at Northwestern University. Researchers at the school’s Feinberg School of Medicine are working on a variety of web-based, mobile and virtual technologies to treat depression and other mood disorders. Other projects include a virtual human therapist who will work with teens to prevent depression; a medicine bottle that reminds you to take antidepressant medication and tells your doctor if the dosage needs adjusting; and a web-based social network to help cancer survivors relieve sadness and stress. “We’re inventing new ways technology can help people with mental health problems,” said psychologist Dr. David Mohr, director of the new Center for Behavioral Intervention Technologies and a professor of preventive medicine at Northwestern’s Feinberg School. “The potential to reduce or even prevent depression is enormous.” The new approaches could offer new treatment options to people who are unable to access traditional services or are uncomfortable with standard therapy, he added. “They also can be offered at significantly lower costs, which makes them more viable in an era of limited resources.” Topping the list of projects is a smartphone that spots symptoms of depression by harnessing all the sensor data within the phone to interpret a person’s location, activity level (via an accelerometer), social context and mood. If the phone — which learns your usual patterns — senses you are isolated, it will send a suggestion to call or see friends. The technology, which still is being tweaked, is called Mobilyze! and has been tested in a small pilot study, researchers said, noting it helped reduce symptoms of depression. “By prompting people to increase behaviors that are pleasurable or rewarding, we believe that Mobilyze! will improve mood,” Mohr said. “It creates a positive feedback loop. Someone is encouraged to see friends, then enjoys himself and wants to do it again. Ruminating alone at home has the opposite effect and causes a downward spiral.” The new medicine bottle now in development will track if you forgot your daily dose of antidepressant medication and remind you to take it. “People whose depression is being treated by primary care doctors often don’t do very well, partly because patients don’t take their medications and partly because the doctors don’t follow up as frequently as they should to optimize the medication and dosage when necessary,” Mohr said. “This pill dispenser addresses both issues.” The bottle is part of a MedLink system, which will include a mobile app that monitors the patient’s depressive symptoms and any medication side effects and will provide tailored advice to manage problems, he explained. The information is then sent to the physician or health care provider with a recommendation, such as a change in the dose or drug, if necessary. The MedLink system also will be used to improve medication adherence in patients with schizophrenia and HIV. Also in the works is a virtual programmable human who will role-play with adolescents and adults to teach social and assertiveness skills to prevent and treat depression. A prototype is being developed with researchers from the University of Southern California. “We think this will be especially helpful for kids, who often are reluctant to see a therapist,” Mohr said. The program will allow them to practice these behaviors in the safety of virtual space, he said, noting that existing online interventions for teens “look like homework,” while the virtual human feels like a game. The Northwestern lab will be evaluating a number of social interactions that are hard for teens and adults. “Having trouble with those situations makes people more vulnerable to depression,” Mohr said. “When people have the confidence and skills to better manage difficult interpersonal interactions, they are less likely to become depressed.” Previous research also has shown that intervening early in adolescents who have difficulty with social skills can help prevent the first onset of depression, researchers said. Lastly, the researchers are working on web-based content to help cancer survivors manage stress and depression. They note this is more effective when a human coach checks in on their progress via a phone call or e-mail. “People are more likely to stick with an online program if they know that someone they like or respect can see what they’re doing,” Mohr said. His group is creating a social network and collaborative learning environment where peers can serve that function for each other. “People can get feedback from the group, share goals and check in with members if someone has stayed offline for too long,” he said. Source: Northwestern University

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- The critical components of home care for Patient Teaching for an 8yr Old with Rheumatic Fever - The teaching reflects the developmental level of the parent and patient. (e.g., home care instructions for an infant should include the food appropriate for an infant rather than a school aged child). - A written handout that summarizes the “take home” points for the parent to keep as a reference after the teaching session. - A bibliography containing no fewer than three professional journal articles with one being a pediatric specific article. The articles must be less than five years old. Use of APA format for references is expected. - A clear, creative, logical progression geared to a learner at an 8th grade level Nursingpaperservice.com.com is a unique service that provides guidance with different types of content. Please rest assured that the service is absolutely legal and doesn’t violate any regulations.

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Determine the velocity and acceleration when the particle is at: a. For some time, they each have been sensing a sort of electricity in their growing relationship. Determine the speed of the riders on the Whirligig. H whirls the bucket in a vertical circle such that it has a speed of 3. Determine the acceleration, net force and minimum value of the coefficient of friction which is required to keep the car on the road. Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the Earth and the moon. . Last weekend, they perfected the element for inclusion in their upcoming competition. Determine the acceleration of the riders. Determine the orbital speed and orbital period of Messenger. Measurement devices needed: A long measuring tape A stopwatch Step 1: Use the measuring tape to determine the radius r of the path of the car on the circular racetrack. What is the centripetal acceleration and angular velocity of the particle? The driver successfully completes the loop with an entry speed at the bottom of 22. Using energy conservation, determine the speed of the car at the top of the loop. Determine the net force experienced by the bucket at each location. List the standard lab apparatuses needed to make the measurements and the calculations a student can make with the measurements to determine the acceleration. Answer: 42164 km Bonus Problems Related to Circular Motion 1. Please take your time and answer it completely. Determine the velocity of, acceleration of, and net force acting upon the plane. If the radius of the motion is 0. This is useful for communication and weather satellites since antennas on earth do not have to track them and instead are pointed in a permanent direction at the orbiting satellites. Use the geometric center of the car as the location of this point. As part of their lab, Tyler and Maria estimate that the riders travel through a circle with a radius of 6. What is the angular speed? Find the magnitude of the acceleration. The required equations and background reading to solve these problems is given on the. Determine the normal force acting upon the pilot. Determine the orbital speed of a geostationary satellite. The average distance separating the Earth and the moon is 3. Determine the orbital radius of a geostationary satellite. Standing 42 stories high and holding as many as 780 passengers, the Ferris wheel has a diameter of 150 meters and takes approximately 30 minutes to make a full circle. The radius of the circle is 0. Circular Motion and Gravitation: Problem Set Problem 1: During their physics field trip to the amusement park, Tyler and Maria took a rider on the Whirligig. Of course, the object would have to be forced differently to keep the speed the same if the mass changes. Example: If the actual radius is 10. What is the tangential velocity of the particle? During this maneuver, Landon holds Jocelyn by the hand and swings her in a circle while she maintains her blades on the ice, stretched out in a nearly horizontal orientation. It is a completely circular loop - 14. Determine a the magnitude of the angular speed after 2 seconds b the angular displacement after 1 minute. A ball attached to one end of a cord, is revolved in a circle with radius of 2 meters at the constant speed of 60 rpm. The radius of the barrel is 26 cm. The radius of the circle about which the outside riders move is approximately 7. With what speed must he throw the ball in order to put it into orbit? Determine the acceleration of the car at the top of the loop. The speed can never be zero, because there is always a component of the velocity in the j direction. Phobos, a moon of the planet Mars, was discovered in 1877. Determine the magnitude of this force of gravitational attraction. By measuring the orbital period and orbital radius of a moon about a planet, Newton's laws of motion can be used to determine the mass of the planet. If spinning at this rate, what is the speed of the outer row of data on the disc; this row is located 5. The turning radius of the level curve is 35. After 60 seconds, ball moves 60 revolutions. Determine the time for outside riders to make one complete circle. This is the largest expected error that is too high. The average distance separating the Earth and the sun is 1. Step 2: Use the stopwatch to determine the time T needed for the car to move once around the track. The Whirligig ride consists of long swings which spin in a circle at relatively high speeds. Example: If the actual radius is 10. This occurs at its maximum level when the radius is 10% too low and the time measurement is 10% too high: Example: If the actual radius is 10. In last year's regional competition, Dominic whirled the 1.

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How to Etch a Printed Circuit Board Have you ever thought of making a printed circuit board at home? You can now use it for all types of home-made electronics. 1.Wear goggles and gloves (not optional). Always remember safety first. You can blind yourself easily! 2.Make sure the area is well ventilated before mixing. Chemicals will produce harmful fumes that may do harm to your health. 3.Use non-metallic basin. Check if it can tolerate the acid using a few drops. 4.Gently pour one part hydrochloric acid into every two parts hydrogen peroxide (add acid to water). When mixed together, they can generate severe skin irritants and can produce toxic chlorine gas. 5.Enough solution to completely submerge the circuit board. 6.Gently place on the circuit board and stir for 10 to 15 minutes. The solution will be warmer and smoky. 7.Continue stirring until all copper is dissolved and the solution appears slight green tinge. 8.Do wear gloves when cleaning. Clean circuit board with cold water to remove any etching solution. Then completely dry it with a towel or rag. Put it aside. Make sure there are no solutions in the work area or in the container and then take off gloves and goggles. 9.Mix acetone and rubbing alcohol at 1:1 ratio. Pick up the paper towel, immerse it in the solution and gently wipe the board surface. Permanent markings will begin to fall off. Continue rubbing until all markers disappear. You should see your circuit is now carved in copper. 10.Etching solutions are toxic to fish and other water organisms. Do not pour it into the sink when you finished. This is illegal and can damage your pipelines.

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The bell has tolled. For a mere four words, that simple sentence presents an odd little linguistic dilemma – one that calls to mind the old admonition from writing professors about avoiding the passive voice. You know, the childish dodge of “the window got broken” rather than “I did it!” Grammatically, the “passive voice” is invoked when the subject of a sentence is NOT the performer of the main verb’s action. For example, The winner [subject] crossed [main verb] the finish line. ACTIVE The finish line [subject] was crossed [main verb]. PASSIVE Passive construction begs the question “by…?” (Naturally, in the childhood story, the answer becomes “the ball,” the performer though not the perpetrator of the damaging action.) Similar to the destructive ball, our noisy bell requires assistance in the performance of its action. Hence, the “odd little linguistic dilemma” with “The bell has tolled.” (And NO, it’s not “told,” though a tolling bell can be telling.) Structurally, the sentence is written in the active voice. Passively, it would read: The bell has been tolled. (By…? See how that works!) On a literal level, the sentence evokes the question “how” – how did that happen, what perpetrated the action? Hey, isn’t that the same question? Indeed…and therein lies the dilemma. The words convey an identical meaning with or without that voice-changing auxiliary verb..kinda like the way ‘flammable” and “inflammable” offer the same cautionary advice. Is there really a need for both? In actual practice, the manipulation of voice can be a handy tool, and not solely for shady or self-serving motives. A tolling bell may, for instance, symbolize the passage of time; it may raise even more questions, like “for whom”; it could conceivably lead to an “indirect object” or two. For many years, the bell tolled many a student their release from my pedagogically diabolical clutches. Once again, the bell has tolled.

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The key to helping your adolescent develop effective communication and conflict-resolution skills is providing a safe, nurturing atmosphere. It’s important to take stock of your child’s abilities and challenges in order to address any shortcomings. While the process may be challenging, the benefits are well worth the effort. Encourage effective ways of talking to one another and settling disagreements. Effective dispute resolution is essential for preserving family unity and strengthening bonds. Disruptive patterns of behavior can emerge if conflicts are not resolved effectively, which can have far-reaching effects on family life. Counselors know the causes of conflict and counseling can teach teenagers tomanagestress. Understanding the many approaches to resolve conflicts might help. Perspectives, requirements, self-concept, and values all play a role in shaping an individual’s preferred mode of communication. Listening To Teenagers Active listening is the most crucial communication ability. The greatest strategy to improve in this area is to actively listen to others and try to decipher their intended meanings. Asking for help is another effective communication method. A family member may need to be more assertive if they want anything addressed. This will not only make the family member feel heard but will aid in the development of their communication abilities. The Win-Win approach is another effective method for resolving disagreements. The most typical approach is to expertly manage the disagreement and work toward a solution that satisfies both parties. This is a time-consuming and adaptable technique. Group Counseling For Teens Involving all parties in a family dispute is a great strategy to execute the Win-Win approach. Because finding common ground is the best approach to end a disagreement, the Win-Win technique is becoming increasingly popular. One of the best ways to improve one’s communication abilities is to study the many approaches to resolving disagreements. A therapist can be helpful in accomplishing this. These professionals can teach members of the family how to use various forms of communication to their advantage. Family life can benefit from learning effective methods for resolving conflicts. As an added bonus, it may be a fantastic tool for illustrating the advantages of open dialogue to young people. Encourage the development of the adolescent’s independence and skill Independence is a fundamental human requirement. Personal autonomy entails the freedom to determine one’s own medical treatment. Informed consent relies heavily on this notion. When a kid has autonomy over his or her life, he or she is more likely to feel capable. Adolescence is a time of development for the self-control mechanisms that are crucial to good decision-making, including cognitive and emotional regulation. That’s great news since it means more independence is possible now. Teens are more likely to develop a sense of independence when they are trusted with responsibility, given meaningful tasks, and the flexibility to make their own choices. Create Healthy Attachments Teens who have healthy attachments are also more likely to develop a sense of independence. Parents who understand their child’s emotional needs and give stability foster secure ties. Positive psychological and social outcomes are also associated with secure attachment. Teenagers are less inclined to make logical choices when faced with strong emotions, and this trend continues throughout adulthood. Therefore, a teen who feels powerless over an issue may act out. Some have hypothesized that feeling threatened by one’s independence could trigger this response. There’s also the risk of sending the wrong message about your level of skill. Counselors working with adolescents and their families should be considerate if they hope to foster a sense of agency and competence in their patients. They need to take the teen’s concerns seriously, provide a clear explanation of why they’ve come to a particular conclusion, and then provide care that is both effective and safe. They need to take the patient’s feelings into consideration as well. Additionally, they need to think about the patient’s loved ones and the possibility of state action. The physician is responsible for assessing the risks and advantages of the suggested action plan, especially if the state is involved. Additionally, they should respect the parent’s right to make decisions within the law. Adolescents should be treated with respect and show respect to their elders. Teens who treat each other with respect are also more likely to maintain their relationships. Reciprocal respect is essential. It’s possible to earn respect by laying forth a concrete strategy for improvement. Encourage a friendly, secure atmosphere There are a variety of teen family therapy programs out there with the goal of providing a secure, nurturing setting for the teen and their family. The mental and emotional health of pupils can be enhanced because of the individualized nature of these programs. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)-based programs are one type of such intervention. Adolescents might find relief from stress and anxiety with the help of these programs. The courses can be taught either one-on-one or in a classroom setting. Adolescents can learn self-control, problem-solving, and other soft skills through these programs. The Positive Youth Development program is yet another option. Its goal is to encourage kids’ mental health and help them understand the value of setting a good example. Adolescent physical and mental development are also topics covered in the course. It also educates young people on how to spot the early symptoms of depression. Family members of all ages, including parents, are targeted by the Family Violence Prevention Curriculum. Its goal is to help young people engage in healthier habits. It teaches parents how to communicate effectively with their adolescents. The lessons are planned to boost a kid’s sense of self, resilience, and confidence. Adolescents suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can find help through the Changemakers program, which offers a holistic approach to treating the disease. It also boosts effectiveness, academic performance, and social acceptance. Only licensed mental health professionals may provide this service. In this group, members work on improving their sense of self, their ability to manage their emotions, and their connections with others. The PBIS program, or Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports, is yet another option. Adolescents who engage in high-risk activities, such as bullying, despair, or drug use, may benefit from this school-based preventative program. The main goals of the program are to decrease bullying and improve bystander conduct. Stigmatization associated with suicide is also reduced. Make something special for a teen’s counselor. Encourage your adolescent’s creativity while learning more about the dynamics of your family by having them utilize art supplies. Your adolescent will be more engaged in the healing process if you try this. A genogram can help you and your teen visualize the complex web of relationships within your family tree in a visual way. Better results for your child can be achieved by using this instrument to determine their strengths and limitations. The genogram can also be used to get your teen interested in the treatment procedure. Sitting down with your teen and his or her family is the finest method to learn about his or her strengths and areas for improvement. You can do this over the phone or in person. Your kid will be able to talk about his or her feelings and make an educated choice about how he or she wants to deal with their issues, which is the finest part of this treatment. Using art materials to make a homemade present is one approach. The nicest aspect is that everyone in the household may join in. Together, they can decide on the ideal present for the adolescent while also discussing their unique therapeutic aims. Having your teen design a family heir ring is another fun approach to get them involved. A teenager, for instance, could utilize a genogram to design a family strength ring. You may encourage your tween’s creativity and watch as they learn more about their own abilities and interests in this way. Your child may benefit from this tool during treatment, which will improve their overall outcomes.

