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Timaeus 12

Energy-dispersive radiation spectrometry systems, such as, without limitation, X-ray spectrometry systems or gamma-ray spectrometry systems, are used for detecting, measuring and analyzing radiation emissions, such as X-ray emissions or gamma-ray emissions, from, for example, a scanning electron microscope (SEM). A typical energy-dispersive radiation spectrometry system includes the following four main components: (1) a detector, (2) a pre-amplifier, (3) a pulse processor, and (4) a computer-based analyzer. For convenience only, and not for purposes of limitation, the following description will relate to X-ray spectrometry systems and photons in the form of X-rays (as compared to, for example, photons in the form of gamma-rays that are detected in a gamma-ray spectrometry system). The detector, which usually takes the form of a semiconductor sensor of some type, converts an incoming X-ray into a very small current pulse, typically on the order of tens of thousands of electrons, with a duration of about tens to a few hundreds of nanoseconds. The magnitude of each of the current pulses is proportional to the energy of the X-ray. The pre-amplifier amplifies the current pulse output by the detector and typically converts it into a voltage signal in the range of tenths of millivolts up to a few hundreds of millivolts. There are two main types of preamplifiers: “tail pulse” or RC-coupled preamplifiers, and pulsed-reset preamplifiers. The subject matter described elsewhere herein applies to both types of preamplifiers. In a pulsed-reset type of preamplifier, the charge generated in the sensor is integrated in a feedback capacitor such that the resulting voltage increases in steps of varying heights and intervals, until it reaches an upper limit. When that limit is reached, a “reset” pulse is applied which drains the accumulated charge from the feedback capacitor, restoring the preamplifier to near its minimum output voltage in a short time, typically a few microseconds. Then, charge due to the interaction of X-rays with the detector accumulates on the feedback capacitor again, and the cycle repeats. In contrast, tail-pulse preamplifiers act as high-pass filters on the voltage step signal output by the detector, with an exponential return to baseline whose time constant is long compared to the charge integration time in a feedback capacitor of the preamplifier. The pulse processor receives the pre-amplifier signal and generates a numeric representation of the X-ray's energy through an integration process. In older energy-dispersive radiation spectrometry systems, the pulse processor included two separate components, namely a “shaping amplifier” and an analog to digital converter. Modern energy-dispersive radiation spectrometry systems, on the other hand, typically combine these functions, with the newest designs digitizing the preamplifier signal directly and carrying out all pulse detection and filtering functions using digital signal processing. The computer-based analyzer accumulates the X-ray energies output by the pulse processor into a spectrum or plot of the number of X-rays detected against their energies. The spectrum is divided into a somewhat arbitrary number of small ranges called “channels” or “bins.” In older systems, a hardware component called a multi-channel analyzer (MCA) did the accumulation of X-rays into spectrum channels and a computer read out the summed result. In modern systems, the MCA function is handled in software, either by the computer or even within the pulse processor. The job of the pulse processor is made more complex by several factors. For example, electronic noise is superimposed on the underlying signal received from the preamplifier. For X-rays that are near the lowest detectable energy level, the preamplifier output step height may be significantly smaller than the peak-to-peak excursions of the electronic noise. In such as case, the X-ray can only be detected by filtering the signal for a relatively long period of time before and after the step, to average away the contribution of the noise. The amount of such noise averaging is a fundamental operating parameter of all pulse processors. This averaging time is variously referred to in the art as “shaping time” or “peaking time.” Second, the steps in the preamplifier output are not instantaneous. In the absence of noise, the signal would be a sigmoidal (S-shaped) curve. This is due to bandwidth limitations, device capacitance, and the time required for all the electrons generated by an X-ray to reach the anode of the sensor. These electrons can be visualized as a small cluster or cloud, which moves through the sensor material toward the anode under the influence of the bias voltage field within the semiconductor sensor. With a tail-pulse preamplifier, the initial rise of the signal is of the same sigmoidal form, followed by an exponential decay whose time constant may vary with the design but is always long compared to the initial rise. In a traditional detector with simple planar electrodes on each face, called a lithium-drifted silicon or Si(Li) detector, the bias field lines are straight (to a first approximation, ignoring edge effects) and run front-to-back. As a result, the electron cloud collection time is approximately constant, and the “rise time” of the preamplifier signal (the width of the sigmoidal step) is dominated by bandwidth limitations due to the relatively large capacitance of the device. A new type of sensor has been developed in recent years, known as a Silicon Drift Detector (SDD). Its salient novel characteristic is a concentric pattern etched into the bias electrodes which, when slightly varying voltages are applied to the individual rings in the pattern, permit the bias field inside the sensor material to be shaped such that the electrons are funneled to a very small spot anode. This has the effect of reducing the effective device capacitance by about four orders of magnitude. The electron cloud from an X-ray interaction expands with drift time to a greater or lesser degree depending on the path length it travels to reach the anode. Because of the reduced device capacitance, the cloud integration time contributes much more to the rise time of the preamplifier signal, which in SDDs can vary by about a factor of two, as compared to a few percent in the case of Si(Li) detectors (although even the longer end of the range of the rise time for an SDD may still be faster than a conventional planar-electrode sensor (Si(Li) detector) due to the reduced total capacitance). A phenomenon known in the art as “pulse pile-up” occurs as a result of successive X-rays arriving too close together to have their energies measured independently. If undetected, only one energy is measured for both X-rays, located somewhere between that of the higher-energy X-ray of the pair and the sum of the two X-ray energies, depending on the details of the pulse shaping filters of the system and the time interval between the X-rays. Thus, pulse processors need to be able to effectively detect the occurrence of pile up, which when detected, will result in the energy measurements associated therewith being discarded (referred to as pile up rejection). Radiation, whether naturally occurring or induced by some form of excitation, is a random process. No matter how high or low the average emission rate, with some non-zero probability the time interval between two emitted X-rays can be arbitrarily short. The probability of getting a second X-ray within any time interval t is:P=(1−e−(rt))where e is the base of natural logarithms and r is the average X-ray arrival rate. The minimum time interval between two X-rays which still permits them be identified as distinct events, which is known in the art as the “pulse-pair resolving time”, is a strong inverse function of energy. In other words, it is much more difficult to detect near coincidences between small (low energy) pulses than large ones. Because all peak-detecting filters of a pulse processor respond strongly to high-energy X-rays, the most difficult case to detect is a closely following low-energy X-ray. The traditional method of pile-up detection can generally be described as one or more parallel filters with fixed but very short shaping times compared to the shaping time of the main energy-measurement processing path (referred to as the “main channel”). These are variously called “fast channels” or “pile-up rejection channels”. Each channel (main and fast) has a parameter referred to as dead time, which is the amount of time it takes the channel to accurately and unambiguously measure the energy of a single X-ray. Because the fast-channel dead times Df will be much shorter than the dead time D of the main channel, the fast channels are much more likely to produce distinct pulses for X-rays arriving close together in time. The filters (analog or digital) which are used in the fast channels are generally of the same type used for energy measurement (the main channel), just with much shorter pulse widths. However, because the fast-channel shaping times are so short, they are not very effective at averaging away electronic noise. The shaping time of any pulse processing channel determines the lowest energy X-ray which can be detected in that channel. If its detection threshold is set any lower, the processing channel will produce excessive false triggers due to the random noise fluctuations in the preamplifier output signal. A state of the art X-ray spectrometry system will typically be able to distinguish X-rays of about 100-200 electron volts (eV) from noise in the main measurement channel, but the threshold energies of the fast channels must be much higher. The fastest pile-up rejection channel, which defines the best pulse-pair resolving time for high-energy X-rays, typically has a threshold between 1000-2000 eV. Some existing pulse processors have as many as three pile-up rejection channels to improve pile-up rejection performance in the range below 1000 eV. In systems with more than one pile-up rejection channel, the intermediate channels will have shaping times chosen to allow sensitivity to particular emission lines such as Oxygen at 525 eV, or Carbon at 277 eV. With each step down in the desired energy detection threshold, the pulse-pair resolving time is degraded by the need for longer shaping time. The pulse-pair resolving time is dominated by the lower-energy X-ray of the pair. This is important because low-energy pile-up detection failure affects not only low-energy peaks, but all peaks in the spectrum. Undetected pile-up with low-energy X-rays can shift counts out of any peak into a broad shelf extending from its expected position as far as the sum of the two peak energies. A good description of the dependence of pile-up effects on energy may be found in P. J. Statham, Microchim. Acta 155, 289-294 (2006). Furthermore, the highly variable rise time for valid single X-ray pulses in the case of SDDs, depending on how far from the charge-collection anode the X-ray is absorbed, poses the biggest challenge for traditional methods of detecting very close coincidence in time, when even the fastest conventional pile-up channel produces only a single output pulse. The classic technique, as described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,684,850 to Warburton et al., is a pulse-width test. Digital triangle or trapezoidal filters are most popular for all-digital pulse processing systems, because they are relatively easy to construct and computationally efficient. There is also what is known in the art as Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filters, meaning the response of the filter is guaranteed to be zero outside a finite range of time defined by extent of the filter's non-zero weighting coefficients. In contrast, traditional semi-Gaussian analog pulse shaping introduces exponential time constants whose response in principle continues forever, although in practice the output decays below the noise threshold in a reasonably predictable (albeit slightly energy-dependent) time. The pulse width of FIR filters is not energy-dependent even in principle, but it is dependent on the rise time of the preamplifier step, which is in turn dependent on the variable charge collection time in the SDD. Thus, in order to avoid false rejection of valid pulses from single X-rays, a fixed pulse-width test must be set long enough to accept the maximum rise time resulting from the longest drift path length in the SDD. It would thus be advantageous to have a pile up detection method that is not dependent on rise time, as such a method would improve the performance of systems employing SDDs wherein rise times are highly variable.

The present invention relates to a new and improved scale assembly and method by which it is aligned. A known scale assembly is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,258,810. This known scale assembly includes a platform having load transmitting assemblies at each of four corners of the platform. The load transmitting assemblies include load cells having floating pins which engage a support surface and are movable along the support surface. In order to accurately center the platform relative to an enclosing framework, the floating pins must be accurately positioned relative to the support surface. In addition, the application of sideward or horizontal loads to the platform can result in abutting engagement and the transmission of horizontal forces between side surfaces of the floating pins and side surfaces of openings in the load cells. Although a scale constructed in the manner shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,258,810 is satisfactory in its operation, it has been found that the application of sideward or horizontal force components to a load cell tends to be detrimental to the accuracy of the scale. In addition, the time required to install the scale is increased due to the necessity of accurately positioning the platform relative to an enclosing framework. In an effort to minimize horizontal or sideward force components in scales, rocker pins of the type shown in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,666,634 and 3,997,014 have been used. Other scales have used spherical balls in an effort to tend to minimize horizontal force components in a manner similar to that shown in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,915,248 and 2,430,702. Although the use of rocker pin or ball type force transmitting members may tend to reduce the magnitude of sideward force components to which a load cell is subjected, the force transmitting members of these known scales have been associated with stationary receivers which must be accurately located. The necessity of accurately locating the stationary receivers for the rocker pins or balls of known scale assemblies increases the difficulty of installing the scale assemblies. If the receiver is to be subsequently removed for maintenance purposes, the location of the receiver must be accurately noted so that the receiver can be put back in its original position. If stationary receivers for the rocker pins or balls of known scales are not properly located, sideward restoring forces may be permanently locked into the scales. Thus, mislocation of the receivers can cause the balls or pins to be permanently retained in an orientation which is offset or skewed relative to their intended orientation. This results in the application of sideward force components to parts of the scale. These sideward force components are detrimental to the accuracy of the scale.

Diseases such as cancer have long been identified by examining tissue biopsies to identify unusual cells. The problem has been that there has been no satisfactory prior-art method to capture a single cell or multiple cells of interest from the surrounding tissue. Currently, investigators must attempt to manually extract, or microdissect, cells of interest either by attempting to mechanically isolate them with a manual tool or through a convoluted process of isolating and culturing the cells. Most investigators consider both approaches to be tedious, time-consuming, and inefficient. A new technique has been developed which can extract a single cell or a small cluster of cells from a tissue sample in a matter of seconds. The technique is called laser capture microdissection (LCM). In laser capture microdissection, the operator looks through a microscope at a biological specimen such as a tissue biopsy section mounted on a standard glass histopathology slide, which typically contains a variety of cell types. A transfer film is placed over the tissue biopsy section such that the transfer film may or may not contact the tissue. Upon identifying a cell or a group of cells of interest within the tissue section with the aid of a microscope, for example, the operator generates a pulse from a laser. The laser pulse causes localized heating of the thermoplastic film, imparting to it an adhesive property, and thereby, activating the film. The target cells then stick to the localized adhesive area of the thermoplastic film directly above them. Upon removal of the film from the biopsy tissue, the selected cells or sections of tissue are transferred along with the film. Because of the small diameter of the laser beam, extremely small cell clusters or single cells may be microdissected from a tissue section. Biomolecules are then extracted from the transfer film for subsequent analysis. By taking only these target cells directly from the tissue sample, scientists can immediately analyze the DNA, RNA, proteins, or other biomolecules in order to characterize the activity of the target cells using other research tools. Such procedures as polymerase chain reaction amplification of DNA and RNA, and enzyme recovery from the tissue sample are typically employed. Laser capture microdissection has successfully extracted cells in many types of tissues. These include kidney glomeruli, in situ breast carcinoma, atypical ductal hyperplasia of the breast, prostatic interepithielial neoplasia, and lymphoid follicles. The direct access to cells provided by laser micro-capture will likely lead to a revolution in the understanding of the molecular basis of cancer and other diseases, helping to lay the groundwork for earlier and more precise disease detection. Another likely role for the technique is in recording the patterns of gene expression in various cell types, an emerging issue in medical research. For instance, the National Cancer Institute's Cancer Genome Anatomy Project (CGAP) is attempting to define the patterns of gene expression in normal, precancerous, and malignant cells. In projects such as CGAP, laser capture microdissection is a valuable tool for procuring pure cell samples from tissue samples. The LCM technique is generally described in the published article: Laser Capture Microdissection, Science, Volume 274, Number 5289, Issue 8, pp 998-1001, published in 1996, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The purpose of the LCM technique is to provide a simple method for the procurement of selected human cells from a heterogeneous population contained on a typical histopathology biopsy slide. A typical biological specimen is a tissue biopsy sample consisting of a 5 to 10 micron slice of tissue that is placed on a glass microscope slide using fixation and staining techniques well known in the field of pathology. This tissue slice is a cross section of the body organ that is being studied. The tissue consists of a variety of different types of cells. Often a pathologist desires to remove only a particular cell type or a small portion of the tissue for further analysis. Another typical biological specimen is a layer of cells coated from a liquid suspension. Laser micro-capture employs a transfer film that is placed over the tissue sample such that it may or may not contact the tissue sample. In contact micro-capture, the transfer film contacts the tissue sample prior to activation by the laser pulse. Due to the friable nature of tissue sections, loose material (whole cell or macromolecular) is likely to adhere to the transfer film even though it was not targeted by the laser. Hence, non-specific transfer of material results. If these non-targeted portions are transferred to the reagent vessel for subsequent analysis, they will be digested by the reagents and contaminate the targeted portions in the sample. Therefore, it is important to prevent the non-targeted portions such as loosely bound tissue areas from contacting the transfer film. Reducing the incidents of non-specific transfer is one aspect of the present invention. One way of reducing the problem of non-specific transfer is to provide a non-stick barrier layer as described in co-pending application U.S. Ser. No. 09/562,495 filed on May 1, 2000, which is, in its entirety, incorporated herein by reference. Another way of reducing non-specific transfer, for example, is non-contact LCM. In non-contact LCM, the transfer film is offset or distanced a few microns from the tissue sample as described in co-pending application U.S. Ser. No. 08/984,979 filed on Dec. 4, 1997, which is, in its entirety, incorporated herein by reference. As described in this co-pending application, stand-offs are employed to distance or offset the transfer film a few microns from the tissue sample. Distancing the transfer film from the tissue sample reduces incidents of non-specific transfer. However, if stand-offs are employed, non-specific transfer of material is generally confined to the stand-off portions that generally contact the tissue sample in order to space the transfer film away from the tissue sample. Since the stand-off portions are loci for non-specific transfer, it is desirable to prevent the contamination of targeted cells with non-specific material from the stand-off portions. Contamination is particularly possible when extraction fluids such as buffer is introduced to contact the desired material on the transfer film for extraction of particular biomolecules and their subsequent analysis. If buffer is brought into contact with non-specific material on the transfer film such as the material on stand-off portions, that material will be digested along with the targeted material and thereby contaminate the analysis. Therefore, it is desirable to prevent the incorporation of non-specific material. The present invention is aimed at reducing non-specific transfer of material that would contaminate the analysis. Also, the present invention facilitates the introduction of extraction fluids for the post-LCM extraction of desired biomolecules.