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One of President Joe Biden’s first actions in office was to recommit the United States to the Paris Agreement on global warming. The international accord aims to keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius from preindustrial levels, with the ultimate objective of limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Presidential Documents, Executive Order 14008 of January 27, 2021, “Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad,” Federal Register, Vol. 86, No. 19 (February 1, 2021), pp. 7619–7633, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/02/01/2021-02177/tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and-abroad (accessed April 28, 2022), and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Paris Agreement,” November 4, 2016, https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf (accessed April 27, 2022). While the Paris Agreement’s climate impact will be minimal at best (even when assuming that the signatory countries follow through on their commitments), the policies implemented by the Biden Administration to reach its intended targets will impose significant costs on American families and businesses. Americans are struggling under high inflation, exacerbated by record-high energy prices. Prohibiting and restricting the use of natural resources while subsidizing and mandating alternatives will only further increase energy costs. This is perhaps the greatest weakness of the Paris Agreement—while rejecting resources that meet most of the world’s energy needs, the Paris Agreement has yet to address the growing energy needs around the world. Energy is essential to peoples’ health, well-being, and economic opportunity and has been a key driver in the dramatic decrease in mortality and extreme poverty over the past century. To estimate and better understand these broader economic costs, we (the authors of this Backgrounder) modeled a theoretically efficient carbon tax designed to achieve the Biden Administration’s emissions reduction targets. The Administration’s approach is likely to be a less efficient, politically expedient set of policies. Even with theoretical efficiency, we find the costs of the policy to be staggering. The economy would, in aggregate, lose $7.7 trillion of gross domestic product (GDP) through 2040, which is $87,000 per family of four. The climate impact of these policies pale in comparison to the costs. Even if the U.S. and other Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries reduced their emissions to zero today, the averted warming would be a meager 0.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100 according to Heritage Foundation modeling. Whether or not the other OECD countries join the U.S. in meeting the Paris pledges, little if anything will be achieved in terms of moderating global warming. Meeting the Paris pledges will, however, come at a high cost. President Biden should work with Congress on a policy agenda that rejects symbolic but ineffective climate policies, reduces barriers to innovation and economic opportunity, and protects the environment. U.S. leadership on the international stage should be rooted in economic freedom. The U.S. and Nationally Determined Contributions The Paris climate agreement does not set any legally binding requirements on emissions reductions. However, each country must submit a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) that outlines what a country will do to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adapt to a changing climate. NDCs are voluntary, non-enforceable, and typically submitted every five years with increasingly ambitious commitments. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs),” https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs (accessed April 27, 2022). In April 2021, the Biden Administration submitted a new NDC for the U.S. to reduce GHG emissions by 50 percent to 52 percent below 2005 levels by 2030. The White House, “Fact Sheet: President Biden Sets 2030 Greenhouse Gas Pollution Reduction Target Aimed at Creating Good-Paying Union Jobs and Securing U.S. Leadership on Clean Energy Technologies,” April 22, 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/22/fact-sheet-president-biden-sets-2030-greenhouse-gas-pollution-reduction-target-aimed-at-creating-good-paying-union-jobs-and-securing-u-s-leadership-on-clean-energy-technologies/ (accessed April 27, 2022). Further, the Administration set a goal of fully decarbonizing the electricity sector by 2035, and to reach economy-wide net-zero emissions by 2050. While the Administration frequently refers to these as “our” goals, Americans’ representatives in Congress have not acceded to them either in the form of the “advice and consent” of the Senate required for a treaty, nor through concurring and supporting legislation and appropriations. Though other countries, particularly developing ones, have made commitments without legally binding frameworks, America’s targets likely will be binding in practice through domestic laws, regulations, and executive actions. Extreme environmental organizations also are almost certain to sue federal regulatory agencies, states, and private companies to enforce the Biden Administration’s NDC should the U.S. not meet it. See, for example, Ben Lefebvre, “Court Invalidates Gulf of Mexico Oil Lease Sale, Citing Faulty Environmental Analysis,” Politico, January 27, 2022, https://subscriber.politicopro.com/article/2022/01/court-invalidates-gulf-of-mexico-oil-lease-sale-citing-faulty-environmental-analysis-pro-00003090 (accessed April 27, 2022). To date, the federal courts have adopted a variety of responses to the Biden and previous Administrations’ climate-related regulations, granting deference to some regulatory agencies and checking executive action in others. To achieve a 50 percent to 52 percent reduction in GHG emissions from 2005 levels by 2030, the Biden Administration has embarked on a “whole-of-government” approach to reduce GHG emissions in various aspects of the economy, such as electricity generation, commercial and residential buildings, transportation, industrial processes, and agriculture. Presidential Documents, Executive Order 14008, “President Biden Sets 2030 Greenhouse Gas Pollution Reduction Target,” and Presidential Documents, Executive Order 13990 of January 20, 2021, “Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle the Climate Crisis,” Federal Register, Vol. 86, No. 14 (January 25, 2021), pp. 7037–7043, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/01/25/2021-01765/protecting-public-health-and-the-environment-and-restoring-science-to-tackle-the-climate-crisis (accessed April 28, 2022). In addition to directing executive departments and agencies to develop climate adaptation plans, Council on Environmental Quality, “Federal Climate Adaptation Plans,” https://www.sustainability.gov/adaptation/ (accessed April 28, 2022). the Administration has taken many measures to ostensibly limit America’s climate impact, including: - Revoking the cross-border permit for the Keystone XL Pipeline, which would have delivered up to 830,000 barrels of crude oil per day from Alberta, Canada, to U.S. refineries; “Keystone Pipeline Officially Canceled After Biden Revokes Key Permit,” CNBC, June 9, 2021, https://www.cnbc.com/2021/06/09/tc-energy-terminates-keystone-xl-pipeline-project.html (accessed April 28, 2022). - Prohibiting new oil, coal, and natural gas leases on federal lands and waters; Though the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Louisiana issued an injunction in June 2021 requiring the Department of the Interior to hold lease sales, the department is severely restricting access to federal lands and has yet to hold a lease sale. Daren Bakst, ed., “37 Biden Administration Regulations in the Pipeline that Americans Should Know About,” Heritage Foundation Special Report No. 250, December 8, 2021, https://www.heritage.org/sites/default/files/2021-12/SR250.pdf. - Reinstating Obama-era methane regulations for oil and natural gas production and distribution; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “EPA Proposes New Source Performance Standards Updates, Emissions Guidelines to Reduce Methane and Other Harmful Pollution from the Oil and Natural Gas Industry,” November 2, 2021, https://www.epa.gov/controlling-air-pollution-oil-and-natural-gas-industry/epa-proposes-new-source-performance (accessed April 28, 2022). - Reassessing the social cost of carbon dioxide (as well as other GHGs), making it easier for agencies to justify the costs of climate regulations; The White House, “A Return to Science: Evidence-Based Estimates of the Benefits of Reducing Climate Pollution,” February 26, 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/cea/written-materials/2021/02/26/a-return-to-science-evidence-based-estimates-of-the-benefits-of-reducing-climate-pollution/ (accessed April 27, 2022). - Promulgating GHG regulations for new light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles with the ultimate goal of phasing out the internal combustion engine; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Final Rule to Revise Existing National GHG Emissions Standards for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks Through Model Year 2026,” https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/proposed-rule-revise-existing-national-ghg-emissions (accessed April 27, 2022), and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Proposed Rule and Related Materials for Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards,” https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/proposed-rule-and-related-materials-control-air-1 (accessed April 28, 2022). - Signing an executive order calling for half of new car sales to be zero-emission vehicles by 2030; Presidential Documents, Executive Order 14037 of August 5, 2021, “Strengthening American Leadership in Clean Cars and Trucks,” Federal Register, Vol. 86, No. 151 (August 10, 2021), pp. 43583–43585, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/08/10/2021-17121/strengthening-american-leadership-in-clean-cars-and-trucks (accessed May 16, 2022). - Proposing regulations requiring federal pension investment plans to prioritize climate and “environmental, social, and governance” factors over financial security for employees; U.S. Department of Labor, “Prudence and Loyalty in Selecting Plan Investments and Exercising Shareholder Rights–Proposed Rule,” https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ebsa/laws-and-regulations/rules-and-regulations/public-comments/1210-AC03 (accessed April 28, 2022). - Proposing regulations requiring additional disclosure of GHG emissions and “climate risk” by public companies; Securities and Exchange Commission, “The Enhancement and Standardization of Climate-Related Disclosures for Investors,” Proposed Rule, Federal Register, Vol. 87, No. 69 (April 11, 2022), pp. 21334–21437, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2022-04-11/pdf/2022-06342.pdf (accessed April 28, 2022). - Proposing dozens of energy efficiency tests and standards for household and commercial-grade products; Bakst, “37 Biden Administration Regulations.” - Banning federal technical assistance to other countries or use of taxpayer-subsidized international finance for oil, coal, and natural gas projects; Sara Schonhardt, “Biden to End Fossil Fuel Financing Abroad,” E & E News, December 10, 2021, https://www.eenews.net/articles/biden-to-end-fossil-fuel-financing-abroad/ (accessed April 28, 2022). - Signing an executive order requiring federal procurement of GHG-emissions-free electricity, technologies, and building materials. Presidential Documents, Executive Order 14057 of December 8, 2021, “Catalyzing Clean Energy Industries and Jobs Through Federal Sustainability,” Federal Register, Vol. 86, No. 236 (December 13, 2021), pp. 70935–70943, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/12/13/2021-27114/catalyzing-clean-energy-industries-and-jobs-through-federal-sustainability (accessed May 16, 2022). Many of these actions fail to consider the unintended consequences. For instance, revoking the permit for the Keystone XL pipeline will likely result in more crude oil delivered by rail or truck or increased Canadian oil exports to other countries, such as China. Though Congress remains deeply divided on policies to restrict GHG emissions economy-wide, it passed a $1.9 trillion stimulus, which includes $30.5 billion for public transit and billions more for state governments that could be used for climate initiatives. Robinson Meyer, “The Weekly Planet: Biden’s Stimulus Is a Big Deal for Public Transit,” The Atlantic, March 10, 2021, https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2021/03/bidens-stimulus-is-also-sort-of-a-climate-bill/618247/ (accessed April 28, 2022). Congress further passed legislation requiring the reduction of hydrofluorocarbons (GHGs widely used as commercial coolants) and approved a program requiring states to reduce GHG emissions from highway transportation. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Protecting Our Climate by Reducing Use of HFCs,” https://www.epa.gov/climate-hfcs-reduction (accessed April 28, 2022), and Katie Tubb, “Energy and Climate Policies, Cronyism Don’t Belong in Bloated Senate Infrastructure Bill,” The Daily Signal, August 3, 2021, https://www.dailysignal.com/2021/08/03/energy-and-climate-policies-cronyism-dont-belong-in-bloated-senate-infrastructure-bill. Additional action could be on the horizon. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) could unilaterally pursue more stringent climate regulations on existing power plants, which the Supreme Court is reviewing in the case of West Virginia v. EPA. Katie Tubb, GianCarlo Canaparo, and Stephanie Luiz, “Supreme Court Takes Up Challenges to Near Limitless Power of EPA,” The Daily Signal, November 18, 2021, https://www.dailysignal.com/2021/11/18/supreme-court-takes-up-challenges-to-near-limitless-power-of-epa/. The Administration could consider a border adjustment tariff that would levy new taxes on carbon-dioxide-intensive imports. Legislatively, Congress is considering several hundred billion dollars in tax credits and subsidies for investment, production, and consumption of wind power, solar energy, electric vehicles, and other alternative-energy products. Many Democrats have also endorsed a federal clean-electricity standard that would mandate that 100 percent of America’s power come from emissions-free sources by 2035. Modeling the Economic and Climate Impact of Biden’s GHG Commitments It is a challenging task to credibly estimate the cost of climate regulations, subsidies, and mandates on taxpayers, households, and the economy to achieve the Biden Administration’s Paris Agreement objectives. Increasing the cost of energy and narrowing the set of politically acceptable sources of energy increases costs throughout the economy, as energy is needed to produce nearly every good and service. However, without specific details on legislation or how proposed climate regulations would be implemented, we must make some assumptions about the details of changes in policy before producing an estimate of their effects on the economy. To produce our estimate, we used the Heritage Energy Model (HEM), a clone of the U.S. Energy Information Administration’s (EIA’s) National Energy Modeling System (NEMS), to implement a carbon tax. Model simulations increased the value of a carbon tax until the emissions reductions met the Biden Administration’s targets of 50 percent to 52 percent below 2005 levels by 2030. As discussed in prior research, however, there are limitations to the ability of NEMS to handle high-level carbon taxes. Kevin D. Dayaratna and Nicolas D. Loris, “Assessing the Costs and Benefits of the Green New Deal’s Energy Policies,” Heritage Foundation Backgrounder No. 3427, July 24, 2019, https://www.heritage.org/energy-economics/report/assessing-the-costs-and-benefits-the-green-new-deals-energy-policies. To assess the model’s capabilities in simulating the emissions reductions desired by the Biden Administration, we simulated the impact of a variety of carbon taxes and resulting carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions reductions (with respect to 2005 levels) to ascertain what the model could handle. Again, it is worth noting that compared to the unchanged carbon tax we model in this Backgrounder, the many targeted policies, subsidies, and mandates mentioned above increase the cost and inefficiency of meeting the Biden Administration’s commitment under the Paris Agreement. As presented in Chart 1, we began with a tax of $35 per ton of CO2 emissions and gradually increased the tax, which resulted in emissions reductions of 36 percent below 2005 levels. The highest tax that the model could handle was a tax of $300 per ton of CO2 emissions, which resulted in a 44 percent reduction in emissions with respect to 2005 levels by 2030. This carbon tax, and all carbon taxes above $35, were phased in over two years, and subsequently increased at a rate of 2.4 percent per year. For perspective: The Biden Administration’s interim value for the social cost of carbon is $51 per ton. Carbon taxes above $300 result in the model crashing. Thus, although the $300 tax appears to be the upper limit of carbon taxes that NEMS can currently handle, the economic impacts, contained in Charts 2, 3, and 4, likely underestimate the impact of the Biden Administration’s goals. Our model simulations find that between 2023 and 2040, the U.S. will incur: - An overall average reduction of more than 1.2 million jobs, - A peak employment reduction of more than 7.8 million jobs, - An average annual income loss for a family of four of $5,100, - A total income loss for a family of four of more than $87,000 over the 18-year time horizon, - An aggregate GDP loss of over $7.7 trillion over the 18-year time horizon, - An increase in household electricity expenditures averaging 23 percent per year, and - An increase in gasoline prices of more than $2 per gallon annually beginning in 2024 (a more than 90 percent increase over current policy). Charts 2, 3, and 4 present some sector-by-sector employment impacts as well. As is evident, the economic reverberations of re-entry into the Paris Agreement are manifested across the economy, ranging from financial services to telecommunications to various manufacturing industries, among others. As our analysis demonstrates, the economic impact of re-entry into the Paris Agreement is quite significant. The reason is simple: Energy is a fundamental component of virtually all aspects of society and is essential to countless economic interactions. Conventional, carbon-intensive fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—meet 79 percent of Americans’ total energy needs. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “U.S. Energy Facts Explained—Consumption & Production,” last updated May 14, 2021, https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/us-energy-facts/ (accessed May 16, 2022), and U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, January 2022, Table 1.3, https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/sec1_7.pdf (accessed April 27, 2022). The remaining energy came from nuclear power (8 percent) and renewables, including biomass, wind power, hydropower, and solar power (12 percent). Petroleum meets 90 percent of Americans’ transportation fuel needs—energy used by automobiles, trucks, buses, trains, aircraft, and ships. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “U.S. Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2020,” https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/flow/total_energy_2020.pdf (accessed April 27, 2022). Thousands of products are made with oil, coal, and natural gas as feedstocks. Thus, policies that increase energy costs increase costs throughout the economy. Furthermore, as discussed, the modeled impacts almost surely underestimate the true cost of the Biden Administration’s policy approach to climate change as the modeled policy ($300 carbon tax) would only reduce emissions to 44 percent of 2005 levels in 2030 and to 47 percent in 2040. While in theory a carbon tax would be relatively straightforward in its implementation, the slew of regulations, mandates, and subsidies would impose additional compliance costs, market distortions, litigation, and other economic costs. Richard S. J. Tol, “The Structure of the Climate Debate,” Energy Policy, Vol. 104 (May 2017), pp. 431–438, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421517300058 (accessed April 28, 2022), and William D. Nordhaus, “To Tax or Not to Tax: Alternative Approaches to Slowing Global Warming,” Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Winter 2007), pp. 26–44, https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1093/reep/rem008 (accessed April 28, 2022). The collective costs of burdensome regulations, cronyist subsidies, and mandates that restrict consumer choice would be fewer jobs, lost household income, and a weaker economy—all without a meaningful climate benefit. Can the Paris Agreement Mitigate Global Warming? The Paris Agreement is an ill-suited mechanism to curb warming, even when accepting the dubious premise of catastrophic warming. With no enforcement mechanisms and no repercussions for failing to meet emissions reduction targets, countries can continue to emit GHGs well into the future. According to a November 2019 report from the Universal Ecological Fund, “Of the 184 climate pledges, 36 were deemed sufficient (20 percent), 12 partially sufficient (6 percent), 8 partially insufficient (4 percent) and 128 insufficient (70 percent)” for reaching the emissions reduction targets set out by the agreement. Robert Watson et al., “The Truth Behind the Climate Pledges,” Universal Ecological Fund, November 2019, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337033405_The_Truth_Behind_the_Climate_Pledges (accessed April 28, 2022). China, for example, is the world’s largest GHG emitter and is allowed to continue to increase emissions through 2030. China’s emissions are more than double those of the United States and more than those of the entire developed world combined. Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “CO2 Emissions,” Our World in Data, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions (accessed April 28, 2022). China’s total energy consumption has more than tripled since 2000 and it is the world’s top consumer and producer of coal, second for oil consumption, and third for natural gas consumption. Katie Tubb, “It’s Time for Climate Realism When It Comes to China,” The Daily Signal, May 27, 2021, https://www.dailysignal.com/2021/05/27/its-time-for-climate-realism-when-it-comes-to-china/. With per capita energy consumption far below the OECD average, China likely will continue to grow as it looks both to its domestic energy needs and to international energy markets. Consequently, as noted several times by the President’s special climate envoy John Kerry, developed nations could eliminate all GHGs and there would still be no meaningful climate impact. Ebony Bowden, “Kerry Admits Zero Emissions in US Wouldn’t Make Difference in Climate Change,” New York Post, January 27, 2021, https://nypost.com/2021/01/27/kerry-zero-emissions-wont-make-difference-in-climate-change/ (accessed April 28, 2022). Chart 7 contains a simulation using the Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Induced Climate Change (MAGICC), developed by researchers at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, that shows the impact of immediately eliminating all U.S. CO2 emissions generated by fossil fuels on global temperatures by the end of the century. In our simulations, we completely eliminated all CO2 emissions from fossil fuels as our alternative scenario and compared temperature forecasts through 2100 to current estimated forecasts in accordance with CO2-emissions trajectories suggested by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (For full details, see the appendix.) Even assuming that the Earth’s temperatures are highly sensitive to GHG emissions, eliminating all U.S. emissions would mitigate global temperatures by less than 0.2 degrees Celsius by 2100. Even if all other OECD economies eliminated GHG emissions as well, the world average temperature increase would be mitigated by no more than 0.5 degrees Celsius in 2100. The IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report indicated a recommended range of climate sensitivity between 1.5 degrees and 4.5 degrees Celsius, corresponding with the assumptions made in the simulations presented in Chart 5, with no “best estimate” provided. In the more recent Sixth Assessment Report, the recommended range is 2 to 5 degrees Celsius with the authors stating “high confidence” in the lower bound, “medium confidence” in the upper bound, and “high confidence” in an upper bound of 4 degrees Celsius. Under separate simulations, we found that even under a 5 degrees Celsius climate sensitivity, if CO2 emissions from fossil fuels were to be eliminated completely, the impact would still be less than 0.24 degrees Celsius reduction in global temperatures by 2100 and less than 0.55 degrees Celsius if emissions were eliminated from all OECD countries. See Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report (Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2015), https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full.pdf (accessed May 16, 2022), and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, “IPCC Sixth Assessment Report: Working Group 1: The Physical Science Basis,” Summary for Policymakers, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf (accessed May 28, 2022). If there were legally binding targets and enforcement mechanisms, however, it is very likely that countries would not have signed on and ratified the agreement. Energy is essential to peoples’ health, well-being, and economic opportunity and has been a key driver in the dramatic decrease in mortality and extreme poverty over the past century. Consequently, people are reluctant to curb access to energy. See, for example, Nupur Anand and Sudarshan Varadhan, “‘Bad Boys’ Are Back: India Doubles Down on Coal as Heatwave Worsens Power Crisis,” Reuters, May 6, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-looking-boost-coal-output-by-up-100-mln-tonnes-reopen-closed-mines-2022-05-06/ (accessed June 8, 2022), and Anmar Frangoul, “Volkswagen Is Prolonging Its Use of Coal Due to Russian Energy ‘Threat,’” CNBC, May 4, 2022, https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/04/volkswagen-to-prolong-coal-fired-power-as-russia-concerns-continue.html (accessed June 8, 2022). Perhaps more indicative of the Paris Agreement’s inability to impact global temperatures, then, is its failure to address the growing need for energy around the world. In 2020, 83 percent of global energy consumption for power, transportation, and heat was met by CO2-emitting energy resources (coal, oil, and natural gas), with the remainder met through a combination of hydropower, renewable energy technologies (including biomass), and nuclear power. BP, “Statistical Review of World Energy,” 70th edition, July 2021, https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-full-report.pdf (accessed April 28, 2022). This percentage has remained roughly unchanged for decades, even as global consumption of energy has increased and renewable energy technologies have entered energy markets. Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “Energy Production and Consumption,” Our World in Data, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/energy-production-consumption (accessed April 28, 2022). The EIA’s International Energy Outlook projects global energy use to increase by 50 percent by 2050, and projects no scenario in which global demand for oil and natural gas do not increase through at least 2050. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “International Energy Outlook 2021,” October 2021, https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/ieo/pdf/IEO2021_Narrative.pdf (accessed April 28, 2022). Coal use is expected to decline, but persist as an important source of energy globally. No one knows what the future holds. (Very few expected the energy boom created by affordable, efficient hydraulic fracking technology.) However, the EIA’s projections provide a more realistic and useful framework for policymakers when thinking about the future. Katie Tubb, “Fueling the Climate Crisis: Examining Big Oil’s Climate Pledges,” testimony before the Committee on Oversight and Reform, U.S. House of Representatives, February 8, 2022, https://oversight.house.gov/sites/democrats.oversight.house.gov/files/Tubb%20Testimony.pdf (accessed April 28, 2022). Better Than Paris As shown, U.S. adherence to the targets of the Paris Agreement provides no more than trivial benefits, if any, and does so at an extraordinarily high cost to average Americans. It is neither reasonable nor laudable to push policies that have real costs to American families and businesses and further erode the American system of limited, representative government for no environmental benefit. A better approach is the dynamic path that encourages economic freedom and growth. This is the proven path that has made people more prosperous and resilient, characteristics that are necessary for whatever challenges the future holds. History bears out that there is good reason to believe in the creativity of people to solve problems, innovate, adapt, and improve the world around them—and conversely, little reason to trust in the ability of the federal government, much less the combined signatories of the Paris Agreement, to manage an entire overhaul of the energy sector and economy with it. Data from the Index of Economic Freedom over decades clearly show that economic freedom goes hand in hand with economic growth, which is essential to environmental stewardship. Terry Miller, Anthony B. Kim, and James M. Roberts, eds., 2022 Index of Economic Freedom (Washington, DC: The Heritage Foundation, 2022), https://www.heritage.org/index/. Contrary to the assertions of ideologically driven activists, economic freedom has provided real environmental benefits, such as more food from less land, reduced emissions of all sorts, and increasingly efficient technologies. In the past century, extreme poverty—the normal condition for most people and for most of human history—plummeted 80 percent, thanks to economic growth and access to energy. Joe Hasell and Max Roser, “How Do We Know the History of Extreme Poverty?” Our World in Data, February 5, 2019, https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-history-methods (accessed April 28, 2022). Global crop yields of grains increased over 200 percent. Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “Crop Yields,” Our World in Data, June 2021, https://ourworldindata.org/crop-yields (accessed April 28, 2022). Deaths from climate-related disasters decreased 96 percent. Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “Natural Disasters,” Our World in Data, November 2021, https://ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters#what-share-of-deaths-are-from-natural-disasters (accessed April 28, 2022). As a percentage of global GDP, damages from natural disasters have declined since 1990. Roger Pielke, Jr., “21st Century Communities: Climate Change, Resilience, and Reinsurance,” testimony before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, U.S. Senate, July 20, 2021, https://www.banking.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Pielke%20Testimony%207-20-21.pdf (accessed April 28, 2022). Air pollution in the U.S. (not to be confused with GHG emissions) has declined 73 percent since 1980. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Air Quality–National Summary,” https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/air-quality-national-summary (accessed April 28, 2022). Even assuming the worst to come of global warming, the IPCC estimates that per capita GDP will be $69,000 higher if the world follows a fossil-fuel-development path rather than a “sustainable-development” path even after subtracting damages from global warming. David Kreutzer, “Book Review: False Alarm by Bjørn Lomborg,” Institute for Energy Research, July 7, 2020, https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/climate-change/book-review-false-alarm-by-bjorn-lomborg/ (accessed April 28, 2022). In other words, “net-zero” policies are far more damaging than global warming itself. The choice between a healthy environment and economic growth is a false one. Instead of an agenda that will decrease Americans’ access to energy and cost trillions, President Biden and Congress should pursue a policy agenda that advances economic freedom and rejects symbolic but ineffective climate policies and reduces barriers to innovation and economic opportunity. An environmentally resilient future is one in which Americans are not crushed under the burden of federal debt and regulation, energy is affordable and abundant, and innovators have freedom from cronyism to develop their ideas and export those to the world. Kevin D. Dayaratna, PhD, is Chief Statistician, Data Scientist, and Senior Research Fellow in the Center for Data Analysis at The Heritage Foundation. Katie Tubb is Research Fellow for Energy and the Environment in the Center for Energy, Climate, and Environment at The Heritage Foundation. David Kreutzer is Senior Economist at the Institute for Energy Research. The Heritage Energy Model The analysis in this Backgrounder uses the Heritage Energy Model (HEM), a clone of the National Energy Model System 2021 Full Release (NEMS). U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, “Documentation of the National Energy Modeling System Modules,” https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/nems/documentation/ (accessed April 28, 2022). We specifically altered the agency’s codes for its carbon-fee cases published in November 2021. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Annual Energy Outlook 2021,” November 17, 2021, https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/emissions/carbon_fee/ (accessed February 4, 2022). NEMS is used by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) in the Department of Energy as well as various nongovernmental organizations for a variety of purposes, including forecasting the effects of energy policy changes on a plethora of leading economic indicators. The methodologies, assumptions, conclusions, and opinions in this Backgrounder are entirely the work of statisticians and economists in the Center for Data Analysis (CDA) at The Heritage Foundation and have not been endorsed by, and do not necessarily reflect the views of, the developers of NEMS. HEM is based on well-established economic theory as well as historical data and contains a variety of modules that interact with each other for long-term forecasting. In particular, HEM focuses on the interactions among - The supply, conversion, and demand of energy in its various forms; - American energy and the overall American economy; - The American energy market and the world petroleum market; and - Current production and consumption decisions as well as expectations about the future. Ibid., pp. 3 and 4. These modules are the: - Macroeconomic Activity Module, HEM’s Macroeconomic Activity Module uses the IHS Global Insight Model, which is used by government agencies and Fortune 500 organizations to forecast the effects of economic events and policy changes on notable economic indicators. As with NEMS, the methodologies, assumptions, conclusions, and opinions in this Backgrounder are entirely the work of CDA statisticians and economists, and have not been endorsed by, and do not necessarily reflect the view of, the owners of the IHS Global Insight model. - Transportation Demand Module, - Residential Demand Module, - Industrial Demand Module, - Commercial Demand Module, - Coal Market Module, - Electricity Market Module, - Liquid Fuels Market Module, - Oil and Gas Supply Module, - Renewable Fuels Module, - Natural Gas Market Module, and - International Energy Activity Module. HEM is identical to the EIA’s NEMS with the exception of the Commercial Demand Module. The Commercial Demand Module makes projections pertaining to commercial floor-space data of pertinent commercial buildings. Other than HEM not having this module, it is identical to NEMS. Overarching these modules is an Integrating Module, which consistently cycles, iteratively executing and allowing these various modules to interact with each other. Unknown variables that are related, such as a component of a particular module, are grouped together, and a pertinent subsystem of equations and inequalities corresponding to each group is solved via a variety of commonly used numerical analytic techniques, using approximate values for the other unknowns. Once a group’s values are computed, the next group is solved similarly, and the process iterates. After all group values for the current cycle are determined, the next cycle begins. At each particular cycle, a variety of pertinent statistics is obtained. Steven A. Gabriel, Andy S. Kydes, and Peter Whitman, “The National Energy Modeling System: A Large-Scale Energy-Economic Equilibrium Model,” Operations Research, Vol. 49, No. 1 (January–February 2001), pp. 14–25, http://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/pdf/10.1287/opre.22.214.171.12495 (accessed April 28, 2022). HEM provides a number of diagnostic measures, based on differences between cycles, to indicate whether a stable solution has been achieved. This report uses HEM to analyze the impact of a carbon tax as well as carbon-related regulations on the economy. As illustrated in Chart 1 of this Backgrounder, we modeled $35, $54, $75, $100, $150, and $300 carbon taxes (per ton of carbon). The carbon tax begins in 2023 with half of the specified value per ton of CO2, doubles to its full value the following year, and increases annually by 2.5 percent each year thereafter. In our simulations, we rebated the revenue collected from the tax back to consumers in a deficit-neutral manner. The Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Induced Climate Change The analysis in this Backgrounder also uses the Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Induced Climate Change (MAGICC) version 6. M. Meinshausen, S. C. B. Raper, and T. M. L. Wigley, “Emulating Coupled Atmosphere–Ocean and Carbon Cycle Models with a Simpler Model, MAGICC6– Part 1: Model Description and Calibration,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, Vol. 11 (2011), pp. 1417–1456, https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/11/1417 /2011/ (accessed May 16, 2022). The MAGICC model quantifies the relationship between atmospheric radiative forcing, oceanic heat content, and surface temperature perturbation via the following relationship: where ΔQG is the global-mean radiative forcing at the top of the troposphere. This extra energy influx is decomposed into increased outgoing energy flux and heat content changes in the ocean via the derivative dHdt . The outgoing energy flux is related to the global-mean feedback factor λλG as well as surface temperature perturbation ΔTG. Climate sensitivity, denoted in the MAGICC model as ΔT2x, is defined as the equilibrium global-mean warming after a doubling of carbon-dioxide concentrations and specified via a reciprocal relationship to a feedback factor λλ: In the above equation, ΔT2x represents the climate sensitivity and ΔQ2x represents the radiative forcing following a doubling of carbon-dioxide concentrations. The time or state-dependent effective climate sensitivity St is defined by combining the above two equations as follows: where ΔQ2x represents the model-specific forcing for doubled carbon-dioxide concentration, λλt represents the time-specific feedback factor, ΔQt represents the radiative forcing, ΔTGt represents the global-mean temperature perturbation, and dHdt|t represents the climate system’s heat uptake at time t. MAGICC also contains a carbon-cycle model that incorporates temperature feedback effects. One of the a priori specifications pertaining to this model is a greenhouse gas emissions trajectory. We assumed trajectories specified in the model based on the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment Reports (IPCC). In our simulations, we used and modified Representative Concentration Pathway 6.0 (RCP6), provided as a potential baseline scenario with the model and specified in the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Emissions Scenarios (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000), https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/emissions_scenarios-1.pdf (accessed May 16, 2022); Robert T. Watson et al., eds., Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001), http://www.grida.no/publications/267 (accessed May 16, 2022); Lenny Bernstein et al., eds., Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report (Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2008), https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar4_syr_full_report.pdf (accessed May 16, 2022); and Rajendra K. Pachauri et al., eds., Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report (Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2015), https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011). Using data from the Environmental Protection Agency, we found that the United States emitted approximately 43 percent of carbon-dioxide emissions with respect to all Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member nations. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” for 1990 to 2019, https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AIR_GHG (accessed June 7, 2022). In our simulations, we altered OECD projections accordingly assuming this fraction to be constant over time. Subsequently, we modified RCP6 by completely eliminating carbon-dioxide emissions from fossil fuels in the United States, and separately, all OECD countries, beginning in 2020. Our results thus overstate the estimated temperature impact of the suggested GHG reduction policy. In our simulations, this increase does not occur until 2100, and thus our implementation of them in 2030 in the MAGICC model vastly overestimates the estimated temperature impact of the suggested policy. In the simulations presented in Chart 5, we assumed climate sensitivities between 1.5 and 4.5 degrees Celsius, the stated acceptable range of the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report and encompassing the “high confidence range” in the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report. The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report provides a recommended range of climate sensitivity between 2.0 and 5.0 degrees Celsius, with the upper bound being referred to as a “medium confidence” bound. We also ran simulations under this upper bound, and results are discussed in footnote 30 of this Backgrounder. In estimating the social cost of carbon, the Obama Administration had used a mean climate sensitivity of approximately 3 degrees Celsius, and thus the upper bounds of climate sensitivity assumed in this Backgrounder are well above this assumption. The Biden Administration is currently updating the Obama Administration’s estimates but has yet to publish original results other than updating the Obama Administration’s estimates. See Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Carbon, “Technical Support Document: Technical Update of the Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 12866,” May 2013, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/assets/inforeg/technical-update-social-cost-of-carbon-for-regulator-impact-analysis.pdf (accessed June 8, 2022), and Kevin D. Dayaratna, “Why ‘Social Cost of Carbon’ Is the Most Useless Number You’ve Never Heard Of,” The Daily Signal, March 2, 2021, https://www.dailysignal.com/2021/03/02/why-social-cost-of-carbon-is-most-useless-number-youve-never-heard-of/.