1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to multi-threaded processing and, more particularly, to a scoreboard system and method for multi-threaded processing. 2. Description of the Related Art Scoreboards have been used in scalar processing to keep track of registers that are busy so that instructions that need to use these registers can be prevented from being issued during the time these registers are in the busy state. A conventional scoreboard maintains a bit mask for each of the registers that are in a register file. When the bit mask is 1, this indicates that the associated register is busy and instructions that need to use this register should not be issued. When the bit mask is 0, this indicates that the associated register is not busy and instructions that need to use this register can be issued. Therefore, before any instruction can be issued, the scoreboard is checked to see if any of the registers specified in the instruction is busy or not. If none are indicated by the scoreboard as being busy, the instruction is allowed to issue. The scoreboarding technique described above works adequately for small register files. When the number of registers in the register file becomes very large, however, the size of the scoreboard becomes proportionately large and table look-ups performed on the scoreboard to check if a particular register is busy or not become technique are often too slow to be able to support highly parallel processing architectures that execute a large number of independent threads in parallel.

A protein kinase is an enzyme which catalyzes phosphorylation of hydroxyl groups on tyrosine, serine and threonine residues of proteins. It plays an important role in signal transduction of growth factors involved in growth, differentiation and proliferation of cells. To maintain homeostasis, it is necessary to keep good balance in turning on and off of the signal transduction system. However, mutation or overexpression of specific protein kinases disrupts the signal transduction system in normal cells and causes various diseases including cancers, inflammations, metabolic diseases, brain diseases, or the like. Typical protein kinases that lead to diseases caused by abnormal cell growth include Raf, KDR, Fms, Tie2, SAPK2a, Ret, Abl, Abl (T315I), ALK, Aurora A, Bmx, CDK/cyclinE, Kit, Src, EGFR, EphA1, FGFR3, Flt3, Fms, IGF-1R, IKKb, IR, Itk, JAK2, KDR, Met, mTOR, PDGFRa, Plk1, Ret, Syk, Tie2, TrtB, etc. It is estimated that there are 518 different kinds of protein kinase genes in humans constituting about 1.7% of the entire human genes [Manning et al., Science, 2002, 298, 1912]. Human protein kinases are largely divided into tyrosine-specific protein kinases and serine/threonine-specific protein kinase. The tyrosine-specific protein kinases may be divided into 58 receptor tyrosine kinases, which are grouped into 20 subfamilies, and 32 cytoplasmic/non-receptor tyrosine kinases, which are grouped into 10 subfamilies. The receptor tyrosine kinase has an extracellular domain capable of binding to a growth factor and a cytoplasmic active site that can phosphorylate the tyrosine residue. When a growth factor binds to the extracellular growth factor receptor site of the receptor tyrosine kinase, the receptor tyrosine kinase forms a dimer and the tyrosine residues in the cytoplasm are autophosphorylated. Then, the downstream proteins are sequentially phosphorylated, and as the signal transduction proceeds in the nucleus, the transcription factors that induce cancer are overexpressed in the end. Raf is a serine/threonine (Ser/Thr)-specific protein kinase and serves the role of transmitting biological signals from activated growth factor receptors at the cell membrane into the nucleus. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction system is essential in cellular proliferation, division, survival, apoptosis, and the like. The MAPK signal transduction system largely consists of three kinase phosphorylation processes—i.e., sequential phosphorylation of MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK), MAPK kinase (MAPKK) and MAPK. Raf is a MAPKKK, MEK is a MAPKK, and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERIC) is a MAPK. When the receptor is activated, the small GTP-binding protein, Ras, is activated and the MAPK signal transduction into the nucleus is performed through sequential phosphorylation of Raf-MEK-ERK. The Ras oncogene (especially k-Ras) in a permanently activated state is closely related to the onset of solid cancers such as pancreatic cancer (−90%), rectal cancer (−45%), liver cancer (about 30%), non-small cell lung cancer (35%), renal cancer (−10%), or the like. If Raf-1 binds to activated Ras, serine 338 of Raf-1 is phosphorylated [Avruch, J. Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 2001, 56, 127] and the Raf-1 is activated. In contrast, if 14-3-3 protein binds to Raf-1 with phosphorylated serine 259, the Raf-1 is inactivated. The Raf kinase is also involved in the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signal transduction system, which plays a key role in immune responses and inflammations [Caraglia, M. et al, Annals of Oncology, 2006, 17, 124]. That is, Raf phosphorylates inactivated IkB protein and induces migration of NF-κB protein into the nucleus, thereby promoting the transcription factor that inhibits apoptosis. Another apoptosis inhibition mechanism of Raf is as follows. Raf forms a dimer together with Bcl-2 and is translocated into the mitochondria. There, it phosphorylates Bad, thereby initiating apoptosis inhibition by Bcl-2. Accordingly, Raf is immunoprecipitated along with Bcl-2 [Yuryev, A. et al, Mol. Cell. Biol., 2000, 20, 4870]. The three subtypes of Raf protein (A-Raf, B-Raf and C-Raf/Raf-1) have three conserved regions (CR1, CR2 and CR3) at the N-terminal regulatory domain and the C-terminal kinase domain. CR1 includes a Ras-binding domain (RBD) such as the cysteine-rich domain (CRD), CR2 includes a 14-3-3 protein-binding site (e.g., serine 259 of Raf-1), and CR3 includes a catalytic domain [Tran et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2005, 280, 16244] and two activation segment phosphorylation sites (threonine 491 and serine 494 of Raf-1) [Wellbrock, C. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 2004, 5, 875]. The three subtypes of Raf protein are expressed in different tissues. Whereas C-Raf is expressed in almost all tissues, A-Raf is mainly expressed in urogenital tissues (e.g., kidney, uterus and prostate gland) and B-Raf is mainly expressed in nervous, splenic and hematopoietic tissues [Jaiswal, R. K. et al, J. Biol. Chem., 1966, 271, 23626]. Mutation of B-Raf is associated with about 7% of all human cancers. Especially, the mutation of B-Raf is observed with high frequency (−70%) in melanoma, which is a type of skin cancer. Among the mutations of B-Raf, the B-Raf-V600E mutation, i.e. a point mutation with valine 600 of exon 15 being replaced by glutamic acid, mainly (−90%) induce melanoma [Davies, H. et al, Nature 2002, 417, 949]. When compared with wild-type B-Raf, B-Raf-V600E has an in vitro kinase of about 500 times. Accordingly, B-Raf-V600E induces hyperactivation of the MAPK signal transduction and leads to cancer. The reason why B-Raf-V600E has such a high kinase activity is as follows. The glutamic acid 600 replaced by the point mutation mimics a phosphate group between the phosphorylation sites (threonine 598 and serine 601) located at the activation segment and, thereby, induces structural conformation of the permanently activated B-Raf kinase domain [Tuveson, D. A., Cancer Cell, 2003, 4, 95]. Up to the present, about 40 B-Raf mutations (mainly occur at the activation segment and the glycine-rich C-loop of the catalytic domain). However, occurrence of mutations other than V600E is fairly infrequent. In rectal cancer, about 10% of B-Raf mutations occur at the G-loop of the catalytic domain [Rajagopalan et al., Nature 2002 418, 934]. Although B-Raf has an auto-inhibition domain at the N-terminal, B-Raf becomes permanently activated when activated H-Ras binds thereto. This is caused by phosphorylation of serine 445. The phosphorylation of serine 338 of C-Raf corresponds to that of serine 445 of B-Raf. The B-Raf V600E mutation inhibits the auto-inhibition mechanism of B-Raf and turns it permanently activated. The B-Raf-V600E mutation is also observed at high frequency (about 50%) in papillary thyroid cancer [Salvatore, G. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 89, 5175]. Also, the B-Raf-V600E is closely related with the onset of colon cancer (about 20%) and uterine cancer (about 30%). Also, hyperactivation of C-Raf without oncogenic mutation is observed in renal carcinoma (about 50%) and hepatocellular carcinoma (about 100%). Sorafenib (BAY 43-9006, marketed as Nexavar) developed by Bayer and Onyx strongly inhibit C-Raf and both wild-type and mutant B-Raf. Further, sorafenib inhibits activity of the receptor tyrosine kinases, such as platelet-derived growth factor receptor, vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1/2/3, fibroblast growth factor receptor, Flt-3, c-Kit, RET, etc. It inhibits the kinase by stabilizing the DGF motif of the kinase domain to have an inactive conformation [Wan, P. T. et. al. Cell, 2004, 116, 855]. Sorafenib was approved as a treatment for advanced renal cell carcinoma in 2005. The therapeutic effect of sorafenib on renal cancer originates from to the inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1/2/3 and other kinases rather than the inhibition of Raf. In the clinical trial phase II, a maximum allowed administration dose of sorafenib was 400 mg (twice a day). Administration of 600 mg (twice a day) of sorafenib may lead to grade 3 skin toxicity. Frequent adverse effects of sorafenib include hand-foot syndromes such as peeling of skin, rash and edema. In 2008, sorafenib was approved as a treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In addition, sorafenib showed therapeutic effect for intractable thyroid cancer, hormone-refractory prostate cancer and breast cancer in clinical trial phase II. However, sorafenib shows no therapeutic effect on the skin cancer melanoma. PLX4720, a 7-azaindole derivative developed by Plexxikon, induces apoptosis of melanoma cells such as 1205Lu (Raf-V660E overexpressed cells) [Tsai, J. et. al., PNAS, 2008, 105, 3041]. PLX4720 is a potent inhibitor of Raf-V660E kinase activity (IC50=13 nM) and also inhibits the proliferation of A375 melanoma cells (IC50=0.5 μM). CHIR265 developed by Novartis and Chiron also strongly inhibits the kinase activity of B-Raf-V600E (IC50=19 nM), KDR (IC50=70 nM), PDGFR-b (IC50=30 nM) and c-Kit (IC50=20 nM). CHIR265 is currently in clinical trial phase I for melanoma patients. Resistance to Raf inhibitors is an emerging issue. Montagut et al. explained the mechanism of resistance to the Raf inhibitor by culturing M14 cells (human melanoma cells) with B-Raf-V600E mutation in the presence of a Raf inhibitor (AZ628) and acquiring clones resistant to the Raf inhibitor. Inhibition of B-Raf results in increased expression of C-Raf protein and decreased inhibitory effect on B-Raf-V600E. Meanwhile, the melanoma cells resistant to the Raf inhibitor (AZ628) exhibit increased susceptibility to the HSP90 inhibitor geldanamycin. Thus, inhibition of HSP90 may be a way to overcome the resistance to the Raf inhibitor [Montagut, C. Cancer Research, 2008, 68, 4853]. Vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs) are receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and important regulatory factors of angiogenesis. They are involved in the formation of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels and in homeostasis, and exert important effects on nerve cell. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is produced mostly by vascular endothelial cells, hematopoietic cells and stromal cells under a hypoxic condition or by stimulations from growth factors such as TGF, interleukin and PDGF. VEGF binds to VEGFR-1, -2 and -3. Each VEGF isoform binds to a specific receptor, thereby inducing the formation of a receptor homozygote or heterozygote, and activates each signal transduction system. The signal specificity of VEGFR is further fine-tuned by co-receptors such as neuropilin, heparan sulfate, integrin, cadherin, or the like. The biological function of VEGF is mediated by type III RTK, VEGFR-1 (Flt-1), VEGFR-2 (KDR/Flk-1) and VEGFR-3 (Flt-4). VEGFR is closely related to Fms, Kit and PDGFR. Each VEGF binds to specific receptors. VEGF-A binds to VEGFR-1, -2 and receptor zygote, whereas VEGF-C binds to VEGF-2, -3. PIGF and VEGF-B interact exclusively with VEGFR-1, and VEGF-E interacts only with VEGFR-2. VEGF-F interacts with VEGFR-1 or -2. Whereas VEGF-A, -B and PIGF are preferentially required for the formation of blood vessels, VEGF-C and -D are essential in the formation of lymphatic vessels. Angiogenesis is essential in the proliferation and transition of tumors, since it supplies nutrients and oxygen to the tumors and provides channels for transition to cancer cells. Normally, angiogenesis is balanced by angiogenic stimulators and angiogenic inhibitors. If the balance is broken, as in cancer cells, the growth factor that affects the vascular endothelial cells most, i.e. VEGF, activates its receptor, VEGFR. At present, various researches are under way on the inhibitors that inhibit the receptor tyrosine kinase of VEGF using low molecular weight synthetic substances, which are advantageous in that they are applicable also to solid tumors and have fewer side effects because they inhibit angiogenesis in the cancer cells only. Tie2 is a kind of receptor tyrosine kinase and is deeply involved with angiogenesis and vasculature. The domain structure of Tie2 is very highly conserved in all vertebrates [Lyons et al., 1998]. The ligand of Tie2 is angiopoietin (Ang). Ang2 does not induce autophosphorylation of Tie2, but interferes with the activation of Tie2 by Ang1. In endothelial cells, the activation of Tie2 by Ang2 induces activation of PI3K-Akt [Jones et al., 1999]. In the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathway, which is the main signal transduction system of Tie2, the adaptor protein GRB2 and the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 play a key role in dimerization of the Tie2 receptor tyrosine kinase through autophosphorylation. Ang/Tie2 and the VEGF signal transduction pathway are important in angiogenesis of cancer cells. Tie2 is expressed in vascular endothelial cells. Especially, the expression increases remarkably at the site invaded by cancer cell. Overexpression of Tie2 was observed in breast cancer [Peters et al., 1998] and also in uterine cancer, liver cancer and brain cancer. Several compounds with an indole structure have been synthesized. However, the indole compound of the present invention with specific substituents at the 1- and 6-positions of indole, particularly the compound with a specific substituent at the phenyl group of the 6-position, is a novel compound. Thus, of course, the inhibition activity against various protein kinases or the possibility as an agent for treatment and prevention of cancers of the 1,6-substituted indole compound has never been predicted in any literature.

This invention relates generally to the art of carburetors and more specifically to carburetors having by-pass air passageways for by-passing throttle valves thereof. Public policy is increasingly requiring that new automotive vehicles be equipped with apparatus for controlling the emissions of noxious fumes from exhaust systems of such vehicles. In this regard, it is generally well known that running automotive vehicles at excessively rich mixtures produces more unburned carbons than is generally desired. In the past, carburetor idle circuits have often been among the worst offenders of providing excessively rich mixtures because mechanics have employed rich mixtures in order to make engines idle smoothly. In this respect, one reason it is difficult to obtain a smooth idle is that decreased air flow results in uneven distribution of idle fuel charges. Engineers have employed several methods to overcome this uneven distribution problem. For example, they have increased idling speeds so as to get greater air flow and increased engine temperatures to improve vaporization. Some manufacturers have drilled air bleed holes in throttle plates so as to increase air flow and thereby deliver more uniform distributions of fuel/air mixtures to combustion chambers. However, the sizes and placements of such throttle plate holes have been extremely critical to their effectiveness. Some manufacturers have included by-pass idle air systems in their throttle flanges for by-passing air around throttle valves. In such cases air is taken from above the throttle valves through passages and discharged into bores below the throttle valves. Some of these air by-pass systems have discharge ports adjacent to the idle-circuit fuel-discharge ports and some share discharge ports with the idle circuit, for example, see U.S. Pat. No. 2,763,285 to Reeves. A difficulty which is sometimes encountered when employing a supplementary air by-pass circuit is that, because modern automotive vehicles idle at such fast speeds, when their ignition switches are turned off they often continue to run due to a "dieseling" action. Thus, it is an object of this invention to provide a supplementary by-pass air circuit which tends to prevent "dieseling" when an engine is turned off. Another difficulty with some prior art air by-pass circuits is that the orientation and locations of discharge ports thereof have been extremely critical, thus, making them difficult and expensive to manufacture. Therefore, it is an object of this invention to provide a supplementary air by-pass system in which the orientation and location of a discharge port is not as critical as in prior art devices. Still another difficulty with some prior art supplementary air by-pass circuits is that they were unduly difficult to manufacture because they do not allow easy adjustment to produce optimum desirable fuel/air mixtures. Therefore, it is yet another object of this invention to provide a supplementary air by-pass system which allows easy fuel/air mixture adjustment after manufacture. It is still another object of this invention to provide a supplementary air by-pass system which is relatively inexpensive to manufacture and not unduly complex in structure.

This invention relates to a fixture block serving as a manufacturing accessory, particularly for the machining of metal or similar workpieces, and adapted to be combined, through contacting surfaces, with further correspondingly designed accessories and to be instrumental in bringing workpieces to be machined into proper position or orientation for the particular machining operation, such as planing, milling, drilling and the like, and maintaining the workpieces in such proper position or orientation during at least one working cycle, the fixture block having horizontal and vertical contact surfaces designed as aligned rows of coplanar projecting areas separated by machined rows of coplanar recessed areas, the recessed areas being formed, for example, by planing, milling or the like operations. Particularly for machining metal workpieces, it is well known to use correspondingly designed and suitable manufacturing accessories in the form of fixtures. The term "machining" is understood to include, substantially, manufacturing operations performed by boring, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, honing and grinding machines. Manufacturing accessories, in the form of fixtures, and which are used mainly in connection with the mentioned machines, serve primarily to reduce the machining time of the workpiece and the manufacturing costs of the part and of the completed unit, as well as to improve the quality of the machined part. In addition, they make is possible for unskilled persons and workers unfamiliar with the particular operation to perform high quality work. The manufacturing efficiency of the individual working steps and/or operations, as well as the efficiency of the machine, and thus also of the worker, depends largely on the purposeful construction of the respective fixture. In course of time, certain basic rules have been established for the design of fixtures. In the following, as far as necessary, these rules are briefly specified since, hereinafter, the fixture underlying the present invention will be compared therewith: 1.0 The fundamental condition for a successful design of a manufacturing accessory is a close cooperation between the designer of the accessories and the planner of the manufacturing process. 2.0 The Design and construction of the accessory have to take into account the number of workpieces to be machined and the time of starting the manufacturing process, since both parameters are determining factors for the quality and costs of a fixture and, thus, for the manufacturing stage. 3.0 It must be checked whether so-called standard fixtures (general accessories), or already existing fixtures which, however, are no longer used at that time, can be adapted, provided that costs are saved thereby. 4.0 While designing and constructing fixtures, standardized constructional elements (such as clamping plates, angleplates, handles, screws, handwheels, etc.) are to be considered on a largest scale and the pertinent DIN and AWF standards, as well as, if necessary for supplementation, the corresponding factory standards which are to be used. 5.0 In taking into account a sufficient stiffness of shape, all fixtures are always to be designed as light in weight as possible in order not to unnecessarily fatigue the worker at work with the result of an aversion to the use of the fixtures. 6.0 Care must be taken to design the fixtures in a manner as simple as possible, with the shortest flow of stress in the clamping elements and to avoid any complicated and intricate mechanisms so as to obtain a clamping and unclamping time as short as possible. Moreover, in any case, a machined surface and, for oblique bores, auxiliary bores, are to be provided on the body of the fixture, to be able to start from these surfaces or bores while mounting the fixture and measuring. 7.0 The component parts of a fixture must not affect the visibility of the locations to be machined on the workpiece nor their accessibility. Also, the fixture bodies must be designed and the component parts arranged so as to permit an unhindered discharge of chips and of the coolant. 8.0 If possible, the first working sequence is to be provided so that the workpieces can be received, also during the subsequent operations in the following fixtures, by an already finish-machined surface, turned-off face, or bore. 9.0 With fixtures having to absorb higher working pressures, the clamping elements must never be arranged so as to be particularly stressed by the working pressure. Instead, they must always be positioned so that only portions fixed to or integral with the fixture are exposed to the load. In addition, the bearing area for the clamping elements is to be chosen so that a canting or tilting of the workpieces remains prevented, and that the workpieces are applied against the fixture only at locations with no mold or die seams, intakes, or ascending-tube sockets. 10.0 The clamping elements on a fixture are always to be chosen so as to avoid loose parts, such as wrenches, pins, wedges and hammers, whenever practicable, because an improper handling therewith may damage the fixture and jeopardize its working accuracy. 11.0 A fixture must always be designed so as to practically prevent any faulty insertion of the workpiece. Of course, in addition, a fixture also has to be accident-safe and fool-proof in operation. Moreover, a sufficient space must be provided for the fingers between the clamping elements and the fixture body as well as between the workpiece and the fixture to permit an insertion and removal of a workpiece without injuring fingers or hands. 12.0 Finally, drill-jig bushings or the like are to be positioned so as to have a certain spacing from the workpiece, particularly if the workpiece is of a light metal, yellow brass, etc. If possible, slip-renewable bushings are also to be avoided. While drilling holes having unequal diameters, the outer diameters of the slip-renewable bushings are to be determined so as to prevent a mistake and, thereby, scrapwork. Fixtures serving as manufacturing expedients, which can be completed and used in the manner of a building-block system, are already known. Like the present invention to be explained hereinafter, such known building block systems substantially comprise basic elements, build-up elements, elements for determining the position, as well as clamping and connection elements. As already indicated by the term "basic elements", such elements are of primary importance because the further building up of the system is fully determined by the basic elements and dependent thereon. In a well-known fixture building-block system, aside from a base plate provided with crosswise extending T-grooves, a plurality of differently designed angle clamping plates are the fundamental elements of the building-block system: One of the angle clamping plates, whose base intersects with the front surface at 90.degree., is provided, on its back side, with two stiffening ribs extending obliquely at an angle of approximately 25.degree. and blending, at both their lower and upper ends, into a clamping strip which is provided with a T-groove. Both the base and the front surface of the angle clamping plate are provided with T-grooves crossing each other. Five horizontal and three vertical T-grooves are provided in the front surface. The base is formed with two sets of three T-grooves, with the two sets of grooves crossing each other. At each point of intersection of the two surfaces, tapholes are provided in the groove bottom. The two stiffening ribs are provided with two holes having unequal diameters, which extend coaxially of the horizontal T-grooves provided in the front surface. The two holes are intended to reduce the weight of the clamping plate. It is evident that the angle clamping plate may also be used in a position turned through 90.degree., i.e., with the front surface forming the base and the smaller base forming the clamping or working surface. A variant of the angle clamping plate just described substantially comprises a cast body closed at all sides and having a triangular shape where the third leg is inclined at an angle of approximately 30.degree.. This clamping plate is provided with crossing T-grooves on all sides. While the front surface, which is larger than the base, is provided with three horizontal and two vertical, mutually intersecting, rows of grooves, the base comprises only two rows of two grooves each in each axial or dimensional direction. The inclined surface comprised also two rows of mutually intersecting grooves, while the horizontal upper connection surface, between the front surface and the inclined surface, is provided with only one T-groove extending parallel to the horizontal grooves of the front surface. In the direction parallel to the bottom surfaces of the grooves, the clamping plate is provided with a through hole. Tapped holes are entirely absent, not only at the points of intersection of the T-grooves, but everywhere. Some through holes provided in the lateral limiting surfaces serve for the connection of the angle clamping plate with one or more other plates. In principal, an immediately apparent drawback of the first described angle clamping plate is the fact that it has any variant at all. This means, on the one hand, that the plate is no basic element in the proper sense of the word and, on the other hand, that the use of the respective building-block system is unnecessarily made more expensive because a variant of the clamping plate, even several specimens, must be procured and stored. Even if the just mentioned drawback could be tolerated after all, the use in principle of the T-grooved elements makes the entire building-block system so expensive that the effect of economization aimed at while using the system is nullified automatically. That is, it is evident and instantly clear to anyone skilled in the art that the careful manufacture of a necessarily large number of precision-machined T-grooves makes the structural parts of the system expensive to such an extent that, already for this very reason, a not insignificant number of potential users would probably desist from equipment with such building blocks.

The present description relates generally to systems and methods for determining the electrical activity and/or properties of a material (e.g., biological tissue, etc.). In particular, the present description relates to systems and methods for noninvasively determining the electrical activity of heart tissue. The standard 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) is a widely used noninvasive way of observing the electrical activity of the heart. For example, a physician may use the ECG to determine the underlying rhythm of the heart. The physician may also examine the characteristics of the ECG waveform to determine how electrical impulses are conducted through the heart. Over the years a number of instruments have been developed in an attempt to more accurately determine the spatial and temporal electrical activity within the heart by solving the “inverse problem,” i.e., determining the electrical source distribution within the heart that produces the set of signals observed on the surface of the body. Unfortunately, the “inverse problem” is difficult to solve because there are a large number of source distributions that can yield the same set of potentials when measured on the surface of the body with a set of electrodes. The problem is further complicated by the complex geometry and imprecisely known conductivities of the heart and surrounding tissue. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide an improved noninvasive system and method for providing electrical information pertaining to a material and, in particular, a heart. It should be understood that the claims define the scope of the subject matter for which protection is sought, regardless of whether any of the aforementioned disadvantages are overcome by the subject matter recited in the claims. Also, the terms recited in the claims should be given their ordinary and customary meaning as would be recognized by those of skill in the art, except, to the extent a term is used herein in a manner more expansive than its ordinary and customary meaning, the term should be given its ordinary and customary meaning plus the additional expansive meaning, or except if a term has been explicitly defined to have a different meaning by reciting the term followed by the phase “as used herein shall mean” or similar language. Accordingly, the claims are not tied to any particular embodiment, feature, or combination of features other than those explicitly recited in the claims.

An agricultural harvester such as a combine includes a header designed for harvesting particular crops. The header cuts a wide swath of crop and conveys the cut crop to a central feeder house for threshing. Grain headers typically utilize an auger or a belt system to convey the cut crop to the central feeder house. Headers that utilize belts are referred to as draper headers, and the draper header frame and belt mechanism can be referred to as a draper platform. Draper platforms typically include a center belt and at least one side belt on each side of the draper header. The side belts convey the cut crop to the center belt, which conveys the cut crop to the central feeder house.

The present invention relates to the art of semiconductor integrated circuit arrangement fabrication, and particularly to an art for dry-etching a thin film on a semiconductor wafer by using radicals or ions in a plasma. A silicon oxide film which is a typical insulating film used to fabricate an LSI is normally processed by a dry-etching system (plasma etching system) using a plasma process. In the case of an etching process using a typical magneto-microwave plasma etching system, a vacuum chamber of the etching system comprising a reaction chamber (etching chamber) and a discharge chamber is first evacuated up to approx. 10.sup.-6 Torr by an evacuating system and then a reaction gas is introduced into the vacuum chamber through a needle valve to a predetermined pressure (approx. 10.sup.-5 to 10.sup.-1 Torr). The etching of a silicon oxide film deposited on a silicon wafer uses, for example, a fluorocarbon gas such as CF.sub.4, C.sub.2 F.sub.6, C.sub.3 F.sub.8, or C.sub.4 F.sub.8 and a hydrogen-containing fluorocarbon gas such as CHF.sub.3 or CH.sub.2 F.sub.2 or a mixed gas of a fluorocarbon-based gas and hydrogen. Hereafter, these gases are generally referred to as flon gases. Microwaves of 1 to 10 GHz (ordinarily of 2.45 GHz) generated by a microwave generator (ordinarily a magnetron) are propagated through a wave guide and are introduced into a discharge tube forming a discharge chamber. The discharge tube is made of an insulating material (ordinarily quartz or alumina) in order to pass microwaves. A magnetic field is locally formed in the discharge and reaction chambers by an electromagnet and a permanent magnet. When a microwave electric field is introduced into the discharge chamber under the above state, magnetic-field microwave discharge occurs due to a synergistic action between the magnetic field and the microwave electric field, and a plasma is formed. In this case, the reaction gas dissociates in the plasma and thereby various radicals and ions are generated. Dissociation of the reaction gas is caused because electrons in reaction gas molecules collide with those in the plasma or absorb light, and thereby become excited to antibonding orbitals. These dissociated species are supplied to the surface of a silicon oxide film to participate in the etching of the silicon oxide film while dissociation species influence the dry-etching characteristics in a complex way. A dry etching system using this type of plasma process is disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 109728/1991.