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Access - Refers to the ways in which educational institutions and policies ensure—or at least strive to ensure—that students have equal and equitable opportunities to take full advantage of their education. Increasing access generally requires schools to provide additional services or remove any actual or potential barriers that might prevent some students from equitable participation in certain courses or academic programs. Achievement gap - Refers to any significant and persistent disparity in academic performance or educational attainment between different groups of students, such as white students and minorities, for example, or students from higher-income and lower-income households. Class - Refers to how much wealth you have access to through property, inheritance, family support, investments, or other wealth not directly associated to wage earning. It is different than socioeconomic status. Classism - refers to the prejudice against or in favor of people belonging to a particular class, which is a relative social rank in terms of income, wealth, education, status, and power. Also known as class discrimination, it includes the attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies, and practices of an individual or society that are set up to benefit one social class at the expense of another. Income inequality - Regards the differences in the levels of personal income or wealth in a narrow sense; in a broader sense, it includes all the values that directly or indirectly derive from economic activities, which can be used in obtaining them or can be exchanged with them. In the first case, its interpretation is straightforward, in the second, it requires the integration of different systems of inequality that include, besides income and wealth, elements such as health, knowledge, power, or availability of public services, and so on, whose distribution among individuals does not coincide with that of income. Opportunity gap - Refers to the ways in which race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, English proficiency, community wealth, familial situations, or other factors contribute to or perpetuate lower educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment for certain groups of students. Socioeconomic Status - The amount of money you earn in wages each month or year. This can change rapidly. Social Welfare - Organized educational, cultural, medical, and financial assistance to those in need. Measures of assistance include care of destitute adults; treatment of the mentally ill; rehabilitation of criminals; care and relief of the sick, the handicapped, the young, and needy families; and educational activity for children. Access to such programs is considered a basic or inalienable right of those in need. Boone, Laura. “Classism.” Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2019. EBSCOhost. "Diversity, Equity & Inclusion Vocabulary," The Avarna Group. https://theavarnagroup.com/resources/equity-inclusion-diversity-vocabulary/. "Social Welfare." The SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, edited by Larry E. Sullivan, Sage Publications, 1st edition, 2009. Credo Reference. Somaini, Eugenio, and Somaini. "Inequality, Economic," International Encyclopedia of Political Science, Bertrand Badie, et al., Sage Publications, 1st edition, 2011. Credo Reference. The Glossary of Educational Reform, Great Schools Partnership. https://www.edglossary.org/