The present invention constitutes a new and distinct variety of miniature rose plant which originated from a controlled crossing between an unnamed seedling and xe2x80x98POULjolxe2x80x99. The two parents were crossed and the resulting seeds were planted in a controlled environment. The new variety is named xe2x80x98POULbertyxe2x80x99. The new rose may be distinguished from its seed parent, an unnamed seedling, by the following combination of characteristics: 1. The unnamed seedling seed parent is a yellow miniature, where POULberty has yellow blooms with pink intonations. 2. The growth of the unnamed seed parent tends to be upright, where that of POULberty is broad and bushy. The new variety may be distinguished from its pollen parent, xe2x80x98POULjolxe2x80x99, created by the same inventors, by the following combination of characteristics: 1. The blooms of xe2x80x98POULjolxe2x80x99 are yellow, where those of xe2x80x98POULbertyxe2x80x99 are yellow, with pink intonations. The objective of the hybridization of this rose variety for commercial culture was to create a new and distinct variety with unique qualities, such as: 1. Uniform and abundant flowers; 2. Vigorous and compact growth; 3. Year-round flowering under glasshouse conditions; 4. Suitability for production from softwood cuttings in pots; 5. Durable flowers and foliage which make a variety suitable for distribution in the floral industry. The combination of qualities of this variety represents significant improvement over previously available commercial cultivars of this type and distinguishes xe2x80x98POULbertyxe2x80x99 from all other varieties of which we are aware. As part of their rose development program, L. Pernille Olesen and Mogens N. Olesen germinated the seeds from the aforementioned hybridization and conducted evaluations on the resulting seedlings in a controlled environment in Fredensborg, Denmark. xe2x80x98POULbertyxe2x80x99 was selected by the inventors as a single plant from the progeny of the hybridization inFredensborg, Denmark in May of 1997. Asexual reproduction of xe2x80x98POULbertyxe2x80x99 by cuttings and traditional budding onto Rosa multiflora understock was first done by L. Pernille and Mogens N. Olesen in August of 1997, in their nursery in Fredenborg, Denmark. This initial and other subsequent propagations conducted in controlled environments have demonstrated that the characteristics of xe2x80x98POULbertyxe2x80x99 are true to type and are transmitted from one generation to the next.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a printed circuit board (PCB). More particularly, the present invention relates to multi-layered PCBs having strip lines and micro strip lines. 2. Description of the Related Art Electronic devices typically include printed circuit boards (PCB) on which components that control the devices are mounted. Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are becoming smaller as the electronic devices are scaled-down to meet the demand for compact electronic devices, e.g., for portable electronic devices. Also, today's electronic devices have many functions and transmit data at high speeds. Therefore, today's PCBs are correspondingly complex. A PCB can be classified as a single-sided PCB in which wire (circuit) patterns are formed on only one side of an insulating substrate, a dual-sided PCB in which wire (circuit) patterns are formed on both sides of an insulating substrate, and a multi-layered PCB in which wire (circuit) patterns are formed on a plurality of layers on a substrate. Single-sided PCBs were predominately used in the past because the configurations of the components and the wire (circuit) patterns connected to the components were relatively simple. However, dual-sided and multi-layered PCBs are now being widely used today because the circuitry of today's electronic devices is more complex, more highly integrated and more compact than in the past. A multi-layered PCB has an internal structure consisting of two or more layers, an external structure consisting of two or more layers, and a synthetic resin layer, e.g., a prepreg layer, interposed between the internal and external structures. A power circuit, a ground circuit, and a signal circuit are formed on the layers of the internal structure. The synthetic resin layer insulates the internal and external structures from each other and at the same time attaches the internal and external structures to one another. The multi-layered PCB also has vias that extend through the layers, respectively. A wire (circuit) pattern on one layer is electrically connected to the wire (circuit) pattern on another layer by the vias. Furthermore, a central processing unit or a power integration chip is typically mounted on a multi-layered PCB. Either of these components generates heat during its operation. Therefore, a heat dissipating element, namely a heat sink, is disposed over the heat-generating component on the PCB to dissipate the heat from the component. Also, thermal interface material (TIM) having excellent thermal conductivity is interposed between the multi-layered PCB and the heat sink to transfer the heat generated by the central processing unit or power integration chip to the heat sink. The thermal interface material plays a very important role in the multi-layered PCB because components, such as semiconductor chips and transistors, will fail if the heat is not sufficiently dissipated by the heat sink. A cooling fan may also be provided to rapidly cool the heat sink. Still further, multi-layered PCBs used in the low frequency band are affected by the shape or length of the wires of their circuit patterns. In particular, errors that occur in the circuitry and interference between signals transmitted through the wires tend to become worse as the frequency becomes higher. And with this in mind, the components to be mounted to the PCB must be laid out such that the voltage or phase, which is dependent on the disposition of the wires, and the relatively small wavelength of the signals do not create problems during operation. Also, the signal lines of a typical multi-layered PCB must share the same ground voltage. In this respect, the ground voltage is provided by a ground voltage plate of the PCB. Therefore, an electric field can be generated between the signal lines and the ground voltage plate due to the ground voltage. However, other signal lines and components must be provided between the signal lines and the ground voltage layer. Therefore, the signal lines and the ground voltage layer present difficulties in incorporating these additional signal lines and components into the PCB. In order to resolve the above-described problem, the ground voltage plate is disposed on the back of a dielectric substrate as facing away from the signal lines. That is, complicated wire (circuit) patterns are provided on both sides of a substrate. However, in this case, components between the signal lines and the ground voltage plate are affected by an alternating electric field characterized according to the configuration of the signal lines (conductive wiring) and the dielectric material of the substrate. The affect becomes more complicated as the frequency (Mhz) at which the PCB operates becomes higher. With this in mind, the dielectric material of the substrate interposed between the signal lines and the ground voltage plate should be perfectly uniform, and so the thickness and dielectric constant of the substrate should be perfectly uniform. To this end, a PCB having a micro strip line was developed. In this type of PCB, a ground voltage layer is formed on a lower surface of a dielectric substrate, and signal lines are formed on the upper surface of the dielectric substrate. Therefore, the thickness and dielectric constant of the substrate are uniform. However, a PCB having a micro strip line poses problems because the ground voltage layer is provided on the lower surface of the substrate. Specifically, a PCB having a micro strip line suffers from a fringing phenomenon in which signals leak into the surrounding air and can produce undesired cross talk (in which the energy of a signal transmitted through a signal line leaks into an adjacent signal line). That is, a PCB having a micro strip line experiences significant transmission loss. A PCB having a strip line was developed to overcome the shortcomings of the PCB having the micro strip line. In a PCB having a strip line, ground voltage plates are disposed above and below the signal lines (the wire pattern made up of the signal lines). Therefore, the signal lines are isolated and the electric field is distributed evenly across the layer of signal lines in a vertical direction (orthogonal to the PCB). FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a conventional multi-layered PCB having a micro strip line. The conventional multi-layered PCB comprises a circuit board body 10, a power voltage layer 20, a first insulating plate 30, a multi-layered substrate 40, and a protective layer 50. The multi-layered substrate 40 comprises a ground voltage plate 42, a second insulating plate 44, and a plurality of signal lines 46. Three signal lines 46 are shown in FIG. 1 for the sake of clarity but four or more signal lines can be formed over the circuit board body 10. The power voltage layer 20, the first insulating plate 30, the ground voltage plate 42, and the second insulating plate 44 are disposed on the circuit board body 10 in the foregoing order. The signal lines 46 are formed on the second insulating plate 44, and the protective layer 50 is adhered to the second insulating plate 44 and signal lines 46. The circuit board body 10 comprises insulating material and is a multi-layered substrate of the type used for electronic packages, multi-chip modules, and computer mother boards. The power voltage layer 20 is a conductive layer for supplying electrical power to the signal lines 46. The first insulating plate 30 is a of a dielectric material which isolates the power voltage layer 20 and the ground voltage plate 42 of the multi-layered substrate 40 from one another, and by which the power voltage layer 20 and the ground voltage plate 42 of the multi-layered substrate 40 are adhered to one another. The multi-layered substrate 40 supports a plurality of semiconductor devices electrically connected to the signal lines 46 such that the electrical power provided by the power voltage layer 20 is transferred by the signal lines 46 to the semiconductor devices, and various other signals are transferred between the signal lines 46 and the semiconductor devices. The ground voltage layer 42 of the multi-layered substrate 40 comprises a conductive layer for grounding signal lines 46. The second insulating plate 44 has a uniform thickness and composition and is a dielectric layer which isolates the ground voltage plate 42 from the signal lines 46 and preserves the signals transmitted through the signal lines 46. The second insulating plate 44 is made of a synthetic resin, e.g., a prepreg. The thickness and dielectric constant of the second insulating plate 44 play a very important role in the transmission of signals in the multi-layered substrate 40. The protective layer 50 is a layer of photo solder resist and covers most of the multi-layered substrate 40. The protective layer 50 prevents the signal lines 46 from being oxidized, contaminated or damaged. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a conventional multi-layered PCB having a strip line. The multi-layered PCB having a strip line comprises a circuit board body 10, a power voltage layer 20, a first insulating plate 30, a multi-layered substrate 40, a third insulating plate 60, and a second ground voltage plate 70. The multi-layered substrate 40 comprises a first ground voltage plate 42, a second insulating plate 44, and a plurality of signal lines 46. The circuit board body 10, the power voltage layer 20, the first insulating plate 30, and the multi-layer substrate 40 (i.e., the first ground voltage plate 42, the second insulating plate 44 and the signal lines 46) are similar to those of FIG. 1 and thus, will not be described in further detail. The second ground voltage plate 70 shields the signal lines 46 from the effects of electromagnetic waves in the environment around the PCB. In addition, the second ground voltage plate 70 along with the first ground voltage plate 42 ensures that the electric field lines across the signal lines 46 are all vertical (orthogonal to the plane of the signal lines). Therefore, the second ground voltage plate 70 minimizes the leakage of the signals transmitted through the signal lines 46 into the surrounding air, and thereby ensures a stable circuit operation. The third insulating plate 60 has a dielectric constant and a thermal conductivity which are different from those of the second insulating plate 44. The third insulating plate 60 serves to insulate the signal lines 46, attach the second ground voltage plate 70 to the second insulating plate 44 and signal lines 46, and to minimize the impedance of the signal lines 46 along with the second ground voltage plate 70. That is, as compared to the signal lines of the PCB having a micro strip line of FIG. 1, the signal lines of the PCB of FIG. 2 (i.e., a PCB having a strip line) have low impedance. That is, signals can be transmitted with a higher fidelity and with a higher power through a multi-layered PCB having a strip line than through a corresponding multi-layered PCB having a micro-strip line. However, designing a PCB so as to have a strip line is more difficult than designing a corresponding PCB having a micro strip line. This is because only the signal line (circuit) pattern at the uppermost layer has to be considered when designing a PCB having a micro strip line. On the other hand, it is almost impossible to obtain the desired impedance of the signal lines in a PCB having a strip line because the signal line (circuit) pattern is embedded in the dielectric of an insulating plate (the third insulating plate 60 in FIG. 2). In addition, the fabricating of a PCB having a strip line is more complicated because the signal line pattern is interposed between a pair of ground voltage plates (ground voltage plates 44 and 70 in FIG. 2). Therefore, a separate structure having the signal line (circuit) pattern should be fabricated and assembled to ground voltage plates. The limitations of the multi-layered PCB having a strip line could be overcome by adding layers. However, the thickness of the PCB would be increased by the additional layers, the fabricating cost would be correspondingly higher, and the vias required for connecting the circuit patterns of the additional layers would compromise the signal transmission characteristics of the resulting PCB. Of course, the width of the signal lines could be redesigned to overcome the limitations of the multi-layered PCB having a strip line. However, changes to the shape or length of the signal lines will change the impedance of the signal lines. That is, the impedance of a signal lines is dependent on the width of the signal line. In particular, the larger the width of a signal line is, the smaller the impedance. Thus, any changes to the design width of the signal lines may result in a circuit that operates abnormally, and may facilitate electro magnetic interference (EMI) in a high frequency band (resulting in poor reception), and cross talk.

Technical Field This disclosure relates to data storage systems for computer systems. More particularly, the disclosure relates to writing selected data to a storage medium. Related Art Data storage systems provide storage for data of a host system. Data is grouped for storage in units of predetermined size referred to as logical blocks which are written to storage media. When writing the logical blocks of data to storage media, for example, in a solid state drive (SSD) or hybrid drive, data may be written in larger units, for example logical pages (L-pages), made up of a plurality of logical blocks. At times it becomes advantageous to write the same new data in a large number of logical blocks spanning several logical pages in the storage medium, or to write new different data to only some of the logical blocks included in a logical page in the storage medium.

1. Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to memory systems and methods of handling memory system commands. 2. Description of Related Art The concept of a “memory system” now encompasses a great variety of circuits and related control methods enabling the transfer, storage and retrieval of digital data. Once memory systems were associated with only computers systems and similar computational logic platforms. Now, a great host of consumer products ranging from cell phones to automobiles to refrigerators include memory systems of varying complexity. A generic memory system is conceptually illustrated in FIG. 1, wherein a memory 2 is provided to store data received from a memory controller 1 via a channel 3. The memory 2 may be volatile or nonvolatile in its operating nature. A volatile memory retains stored data only so long as power is applied to the memory. Dynamic Random Access Memories (DRAMs) and Static Random Access Memories (SRAMs) are well known categories of volatile memories. In contrast, nonvolatile memories have the ability to retain stored data in the absence of applied power. Flash memory is one popular example of a nonvolatile memory. Regardless of memory type and related storage capabilities, a memory must typically be associated with some kind of memory controller. Memory controller 1 shown in FIG. 1 may take many different forms including a generic processor or controller, a direct memory address (DMA) controller, a host device central processor unit (CPU), a dedicated data switch or transfer element, etc. In all of its varied forms, and regardless of additional functionality, memory controller 1, at its basic relevant functionality, controls the transfer of data to and/or from memory 2. Data transfer between memory controller 1 and memory 2 is accomplished via a channel 3. Channel 3 may be hardwired or wireless in its implementation. For example, data may be wirelessly transferred between memory controller 1 and memory 2 via radio frequency (RF) channel(s), infrared channel(s) and/or magneto-electric channel(s). More typically, memory controller 1 and memory 2 are connected via a hardwired channel formed by one or more buses and/or various signal lines. In this context, a “bus” is merely a collection (physical or operational) of signal lines commonly operated in relation to a block of data and/or a timing segment. The examples shown in FIG. 2 are but several of the numerous types of hardwire channels 3 that might be used to connect memory 2 with a memory controller 1. In the first illustrated example, memory 2 and memory controller 1 are connected by a plurality of unidirectional control signal lines (C/S), a unidirectional address bus (ADDR), and a bidirectional data bus (DQ). Assuming for purposes of illustration that memory 2 is a DRAM, the control signal lines may be used to communicate commonly used control signals such as chip select (CS), row address strobe (RAS), column address strobe (CAS), write enable (WE), etc. In this configuration, the address bus may be used to communicate multiple address bits identifying unique location(s) in memory 2 to which, or from which data is to be read or written, respectively. Data written to memory 2 will hereafter be referred to a “write data” and data retrieved from memory 2 will be referred to as “read data.” In the second illustrated example of FIG. 2, the unidirectional collection of control signal lines and the address bus are effectively combined into a single control/address (C/A) bus. This bus configuration is commonly associated with memory systems using packetized commands. That is, certain memory system architectures utilize the flexibility and efficiency offered by configuring data into so-called “data packets.” The definition and use of data packets are well understood by those skilled in the art and are the subject of many conventional protocols and standards. In the third illustrated example of FIG. 2, a common unidirectional C/A bus structure is also used to communicate write data from memory controller 1 to memory 2. Here again, the write data may be grouped into one or more data packet(s) along with related control data and/or address data. Finally, in the fourth illustrated example of FIG. 2, a common bidirectional bus is used to communicate not only control data, address data and write data from memory controller 2 to memory 1, but also read data from memory 2 to memory controller 1. Only certain control signal lines are otherwise defined between memory controller 1 and memory 2 outside the common bidirectional bus. In this example, the read data may be packetized before being communicated from memory 2 to memory controller 1. One notable characteristic of conventional and emerging memory systems is an increasing demand for greater data bandwidth (i.e., available data per unit operation) and/or data throughput (available data per period of time). Data bandwidth may be increased by increasing the number of data bits being communicated to/from a memory in a memory system operation. Data throughput may be increased by the number of data bits being communicated to/from a memory in a memory system operation and/or increasing the speed with which each memory system operation is performed. Given concurrent commercial motivations to reduce memory system size and power consumption while maximizing available data bandwidth and data throughput, it is not surprising that certain practical limitations have quickly arisen. For example, the number of signal lines connecting a memory controller with memory may be limited by the size of the memory or memory controller and/or the corresponding number of available connection (input/output) pads. Given such physical limitations, all or some signal lines in a memory system may be multiplexed in their use. Regardless of the physical connections between a memory and memory controller, almost all contemporary memory systems are being run at increasingly fast clock speeds. Increasingly fast clock speeds facilitate greater data throughput. Enhanced data throughput is highly desirable for many commercial applications. Unfortunately, increasingly fast clock speeds also increase the likelihood of data communication (transmission and/or reception) errors. Indeed, memory systems have become so complex and data transfer speeds have become so fast, that many contemporary memory systems now incorporate error detection and/or error correction (singularly or collectively indicated as “EDC”) capabilities to mitigate the inevitable consequences of data errors. EDC capabilities were once used primarily for long-haul (or bulk) data traffic such as telephone networks and satellite communication systems. Now, however, the advantages of incorporating EDC capabilities within a memory system are well appreciated. There are many different types of EDC protocols, techniques, schemes, and related circuits and software. One class of relatively simple error detection techniques are conventionally used to implement a functionality referred to as a cyclic redundancy checker (CRC). More sophisticated EDC techniques are capable of not only detecting the presence of one or more error(s) in communicated data, but also of correcting the detected error(s). Nearly all EDC techniques are implemented by adding additional (“overhead”) data bits to a block of data being communicated. That is, the data block is first run through a mathematical or logical calculation in order to produce corresponding EDC data. The EDC data is then transferred along with the data block. At the receiving end, the data block is again run through a similar mathematical/logical calculation and the resulting data compared to the received EDC data. A successful comparison indicates an error free block of data. A failed comparison indicates one or more errors in the data block. When more sophisticated EDC techniques are used, these error(s) may be corrected by further resort to the overhead data. As the operating speed and overall complexity of memory systems has increased, the control data, address data, write data, read data, etc., communicated between a memory controller and a memory has become increasingly susceptible to errors. The potentially catastrophic effects of such errors is clear. Errant control data, address data and/or write data is particularly threatening since such data is capable of corrupting the data stored in memory. As a result of the foregoing, many contemporary memory controllers now include specialized circuits and/or software routines capable of generating EDC data in relation to memory system operations (e.g., read/write operations). A memory connected to the memory controller incorporating EDC capabilities (e.g., hardware and/or software) must be functionally capable of segregating EDC data from other data, and thereafter using the EDC data to verify the integrity of some portion of the other data. Additionally, the memory often includes specialized circuits and/or software routines capable of notifying the memory controller when errant data has been identified. In response to a notification from the memory, the memory controller may re-send the errant data. Where the EDC data provided by the memory controller is enabling, the memory may additionally or alternately include error correction circuits and/or software routines capable of correcting identified error(s) in the received data. The overall power and sophistication of a memory system's EDC capabilities is a matter of design choice, but increasing some provision of EDC capabilities is being made in contemporary memory systems. EDC capabilities are particularly beneficial in the context of memory systems using data packet communication techniques. That is, individual data packets may be defined to include corresponding EDC data along with other types of data (e.g., control data, address data, write data, etc.). The EDC data may be associated with (e.g., derived from and used to detect and/or correct errors in) any one or more of these other data types. While EDC capabilities offer great benefits in the verification of data being communicated between a memory controller and a memory, such capabilities come at a price. The greatest price is typically imposed on the overall speed of memory system operation. EDC operations run in the memory controller, and more particularly, EDC operations run in the memory generate a data throughput bottleneck within memory systems. Thus, the contemporary memory system designer faces the competing demands of increasing data throughput, which requires the streamlining, simplifying, and expediting of memory system operations, and assuring data integrity, which requires sophisticated and relatively slow EDC operations.

Malware is software used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. It can appear in the form of code, scripts, active content, and other software. Malware includes computer viruses, worms, trojan horses, rootkits, key loggers, dialers, spyware, adware, and other malicious programs. Software such as anti-virus, anti-malware, and firewalls are relied upon by users to safeguard against malware attacks. Anti-virus, anti-malware, and firewalls also help to identify and prevent the further spread of malware in a computer system.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an electrical connector, and more particular to an electrical connector for a sheet-like connection member such as a flexible printed circuit (FPC) and a flexible flat cable and so forth. All of these cables and circuit hereafter will be generally referred to as “FPC” for simplification. 2. Description of Related Art U.S. Pat. No. 6,004,156 discloses an electrical connector, which is used for connecting an FPC. The electrical connector includes an insulating housing having an upper wall, a lower wall and a receiving cavity between the upper and lower walls, a plurality of terminals received in housing, and a pressing member mounted on the housing. Each terminal has a fixed arm retained in the lower wall and a resilient arm with a contact portion exposed to the receiving cavity received in the upper wall. The FPC has a plurality of conductive pads at one end for electrically contacting with the contact portions of the terminals. When the FPC is inserted into the receiving cavity, the pressing member urges the FPC to move upward, thereby electrical connections is achieved between the conductive pads and the terminals. However, the conductive pads of the FPC are prone to be oxidized or covered with dust or other unexpected material, the preferred electrical connections between the conductive pads and the contact portions are hardly achieved. So a new design with high performance is required.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a double redundancy electro hydrostatic actuator system with a dual tandem hydraulic cylinder driven by using two systems of hydraulic circuits. 2. Description of Related Art A double redundancy electro hydrostatic actuator system for controlling a dual tandem hydraulic cylinder by two systems of hydraulic circuits is known. Such a double redundancy hydrostatic actuator system is adopted in a wing of an airplane. That is, two systems of hydraulic circuits are provided to allow a dual tandem hydraulic cylinder to be operated, even when either of the two systems of hydraulic circuits does not operate. FIG. 1 shows a conventional hydraulic actuator system. Two systems (A system and B system) of hydraulic pressure circuits are connected to the hydraulic cylinder 18. Each system mainly includes a hydraulic source 2, a reservoir 4, a servo valve 6, a relief valve 8, a fail safe valve hydraulic source 10, a fail safe valve reservoir 12, a solenoid valve 14 and a fail safe valve 16. The hydraulic source 2 supplies hydraulic fluid to a dual tandem hydraulic cylinder 18. A wall 22 is provided for a main body of the hydraulic cylinder 18. The wall 22 separates a space for hydraulic fluid supplied from the A system from a space for hydraulic fluid supplied from the B system. Flows of the hydraulic fluid from the A system and the B system are supplied to each other, thereby moving a piston rod 20 in the hydraulic cylinder 18. A fail safe valve 16 has a structure with a spool valve 27 taking any of three states and small and large pistons for switching the three states. A first one of the three stats is a state that the hydraulic fluid is supplied from the hydraulic source 2 to the hydraulic cylinder 18 or returned from the hydraulic cylinder 18. A second one thereof is a state that the hydraulic source 2 stops the supply of hydraulic fluid to the hydraulic cylinder 18 when either the A system or the B system cannot operate due to a failure, and closes the hydraulic circuits between the fail safe valve 16 and the hydraulic cylinder 18 so that the hydraulic cylinder 18 may be moved by only a normally operating system. A third one thereof is a state that the hydraulic source 2 stops the supply of the hydraulic fluid to the hydraulic cylinder 18 and closes the hydraulic circuits between the fail safe valve 16 and the hydraulic cylinder 18 when both of the A system and the B system cannot operate due to a failure, and in addition, a flow of the hydraulic fluid is reduced by orifice. In the third state, the piston rod 20 performs a damping operation, since the flow of the hydraulic fluid is reduced even when external force is applied to the piston rod 20. Switching of the fail safe valve 16 is performed among the three states by supplying the hydraulic fluid to the small and large pistons of the fail safe valve 16 such that the spool valve 27 is switched by the fail safe valve hydraulic source 10. Japanese Patent Application Publication (JP-P2001-295802A) discloses an electro hydrostatic actuator including a first position control system and a second position control system. The first position control system is a closed control system formed from a first operation section of the actuator, a position sensor for detecting the position of the first operation section, a controller, and an electric motor controlled by the controller to drive the hydraulic pump. The second position control system is a system which drives a second operation section for changing a displacement of the hydraulic pump in a direction of low displacement when a detection position signal outputted from the position sensor is coincident with a support position signal received by the controller.

The present invention pertains to a device for raising objects off a surface and suspending those objects. The reasons for raising objects, such as furniture and the like, off a surface, such as a floor, are numerous. Automobile jacks are commonly used for raising automobiles, and crow bars and lever bars and the like are also available for raising other objects. Hand trucks and forklifts for lifting pallets of materials are also available. However, the problems with these lifting devices are several, the automobile jacks and similar devices are not particularly suitable to raising objects such as desks, or tables and the like, due to their bulkiness and inablility to interact effectively with the furniture. Lever bars and crow bars are much more suited to lifting furniture, however once the lever bar is slipped under the furniture to be lifted, and pressure applied in order to lift the furniture, pressure must be continuously applied to the lever bar, or the furniture will be lowered back to its initial position. The present invention overcomes these difficulties by providing a device by which furniture or other objects may be lifted and held suspended without further pressure by the operator of the device.

There are many known controllers for affecting the control of a process, system, function, or the like (hereinafter, process). Examples of such controllers or control methodologies are Dynamic Matrix Control, Model Algorithmic Control, IDCOM, QDMC and others. While these controllers may provide effective control of a process, they tend to be difficult to implement and to tune for effective control of the process. These difficulties increase dramatically as the complexity of the system and the number of process variables to be controlled increases. Typically a process may be thought of as having certain outputs, called process variables, and one or more ways of controlling the elements that produce this output, called control efforts. For example, in a heat exchanger system having two steam inputs to control the production of heated water, the temperature of the heated water is the process variable and the steam inputs are the control efforts. Conventional methods of controlling a process having a number of process variables take the aggregate approach of controlling all of the process variables through the multiple control efforts as one interrelated, combined function. In order to effectively control the process variables through the multiple control efforts without undesirable overshoot of the process variables or system instability, the aggregate control system must be tuned at once as one function. As the complexity of the system or process grows, the tuning of the controller becomes inordinately complicated and the actual functioning of the controller becomes increasingly computationally intensive; often to the point that the system response must be slowed to accomplish the task. It would be desirable to provide a method of controlling a process that is easy to implement and tune, and that could provide fast and effective control of the process.

1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to rotary air filters which can be applied to all types of devices which have to operate in a dusty atmosphere. For example, such devices may be cooling systems for internal combustion engines or cooling systems for the working fluid of hydraulic equipment. One particularly useful application of the present invention is to the cooling system of the internal combustion engine of a combine harvester because such machines often work in a very dusty atmosphere. Indeed, these machines can only harvest when the crop is ripe and dry which means that during the harvesting operation a considerable amount of dust, chaff and short straw particles are displaced in the vicinity of the machine. 2. Description of the Prior Art One of the problems with rotary air filters is that either the filter element tends to become blocked relatively quickly when operating in a dusty atmosphere or foreign matter passes through the filter element and tends to block the radiator in the case of a cooling system for an internal combustion engine. In order to meet this problem, rotary air filters have been provided with stationary shields which cover portions of the filter elements as they move relative thereto and thereby interrupt the flow of air through the filter elements, whereby any foreign matter adhering to the elements under suction tends to fall therefrom. An air filter of this type is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3.816.981. More specifically such a filter comprises a perforated rotatable filter element and a fan operable to draw air through the filter element except for that portion covered by the stationary shield at a given instant. A certain proportion of foreign matter drawn against the exterior surface of the filter element is immediately discharged therefrom under centrifugal force which is advantageous. Any foreign matter not removed under centrifugal force will tend to be removed by the action of the stationary shield as already described. Also, because the air filter rotates, there is less chance of foreign matter passing through the perforations in the filter element than would be the case if the filter element were stationary. Experience with these rotary filters has shown that irrespective of all precautions taken, foreign matter still enters the filter element and in the context of combine harvesters, the most problematical foreign matter is that of barley beards or awns which have an elongated shape. The lengthwise dimensions of the beards or awns exceed the diameter of the perforations in the filter element but the diameters thereof are smaller than the diameter of the perforations. It is assumed that the air turbulences adjacent the outer surface of the filter element are responsible to a great extent for the fact that foreign matter still enters the filter. Experience has also shown that, when the circumferential speed of the rotary filter element exceeds a certain threshold, any foreign matter which enters the element no longer moves further in the direction of the air stream but instead, remains on the inner side of the element, while centrifugal forces obviously have an influence on this phenomenon, an exact and complete explanation cannot be offered. Furthermore, measurements have indicated that the suction force on the intake side of the fan increases as the distance from the fan decreases, whereby there is a tendency for foreign matter entering the filter element to be drawn towards the fan. If there is any obstruction on the interior surface of the filter element against which foreign matter can build up, the likelihood is that this will result in foreign matter entering the airstream and being taken to the item being cooled, such as a radiator. The main object of the present invention is to avoid or to attenuate the aforementioned disadvantages of known rotary air filters.