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- 1 How does higher education impact our lives? - 2 Why is higher education important for the economy? - 3 Why a college education is important? - 4 What is the focus of higher education? - 5 What is the point of higher education essay? - 6 Does higher education help the economy? - 7 What is the main function of university education? - 8 What are the benefits of education? - 9 How can college benefit you? - 10 What is education and its importance? - 11 What are the advantages and disadvantages of higher education? - 12 What are the 4 levels of education? How does higher education impact our lives? College graduates have lower smoking rates, more positive perceptions of personal health, and lower incarceration rates than individuals who have not graduated from college. Higher levels of education are correlated with higher levels of civic participation, including volunteer work, voting, and blood donation. Why is higher education important for the economy? A country’s economy becomes more productive as the proportion of educated workers increases since educated workers can more efficiently carry out tasks that require literacy and critical thinking. As a result, many countries provide funding for primary and secondary education to improve economic performance. Why a college education is important? College is important for many reasons, including long-term financial gain, job stability, career satisfaction and success outside of the workplace. With more and more occupations requiring advanced education, a college degree is critical to your success in today’s workforce. What is the focus of higher education? The focus of higher education should be on creating prepared minds in their graduates, and government-sponsored research and development in higher education institutions is a great way to enrich the education of future engineers. What is the point of higher education essay? The aim of higher education is to meet the socio-cultural and developmental needs of a country. Higher education provides an opportunity for individuals to develop their potential. It fulfils the needs for high-level manpower in a society. Its objectives include cultural and material development. Does higher education help the economy? Colleges and universities drive economic development. As they create a more educated labor market, colleges and universities essentially increase wages of all workers. When the number of college graduates increases one percent within a region, overall wages of high school grads increase by 1.6 percent. What is the main function of university education? One is as educational establishments and the second as generators of knowledge and technology. As educational establishments, their function is to provide able, self-directed learners that are independent and confident, and will go out into society and give to society through leadership or through civic duties. What are the benefits of education? 10 Benefits Showing Why Education Is Important to Our Society - Creating More Employment Opportunities. - Securing a Higher Income. - Developing Problem-solving Skills. - Improving the Economy. - Providing a Prosperous and Happy Life. - Giving Back to the Community. - Creating Modern Society. - Bridging the Borders. How can college benefit you? It prepares you, both intellectually and socially, for your career and your adult life. The benefits of a college education include career opportunities like better paying and higher skilled jobs, but studies have shown that it also leads to overall happiness and stability. What is education and its importance? It facilitates quality learning all through the life among people of any age group, cast, creed, religion and region. It is the process of achieving knowledge, values, skills, beliefs, and moral habits. People need to get high level awareness about the importance of knowledge more than before. What are the advantages and disadvantages of higher education? The advantages of attaining a higher education range from guaranteed employment, improved healthy lifestyles, higher income, to social recognition. While the disadvantages of attaining a higher education range from increased debt to delay of real world experience. What are the 4 levels of education? Education in the United States follows a pattern similar to that in many systems. Early childhood education is followed by primary school (called elementary school in the United States), middle school, secondary school (called high school in the United States), and then postsecondary (tertiary) education.

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Yes, you are right. This is what he says When we teach our child alphabets or phonics at early age, we only confuse them, And that is because, When you tell them this a or b? your child will ask what does it mean a or b? And well what would be our answer to them? . Glen gives an eg below "Well its b because...uhh..because, dont you see its b beacuse ...well, because it was necessary to invent the.... ah.. symbol to... ahh.. and so it would go on. In the end we just give up and might say its b because i am telling you its b" Hence we would not be able to tell our kids why b is b and why is a is a as we unable to label it with a fact. But by showing words instead of phonics or alphabets we can best relate to them with an object or action. Hence showing a picture of a dog and saying the word dog would make more sense rather than saying d stand for dog or ba mean baa, as this way children relate words with objects which gives a wider vocabulary of reading words insteads of alphabets and phonics I remember when i was thaught phonics in KG,it confused me, and that time it didnt make sense to me as to why i am learning it. I guess, it would be best to introduce phonics when your child can read sentences because, your child now understand the relation between words in the form of couplets, phrases, actions, nown etc, hence introducing phonics would now help your child to pronounce and form newer difficult words

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The Allies described the wartime military alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire as the 'Central Powers'. The name referred to the geographical location of the two original members of the alliance, Germany and Austria-Hungary, in central Europe. The Ottoman Empire joined the alliance in November 1914 and the last member of the quartet, the Kingdom of Bulgaria, entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in October 1915. As well as providing the alliance with its name, the geographical position of the German and Austro-Hungarian empires also gave the Central Powers at least one very important strategic advantage over the Allies they were fighting. It was much easier for the Germans and Austro-Hungarians to move troops, equipment and supplies from one battle front to another because they could do much of this on their domestic railway networks. For example, the Germans could move 10 infantry divisions from the Eastern Front to the Western Front via a relatively straightforward journey across Germany. It was no more difficult for the Austro-Hungarians to move five infantry divisions from the Eastern Front to the Italian Front, or to the Salonika Front in the Balkans. Compare this situation with the difficulties faced by the Allies in moving men, equipment and supplies from one battle front to another. This usually involved long circuitous routes across or around multiple countries, each with different rail networks and logistical procedures. It was also likely to require transport by sea, which posed its own set of risks, notably from German and Austrian submarines. So while it could take two or three weeks to transport a British Army unit and its equipment from the United Kingdom to the Salonika Front, the Austro-Hungarians, and the Germans if need be, could move reinforcements there in less than a week. The military term for this strategic advantage of the Central Powers is 'operating on interior lines'. It was used to most dramatic effect in early 1918, when the rapid transfer of large numbers of German divisions from the Eastern Front to the Western Front enabled the great German spring offensive in the west.

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A credit or credit is a notification from a financial institution to a customer notifying the customer of a gradual change in their account balance. In other words, the reminder conveys good news to the client, usually because the institution has deposited funds into the client’s account. Definition of bank credit A bank credit is an item on a company’s bank statement that increases the company’s balance. A credit is a posting process that can be used as a payment or transfer on a customer invoice. Refund is a booking transaction used to refund a customer’s money. This means that credits are used to offset an existing customer balance. A credit is an abbreviation for the term credit, which is a document issued by the seller of goods or services to the buyer that reduces the amount the buyer owes the seller on a previous invoice. As with all other tax deductions, various tax deductions are used to reward and encourage certain types of economic activity, such as the purchase of hybrid cars, or to reward those who have taken steps to make homes more cost-effective. consumption. Definition of debt (note). A note or debit note is a form or document, also known as a debit note invoice, that informs a buyer that the seller charges or raises the debtor, thereby increasing the amount payable to the buyer’s account due to of extenuating circumstances. A transaction that reduces a customer’s amount is a credit. For example, the customer can return damaged goods. A debit advice is a transaction that reduces the amount you pay to a supplier by returning damaged goods to the supplier. The system uses the credit memo request to create a credit memo. Credit Memo Example Bank Debt Definition Note accounts are used to collect non-financial data that should not be included in the balance sheet sample. For example, they can be used to: Keep a journal of loan payments. Collecting employee data for inclusion in reports. The definition or indication of a credit note is a form or document, also known as a credit invoice, that notifies the buyer that the seller is reducing or crediting the amount owed by the buyer to creditors, thereby reducing the Seller ‘amount due on’ claim 'accounts is reduced. A credit note or credit is sent from a seller to a buyer. This document will be delivered to the buyer after sending the invoice. When a seller issues a credit, it is deducted from the buyer’s existing balance to reduce the total amount. A credit is different from a refund. An invoice is a document you create to bill your customers for the products or services you offer. A credit note, on the other hand, is a document that you link to invoices. These are typically used when a customer returns goods to the supplier. 27/01/2014 The savings receipt is a payment receipt for the purchase. The invoice is only valid as proof of purchase and proof of payment is issued separately. A credit memo is a document used to correct or correct errors in a sales invoice that has already been processed and sent to a customer. If you’ve already sent an invoice to a customer but now need to credit it, send them a credit or credit note. A memorandum, or simply a memo, is a letter that contains a statement that is usually drawn up by the higher authorities of an organization for the purpose of exchanging information. Notes are generally less formal than a letter. A credit or credit is a statement describing a refund or crediting of an invoice. However, when you create a credit memo, the software uses the credit memo information to update the accounts receivable, modify the accounts receivable, and adjust the tax administration accordingly. Answer 5 August 2016. The credit refund is nothing more than a balance owed by the credit card issuer. This happens when you pay or repay more than you currently owe to your credit card. For example, the credit card company will refund the extra money you paid.

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Can Regenerative Agriculture Work In Mississippi? The term regenerative agriculture seems quite intimidating for beginners, but it is actually simpler than you think. Simply put, it is a practice whereby farmers use nutrient-rich soil and photosynthesis to absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and trap them into the soil. If used properly, Regenerative agriculture can help reduce global warming and produce healthy, nutrient-dense food for consumption. There can be several components of regenerative agriculture including Monogastric, feed crops, vegetables, and ruminants. Let’s take a look at each one of these. How to Do Regenerative Farming? Firstly, you need a system to measure the key biological parameters of your farm soil. These include nutrient density and soil carbon levels. Secondly, you want to track these metrics at regular intervals to determine the effectiveness of your regenerative farming practices and how they’re impacting biodiversity, pest population, and soil health, among others. According to o climate scientists, if this practice is followed by enough farmers around the world, it can significantly reverse global warming. What are Ruminant Animals? Ruminant animals include cattle, deer, antelopes, giraffes, and sheep, among others. These animals are crucial to keep land healthy and nutrient-rich. They help in the fermentation of grass and other cellulosic materials and convert them into simple sugars in a starch component like rumen. This ultimately gets converted into muscle. How the cattle are raised has a major impact on the production of greenhouse gases. Unlike the pre-colonial times, today’s animals are raised on grains where their waste keeps accumulating at a single place and reaches toxic levels instead of being absorbed by microorganisms in the soil. So, by properly managing and feeding the cattle, they can help create a healthy ecosystem, and the quality and nutrition levels of the land can be improved without any significant human intervention. What are Monogastric Animals? Monogastric animals need balanced nutrition especially carbohydrates for their survival. These include humans, rabbits, pigs, and chickens. Unlike ruminants that can live on plants and cellulose material, Monogastric animals also rely on feed crops to survive. If feed crops are grown using healthy crop rotations in well-managed organic farms, we can produce healthy and delicious food to feed all types of Monogastric animals while reducing carbon emissions at the same time. Poorly managed crops, on the other hand, can adversely affect the land, which is a major reason for global warming. Most of the farming around the world is done to grow feed crops. In the US, the largest grown crop is corn, covering more than 400 million acres. The worst part is that about one-third of the corn is used to produce ethanol through energy-guzzling processes. The rest is used for poultry, beef, and dairy production (although the grass is an ideal food for ruminants) Now, if we focus more on growing diversified crops instead of just traditional corn, we can double the production of food in America while also reducing the negative effects of climate change. This can be easily accomplished by adopting regenerative farming practices. Regenerative agriculture can also help protect the fertile top layer of the soil. Benefits of Growing Diversified Vegetables Contrary to popular belief that vegetables are the most grown food items in America, vegetables, fruits, and nuts contribute to only 3% of agriculture here. Diversified crops and vegetables are crucial for a healthy environment and human health. That’s why creating effective rotational systems is the need of the hour that can work together with animals and nature without requiring any pesticides and fertilizers. By creating such a holistic system we all can make a positive impact on the environment, remove excess carbon out from the atmosphere and utilize it to improve soil health. Will Regenerative Agriculture Work In Mississippi? Now is a great time to start regenerative agriculture in Mississippi. Our vastly experienced and knowledgeable professionals can help you take advantage of lucrative investment opportunities that Mississippi land for sale offers. Browse through our top postings and for more guidance, contact Doug Rushing Realty today.