1. Field of Invention The present invention relates to transporting system, more particularly, relates to a type of secure and efficient wheel assembly, a wheel rim transmission assembly, an energy exchanging arrangement used in transporting system, and a vehicle energy storage system, as well as corresponding methods for manufacturing and preparing such assemblies and arrangements in applications. 2. Description of Related Arts Commonly, there are several drawbacks of wheels available in the market: 1. Poor security: the tires mounted to the wheel rim are subject to blowout accidents which cost and jeopardize human lives. 2. Inefficiency: as its name implied, efficiency refers to the working output of such wheel during a fixed period of time. For most pneumatic tires mounted to the wheel rim, the turning radius of such wheel is shortened in landing portion under a loaded pressure, however, the turning radius of remaining wheel portion are not shortened, instead, would been prolonged due to the increased pressure. As a result, the rotational wheel will have to overcome resistance force thus causing significant energy loss. 3. The wheel assembly is made of inferior materials, such as the air-tightness of the inner tube of the tire is not satisfied in most cases. 4. The structure of such wheel is not well designed, for example, the inner cavity and curvature of outer cover of the tire are not desired to prevent the turning radius of the wheel from being varied from time to time. And two side wall of outer cover of the tires are too high causing unnecessary raw material wasting. 5. Expensive costs: the landing circumferential surface of the tire outer cover is worn off easily, while two side walls of the outer cover are still of good shape, so the disposal of such tire is not an economic way. 6. Inconvenience: the tire inner tube should be refilled from time to time. There are a plurality of drawbacks related to prior art transmission systems. For example, the vehicle wheels of a conventional transmission system (e.g., vehicle) are not well designed in a manner that achieves power savings. Commonly, the driving force generated from the transmission system is transmitted to the center of a wheel, i.e., on the axial shaft of the wheel. However, the resistance occurring at the circumferential edge of the wheel, i.e., the landing portion of the wheel, will slow the driving force. Thus, according to “wheel-axis theory” and “movable pulley theory.” the design of vehicle wheels of a conventional transmission is not appropriate because the vehicle wheels of the transmission system are good for power-saving. Furthermore, other conventional wheel transmission methods, such as rotational fans, propellers of vessels and airplanes, and blade wheels of fluid pumps, are also associated with inefficiencies in power savings. Inefficiencies in power savings include, for example, a new motorcycle in which the driving force generated from the motorcycle is transmitted to exert on the peripheral edge of the front wheel of the motorcycle. However, in reality, the driving force is not precisely transmitted to the peripheral edge of the front wheel, and thus, high power consumption and energy waste result, so as to damage the tires and their mechanical parts, and ultimately reducing the life span of the motorcycle. Also, such design will result in loss of friction of the tires when the tires are on water and mud. In addition, if the tire is not fully pumped up, the tire will soften, so as to shorten its radius, and thus, this will cause the transmission effect of the motorcycle to deteriorate. In the traditional locomotives, the dynamic force is transferred by the connection rod which is coupled to the spokes of wheel, for driving the wheel into rotation. Since the locomotives had been collected in the museum, such transmission method had been abandoned. Those wheel chairs for those disabled people, an actuating wheel having proximate diameter with the driving wheel are provided at opposite side of the vehicle body for facilitating the vehicle operation. However, there are no such wheels applied in the motored vehicles. For those transmission utilizing electrical means, there existed some problems to be solved, such as high energy consumption, poor endurance. The present invention refers to the energy supplying means, more particularly, relates to a method and apparatus for supplying energy to an electrical vehicle. As its name implies, energy supplying refers to obtaining energy or power, including electricity, hydrogen, fuel gas, fuel oil, compressed air, etc. As a result, the charging and fueling process belong to energy supplying system. The public transportation and mobile communication are dependent on such energy supplying system to obtain necessary fuel, gas, electrical energy. However, conventional energy supplying system comprises a plurality of drawbacks; first of all, the recharging and the refueling process are not safe. Second, the charging process is time consuming. Third, the cruising continuality of vehicles is limited, for example, the electrical vehicle can cruise no more than 100 miles after fully charged. Fourth, the dynamic force is not sufficient. After a continuous operation, the electrical energy stored within the electrical vehicle will be weakened thus limiting the speed of such vehicle. Fifth, the energy sources are not universally applicable in different applications. Sixth, the conventional storage battery comprises a plurality separate battery units which are not convenient and user friendly.

In order to provide for rapid and orderly vehicle movement while at all times respecting the overall safety requirement, the railroad industry has evolved a control and communication system. The control problem can be analyzed in terms of sensing real time conditions in a region of the right of way (present vehicle position, direction of motion, and condition of equipment, such as switches, signals, etc.) and based on a set of pre-determined constraints imposed by the layout of the physical plant, determining what changes in equipment condition (e.g. switch position, signal condition, etc.) can be safely made to allow a vehicle to progress in its intended direction of motion. Once these decisions have been made, appropriate control signals are formulated and communicated to the actual physical plant to effect the desired changes. Although safety is considered at every stage of information and communication processing, the railroad industry's perception and practice has been that satisfying the safety requirement at every stage in the process is unnecessary and unduly complicates the equipment. Accordingly, in practice it is only the field equipment, which translates commands into physical manifestations (throw switch, clear signal), which is designed to meet vital or fail-safe characteristics. At earlier stages in the information and communication processing, while safety is always considered, failures in equipment employed in this earlier stage of processing need not exhibit fail-safe or vital qualities. Rather, the vital or fail-safe characteristic is imposed at the very end of the control chain, e.g. at the signals and switches themselves. This has allowed the railroad industry to modernize the majority of their plant by the use, for example, of solid state circuits and digital processing without necessarily requiring that this modernized equipment exhibit vital qualities. Nevertheless, imposition of vital design results in a vast quantity of expensive, relatively slow, bulky equipment. There is naturally a desire to eliminate these deleterious characteristics. At the same time, the decreases in cost for digital processing equipment (e.g. the ubiquitous computer on a chip) has generated a strong desire to employ this very capable, space economical, power economical, decision making component. For a host of reasons, it has been impractical to require that the design of these microprocessors follow the vital design techniques evolved in the railroad industry over the last 100 years. Accordingly, the industry has been searching for some technique (particularly software) which could be used to transform the admittedly non-vital microprocessor into a vital system. Solution to this problem would result in numerous advantages to the railroad industry. It would simultaneously allow the application of cheap, fast, space saving, power saving and very capable devices for replacing the bulky, slow, electromechanical vital devices which had been employed in the past. Although control of a railroad or a portion thereof requires the solution of many different control problems, all these different problems can be generalized into a single set of characteristics. The requirements are: 1. Sensing inputs in real time (the majority of the inputs are digital in nature, and to the extent that there are any which are not digital in nature, they can be transformed into digital inputs); PA0 2. Deriving from these real time inputs a set of real time outputs for the control of different components in the railroad plant; where PA0 3. The relation between these inputs and outputs is defined by one or more logic equations which can be rigorously defined in advance. PA0 A. Providing two identical digital processors each executing an identical program and providing that the processors execute their identical program simultaneously in time by providing for synchronization therebetween, and finally providing some means for comparing the results produced by each of these processors (and in some instances, internal intermediate results as well); PA0 B. Providing two different digital processors solving the same problem in two different fashions (two different programs). In this case there is no need for synchronization since the differences in processor and program characteristics necessarily result in differences in internal machine states; checking in this solution is only at the level of ultimate outputs. It would be inadequate for such a device to be merely capable of vitally solving the equations referred to in item 3, because the vital characteristic has got to cover not only the solution of logic equations, but sensing of the inputs and checking that the outputs presented to the railroad plant are in fact those outputs which have been derived by the solution of the logic equations. Others in the field have attempted solutions to this problem, with differing success; some of these solutions have applied traditional EDP techniques. These solutions include: An entirely different solution has been proposed for certain aspects of the problem related to communications. See, for example, Sibley U.S. patent application Ser. No. 273,299 filed Jun. 15, 1981, entitled "Vital Communication System for Transmitting Multiple Messages", now U.S. Pat. No. 4,471,468. In this solution, it appears externally that there is only a single processor solving a single program; internally, however, in a time multiplexed fashion, the single program includes at least some diversity in that at least critical portions of the solution produce check words The result of the single processor is provided in two forms, the first form is the outputs destined for the real world, and the second form is a series of check words which by their number and content perform a telltale function indicating the particular logic path followed by the program in the solution of the logic problem. Associated with the first processor (or vital processor) is a second processor (a vital driver); note that this is different from the solutions A and B noted above because the second processor is not at all concerned with the solution of any problem related to the real world environment. Rather, the purpose of the second processor is merely to review the number and content of the check words produced by the first processor. Only if the second processor indicates that the check words, by their number and content, verify the accurate execution by the first processor, will the real world outputs of the first processor be allowed to become effective. In order to close the loop, this solution has employed one or more techniques to verify that the input function has been performed vitally (that a closed contact, if present, is actually sensed, and that the representation within the first processor of this closed contact is indeed a representation of a closed contact) as well as checking that the potential outputs which the first processor indicates it will make effective if allowed, are in fact those outputs which flow from the solution of the logic equations effected by the first processor, e.g. is the output really dictated by the internal processes of the first processor, or does the output merely reflect a failed component? Since the input information is essentially digital, as is the output, a very real difficulty is the need to verify that the single bit representation of this input which is being sensed or the output which is being checked, is appropriate; specifically that the input representation sensed by the machine, or the output representation being checked by the machine, has not been masked by a failure. Although all failure mechanisms have not been rigorously defined, two of the failure mechanisms which are well known are the "stuck bit" (where a bit is stuck in one of its two conditions) and the shorted terminal (where one terminal is shorted to another). Prior examples of techniques for overcoming these failure modes are illustrated in Sibley U.S Pat. No. 4,365,164. Another difficulty which must be overcome is a byproduct of the presence within typical microprocessor systems of memory. The memory function presents at least two problems, data stored in the memory is going to be used in one or more intermediate processes, and even assuming that the data which had been stored in the memory was correct at some time in the past, how do we know that that data is still valid when it is being used? Furthermore, and also assuming that the data which is stored in the memory was and is correct, how do we know that the data we have extracted from memory is the data which we desire, and is not the result of some failure in an addressing mechanism? One solution to the second problem is described in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 241,819, filed Mar. 9, 1981, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,485,435, and assigned to the assignee of this application. This technique requires that once data has been used (or the last time it has been used) the data is destroyed. To ensure that data destruction has actually been carried out, each process which relies on the presence of current data includes an initialization routine solely for the purpose of checking that the data previously resident in the memory location, area or region, has in fact been destroyed. This initialization process produces one or more check words. The check words so produced are actually shipped over to the vital driver (the other, or checking processor) and unless the check words are correct (proving that old data had previously been destroyed and the results being checked are truly the result of current data) the checking processor will not produce the correct result which will not allow application of the vital processors outputs. The whole system is arranged so that disallowance of outputs produces an entirely safe condition (albeit not necessarily the most efficient condition--all signals to stop). Furthermore, the check word using technique is arranged such that neither the vital processor nor the vital driver has stored therein the "right" answer. The presence of the "right" answer stored somewhere in machine memory raises the possibility that the "right" answer will be derived from memory and not necessarily reflect the appropriate checks. Therefore, in this and all other uses of check words for verification techniques, we must assure that the "right" answer is not available to the machine except by the intended processing.

Loudspeaker assemblies project sound in a pattern based in part upon the size and shape of the speaker components. Large loudspeakers are often used in public venues, such as cinemas, to provide high quality sound into the cinema's viewing area. Conventional cinema screens are perforated so they are substantially acoustically transparent. Loudspeaker assemblies are typically mounted behind the screen at about two thirds the screen's height and project sound forwardly toward the seating or viewing area. The loudspeaker assemblies can be positioned to enhance the illusion that the sound is emanating from the visual images on the screen. The loudspeaker assemblies, however, are typically large, heavy, and cumbersome to manipulate during installation behind the screen. The loudspeaker assemblies are designed to create broad sound patterns that cover the seating area when the loudspeaker assemblies are properly aimed. The process of aiming the loudspeaker assemblies is often very tedious and inexact. The aiming process is often completed by iterations over a series of manual estimates between a person in the seating area listening to the sound emanating from behind the screen and another person physically moving the loudspeaker. Aiming systems having a laser mounted to the loudspeaker assembly have been used to aim the loudspeaker. These laser aiming systems, however, increase the cost of the loudspeaker. And, the cinema screen typically blocks the laser light, even though the screen is perforated. The present invention, embodiments of which are discussed below and shown in FIGS. 1-10, overcome the drawbacks experienced in the prior art.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to a vehicle seat assembly, and more particularly to a vehicle seat assembly having a vehicle occupant sensing system and reinforcing inserts positioned therein. 2. Description of the Related Art Automotive vehicles employ seating systems that accommodate the passengers of the vehicle. The seating systems include restraint systems that are calculated to restrain and protect the occupants in the event of a collision. The primary restraint system commonly employed in most vehicles today is the seatbelt. Seatbelts usually include a lap belt and a shoulder belt extending diagonally across the occupant's torso from one end of the lap belt to a mounting structure located proximate to the occupant's opposite shoulder. In addition, automotive vehicles may include supplemental restraint systems. The most common supplemental restraint system employed in automotive vehicles today is the inflatable airbag. In the event of a collision, the airbags are deployed as an additional means of restraining and protecting the occupants of the vehicle. Originally, the supplemental inflatable restraints (airbags) were deployed in the event of a collision whether or not any given seat was occupied. These supplemental inflatable restraints and their associated deployment systems are expensive and over time this deployment strategy was deemed not to be cost effective. Thus, there became a recognized need in the art for a means to selectively control the deployment of the airbags such that deployment occurs only when the seat is occupied. Partially in response to this need, vehicle safety systems have been proposed that are capable of detecting whether or not a given seat is occupied. The systems act as a switch in controlling the deployment of a corresponding air bag. As such, if the occupant sensing device detects that a seat is unoccupied during a collision, it can prevent the corresponding air bag from deploying, thereby saving the vehicle owner the unnecessary cost of replacing the expended air bag. Furthermore, many airbag deployment forces and speeds have generally been optimized to restrain one hundred eighty pound males because the one hundred eighty pound male represents the mean average for all types of vehicle occupants. However, the airbag deployment force and speed required to restrain a one hundred eighty pound male exceeds that which are required to restrain smaller occupants, such as some females and small children. Thus, there became a recognized need in the art for occupant sensing systems that could be used to selectively control the deployment of the airbags when a person below a predetermined weight occupies the seat. Accordingly, other vehicle safety systems have been proposed that are capable of detecting the weight of an occupant. In one such air bag system, if the occupant's weight falls below a predetermined level, then the system can suppress the inflation of the air bag or will prevent the air bag from deploying at all. This reduces the risk of injury that the inflating air bag could otherwise cause to the smaller-sized occupant. Also, many airbag deployment forces and speeds have generally been optimized to restrain a person sitting generally upright towards the back of the seat. However, the airbag deployment force and speed may inappropriately restrain a person sitting otherwise. Thus, there became a recognized need in the art for a way to selectively control the deployment of an airbag depending on the occupant's sitting position. Partially in response to this need, other vehicle safety systems have been proposed that are capable of detecting the position of an occupant within a seat. For example, if the system detects that the occupant is positioned toward the front of the seat, the system will suppress the inflation of the air bag or will prevent the air bag from deploying at all. This reduces the risk of injury that the inflating air bag could otherwise cause to the occupant. It can be appreciated that these occupant sensing systems provide valuable data, allowing the vehicle safety systems to function more effectively to reduce injuries to vehicle occupants. One necessary component included in the occupant sensing systems discussed above is a means for sensing a condition of the vehicle seat, such as whether or not the seat is occupied or whether the occupant is seated in a certain position. The sensing means is often positioned under or within the lower seat cushion, and the sensing means can include components made from a hard material. In contrast, the vehicle seat is usually filled with a soft, pliable foam cushion, and the vehicle seat is typically covered with a fabric or leather trim. Weight loading from the occupant presses the soft cushion into the hard sensing means. Over time, the cushion and possibly the trim of the vehicle seat can prematurely wear due to repeated loading from the harder material of the sensing means. This is especially true of the inboard and outboard sides of the vehicle seat because there is less foam thickness in those areas and because they bear most of the load when the occupant gets in and out of the vehicle. Once the foam of the seat cushion begins to wear, the occupant is more likely to feel the sensing means through the cushion, and this can make sitting on the vehicle seat uncomfortable. Therefore, there is an ongoing need in the art for a vehicle seat assembly that is reinforced to inhibit premature wear and discomfort caused by the sensing means positioned within the seat assembly.