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Dr. McCleery's Lobo Wolf Park between Gap and Coatesville, PA In early May 1930 Dr. E. H. McCleery, having established and operated a successful "Wolf Farm" near Kane, Pennsylvania for the previous ten years, established a secondary wolf park along the Lincoln Highway (Route 30) two miles east of Gap and nine miles west of Coatesville in Salisbury Township, Pennsylvania. The park was often referred to as the "Coatesville Park" despite being much closer to Gap. It was located just west of the Lancaster county line bordering Chester county. Whereas the goal of the Kane wolf park was to breed and exhibit the last remaining specimens of the otherwise extinct wolves from the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains (which Dr. McCleery called "lobo wolves"), Dr. McCleery intended the Gap park only for the wolves' exhibition because he considered Kane's climate more suitable for breeding.195 Initially, 25 wolves were brought to the Gap park, all of which were adults.195 They represented the different geographic varieties of Lobo Wolves, a pair of Black Timber Wolves, and probably Arctic Wolves and Mexican Wolves.7 The Gap wolf park consisted of ten acres of land probably owned by Michael Stern,1 and the layout of the park was identical to that of Dr. McCleery's primary wolf park along Route 6 near Kane, Pennsylvania, even including a similar native stone arch.195,208 Beyond the arch was a ticket booth and turnstile. The stonework of the archway and ticket booth was done by Karl Swanseen of Kane195 and his son Eric "Rick" Swanseen of Detroit, Michigan (who in 1935 moved to Gap, lived right near the stone arch, and married Mary Stern, a daughter of Michael Stern).2,3 The manager of the Gap wolf park was Martin T. Carroll,195 a 72-year-old retired oil worker.4 He and his daughter Marion Carroll moved to Gap in 1930 (where they probably rented their residence) so that Martin could manage the park.5 Keepers at the wolf park included George Stern, the 26-year-old son of Michael Stern who lived next door to the wolf park and his father, and George's friend Maurice Hanna, a 25-year-old cement mixer doing public road work. Maurice's father owned and operated a butcher shop in Christiana where meat may have been obtained for the wolves.6 At the time of the Gap park's establishment, Dr. McCleery hoped to open several additional wolf parks throughout the eastern United States and had officially founded a corporation - McCleery Wolf Pack Incorporated - to do just that.195 Several large cities including Pittsburgh PA, Akron OH, Buffalo NY, and Asheville NC had already attempted to persuade Dr. McCleery to set up a wolf park in their areas.195,198 Dr. McCleery mentioned this secondary wolf park in the earliest versions of the leaflet which he distributed to visitors at his park in Kane, and he visited the Gap park on occasion. George Stern, one of the keepers at the park, remembered that the wolves would howl when Dr. McCleery's car was approaching as far as 100 yards down the road. During one of Dr. McCleery's visits, a wolf attacked Dr. McCleery, and the other wolves in the pen attacked that wolf to defend Dr. McCleery.8 In March 1931 the Kinogram Moving Picture Company filmed the wolves at the Gap park, during which time Dr. McCleery was present.82 At one point, a rumor spread around Gap that the wolves had gotten loose. It turned out that this rumor stemmed from some teenage boys who had driven through Gap yelling, "The wolves are out!"9 The Gap wolf park closed at the end of 1931, probably in November or December.10 Dr. McCleery attributed the park's closure to the wolves not being able to handle the area's hot climate,298 but a 1972 newspaper article which briefly mentioned the wolf park in the Coatesville area stated that the venture flopped.297 It is possible that several factors contributed to the park's demise. The Great Depression probably affected Dr. McCleery's financial situation and reduced the amount of tourists who paid to visit the park, which would have made it difficult to cover the expenses of feeding the wolves and paying the keepers. Rose V. Carroll wrote in 1962 that the Great Depression did have an effect on wolf park attendence.138 When the wolf park closed, most of the wolves at the Gap park were shot. Dr. McCleery brought only five wolves from the Gap park back to his park in Kane.298 Apparently there was no other place for the remaining wolves to go. The local men who were instructed to shoot the wolves were very fond of the wolves and had to get drunk in order to shoot them. When the first wolf was shot, the rest of the wolves went crazy.11 At least one of the remaining wolves was spared however. A local man, Israel Green, had a tame pet wolf in the 1930s which he probably obtained from the wolf park when it closed.12 Marie Mosbey Congo, who was born in 1927 and lived on Zion Hill,13 remembers her neighbor Israel taking the wolf (whose name was either "Wolf" or "Wolfie") for walks, and feeding it out of an old, banged up dishpan. When the wolf died of old age, Israel buried the wolf and held a funeral for it. Marie Mosbey Congo, Marie's father, and another neighborhood boy named John States were among the funeral attendees. Marie brought flowers from her father's garden which she laid at the wolf's grave. Despite his initial plans, Dr. McCleery did not establish any additional wolf parks after the Gap park. Judging by the fact that the Gap park's closure was not written about for several decades,14 and that no further wolf parks were established, I imagine Dr. McCleery felt badly about how the Gap park ended and didn't want to risk that happening again. It is curious that Dr. McCleery chose Gap as a wolf park location over the other large cities which offered him land and assistance with promotion. I believe that one factor in this decision may have been Martin T. Carroll's willingness to move to the area to be closer to his oldest daughter and grandchild, who lived in Haverford. Dr. McCleery was very particular about the care of his wolves and probably preferred to entrust their management to a close friend, which I believe Martin was to Dr. McCleery. Additionally, it is possible that someone in the Gap area (possibly Michael Stern) expressed interest in establishing a wolf park there and may have donated resources. Many wonderful people contributed information to this article, but I would like to specifically acknowledge Nancy Plumley of Hershey's Azalea Farm for her immeasurable help in tracking down information and contacts to help piece this story together. 1In the 1950s, the Koropsak family owned the land that once housed the wolf park. I traced the ownership of this family's plot of land back to the time when the wolf park was in business, and it seems to have been owned by Michael Stern between 1929 and 1934. There are no records of Dr. McCleery or any of his associates buying or selling land in Lancaster county around that time; I searched extensively in the Lancaster Recorder of Deeds archive, and the Lancaster County archivist also searched, but we found nothing. Vernon Fisher (who was born in 1936 and grew up in Gap) remembers his mother saying that the wolves used to be located "up on Mike's stone hill," which is what she always called the area up around where the Koropsak family lived. Therefore I believe that Dr. McCleery might have rented the land from Michael Stern. 2Information courtesy of David and Karl Swanseen, nephews of Eric "Rick" Swanseen. 3According to land records available through the Lancaster Recorder of Deeds archive, Eric "Rick" Swanseen purchased land in Gap in 1935 from his father-in-law Michael Stern. 4According to Martin T. Carroll's 1910 census record he was an oil worker, and according to his 1930 census record he was not working. 5According to the 1930 census, Martin and Marion Carroll had been living together in Kane. According to Martin's 1933 death certificate, both he and Marion (the informant of his death) were living in Gap. Neither I nor the Lancaster County archivist could find any records of any Carrolls buying or selling land in Gap around that time, and since the Carrolls rented their residences in 1910 and 1920 according to the census, I believe they rented again in Gap. 6Information courtesy of Ray Stern, son of George Stern. The ages and occupations of the two keepers are from the 1930 census. The possibility of meat for the wolves being obtained from the Hanna family's butcher shop is purely speculation (The butcher shop seems to have closed prior to 1940 according to census data, though the exact date is unknown. It is possible that the closure of the butcher shop may have been related to the closure of the wolf park). According to Nancy Plumley, around 1930 a stretch of Route 30 between the county line and Gap was being repaved, so Maurice Hanna was probably working there. If that was the case, he would have been familiar with the wolf park. 7Information from the back of the advertising card contributed by Nancy Plumley. 8Information courtesy of Ray Stern, whose father George Stern told him these stories. 9Information courtesy of Vince Eby and Bill Kauffman. 10This conclusion is based on two main findings. Firstly, during the first two years of the Gap park's operation (1930 and 1931) Dr. McCleery's secondary wolf park was mentioned in many publications about the wolves. The last mention I have found of the Gap wolf park was on November 21, 1931.114 The absence of any further mention of a second park, when it had previously been so often referred to, indicates its closure around that time. Secondly, according to Ray Stern, his father George Stern was living in the Gap area when the wolf park closed (this is confirmed by his appearance in one of the photos with a dead wolf). George Stern sold his property in Gap in December 1931 and moved to Philadelphia, which would indicate that the wolf park closed during or before December 1931. Additionally, the men in the photos with the dead wolf are wearing warmer clothes, suggesting that the wolf park closed during a colder time of year. 11Information courtesy of Ray Stern, whose father George Stern told him these stories about the shooting of the wolves. Prohibition was still law in 1931, but according to Wanda Smale of the Salisbury Township Historical Society, stills and bootleg whiskey were definitely in the area during Prohibition. Although the presence of a label on bootleg whiskey might not have been the norm, the way the whiskey was displayed as a centerpiece of the photos suggests that its presence was unusual. 12The story of Israel Green's wolf is courtesy of Marie Mosbey Congo, who remembers the wolf from when she was a young girl. I am fairly certain that this wolf came from Dr. McCleery's Gap wolf park; there was no other feasible place or situation in which a poor man from Gap could have obtained a wolf as a pet in the 1930s. Wolves were expensive exotic pets, and in the 1920s, Dr. McCleery sold wolf pups for around $50 to $75 each. According to Marie, Israel definitely did not have that kind of money and certainly could not have purchased the wolf. However, the desperate situation at the end of the park created a situation in which Israel may have bartered or done work in exchange for a wolf, or may simply have requested a wolf and was given one. 13Zion Hill is located between the towns of Christiana and Atglen, and is about three miles south of Gap. Although it has an Atglen address, Zion Hill is a distinct little community which was a totally black settlement in the 1930s. 14After November 21, 1931114 it was at least two decades before the Gap park was mentioned again in writing, as far as I have found. Gap locals who remember people who knew about the park's end describe those people as reluctant to talk about the park, and as a result, there are few local stories about it. Find out more about the Gap park by exploring the Locations - Coatesville, PA tag in the archive. If you have any information about Dr. McCleery's wolf park between Gap and Coatesville, including information about or photos of Martin T. Carroll, Marion Carroll, Michael Stern, George Stern, Maurice Hanna, William Hanna, or Israel Green, I would very much appreciate hearing from you.

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Animals are fundamental for seed dispersal and therefore for plant reproduction, and this is especially true for insects and crawling animals that contribute to the dispersion with their feces. A new study also puts monkeys in this category of animals. The researchers of the Deutsche Primatenzentrum (DPZ), a German institute, in collaboration with the Estadual Paulista University, Brazil, and with the University of Marburg, have in fact discovered that the monkeys of the species Leontocebus nigrifrons, also called black-faced tamarins, and of the species Saguinus mystax, also called tamarins with mustaches or whiskered tamarins, play a fundamental role in dispersing the seeds of some plants of the Peruvian Amazon forest. Specifically, the researchers found that the seeds of the Parkia panurensis tree are dispersed exclusively by these monkeys. This feature is so important that these monkeys can be considered responsible for the regeneration of entire plots of land. The researchers, in fact, analyzed these effects in an area that had been cleared and used as pasture for buffaloes between 1990 and 2000. After being abandoned, the rainforest then slowly developed again. During the course of the study, which lasted several years, the scientists noticed that whiskered and black-faced tamarins fed mainly on fruit produced by these trees and then dispersed the seeds they ingested through their feces. In fact, analyzing the feces of the monkeys, the researchers discovered that the seeds inside them came from the intact forest areas frequented by monkeys. “Tamarins have been shown to contribute to the natural regeneration of areas destroyed by humans,” says Eckhard W. Heymann, one of the researchers involved in the study published in Scientific Reports. Landline contact number: 302-286-8954 Mobile contact number: 302-981-7680 Email contact: [email protected] Latest posts by Roy Wilson (see all) - Why Acamar Partners Acquisition Corp. (NASDAQ:ACAMU) Is Picking Up (2020-02-06) - February 6, 2020 - Our Analysis of Adaptimmune Therapeutics plc (NASDAQ:ADAP) (2020-02-06) - February 6, 2020 - The Alphabet Inc. (NASDAQ:GOOGL) Rundown (2020-02-06) - February 6, 2020

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biomedical research in the late 19th century, playing a major role in establishing the germ theory, identifying pathogens, linking vitamin C insufficiency to scurvy, and modeling diabetes and pre-eclampsia. The guinea pig metaphor lives on but today, mice, rats, fruit flies, nematodes, and zebrafish dominate as model animals. But there are many new model animals on the research horizon, chosen because they can model human diseases in novel ways or because they have special abilities that humans lack. In this series, we will explore a few of the nontraditional animal models, and their potential in the lab.We still talk about guinea pigs as experimental subjects yet you'd have a hard time finding one in a modern research laboratory. Guinea pigs were first used in Consider the thirteen-lined ground squirrel, Ictidomys tridecemlineatus, which hibernates for up to six months. During that time, the squirrels don't eat or drink, hardly move, and their heart rate drops to only 3-5 beats per minute so little oxygen is circulated. Yet they don't lose muscle tone or bone density, their blood doesn't clot, and their organs are back to normal within two hours of arousal in the spring. "Nature has designed solutions for all these things of biomedical interest. We just have to figure out what they are," said Jessica Otis, an ASCB member who is now a postdoc at the Carnegie Institute. She was first introduced to hibernation studies of squirrels in Hannah Carrey's lab at University of Wisconsin-Madison. "It interested me because I found the physiology of hibernation so fascinating, but it also has so many biomedical applications." For example, the NIH Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke has funded research investigating ground squirrel physiology, believing that their low blood flow to the brain during hibernation can serve as a model for strokes. By learning what protects the squirrels from brain damage during long periods with low oxygen, scientists can learn about factors that could protect the brains of stroke victims. Understanding how the ground squirrel is able to hibernate can provide insights not only for patients with strokes, but also those with ischemia, transplants, heart attacks, osteoporosis, obesity, blood clotting disorders, or complications that come with prolonged bed rest. Yet there are challenges to working in a nontraditional model, according to Otis. Though the ground squirrel genome has been sequenced, it's not well annotated. And wild ground squirrels have far greater genetic diversity than inbred lab mice, which are genetic clones. Plus squirrels only breed once a year so it's expensive to breed them in captivity. Luckily, squirrels are officially pests and require no special permits to collect, although the researchers carefully followed the university's animal care protocols. They are also fairly easy to catch, Otis said. "We would go to golf courses and see which burrow they popped down into, then flood them out by pouring water in the burrow." She and her colleagues, wearing leather garden gloves, would grab the squirrels as they abandoned their holes. "To get a little bit of genetic similarity we would collect pregnant females in the spring so they would give birth in captivity and we could raise the pup litters," she explained. The ground squirrel model runs on an annual summer-winter cycle. As controls, nonhibernating summer squirrels are often compared with their hibernating winter counterparts, so it can take years to collect samples. "You have to be a very good planner. There are other models of hibernation that are facultative, such as the Syrian hamster, where if you change the light cycle and their availability to food, you can induce hibernation. It's a different model because they're getting different cues for hibernation," Otis said. In her mind, the real advantage of ground squirrels is that they have evolved all these mechanisms to control physiological functions, controls that could be immensely valuable for human patients. "That's fascinating to me. Comparative physiology is amazing in that way," Otis said. While ground squirrels may offer new behaviors and new biological mechanisms to explore, they also have one additional cardinal virture—they are not mice or Drosophila or any of today's popular and, some say, overused lab models. Critics have pointed out how much published research is based on a single lab animal, like the mouse. "The truth is that for some questions, mice give you a very nice and easy model system for understanding what's happening in humans, but mice are mice, and people are people. If we look to the mouse to model every aspect of the disease for man, and to model cures, we're just wasting our time," Clif Barry, Chief of the Tuberculosis Research Section at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, told a Slate reporter. Jessica Bolker, biology professor at University of New Hampshire, believes using a range of animal models should be encouraged. In a Nature editorial, Bolker warned that "studying only a few organisms limits science to the answers that those organisms can provide... We need to broaden our range of models to include species such as Antarctic icefish, comb jellies, cichlids, dune mice and finches that are naturally endowed by evolution with features relevant to human diseases." Squirrels have their problems, Otis acknowledges, but she is fascinated by hibernation biology and is eager to return to the subject, perhaps working with ground squirrels again after her postdoc training. Otis says that she's learned a tremendous amount from working with mice and zebrafish in her postdoc position at Carnegie but once she has her own lab, Otis would like to apply some of these new advanced techniques and technologies to the ground squirrel model. "I think there's a lot of value to looking at nontraditional models, and as technology progresses it will be less of a challenge to work with them. I think it's an important thing to consider when you're designing experiments: Am I using the best model? Should I branch out? Is it feasible to do so?" Otis said.

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CAST used additional publication outlets to describe their ideas about how universal design could be applied within education (Meyer & Rose, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000). "Because they don't have requirements to meet certain standards, this means the university's disability service office is being pre-emptive as opposed to waiting for a problem," points out Sean Vance, director of The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University in Raleigh. features, such as those identified in the development of the Universal eLearner, are intended to increase access to educational materials for students with disabilities (Engstrom & Stricklin, 1992; Lewis & Jackson, 2001; Packer, 1995). (also known as Inclusive Design or "Aging in Place" when referring to housing) is the design of homes, products, and systems that work for people of all ages and abilities, a concept that was invented over 20 years ago by Mr. For this special issue, we review the historical background regarding the movement toward greater access for students with special learning needs, the development of Universal Design for Learning as a method for providing access, and discuss supporting the implementation of UDL within school sites and institutions of higher education. While most of these writers have focused on differentiated instruction, some authors recently have also addressed the use of inclusive pedagogical practices that are based on Universal Design for Learning principles. She and Jim found plans for a Universal Design home on the Internet. is an approach advocating for the design of products and services so that they are suited to a broad range of users. is the idea of 'How do we design one building feature that meets the needs of a broader population?'" said Korydon Smith, an assistant professor at the University of Arkansas School of Architecture in Fayetteville. "Accommodating disabilities is only the tip of the iceberg of universal design It has been shortlisted for the Selwyn Goldsmith Awards for Universal Design , which will be presented in tandem with the Civic Trust awards at a finals ceremony on March 1.

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In an era defined by technological innovation, artificial intelligence (AI) is making significant inroads into the field of education. AI-enhanced classroom environments are transforming the way students learn, teachers instruct, and institutions operate. This article discusses the impact of AI on education, exploring the benefits and ethical considerations that come with it. AI in Education: A Transformative Journey Education has always been about equipping students with the knowledge and skills they need to thrive in an ever-evolving world. AI is reshaping this journey in several ways: - Personalized Learning: AI-powered learning platforms have the capacity to tailor educational content to individual students. By analyzing a student’s learning style, pace, and strengths, AI can deliver custom-tailored lessons that optimize understanding and retention - Intelligent Tutoring Systems: AI-driven tutoring systems provide real-time assistance to students. They can identify areas where a student is struggling and offer targeted support, reducing frustration and enhancing learning outcomes - Gamification: AI has brought gamification into the classroom. By introducing elements of game design into educational activities, AI fosters engagement and motivation, making learning more enjoyable - Administrative Efficiency: Educational institutions benefit from AI’s administrative efficiency. Tasks such as grading, scheduling, and even resource allocation are streamlined, allowing educators to focus more on teaching While AI’s integration into education offers tremendous potential, ethical considerations must be addressed: - Data Privacy: AI collects vast amounts of data about students. Protecting this data from misuse and ensuring privacy is paramount. Institutions must adhere to strict data protection protocols - Algorithmic Bias: AI algorithms can inadvertently reinforce existing biases. It is essential to train models to be impartial and unbiased to ensure equal opportunities for all students - Teacher-Student Relationships: AI should be seen as an educational tool rather than a replacement for teachers. It is crucial to maintain the teacher-student relationship that is fundamental to effective learning - Accessibility: Not all students have equal access to AI-powered technologies. Addressing the digital divide is essential to prevent inequality in education The Human Element AI may enhance the classroom environment, but it cannot replace the essential human aspects of education: - Social Skills: Interpersonal skills, emotional intelligence, and social interactions are crucial for personal and professional development. AI can support but not substitute these human qualities - Critical Thinking: The ability to think critically, solve problems, and adapt to new situations remains the core of education. AI can assist in these areas but cannot replace the human capacity for critical thinking Creating the Ideal Learning Environment AI-enhanced classroom environments are revolutionizing education, offering personalized learning, administrative efficiency, and engaging experiences. However, it is vital to navigate this transformative journey with a strong ethical compass, ensuring data privacy, fairness, and accessibility. In this AI-augmented educational landscape, the role of educators is more critical than ever. While AI can assist and enhance, it is the human touch that truly shapes the minds and hearts of the next generation. As education evolves with AI, it is essential to strike the right balance, harnessing the best of both worlds to create the ideal learning environment.

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Is Harriet Jacobs The Black Anne Frank? tags: slavery,civil rights,Civil War,abolitionism,Harriet Jacobs The answer is “yes, both.” Analogies are like medicines—most have side effects. Historians like using the familiar to access the unfamiliar, yet dislike reducing complex events to one dimension that resonates—and risks implying that fame always predominates. Anne Frank died seven months after the Nazis raided the “Secret Annex” where she hid for two years. She was fifteen. Harriet Jacobs escaped her oppressors and lived until 84. She became, er, a black Harriet Beecher Stowe, and a female Frederick Douglass. Her searing memoir Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl defied America’s proprieties to expose what happened when men treated women as property... comments powered by Disqus - Louisiana Governor to Decide Posthumous Pardon for Homer Plessy - Brown Issues Expanded Report on University's Involvement with Slavery - Michael Schuman: Xi's New China is Terrifying - U. of Florida Dean Says He Was Directed to Reject Professor’s Request to Testify Against the State - Ed Bullins, Leading Playwright of the Black Arts Movement, Dies at 86 - "Hail Mary" Sets the Record Straight on the Women's Football League of the 1960s - Jeopardy! To Host Tournament of Professors - Tim Snyder: "It Turns Out People Really Like Democracy" - Direct Action: The Practical Politics of Protest - Unenforceable Racial Covenants are Still Part of Property Deeds Across America

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The Village System The next subject to discuss, but one to which Mr. Matthai does not allude, is the actual nature of the peasants' money. The use a peasant makes of actual money is small. His income, according to the Central Banking Enquiry Committee, averages Rs 42 a year. The traditional nature of this money of India may be indicated by a passage from the letter to Colbert written by the French traveller, Bernier, nearly three centuries ago: "Although this Empire of the Mogol is such an abyss for gold and silver, as I said before, these precious metals are not in greater plenty here than elsewhere; on the contrary, the inhabitants have less the appearance of a moneyed people than those of many other parts of the globe. In the first place, a large quantity is melted, re-melted, and wasted, in fabricating women's bracelets, both for the hands and feet, chains, earrings, nose and finger rings, and a still larger quantity is consumed in manufacturing embroideries; alaches, or striped silken stuffs; touras, or fringes of gold lace, worn on turbans; gold and silver cloths; scarfs, turbans, or brocades. The quantities of these articles made in India is incredible." Bernier, it must be noted, wrote as a Westerner when he used the word "wasted." But, apart from the ornamental effect, this use of metal had traditionally something very important to the Indian peoples. It was a storage of wealth in a form which could, if need be, be turned into cash, in short the word "stored" would have been a better word than "wasted." The peasant stored up such precious metal as he could accumulate as bracelets and anklets for his women folk, who wore it continuously and were therefore its obligatory guardians. When he was in distress he took one or more bangles and had them coined into silver rupees. Silver was essentially his money, though there were also smaller coins of baser metal. A richer man adorned his family with gold ornaments and gold and silver brocades and cloths, all of which could be turned into gold coins. Lastly, the princes and kings, in addition to gold and silver, had precious stones. Royal jewels could not, however, be turned into cash with the facility of gold and silver, because they were considered as the sacred property of the Crown and not as the private property of the king. The chief means, therefore, of this private hoarding was the precious metals. Of these there were plenty, for India exported more than she imported. The Roman writer, Pliny (A.D. 23-79), had termed her "a veritable sink of the precious metals" for this reason; and a writer in Blackwood's Magazine in November, 1928, states: "India's total absorption throughout the 430 years (from the discovery of the sea route to India) to date has been 553 million sterling in gold and 4,556 million sterling worth of silver." The amount absorbed before the discovery of the sea route, he adds, must be immense, but cannot be calculated. Together they show that a great amount of gold and a still greater amount of silver are held in India and very largely as a safeguard against what in England is called "a rainy day," but in India would be called "a dry day," that is to say a failure of the monsoon leading to poor harvests or actual famine. The peasant was, then, able to supply his own coin. He took a bangle to the sowcar, who weighed it. The sowcar it was who knew how to send it to a mint and get it turned into equivalent rupees, which were themselves weighed by the recipient. As a decentralized method of the creation of money, it was both simple and close to individual needs. With this control of such little actual cash as he required, and with the panchyat's control of the village moneylender, the peasant's financial system was in the past a thing much of his own self. All this the British Government has changed. There were, in the past, a number of mints in India. In 1835 the Government standardized the rupee at two mints, that of Calcutta and of Bombay. Coins of different kinds continued, however, to be minted at various centres and in Native States, and, though not legal, in the British sense, were readily used by the agrarians. In 1862 the Government, as a further step in money centralization, took over the printing of banknotes from the private banks. This, however, did not affect the peasant, who did not use banks, and, moreover, with his average income of forty rupees odd a year, had and still has little use for perishable paper with rupees five or ten printed on it. The time-honoured custom of the people to turn women's ornaments into rupees, however, was abolished by the Government in 1893. By Act VIII of that year the Indian mints were closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver. With the technical reasons for this uprooting of custom I am not concerned, but only with its subjective character. That is clearly shown in the Report of the Indian Currency Committee upon which the Act was based. It is stated in the very first paragraph: "1. The question referred to the Committee by your Lordship is whether, having regard to the grave difficulties with which the Government of India are confronted through the heavy fall in the gold value of silver, it is expedient that Her Majesty's Government should allow them to carry into effect the proposals which they have made for stopping the free coinage of silver in India with the view to the introduction of a gold standard." The loss to Government was shown by a number of figures. If the Government could have paid its dues in England in 1892-93, at the rate of exchange of 1873-74, it would have saved itself 872 lakhs of rupees [1 lakh = 100,000], which was less than one seven hundredth of the silver in India as given in Blackwood's Magazine. It was a trifling sum also when compared to recent agrarian losses, which are said to have amounted to 54,786 lacs between 1928 and 1933. What was the Government's immediate gain was the peasants' immediate loss. The uncoined silver of the peasants "would certainly be depreciated in value," says the Report. A far more important loss to the peasants was also clearly recognized in the Report: "In times of scarcity and famine a considerable quantity of silver ornaments has found its way to the mints. During the period of the great famine in 1877 and the following years, for example, large quantities of such ornaments were minted" and thus turned into cash. The Committee men, in fact, realized the safety this ancient system afforded to the peasantry, yet they destroyed it because of a temporary upset of their money system. As regards the important functionary of the Indian village, the moneylender, sowcar, or mahajan, there is no need to repeat what has been written in Chapter 7. The correction of the evils done to villagers by the moneylenders under the dominant idea of modern civilization, has become a burning question of the day. Not only in India, but in almost all countries of the world, agriculturists are now shackled by debts. As regards India, "the most outstanding feature of Indian rural economy," says the Indian Year Book (1936), "is the chronic and almost hopeless indebtedness of the cultivator. The Central Banking Enquiry Committee has estimated that the total rural indebtedness in India is about Rs 900 crores [1 crore = 10 million, 100 lakhs]. Though indebtedness of the agricultural population has been there from old times, it is acknowledged that the indebtedness has arisen considerably during the last century and more especially during the last 50 years. This colossal burden of debt is the root problem which has to be faced in any attempt towards the economic regeneration of the masses." In order therefore primarily to loosen the hold of the modern, law-supported, sowcar upon the peasants, another method of village finance has been set up, the well-known co-operative system which was first reported upon by Sir Frederick Nicholson in the year following the taking away by Government of the peasants' customary right to turn their silver into coins. In 1927, after considerable trial in many countries, the League of Nations gave its official blessing to this system at the International Economic Conference: "The first condition for surmounting the difficulties of agriculture is the organization of suitable credit institutions. The best form of institution appears to be the co-operative credit society operating by means of resources which the very fact of association enables it to procure and to increase with or without the assistance of the public authorities." This resolution of the League seems clearly to indicate that a separate financial system was needed for the agrarian, one which depended on the very fact of the association of agrarians together -- in short, upon such a thing as the old village system of India in which the peasants were accustomed to act together. Agrarian co-operation had been very successful in Germany, where it had its origin, in Italy and other countries, and in India in 1909 it received its governmental recognition in the Co-operative Credit Societies Act. The aim of the Act was to encourage thrift and cooperation by the establishment of small credit societies for the agrarian and village artisan by the loan of sums at much less interest than the sowcar charged. The object, indeed, was to put in the midst of the village a better sowcar, a sowcar which considered its function first and its personal profit second. The new sowcar was to be a controlled sowcar, but the final control was not to be that of the panchyat but that of the assisting and supporting Government. The growth of these credit or moneylending societies has been very great. The Indian Year Book of 1938 says there are now about 94,000 agricultural societies with funds that have increased from about Rs 68 lakhs [1 lakh = 100,000] in 1910 to about Rs 100 crores [1 crore = 10 million, 100 lakhs] of which the members contribute 40 crores. The present number of members is about 4,500,000. Nevertheless, says the Year Book, though these figures are so satisfactory it must be admitted that they in themselves are not sufficient to base conclusions upon. The organisation may be admirable in appearance, but the spirit actuating it may be foreign and ill-adapted. The system has now the many thousand village credit societies or banks, and co-ordinating them are central banks and the provincial banks or Apex banks, of which there are at present seven. These Apex banks have connected up "with the Imperial Bank of India and have secured cash credit accommodation on furnishing security." This string of banks leading up to the Imperial Bank shows that this agricultural money system is not independent of the dominant money system. It is still within the ambit of that system. The security of all these institutions is ultimately the property and produce of its members, the humble agrarians. The large landowners do not take much part in the credit societies, whose small short loans are less suitable to their needs. For them there are land mortgage banks. The co-operative system, then, is a plan by which the land, in particular of the ryots and the lesser landowners, is made the basis of a great centralized credit organization, like the great centralized urban banking system, except that the agrarian credit banks are co-operatively managed. As the Year Book says, mere figures are not enough to prove success. Success also depends on the system being adapted to the innate character of its members. The Year Book's own present conclusions are that in 31 years, the movement has fallen far short of its objective. One test of success is the promptness with which loans are repaid by members. "On the 30th June, 1933, the overdue loans in agricultural societies amounted to Rs 13, 00, 76, 376 as compared with Rs 11, 63, 33, 585 the year before; the working capital of the agricultural societies was Rs 34, 38, 74, 459; the loans due by individuals were Rs 27, 94, 72, 035. The overdue loans were therefore 38 per cent of the working capital and 47 per cent of the total loans due by individuals ... This continued growth of overdue loans is an ominous portent and reflects very badly on the soundness of the co-operative structure. The loans, having been based on the basis of the assets of members, the ultimate solvency of the societies is beyond dispute; but the severe pressure on members and consequent wholesale liquidation of the societies would react very seriously both politically and economically." The reason which the Year Book gives for this unsoundness is not the slump, though that has "increased the terrible load of overdue loans in rural credit societies," but it is something inherent in the borrowing ryot. The ryot, indeed, found the new sowcar a better sowcar, so he joined a society and did his best to get away from the old sowcar. As the Report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in India says: "Experience has shown that the chief object of borrowing from village societies has been to substitute a loan on reasonable terms for the usurious contract with the moneylender." At first the societies encouraged this wish and advanced enough money to pay off the sowcar. But it was found this did not free the agrarian from his habit of debt. "The debtor fails to make an effort to pay the regular installments even when they are well within his capacity, and slips back into his old state of bondage. It is now generally accepted that such attempts should not be made by co-operative societies until the debtor has learned habits of punctuality and thrift." Similarly the ryot uses his new sowcar for his old habits. He borrows for marriage and other ceremonies, which play in his life that place of festival which seems a necessary relief to life's routine. "Loans are also required for marriage and other ceremonial expenses. It is the duty of committees of cooperative societies to use all their powers to reduce extravagant expenditure on this account." There now comes again one of those subtle differences, which can make a good an evil. The sowcar, in his function as shopkeeper to the villagers, allows them the goods they require, though often they have not the grain or cash wherewith to pay him, at such times as before harvest for instance. He waits for payment and even then prefers part to full payment, which would lose him his debtors and suppliers of produce. Consequently the ryots pay him a share of each crop according as they get returns from the land, that is to say at irregular intervals and in irregular amounts in proportion to the size of the crop. Not so the bank with a precise and regular Audit, which is the statutory function of the important government official, the Registrar. Unlike the sowcar the bank wants its loans repaid regularly and precisely. So, though both moneylenders have the British law to support them, the bank is much more inclined and even forced to make use of it than is the sowcar. "It seems advisable," write the Commissioners, "to add a final warning against a tendency, which besets all institutions of this character, to become possessed of land by foreclosure ... If the Committee rests satisfied with the covering of the loan by a sufficient security and neglects to measure the prospects of repayment in the light of the character and business reputation of the borrower, their institution will merely develop into a machine for dispossessing the ancestral owner." They give an example of this in Burma, where it was found that, owing to overborrowing and defaulting, the bank adopted a policy of foreclosure and in three years rapidly became possessed of many acres of peasants' land. "A situation of increasing seriousness had arisen. The weapon placed in the hands of the cultivator to enable him to defeat the usurious moneylender had proved itself to be two-edged. The business of the bank was operating in the direction of expropriating the smaller cultivating owner in favour of the larger landlord." Similarly the Year Book states that the cooperative banks particularly in Bombay and Madras have "lost their cooperative character in a great measure and have become business bodies," and moneylending businesses, of course, make use of foreclosure. So the instinct, which resulted in England in the dispossession of the yeoman and small landowner in favour of the large landowner, lies hidden, with all its possible consequences, like a snake in the grass in this generous co-operative system. It might well prove better for the ryot, in the main thing that matters to him at the present day, the holding of his land, if he had remained debtor to the sowcar, in place of becoming debtor to a co-operative system, whose chief enemy and almost cause of being is this same sowcar. Nevertheless, the old-fashioned native sowcar, has in some places almost been driven out from any business connection with co-operators. This is especially so in the Punjab, where co-operation has had its best success. "In hundreds of villages the moneylender's ascendancy has been definitely broken," writes Sir M. Darling with legitimate pride, "and in many the members of the local village bank owe him nothing at all." Yet even in such successes for "energy, straight-dealing, and self-reliance," there lurks a possible danger. If the sowcar gets entirely driven out, and there remains only the bank, and if the bank, in the words of the Year Book already quoted, loses its co-operative character and becomes a business body, who knows but that little by little the thriftless and inefficient, those with little thrift, those with thrift but not enough, pledging themselves as individuals, might, one after another, fall into the state of dispossessed and evicted peasants? History is only too crowded with the undesired and appalling effects that steal over a people unawares. The Agricultural Commissioners contemplate with something like despair the dubious state of the co-operative system and quote with approval from a memorandum by Mr. W. H. Moreland upon the question of the possible "progress" and "better living" of the ryots. For better living "a vague aspiration now exists and, I suspect, always has existed, but it is rendered ineffective by an inhibition, which has to be broken up before large-scale progress is possible. In other words, the central problem is now psychological not technical." What is this inhibition that suppresses the activity of a desire for better living in villagers whose land can no longer afford them as a whole a bare subsistence? I maintain it is the dominant idea which is foreign to them. They desire to manage their own affairs, to co-operate not in foreign ways but in ways they understand and from which they could expand to more modern methods from within. The Royal Commissioners themselves agree to this, without, however, being sufficiently objective to realize that the present form of co-operation is of European origin and, therefore, foreign. They write: "The essence of the co-operative movement is that the people should take the management of their affairs into their own hands; if co-operation fails, there will fail the best hope of rural India." But how do they wish to bring about this management by the peasants of their own affairs? They propose to bring it about by subjecting the peasants yet more than now to authorities, to take away such initiative as they still possess. They propose to force upon them a drive suggestive of that which the Soviets forced upon their peasants, without, of course, the ruthless cruelty of the Russians. It is essential to impel the peasants to "the will to achieve a better standard of living." Hence Government must be stirred to the necessity "that the rural problem should be attacked at all points simultaneously." Yet this very inhibition, resisting imposition from without, amounts already in the peasants to detestation. Mr. Brayne, for example, testifies: "You have no idea how the Gurgaon villager detests the itinerant, departmental worker, and it was only after years of work that the villager allowed me to see why he was so prejudiced against the people Government sent for his apparent benefit ... Every official has a great barrier to break down before he can start helping the villagers, and may never break it down at all; some never try to break it down." The reason for this detestation is to be found in the primary difference between the agriculturists and the traders, manufacturers, and financiers, who are now dominant. No one has described this fundamental distinction with greater mastery than has Dr. Oswald Spengler in his famous book The Decline of the West. The peasants are terrene producers, that is partners in the recreative power of the earth. They have to do with goods which they themselves cultivate and the superfluity of which they exchange for other goods. The crops in which they deal are the crops of their own growing; the cattle in which they deal are their own cattle, known each of them individually to those who bred them. In contrast to this close familiarity is the urban. "The decisive point is this -- the true urban is not a producer in the prime terrene sense. He has not the inward linkage with the soil or with the goods that pass through his hands. He does not live with these, but looks at them from outside and appraises them in relation to his own life-upkeep. "With this goods become wares, exchange turnover, and in place of thinking in goods we have thinking in money. "With this purely extensional something, a form of limit-defining is abstracted from the visible objects of economics, just as mathematical thought abstracts something from the mechanistically conceived environment. Abstract money corresponds exactly to abstract number. Both are entirely inorganic. The economic picture is reduced exclusively to quantities, whereas the important thing about 'goods' had been their quality. For the early-period peasant his 'cow' is, first of all, just what it is, a unit being, and only secondarily an object of exchange; but for the economic outlook of the true townsman the only thing that exists is an abstract money-value which at the moment happens to be in the shape of a cow that can always be transformed into that of, say, a banknote. Even so the genuine engineer sees in a famous waterfall not a unique natural spectacle, but just a calculable quantum of unexploited energy. "It is an error of all modern money-theories that they start from the value-token or even the material of the payment-token. In reality money, like number and law, is a category of thought." We can now understand how it is that the peasants detest anything that takes them away from goods into the -- to them -- variable, uncertain, and unfathomable abstraction, money, particularly money that is not of their own making and which cannot be coined from their women's bangles. They never know what relation this money is going to bear to the goods which is their wealth. They can never be sure that they possess a sufficiency of it, when they come into contact with the outer world, and no well-to-do person can imagine what this means to the poor in money. Hence the peasants detest such contacts, however well-intentioned the contact-wallahs may be; they prefer to set up an inhibition against them, and shut themselves up in their own world. Mr. Brayne testifies to this detestation. Sir Frederick Lely has given similar testimony: "If villagers can be persuaded to state their troubles, it is not of over-assessment or oppression of the police that they speak, but of the itinerant departmental workers. They will say: 'O Sahib, in the travelling season the Vaccinator comes, the Sanitary-wallah comes, the Akbari-wallah comes, the Police-wallah comes, the Engineer-wallah comes, the Pani (irrigation)-wallah comes, the Survey-wallah comes, the Circle-wallah comes, the Lokil (board)-wallah, and every one demands food, bedding, and service, and where are we to get the money from?'" This detestation is the inhibition of Mr. Moreland. It discloses the peasants' traditional passion to manage their affairs in their own way, for detestation only arises from a genuine injury to the inner being. Neither the wallahs nor the cash nexus belong to their core. The traditional method of their payment of taxes is in kind and through their own functionaries. Their traditional money by which they deal with the outer world is silver and some other metals. The metals to them are also goods. As Spengler says, the peasants value precious metals and coin, not as constituting a general measure, but really as "goods whose rarity and indestructibility cause them to be highly prized." But the modern bank is something quite different. "It is not an office for borrowing and lending money; but it is a manufactury of credit," as the textbook, The Theory and Practice of Banking, of Mr. Macleod defines it. In other words, the bank manufactures credit for one who has private property, which property can be taken by the banker in the event of the debtor not being able to repay his loan. It is based upon the alienability of private property; that is to say upon the opposite of the older conception of the inalienability of the Hindu peasants' property, to which the Abbé Dubois testified, provided always that the property was not wasted and land allowed to go out of cultivation. How, then, can "the essence of the co-operative movement that the people should take the management of their own affairs into their own hands" come into being within the ambit of the modern banking system? It cannot. The modern banking system belongs to a dominant idea antagonistic to an agricultural system of ryots. An agricultural co-operative system must have its own financial system. As Sir Daniel Hamilton, with his unrivalled combined knowledge of the mercantile banking system and Indian agriculture, wrote in The Rayat and the Statutory Commission, 1929: "The men for whom a banking system is urgently wanted are the eighty per cent who live by agriculture, and by whom all others subsist. The Government Co-operative Registrars know better than anyone else what the people require in the way of finance, and they should now meet and formulate definite proposals for an All-India Co-operative Banking Corporation, which will link up the Provincial Co-operative Banks into one concern which will finance India, apart from the mercantile community." Only by such separation, including the restoration of the peasants' traditional custom of turning their silver into coin and the use of National Credit in place of the present bankers' monopoly, for both of which the late Sir Montague Webb strove with such persistent courage, can the peasants be freed from what he called in India's Plight, 1934: "The subjection of India to the control of the powerful Paper Money Forces behind the Secretary of State for India." Nevertheless, as I was able in Chapter 5 to bring forward an example of the survival of the open-field system within the ambit of the modern money system and in Java of an example of the survival of an oriental village system under an occidental government, so I am able to bring forward here an example of the restoration of the family-ownership and cultivation of land in a European country within the ambit of the modern money system. That country is Denmark. In the middle of the nineteenth century the cheap wheat imported into Europe from America and the Argentine, and the tariff raised by their chief customer, Germany, brought the Danish agriculturists to the verge of starvation. They had at that time agriculture of large estates or latifundia privately owned by their landed aristocracy and worked upon a capitalistic basis. In this catastrophe royalty, the aristocracy and the professional classes, the upper classes generally of the now broken system, did little to help recovery, writes Mr. F. C. Howe in Denmark, 1921. "It was the peasants who slowly found a way out the problems of the country." They set about the reformation of agriculture in Denmark in the interests of the Danes themselves. They ignored the outer world, its markets and its politics, and reduced their army to the functions of the police. To improve themselves individually and as a whole, they brought about a great expansion and improvement of education. In agriculture itself they "turned to intensive small scale cultivation ... In forty years time Denmark became in many ways the most contented state in the world." Mr. Howe adds the following very instructive words on the methods by which the re-creation of a peasant-family-ownership agriculture, and the system based upon it, was erected in the midst of modern urban-minded civilization: "Denmark also demonstrates that agriculture can be made an alluring as well as a profitable profession. The wealth that can be taken from the ground is measured by the intelligence of the farmer and the laws that determine the distribution of the produce. The latter is by far the more important. For if the farmer gives up a great part of his produce to the landlord, or if it is taken by speculators, by middlemen and others, agriculture is bound to decay. It cannot be otherwise. For over a generation Denmark has been working out plans for converting the tenant into a home owner. This probably explains the other achievement of the country. This lies at the back of the educational programme as well as the universal spirit of co-operation that prevails." Farm-ownership is the economic foundation of Denmark. The majority of the farms are small. Very large farms constitute the few survivals of the old large estates, and they and their owners are now disappearing through legislation, for the legal power has fallen into the hands of the gaardmaend, who own about 6/10ths of the land in farms of 12 to 150 acres, and who work them by their families with or without hired labour. These farmers are quite different to farmers under the dominance of urban civilization; they show in themselves the change of values, which alone establishes agriculture. "They control the politics of their districts and have been now ascendant in Parliament for 30 years. They know about the most technical agriculture, are rather skilled mechanics and frequently good chemists. They are saturated with a knowledge of agriculture, are not consumed with the ambition to be rich or to acquire more land. Their ambition is to be good farmers. They take an active interest in the co-operative societies, in the various saving and credit institutions, and are familiar with the laws that bear upon their business. They enjoy a social and political status superior to any other farmers in the world ... "Denmark was changed by the people themselves, by the peasants or farmers, who a few years ago were scarcely more intelligent than the peasants of Europe. It was the peasants who took control of politics, who have taken over the marketing, the buying and the credit agencies of the country and by their own efforts have developed a culture of their own. It is they who have abolished farm tenancy and substituted farm ownership as the basis of successful farming. As the result they have made agriculture a fine art and converted the raising of horses, cattle, hogs and poultry into a science. This has been achieved in forty years. It is one of the most remarkable revolutions in history." For the extra wealth which they get from their surplus produce, the Danish peasants are mainly dependent upon the English market. Yet during the Great War when this market was cut off, they did not starve, as eventually the Germans and the Austrians starved and as the British came within a fortnight of doing. On the contrary they enjoyed an exceptional spell of health. They did not starve because they were able to dispense with their gains from their exports and to feed themselves and their urban brethren. Their ability to do this was due to their well-distributed subsistence farming, which is the safety-basis of family ownership and cultivation. Yet all is not well with the Danish farmers. They have not been able to create a money system which saves them from encumbering debt. Owing to their large export trade they remain within the ambit of the western money system. They, too, have suffered from the world-wide agricultural depression and owe their credit societies large sums. So Agricultural Economics and Society No. 2 of the International Institute of Agriculture reports: "In 1933, the total mortgage debt on rural property was calculated as being 3,750,000,000 crowns, whereas the aggregate value of the farms was 5,400,000,000." Fortunately the Government is, as has been said, one largely directed by the farmers themselves, and many measures have been taken to lighten the load of debt, which oppressed the majority of the small owners. Nevertheless, the fact of this great involvement in debt shows that the problem of an agricultural money system has not been solved. Moreover the Danes are secluded in a small country, very different to the huge variety of India. The Indian peasant question cannot be solved by an imitation of the Danes. But it can be claimed that the recovery of the Indian peasants must in the main come through the re-creation of their self-governing powers. If agricultural reform falls only "into the hands of reforming theorists," wrote Lord Ernle at the end of his story of English farming, "intent on repeating the time-honoured mistake of applying to agricultural problems remedies which are only applicable, if at all, to industrial or urban difficulties, (then) to all classes the consequences threaten to be disastrous, and most of all, to agricultural labourers." Similarly they would be disastrous to the Indian peasants. In other words it is urban subjectivity that threatens. What is needed is a realization of the primary nature of agriculture and the terrene producers, the peasants. "Agriculture," said Napoleon at St. Helena, "is the soul, the foundation of the kingdom: industry ministers to the comfort and happiness of the population: foreign trade is the superabundance; it allows the exchange of the surplus of agriculture and industry ... Foreign trade, which in its results is infinitely inferior to agriculture, was an object of secondary importance to my mind. Foreign trade ought to be the servant of agriculture and home industry: these last ought never to be subordinated to foreign trade." Table of Contents 1. British and Native Systems of Government in India 2. Conflicting Dominant Ideas 3. The First Agricultural Path 4. The Second Agricultural Path 5. The Degradation of the Peasants 6. The Ascendancy of the Town 7. The Degradation of the Soil 8. The Village System 9. The Restoration of the Peasants Back to the Small Farms Library Index Community development | Rural development City farms | Organic gardening | Composting | Small farms | Biofuel | Solar box cookers Trees, soil and water | Seeds of the world | Appropriate technology | Project vehicles Home | What people are saying about us | About Handmade Projects Projects | Internet | Schools projects | Sitemap | Site Search | Donations |