The present invention relates to a digital fluid level sensing probe system. A specific application involves liquid level sensing in a hostile environment such as the level of hot oil subjected to engine vibration in an automotive or other vehicle. State of the art in the case of automotive vehicles is limited to provision of a low level signal visible on the dashboard with no intermediate level information available other than by raising the hood and reading the level on a dip stick. This typically involves removing the dip stick, wiping it off, reinserting it, removing it for reading and reinserting it. The hostile environment precludes conventional liquid level sensing systems such as employed for fuel gages and has called for a unique solution to measuring fluid levels, preferably to meet the following conditions: (1) High temperature, high shock/vibration, volatile fluid, presence of contaminents. (2) Low cost, mass producible, robust, repeatability and product uniformity. (3) Universally applicable in any shape container, although specifically designed to accommodate the wide-short profile of the automobile oil pan. (4) Small probe profile in terms of volume displacement, especially in probe diameter. (5) High resolution of volume measured per reading. (6) Completely digital probe and electronics with data output directly in Binary-Coded-Decimal format. (7) Low power consumption. The closest prior art, of which applicants are aware, to the system disclosed herein comprise three U.S. patents found in a preliminary search of the art. Elis U.S. Pat. No. 3,935,739 discloses a capacitive probe with one common electrode and individual opposite electrodes. An AC signal is impressed on the probe and simultaneously to all capacitive elements. The presence of dielectric material yields an analog current at the individual capacitor which is greater than the current yield in the absence of dielectric material. The AC current(s) are rectified and either summed to drive an analog meter, or shaped and synchronized to drive a digital display. Inherent limitations result from the following characteristics: the system measures absolute signal strength and is therefore subject to variations from temperature, Contaminants, and dielectric constants; nonuniformity of capacitance values among the individual segments may cause inaccuracies; relatively large size requirements limit applications involving small containers. Johnston U.S. Pat. No. 3,343,415 discloses a cylindrical capacitor comprising a common electrode (inner) with individual electrodes (outer) spaced along a vertical (longitudinal) axis. Thee detection methodology compares the signal output from any two adjacent capacitors. If both capacitors are immersed or if both capacitors are above the liquid level, the output signals are the same. If one capacitor is immersed and the other is above the liquid level, the outputs differ by the effect of the dielectric constant of the liquid. Each capacitor is assigned a unique level and therefore the level of the fluid can be determined by the detection of a difference signal. As in the Elis reference, nonuniformity of capacitance values among the individual segements may cause inaccuracies and relatively large size requirements limit applications as to container size. The system uses a differential comparator method but the electronic implementation may involve inaccuracies due to isolating devices in series with the data signal. Johnston U.S. Pat. No. 3,552,209 discloses a specific application of the capacitive probe employed in the Johnston U.S. Pat. No. 3,343,415, which deals with a condition for measuring dynamic levels such as ocean swells and tidal effects. It involves the use of sampling techniques whereby liquid levels are instantaneously converted to pulse trains where the number of pulses in the train is a function of the liquid level and the time interval over which the sample is taken. The pulse count is averaged over a period of time and the mean level is determined. This system eliminates anomolies (infrequent disturbances) by averaging their effects. .Iadd.Pope U.S. Pat. No. 4,589,077 discloses a multi-segment capacitive probe that includes a column of capacitors extending through a liquid level interface. Each capacitor of the probe is sequentially measured in response to microprocessor controlled instructions. A common electrode is employed serving as one half of all probe capacitors. Similar techniques are also disclosed in Bristol U.S. Pat. No. 4,295,370 and Matsumara et al U.S. Pat. No. 4,434,657. .Iaddend.

The present invention relates to a method for the simple sensible installation of fluorescent tubes, starters for the same and the like wherein installation requires the nonvisible rotation of the cylindrical device about their axis to effect the required electrical contact of pin connectors into the connecting structure. Fluorescent tubes are one example of pin connecting cylindrical electrical devices which are notoriously frustrating to today's householder to properly install and connect since most fluorescent lamps are ceiling or under cabinet mounted requiring the installer to work nonvisibly, relying on a sense of feel to first align the pins in proper parallel orientation to the lineal pin socket, inserting the ends of the fluorescent tube in orientation to the lineal socket, pressing the oriented pins into the socket and finally rotating the tube 90.degree. about its axis to complete the circuit and lock it in place. This is particularly true for longer tubes within it is not possible to simultaneously orient the pins of both ends by feel. Industry is aware of the problem as is shown by the recent commercial introduction of fluorescent socket and tubes which have only one pin or pole on either end of a long (8 ft.) fluorescent tube completing the electrical circuit end to end.

1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition for combatting viral infections and a method of using the composition thereof for treating viral infections. More particularly, this invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition for combatting viral infections comprising, as an active ingredient, an acylpeptide or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt, and to a method of use of the acylpeptide or its pharmaceutically acceptable salt for prophylaxis or therapentic treatment of infectious disease caused by viral in human beings or animals. 2. Description of the Prior Art The acylpeptide to be used as the active ingredient in the pharmaceutical composition for combatting viral infections according to this invention is represented by the following formula (I): ##STR2## wherein R.sup.1 is lactoyl-alanyl, R.sup.2 is carboxymethylamino and R.sup.3 is carboxy; or R.sup.1 is heptanoyl, R.sup.2 is 1-carboxyethylamino and R.sup.3 is carboxy; or R.sup.1 is stearoyl, R.sup.2 is 1-carboxyethylamino and R.sup.3 is hydrogen; or R.sup.1 is octanoyl, R.sup.2 is 1-carboxyethylamino and R.sup.3 is hydrogen. The acylpeptide of the above general formula (I) and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof are known to be compounds having immunopotentiating activity (cf. U.S. Pat. No. 4322341, for example). The present inventors found that the acylpeptide (I) and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof have excellent preventive and therapeutic effects against various viral infections and, as a result of further research based on this new finding, have completed the present invention.

1. Field of the Invention The invention concerns a series of 4-(phosphonoalkylidene)- or 4-(phosphonoalkoxyimino)-2-piperidinecarboxylic acid derivatives useful in the treatment of cerebrovascular disorders. 2. Background Information Excessive excitation by neurotransmitters can cause the degeneration and death of neurons. It is believed that this excitotoxic action is mediated by the excitatory amino acids, glutamate and aspartate, acting at the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. This excitotoxic action is responsible for neuronal loss in cerebrovascular disorders such as cerebral ischemia or cerebral infarction resulting from a range of conditions such as thromboembolic or hemorrhagic stroke, cerebral vasospasm, hypoglycemia, cardiac arrest, status epilepticus, perinatal asphyxia, anoxia such as from drowning, pulmonary surgery and cerebral trauma. The compounds of the invention, which are active as competitive antagonists of NMDA receptor-mediated ion-channel activation, are thus useful in the treatment of the above disorders. In addition, by this NMDA receptor antagonist action, the compounds of the invention are also useful for treating neurodegenerative disorders, spinal cord injury, and poisoning by exogenous NMDA poisons (for example, some forms of lathyrism). There are no specific therapies for these neurodegenerative disorders, but competitive and noncompetitive NMDA antagonists acting specifically to antagonize excitatory neurotransmission at NMDA receptors offer a novel therapeutic approach to these disorders; B. Meldrum in Neurotoxins and Their Pharmacological Implications. ed. P. Jenner, Raven Press, New York, 1987. Recent reports in the literature have confirmed the protective action of certain NMDA antagonists in pharmacological models of neurodegenerative disorders (J. W. McDonald, F. S. Silverstein, and M. V. Johnston, Eur. J. Pharmacol., (1987) 140:359; R. Gill, A. C. Foster and G. N. Woodruff, J. Neurosci., (1987) 7:3343; S. M. Rothman, J. Thurston, R. E. Hauhart, G. D. Clark and J. S. Solomon, Neurosci., (1987) 21:673; M. P. Goldberg, P. C. Pham and D. W. Choi, Neurosci. Lett., (1987) 80:11). In addition, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,746,653; 4,906,621; and 4,898,854 are concerned with phosphonic acid derivatives of 2-piperidine or 2-tetrahydropyridine carboxylates, which are said to be useful as N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists.

One of the critical points for the use of a hairspring in a high-precision clockwork movement is the reliability of the attachment of the hairspring to the balance staff. This attachment is usually made by means of a collet, which was originally a small split cylinder designed to be driven onto the balance staff and pierced laterally in order to receive the inner end of the hairspring. Therefore, Swiss patent No. CH 468662 describes, in particular in connection with its FIG. 3, a collet having four arms, a circular central opening, an elasticity split for the driving onto the balance staff and a recess for the balancing. The subject of the European patent application published under No. EP 1 302 821 is a split collet with a circular central opening made in one block with a hairspring and comprising balancing recesses. French patent application number FR 2 124 243 (U.S. Pat. No. 3,785,028) relates to circular sleeves for a hairspring that are designed to be driven onto the balance staff of a watch. These sleeves are manufactured from section pieces having an arm for the attachment of a hairspring and a regulating split diametrically opposite to this arm. It therefore appears that many solutions for the driving of a collet onto a staff are known, and they are well suited to the usual materials such as steel which have a range of plastic deformation. Specifically, the diameter of the opening provided to receive the balance staff is smaller than the diameter of the balance staff so as to ensure a good hold for the staff after driving. This difference in diameter is usually absorbed at least in part by a plastic deformation of the material of the collet. This means that these solutions are not very well suited to the collets or to the collet-hairspring assemblies made of a material such as silicon, quartz or diamond. Specifically, these materials, that can be machined by techniques such as deep reactive-ion etching (DRIE), have no range of plastic deformation, which means that they break when the stresses in the material exceed the elastic limit. For example, Swiss patent No. 508 233 proposes a split collet of which the circular central opening comprises a second split of small-dimension elasticity. As can be seen in particular in FIG. 1, the two halves of this collet are extremely bulky which makes them very rigid and limits the amplitude of their elastic deformation. This makes the collet very fragile, in particular when it is made of a material such as silicon. The subject of Swiss patent No. CH 252 387 is a collet consisting of two parts, a hollowed-out ring and a U-shaped elastic part placed transversely inside the hollowed-out ring. The two arms of the U are stressed by the hollowed-out ring and must deform in order to pinch the strip of the hairspring and accommodate the balance staff during driving. However, the elasticity at the connection of the arms of the U-shaped part is insufficient, which easily leads to the breakage of this part, in particular when it is made of a material such as silicon. Moreover, the European patent application published under number EP 2 112 565 reveals microengineering parts having a central opening of which the contour is not circular but has a symmetry of rotation of 2π/3 about the axis passing through the center C of the central opening. FIG. 5 of this document shows in particular a microengineering part furnished with elastic arms. The solutions described in this document are completely satisfactory for mechanical parts such as wheels. However, they have a number of drawbacks for producing collets that usually have less thickness than wheel plates, such as providing a low range of tolerance for the diameters of the staffs onto which the collets have to be driven.

Various spherical annular seal members used in spherical pipe joints for automobile exhaust pipes have been disclosed in, for example, JP-A-54-76759, JP-A-6-123362, JP-A-10-9396, JP-A-10-9397, and the like. As compared with a bellows-type joint, each of the proposed spherical annular seal members is capable of reducing the manufacturing cost and excels in durability. However, each of these spherical annular seal members is formed such that a heat-resistant material formed of expanded graphite and the like and a reinforcing member made from a metal wire net are compressed to fill meshes of the metal wire net of the reinforcing member with the heat-resistant material such that the heat-resistant material and the reinforcing member are integrally formed in mixed form. Therefore, in addition to the problem of leakage of exhaust gases through the spherical annular seal member itself due to such as the proportion of the reinforcing member to the heat-resistant material and the degree of compression of the heat-resistant material and the reinforcing member, there is an inherent problem in that abnormal noise can occur due to the presence of the heat-resistant material at the partially convex spherical surface which slidably abuts against a mating member. For example, if the proportion of the reinforcing member to the heat-resistant material is excessively large, or the degree of pressurization of the heat-resistant material is low, the degree of sealing by the heat-resistant material with respect to infinitesimal passages occurring around the reinforcing member declines, resulting in initial leakage. Moreover, there is a possibility of early leakage of exhaust gases due to such as the oxidation and wear of the heat-resistant material at high temperatures. In addition, if the heat-resistant material at the partially convex spherical surface has been pressurized to a high degree, or the proportion of exposure of the heat-resistant material with respect to the reinforcing member at the partially convex spherical surface is extremely large, stick-slip can result, possibly causing the occurrence of abnormal noise. The present invention has been devised in view of the above-described aspects, and its object is to provide a spherical annular seal member which makes it possible to eliminate the leakage of exhaust gases through the spherical annular seal member itself, and which makes it possible to eliminate the occurrence of abnormal noise and has a stable sealing characteristic, as well as a method of manufacturing the same.