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Too often Christian teachers behave as though authoritative truth has to be communicated in an authoritarian manner. In one sense, the attitude we have toward the Bible will largely determine how we teach it. But our ultimate purpose is to get students to be independent investigators of God’s Word forming firsthand standards and convictions which are taught them by the Holy Spirit. In order to accomplish this purpose, it would seem that our teaching should reflect the fact that infallible truth is nevertheless being handled by fallible teachers. If we can recognize this about ourselves, then perhaps we can experiment with the discovery method. Discovery teaching (sometimes called the “inquiry method”) is simply the process of allowing the student to take the leading role in his own learning experiences. The teacher becomes a facilitator and guide, making it possible for the learner to reach mutually-agreed-upon goals. The teacher serves as a resource person to stimulate, motivate, clarify, and explain. The atmosphere in which such teaching takes place must be informal and nonthreatening. In order for discovery teaching to be effective, the environment (including the teacher’s attitude) must contribute to rather than detract from the attaining of objectives. Rather than forcing his idea of content, the teacher attempts to keep his hands off the learning process whenever and wherever the student can carry it on for himself. Such a free-rein approach to education is threatening to some teachers. The instructor who considers himself an indispensable purveyor of information about God may find it very difficult to play down his role in order to maximize student involvement. Some concepts of education largely involve lectures and drills, and center almost exclusively on the teacher’s performance during class. Paul Pallmeyer questions such an attitude about Christian teaching when he asks, “Is such teaching likely to produce the kind of thinking a Christian needs to do for his own faith in the complex life of today—and tomorrow? Or a prior question: Is it information we are trying to communicate or is it the Christian faith? The two are not necessarily the same. In fact, the way we arrive at the information may have as much to do with the kind of faith that results (or doesn’t result) as the information itself” (New Ways to Learn, Dale E. Griffin, ed.; Concordia, St. Louis, Mo.). Discovery teaching brings four basic components of the educational setting into interaction: the student, the teacher, the environment, and the content. The student is an active participant who solves problems which he understands through the process of structuring his own learning experiences. The teacher plays the role of resource person, as described above. The environment includes both freedom and structure with freedom having the upper hand. The content may very well be propositional truth in a general context, waiting in the proper place for the student to track it down, confront it, and capture it for his own. An effective discovery leader must be a mature teacher who knows not only the subject matter of the current lesson, but has a depth understanding of Christian truth. Specific objectives may not guarantee that learning time will be well spent, but they certainly facilitate that desirable goal. The student has to be a willing participant, ready to explore numerous avenues of information, aggressively ready to appropriate new findings in the light of previous information and a total biblical world view. What he gets will be his own and will therefore fit his needs and interests. He will not wander around in theological Saul’s armor, as so many contemporary Christian teenagers do, when he marches forth to fight the Goliaths of a pagan society. Discovery teaching allows for individualistic accomplishments. It is highly adaptive and versatile, limited. only by the imagination of the participants at both the teacher and student level. The bugaboos of boredom and apathy should be reduced to a minimum since total student participation and self-direction is necessary. This inquiry method allows for free expression of individual creativity. It is a concept of learning about which we talk much and do little. The relationship of students to teachers and of students to students should develop rapidly and warmly in the inquiry approach. Group activity is significant, and the sharing of findings is the end result of individual initiative. Actually a number of diverse methods can be used within the framework of discovery learning, since any single student may approach his subject matter from different perspectives. Surely, numerous different approaches will be adopted within the total group. Many students feel insecure in an unstructured environment of learning. It is much more comfortable to be able to listen to a lecture and take notes in orderly fashion than to be confronted with the haunting question, “What do you want to learn about this subject, and how do you propose to learn it?” Any time there is freedom in education, there is also responsibility. If that responsibility is not taken seriously by the participants, the whole process could get out of control. This freedom can also threaten the organization because a given class might decide that they could accomplish their purposes better by meeting at a different hour, in a different place, or on a different day than that class is usually scheduled. The inquiry method is also time-consuming. At times a student will pursue a subject for a while, only to wander down some fruitless bypaths. Nevertheless, the very frustration of the search is a learning experience. One of the things that all of us have to understand in the process of education is where not to look for certain kinds of information. Perhaps the most crucial problem of discovery teaching is the tendency to slip away from propositional revelation. From a Christian point of view, the inquiry method is not matching interviews, library reference research, brainstorming, discussion, and Bible study as equal approaches to truth. It is rather viewing the Scripture as a very fine mesh at the tube end of a funnel. All of the sources are poured into the wide mouth at the top, but only what filters through the screen of divine revelation can in the final analysis be considered truth. In the helpful little paperback mentioned previously, Pallmeyer suggests that Christian teachers ought to do two things for their students: encourage the questioning mind, and equip students with skills for finding the answers. He goes on to say, “We can do both by using Inquiry Method—presenting pupils with problems and putting them to work finding the solutions by whatever means available. We may suggest resources, but we need to refrain from doing the research for the learner. To train our students to think, we must also challenge the answers they suggest and not be satisfied with the easy answer they are ‘supposed to get.’ We must require our pupils to give evidence and make a convincing case for what they think and say.” In a very real sense the inquiry method is a matter of confrontation. The teacher confronts the student with issues which have meaning and relevance for him, with freedom to pursue those issues, or the problems which stand in the way of solving the issues, and with the resources through which and from which answers can be found. Those resources have to be available and usable by the student. It does no good, for example, to send a high school student to a Greek concordance for a word study on sanctification. The student also needs to be taught how to use the resources as he tracks his solutions through books, articles, films, recordings, maps, experiences, projects, and most important, other people. Perhaps the most productive results of discovery teaching will take place in groups of adolescents and adults, although classes of advanced Juniors might very well pursue a scaled-down version of the inquiry method. A certain amount of maturity is necessary since an individual must be aware of his own feelings and opinions to be adequately involved in problem-solving techniques. If we expect the Word of God to produce growth in the lives of students, they must be involved directly with its text, and this is precisely what happens in effective discovery teaching.

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The immigrant share of the United States population has increased significantly, from 5 percent in the mid-twentieth century to over 14 percent in 2015, yet school segregation among immigrant communities has persisted. A Furman Center study of New York City schools found that non-native Black, Hispanic, and Asian students “tend to be more racially isolated than their native-born counterparts, even after controlling for differences in language skills and income.” Another study by Arizona State University researchers Jeanne M. Powers and Margarita Pivovarova also highlights the extent of segregation between U.S.-born and non-U.S. born students. Powers and Pivovarova found that “the average immigrant student attended a school where 19% of her peers were immigrants, while on average, U.S.-born students attended schools in which only 6% of the students were immigrants. Thirty-nine percent of U.S.-born students attended schools that did not enroll any immigrant students.” Furthermore, segregation among immigrant students persists despite evidence that having immigrant peers can increase the likelihood of high school completion for U.S.-born students. Attending segregated schools can also have negative consequences for immigrant students and has been linked to lower grades, especially for Latine students. While across the country districts continue to struggle to integrate multilingual learners and their families, the Roaring Fork School District (RFSD) exemplifies several best practices for integration that center family voice. Situated in Colorado’s Roaring Fork Valley, The Roaring Fork School District is home to a burgeoning Latine community. Like many other districts and neighborhoods around the country, over the past half century, the district’s share of nonwhite immigrant students has increased dramatically. The school district reflects the racial diversity of the Valley, with roughly 60 percent of its 6,000 students identifying as Latine and the remaining 40 percent as Anglo. Roaring Fork’s robust Latine immigrant community has prompted the school district to make meaningful efforts towards linguistic and cultural integration, which has also been made possible by the wraparound services that the district provides to immigrant students and their families through a partner nonprofit. Rob Stein, the superintendent of the Roaring Fork District, said that their success in integrating their Latine and Anglo communities lies in their approach, which centers on “a willingness to listen to and trust our families and try to expand our relationships and expand our communications.” In a district where roughly 50 percent of families do not speak English and where 45 percent of students qualify for free and reduced lunch, there can be several obstacles to amplifying parent voices. Shortly after Rob Stein joined the district in 2013, his team embarked on an in-depth engagement process, known as a visioning process, in which they asked the community what they wanted from their schools and what goals they had for their students. District leaders organized sixteen meetings with nearly 1,500 parents, teachers, students, and community members across the three towns that comprise the district, holding the same meeting twice in both Spanish and English to amplify Spanish-speaking voices. This practice was intentional. “Often what happens when you do a bilingual setting with interpreters, [is that,] still, English and whiteness are the dominant modes. And so that was a way to sort of balance it out,” Stein explained. In order to disabuse themselves of potential stereotypes about what immigrant parents value, Roaring Fork district leaders also captured qualitative data on the different priorities of Spanish-speaking immigrant families. The visioning process’s engagement and collection is ongoing. Almost all schools in the district have a Spanish-language night or a Latine parent night oriented around topics in which Spanish-speaking families communicated interest. In 2018, the team evaluated the effects of their visioning work, and discovered that Spanish-speaking families felt more included because of the practices they had begun to implement, including facilitating meetings in Spanish and organizing the Latine parent nights. Much of the district’s success in developing relationships with Spanish-speaking families stems from the work of Brianda Cervantes, the district’s school–community organizer. RFSD hired their first school–community organizer in 2016 to support the Riverview School, after local nonprofit the Manaus Fund paid for the position; though funded externally, Cervantes is an employee of the school district. Cervantes, who graduated from law school in Mexico before she immigrated to the Valley, became involved in her son’s school, Riverview School, to provide feedback on the dual-language program. Then-school–community organizer Janeth Niebla empowered Cervantes to apply for her position, despite the fact that she did not speak English at the time. Cervantes remembers how her life changed when she connected with Niebla: “She was giving me hope, tools, trusting me, validating me.” In her first act of engagement as school–community organizer, Brianda Cervantes taught a leadership course to students on how to organize and involve themselves in school decision-making. She used her relationships with students to connect with many Spanish-speaking families. Early on, however, Cervantes encountered cultural barriers among Latine families that contributed to low parent participation. “Our culture has taught us that you don’t go and you don’t have the right to go to a teacher or to a principal, and let them know how to do their work,” Cervantes explained. Stein echoed Cervantes’s sentiments. When he spent time in Mexico and Central America, he found that family engagement did not cross the schoolhouse door. This made Cervantes’s work—cultivating relationships with families and pushing the district to be more inclusive—a necessity. By coaching parents one-on-one on how to advocate for their children, walking them through using public comments during school board meetings, and helping them set up meetings with their child’s teacher and principal, Cervantes increased parent involvement dramatically. By the end of her time at Riverview School, Latine parents comprised 50 percent of the Parent–Teacher Association. Cervantes encouraged other districts to hire community organizers in order to build strong relationships with their families and ensure that all parents have a voice in their child’s education, regardless of their language. Although Stein admitted that he often finds himself defensive amidst the newfound pressure from organizers and parents, he recognized that “you can’t just be like the top of an organizational hierarchy and change the whole system. I don’t know how else to effect change without organizing, without organized parents and organized students pushing us because the people who already have the power are not exactly looking for ways to shift our focus.” Organizing Latine families who do not speak English required investing in interpreters, creating bilingual spaces, expanding communication materials, and implementing culturally and linguistically diverse education (CLDE) programming for students. While 60 percent of Roaring Fork’s students are Latine, the vast majority whose families speak Spanish, this community is not a monolith. Over a decade ago, most immigrants in Roaring Fork were from Mexico, but in the past six to ten years, many Latine families in the community have immigrated from Central American countries such as El Salvador and Honduras. Brianda Cervantes found that although most of them spoke Spanish, some primarily spoke indigenous languages or different dialects that made the district’s family communications in Spanish difficult to understand. She realized that the district had been targeting their communication to Mexican families and advocated for simplifying Spanish language materials so that Central American families could better understand. After the visioning processes, district leaders realized they could do more to meet the needs of Spanish-speaking families and asked the Manaus fund to bring Cervantes’ work district-wide. Once she began her role as community organizer for the district, she started pushing to have an interpreter at all district-wide meetings. As a result of her advocacy, every district-wide meeting is either completely bilingual or has an interpreter. The Family Advisory Council, which Cervantes co-hosts with Family Resource Center executive director Anna Cole, brings together parents, staff, and community members to oversee the district. In order to make these meetings accessible, they help with gas, provide dinner, and even have stipends for families who would otherwise be unable to participate. Cervantes speaks only in Spanish, while Cole speaks in English with an interpreter present for each. As a result of these efforts, Latine parental participation in the Family Advisory Council has increased to 40 percent, much higher than before Cervantes joined. While she admits that the new system frustrated some Anglo parents, who were not used to needing to wait for an interpreter so that they could understand and respond to others, many other Anglo families have been excited to have their children in diverse schools and even work to gain Spanish skills themselves through bilingual tables. At Council meetings, parents can choose to sit at a table where conversation is exclusively in Spanish, exclusively in English, or bilingual. Both Spanish-speaking and English-speaking families sit at the bilingual table to practice and interact. Beyond these efforts, Cervantes has continued her advocacy through a series of conversations about language access and langage justice, pushing the district to be more inclusive of Spanish speakers. Roaring Fork’s work empowering Spanish-speaking students is made possible by their culturally and linguistically diverse education (CLDE) programming. Over the past eight years, Roaring Fork has revamped their language programming from a pull-out program, where multilingual learners are removed from the classroom to receive instruction, to a comprehensive, language-rich environment where all students develop English language skills regardless of their household language. A study of English language learner pull-out programming in Arizona showed that pull-out English language programming can segregate ELL and non-ELL students within schools. CLDE avoids this by taking an asset-based approach that utilizes students’ first language, implements culturally-relevant curriculum, and engages parents and community members, among other core components. The district’s goal is to “ensure that students maintain their first language and add a second, including both native English speakers and native speakers of other languages.” Some of their schools offer dual language programming and Spanish language arts instruction, and all Roaring Fork schools offer literacy based English language development as part of CLDE programming. As other districts have struggled to engage multi-language learners over distance learning, Stein maintained that while most students returned to in-person learning in October, the 15 percent of their student population who chose to continue online schooling demonstrated as much growth in their end-of-year assessment data as did their peers in in-person learning. Despite these successes, the challenges that bilingual students in Roaring Fork faced during this school year were numerous. The Latine community was disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, with higher disease incidence rates within the community. A study that used language as a proxy for immigration status found that non-English speakers were less likely to be tested for COVID-19, yet were over four times more likely to test positive, at a rate of 18.6 percent compared to 4 percent for English speakers. Many students had less privacy to study, some did not have access to technology, and although the district worked hard to improve access, many students had to help provide for their families, which made focusing on school difficult. Additionally, because some families in Roaring Fork are undocumented, they were denied access to government assistance, including stimulus checks, even when their children were U.S. citizens. This made the work of Kelly Medina, the family liaison program coordinator, and her colleagues at the Family Resource Center (FRC) even more vital. The Family Resource Center is a school-based nonprofit, so they receive Title III and Medicaid funding as well as funding from other sources. Several years ago, the Family Resource Center was an administrative building where families were supposed to come, but Rob Stein found that few families came. One of Stein’s first actions when he assumed his role as superintendent was to bring the resources to where the families were. He decentralized the FRC and placed family liaisons in schools, increasing the number of liaisons over five years to provide every school with a bilingual family liaison. Today, Roaring Fork has thirteen bilingual, bicultural family liaisons whose responsibilities include family development and case management to help families move out of crisis. As case managers, they provide resources and referrals for families who need support by guiding them through systems like health care, public assistance, and school enrollment, and even serve as an intervention program for Child Protective Services. Family liaisons are integrated into the school system and are present in multi-tiered support meetings to help provide resources for students going through the special education evaluation process or struggling with behavioral mental health. Liaisons often serve as trusted adults during recess for elementary school students and lead peer groups to mentor students in middle and high school. When COVID-19 hit Roaring Fork, families who once needed assistance advocating for their child’s education now needed support after losing their jobs, internet access and technology to allow for distance learning, and help paying their bills. As the government denied services to undocumented families, Roaring Fork’s Family Resource Center worked to fill those gaps and provide services to all families regardless of immigration status. Medina said of the staff, “I will always be grateful to see how much they hustled and how they were just there for families when it was during a really scary time.” This work included making relief funds from community nonprofits available to undocumented families so that they could obtain rental assistance, an internet connection, or support with utility bills, in addition to their standard referrals for dental services. The staff’s diversity is one of the greatest assets to the team as 80 percent of the families they work with are Latine, many of whom are Spanish-speaking. Medina asserted that liaisons often make an effort to learn and speak the family’s dialect to make the process easier for families and help build trust. Equipping families to advocate for themselves is crucial, but Medina observed that assumptions are often still made about immigrant families in day-to-day meetings. To combat this, when family liaisons sit in meetings with teachers, principals, and counselors talking about families, “we’re really quick to say ‘that’s not okay to say that about families without them being present,’ or ‘why are we even having this meeting without the family here?’” Medina explained. Her work is deeply personal. When Medina was a student in the Roaring Fork School District, her family experienced homelessness during her junior year of high school, forcing her to work to support her mom instead of applying for college and scholarships. Medina began working as a family liaison eight years ago, driven by the belief that had her mom had access to a family liaison, there “could have been a really different outcome for me and my sister when we were in school.” Building trust with families is difficult in an “education system [that] historically has harmed families just as much as social services,” Medina contended. Yet, despite the biases and socioeconomic challenges that the FRC staff confronts, Medina said she experiences the most joy “ when families feel like they have ownership. They are like, No, I’m coming to this meeting. And I’m going to say what I have to say, and this is what I’m worried about. That to me is so awesome, because I see my mom in them and knowing that my mom didn’t have that, and that we had something to do with helping that parent feel confident is awesome.” Integration Strategies that Empower Immigrant Families Roaring Fork’s practices demonstrate a deep commitment to empowering their Latine families. While many of the changes that the district has undertaken have required many resources, they are necessary for creating equity. For other districts with large immigrant populations and non-native English speakers and families, Roaring Fork can provide these main takeaways: - Community visioning that incorporates family voice is crucial for success. A visioning process is an important first step in ensuring that district leaders understand the priorities of immigrant families and begin working towards them. - Incorporate school-community organizers to advocate with families. Cultural barriers can be a deterrent for immigrant families’ involvement in schools. A designated staff member who can empower families and advocate with them is pivotal. - Ensure that spaces and communications are multilingual. Non-native English speakers are not a monolith. While districts sometimes assume that communication materials are adequate, families who speak different dialects often struggle to access translated materials. Moreover, rather than just providing interpreters that maintain English as the dominant language, when meetings are bilingual, immigrant families are made to feel that they belong. - Connect families to wraparound services. In communities with high populations of low-income and undocumented families, children may struggle to learn without basic services. These services can include having a family resource center like Roaring Fork’s, or even just having bilingual staff members who can connect families with resources in the community. header image source: Roaring Fork school district facebook

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A hand shakes ( essential tremor ) is a common movement disorder. An involuntary, rhythmic muscle contraction causes the shaking. Tremors are most common in the hands, but they can also occur in the arms, head, vocal cords, torso, and legs. Tremors can be intermittent, happening every so often, or constant. Here are hand shakes causes and symptoms. Hand Shakes ( Essential tremor ) is a nervous system (neurological) scatter that causes automatic and rhythmic shaking. It can influence practically any piece of your body, however the trembling happens regularly in your hands — particularly when you do simple tasks, for example, drinking from a glass or tying shoelaces. Hand Shakes ( Essential tremor ) is generally not a perilous condition, however it commonly intensifies after some time and can be serious in certain people. Different conditions don’t cause essential tremor, essential tremor is at times mistaken for Parkinson’s disease. Hand Shakes ( Essential tremor ) can happen at any age yet is generally regular in individuals age 40 and more seasoned. Hand Shakes ( Essential tremor ) signs and symptoms: 1. Start step by step, normally more unmistakably on one side of the body 2. Intensify with development 3. Normally happen in the hands first, influencing one hand or two hands 4. Can incorporate a “yes-yes” or “no-no” movement of the head 5. May be irritated by enthusiastic pressure, weakness, caffeine or temperature boundaries. Also Read : Tennis Elbow Causes And Symptoms About portion of essential tremor cases seem to result from a hereditary transformation. This structure is alluded to as familial tremor. It isn’t clear what causes essential tremor in people without a known hereditary transformation. No one knows what causes essential tremor. Therefore, there is no way to prevent it. Stress, caffeine and certain medicines may make the tremor worse. If stress makes your tremor worse, you can learn ways to reduce your stress. If caffeine worsens your symptoms, try to cut down on caffeinated beverages such as coffee, tea and soft drinks. Medicines likely to affect the tremor include: - Stimulants such as methylphenidate - Lithium (Lithobid, others) - Valproate (Depacon) - Thyroid replacement medicine (in excessive doses) Also Read : How To Make Hand Sanitizer At Home Essential tremor isn’t dangerous, however side effects regularly intensify after some time. On the off chance that the tremors become serious, you may think that itshard to: Hold a cup or glass without spilling Put on cosmetics or shave Talk, if your voice box or tongue is influenced.

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