1. Technical Field The present invention relates to a light emitting diode and a method for manufacturing the light emitting diode. More particularly, the present invention relates to a light emitting diode having a number of nanorods and a method for manufacturing the light emitting diode. 2. Description of Related Art There has been rapid progress in light emitting technologies in recent years, and high luminous efficiency and low power consumption are required for light emitting devices. Among the various types of light emitting technologies, much attention has been given to light emitting diode (LED). LEDs are advantageous in high luminous efficiency, fast response time, long lifespan and mercury free. Furthermore, LEDs are small in size, and provide high color gamut as well as high resistance to external impact. Therefore, LEDs gradually replace conventional light emitting devices. LEDs have been applied in various fields due to its significant progress, and it seems to become the major light source for 21st century. In view of the application of light sources, one critical specification parameter is the light-emitting efficiency, and therefore many researchers commit to increase the light-emitting efficiency of LEDs.

1. Field of the Invention The invention is related to the field of communications and, in particular, to delivery of SMS messages. 2. Statement of the Problem In many mobile networks, text messaging has become a very popular mode of communication. Short Message Service (SMS) is a communication protocol allowing the interchange of short text messages (e.g., 160 characters) between mobile devices. Often times, mobile users more frequently use SMS messaging for communication than voice calls. SMS messages are presently transmitted over signaling channels of a voice network, such as over SS7 channels. A typical voice network includes a Radio Access Network (RAN) that provides an air interface to a mobile device, and a core network that connects the RAN to other networks, such as the PSTN or another RAN. The core network includes a switching system and a subscriber database for serving the mobile device. For instance, in a UMTS network, the switching system may comprise a Mobile Switching Center (MSC) and the subscriber database may comprise a Home Location Register (HLR). In an IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) network, the switching system may comprise a Call Session Control Function (CSCF) and the subscriber database may comprise a Home Subscriber Server (HSS). The core network also connects to a SMS Center (SMS-C). The SMS-C is the entity which performs the functions of storing and forwarding SMS messages to and from mobile devices. The following illustrates an example of a delivery of a Mobile Terminated (MT) SMS message to a mobile device in a UMTS network. The SMS-C receives an SMS message destined for the mobile device, and stores the SMS message. The SMS-C then queries the subscriber database (i.e., HLR or HSS) for routing information based on the present position of the mobile device. The SMS-C then attempts to deliver the SMS message to the destination by routing the SMS message to the correct MSC through an SS7 channel. The MSC receives the SMS message from the SMS-C, and forwards the SMS message through the RAN to the mobile device using a signaling channel. In an example of a delivery of a Mobile Originated (MO) SMS message, a sending party enters text into a mobile device, and also enters a phone number or address for the intended destination of the SMS message. When entry of the SMS message is completed, the mobile device sends the SMS message to the MSC over the RAN using a signaling channel. The MSC that is serving the mobile device receives the SMS message, and routes the SMS message to the SMS-C. The SMS-C stores the SMS message, and attempts to forward the SMS message to the destination. A high volume of SMS traffic on a traditional voice network can cause problems. For example, each time an SMS message is received at the SMS-C, the SMS-C needs to query the subscriber database (i.e., HLR or HSS) to determine the routing information for the destination of the SMS message. When there is a high volume of SMS messages, a significant amount of messages are exchanged between the SMS-C and the subscriber database, which can reduce the overall operating speed of the voice network. Also, the signaling channels of the voice network can become congested with SMS traffic, as SMS messages are transported over the signaling channels. Even further, the switching systems, such as an MSC or CSCF, have to handle each SMS message, which can cause congestion at the switching systems. A service provider may implement more switching systems to handle higher SMS loads, but the expense of implementing the additional switching systems is undesirable.

The increasing complexity of electronic tasks, often referred to as “jobs” (e.g. executable programs such as computational tasks, command execution, data collection, etc.) has increased the demand for resources used in accomplishing such tasks. Resources may include hardware that aids in completing electronic tasks, such as servers, clients, mainframe computers, networks, network storage, databases, memory, CPU time, etc. Resources may also include software, available network services, software licenses, and other non-hardware resources. One response to the increased demand for resources has been the development of networked computing grid systems, which operate to integrate resources from otherwise independent grid participants. Computing grid systems generally include hardware and software infrastructure configured to form a virtual organization comprised of multiple resources in often geographically disperse locations. Electronic tasks typically require certain amounts and/or types of resources for completion. Once a job is created, it needs to be assigned, or scheduled, to sufficient and compatible resources within a computing grid system for processing. For example, some resources may be ranked for determining which resource(s) should be used for processing submitted jobs, such as forecasting resource utilization based on historical statistics, runtime cluster loads, etc. Jobs may also be assigned to certain resources based on availability of data or applications needed to process the job.

1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a clamping and guide assembly particularly useful for securing workpieces and guiding hand tools. 2. Brief Statement of the Prior Art It is often difficult to secure a workpiece when sawing, routing or otherwise treating the workpiece. In a typical workshop application, a wide variety of sizes and shapes of boards and construction projects is encountered. The workpiece can be a relatively small board or can be a large bulky box and it is often necessary to secure the workpiece and position a tool guide on the workpiece to guide a saw, router, grinder and the like. It is often necessary to change tools while working on a single piece or a multiple of pieces, e.g., to use a saw for cutoff work and a router for edging, panel raising, groving, rabbeting or dadoing. Various devices have been suggested as jigs or clamps and these have been provided with various slider members which serve to guide a work tool. Thus U.S. Pat. No. 4,128,118 discloses a jig having a fence with a bridge and separate or individual clamps to secure a board to the assembly. The clamps of this device function independently of any tool guide and can accept workpieces of only limited thicknesses. U.S. Pat. No. 4,215,731 discloses a router guide assembly with a clamp for securing a board. This assembly utilizes the guide rails which slideably receive a plate to which is fixedly secured a tool such as a router. This device can accommodate workpieces of limited thicknesses and the tools cannot be easily interchanged. U.S. Pat. No. 4,062,390 also discloses a clamping device for securing a workpiece of limited thickness in association with a guide to which is fixedly secured a hand tool such as a router or saw. Another clamping device is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 3,450,001. This device, too, can only hold workpieces of very limited thicknesses and requires that the work tool be fixedly secured to a slider member. Thus, one cannot readily interchange the tools.

The invention relates to a storage enclosure for eyeglasses. A variety of eyeglass or sunglass cases or enclosures are known. Eyeglasses have been stored in box-like containers, as for example, those often called "coffin" cases having side hinges that open and close a lid. Another case is an envelope-type having an open top end into which one of the hinged ends of the eyeglasses may be slipped. Another case is a "pouch"-type wherein both hinged ends of the eyeglasses may be simultaneously placed into the pouch. In recent years eyeglass and sunglass manufacturers and designers have developed eyeglasses having a variety of shapes and sizes (and of varying economic quality) for the lenses, frames, temples (or bow pieces), hinges, nosepieces, points of attachment on the frame for the temples, and the like. For instance, frame widths may be wider than the wearer's head width, or temples may be attached to the frame near the wearer's cheekbones. Some eyeglasses, and particularly sunglasses, contain lenses that wrap around toward the side of the wearer's head, while others contain temples that taper from the side of the frame near the hinge to more narrow dimensions near the ear. Heights of frames and lenses vary from relatively small dimensions, such as "granny" glasses, to relatively large ones that fit from well above the wearer's eyebrow to well below the wearer's cheekbone. Problems have arisen for storing such eyeglasses when the eyeglasses are not in use. Such problems include breakage or scratching of the lenses and bending or breaking of the frames or temples. Many relatively rigid materials have been employed to deter breakage, particularly of glass lenses, and a variety of soft, non-abrasive materials have been employed to prevent scratching, particularly of plastic lenses. Often times the eyeglass case is constructed to allow the temples to be folded against the inside surfaces of the lenses or frames causing scratching of the inside surfaces of the lenses. Problems have also arisen when the eyeglasses, and particularly sunglasses, are being worn by a wearer and the wearer must store the eyeglass case. Often the eyeglass case is bulky and difficult to store in a wearer's pocket, or other conventional storing places. Also, present eyeglass cases trap particles of sand, dirt and other debris in the permanent seams, corners, pouches, etc., and such particles can cause scratching and deterioration of the frames, lenses, temples, etc.

The present invention relates to an extrusion head for foamed material, in particular for polyvinylchloride-based foamed material. Extrusion heads for foamed material, for example PVC with the addition of substances which cause its foaming, are known which substantially comprise a head body in which a cavity accommodating a male element is defined. A passage for the material to be extruded is defined between the outer surface of the male element and the walls of said cavity, and said material is pushed into the extrusion head at a preset pressure. The passage along which the semi-liquid or pasty material is pushed extends around the male element and leads outward through an extrusion hole which is located proximate to a longitudinal end of the head and is shaped correspondingly to the profile of the extruded body to be obtained. The material pushed through the extrusion head completes its expansion in the region of the extrusion hole, and the extruded body thus obtained follows a rectilinear path, passing through "gauges" arranged in series. Said gauges are substantially constituted by cooled blocks in which a passage is defined with a configuration which reproduces that of the profile of the extruded body. In passing through said gauges, the extruded body is cooled progressively so as to gradually stabilize its configuration. In many cases, the shaped passage defined in the gauges is kept at negative pressure so as to obtain the adhesion of the extruded body to the walls of said passage, utilizing a residual expansion of the material which allows to obtain extruded bodies with excellent surface finish. Means for entraining the extruded body are provided downstream of the gauges along the direction of extrusion and are generally constituted by a pair of opposite closed-loop belts or tracks between which the extruded body is inserted so as to advance it in accordance with the extrusion speed. At the beginning of the extrusion, the initial end of the extruded body is manually gripped and inserted between the pair of tracks, placing the extruded body in the gauges, which are conveniently open during this operation, thus starting the extrusion process which, after the beginning of the entrainment effected by the tracks, can continue automatically with no further manual intervention. This necessary extrusion-starting operation has some practical problems in execution. In conventional extrusion heads, the extruded body which has just exited from the extrusion hole is in fact very fragile due to the fact that the material completes its expansion in the air at the exit of the extrusion hole, and this makes its handling troublesome. Due to this fragility, and also due to the fact that since the extruded body is not yet subject to the traction action of the entrainment means it tends to expand more than the passages defined in the gauges, and it is extremely difficult to place the extruded body correctly in the cooling gauges. The difficulties in handling the extruded body in this initial extrusion step are unavoidably the source of time losses which considerably affect the productivity of an extrusion system. The initial portion of the extruded body, i.e. a portion thereof which is substantially equal in length to the distance between the extrusion head and the entrainment tracks, must furthermore necessarily be discarded due to the deformations or breakages which occur during this operation.

An example of a video descriptor generation device is disclosed in Patent Document 1. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing a video descriptor generation device described in Patent Document 1. An each-frame feature extraction unit 1000 calculates a frame unit feature from an input video, and outputs it to a feature table creation unit 1010. The feature table creation unit 1010 creates a feature table from the frame unit feature output from the each-frame feature extraction unit 1000, and outputs the feature table as a video descriptor. Next, operation of the device shown in FIG. 6 will be described. The each-frame feature extraction unit 1000 performs a process of extracting a feature such as a color of each frame from an input video, and outputs the obtained feature to the feature table creation unit 1010 as a frame unit feature. The feature table creation unit 1010 performed processing on variations in the feature between frames using a threshold, and compresses the feature in a time direction. Specifically, the feature table creation unit 1010 calculates a difference between the frame unit features of frames, and determines whether or not the difference is within a certain allowable variation range. Then, the feature table creation unit 1010 divides the video into time segments in which the video is within the allowable variation range, and for each of the divided time segments, a set of the feature and the time segment length (number of frames) is output as a video descriptor. As such, the feature of the video obtained in a frame unit can be compressed in a time direction, whereby the feature size can be reduced. Further, high-speed matching can also be realized.

Electronic messaging is a general method for sending and receiving communications as digital data between computers on a network. The Internet has dramatically increased electronic messaging amongst millions of users on global data networks. Many different forms of electronic messaging are being used to send and receive communications in a wide variety of forms of structured and unstructured data. Businesses make extensive use of electronic messaging to conduct business communications and transactions between trading partners. Electronic mail (or email) is a popular form of electronic messaging for communications between users. Typical email messages are composed of typed text or a combination of typed text and text or graphical files that are attached to the email message and opened with the appropriate processor or viewer. As the popularity of the Internet continues to grow worldwide, more and more people numbering in the billions are expected to use email for communications. Recent advances in technology and standards have expanded the types and forms of devices that can connect to the Internet. In addition to dial-up and online connections between users computers and servers that provide information services and email services, many types of other devices are being connected to the Internet for communications purposes, including personal digital assistants (PDAs), text messaging pagers, digital cellphones enabled with Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), advanced digital game machines, digital set top boxes for televisions, and even CPU-controlled household appliances. Many of these devices having Internet access do not require or are not adapted to use a keyboard for inputting data. While there are other types of input devices that enable handwritten or handdrawn input, such as touch sensitive screens, stylus pads, optical pens, etc., they have not been enabled for electronic messaging and other communication functions. Handwritten or handdrawn input can be more convenient to use than a keyboard and, in many situations, would be uniquely necessary for certain types of communication. Many written language systems, such as Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Arabic, Thai, Sanskrit, etc., use cursive or ideographic characters that are very difficult to input by an equivalent method via keyboard. For example, text input of the Japanese written language requires the use of simulated phonetic spelling methods (romanji, hiragana, and/or katakana) to select from thousands of possible kanji characters. Many mobile devices such as PDAs do not have keyboards due to their limited size and form, or would become cumbersome to use if a keyboard must be attached or if text must be entered by cursoring through displays of softkeys. Disabled or hospitalized people who have limited hand mobility may not be able to use a keyboard effectively. Current legal and financial institutions still rely heavily on the use of handwritten signatures to validate a person's unique identity. And in many instances, people find it much easier to communicate an idea by drawing a picture, or prefer handwriting or drawing a picture as more personal or expressive communication than typing text on a keyboard. There is thus a clear need for an electronic messaging system that allows people to communicate with their own handwriting or drawing, as contrasted to typed text. This need will continue to grow as the numbers of global users and Internet-connected devices increase. None of the current electronic messaging methods allow a user to compose, manipulate, store, send, receive, and view a handwritten or handdrawn email message.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates in general to a system for separating luminance and chrominance signals from a composite video signal in a television broadcasting system, such as a NTSC system, a PAL system or a SECAM system, and more particularly to an improved system for separating luminance and chrominance signals from a composite video signal, which is suitable to obtain a better quality of picture in high vision systems of high resolution, such as a high definition television set (HDTV), an enhanced definition television set (EDTV) and a high definition video cassette recorder (HDVCR). 2. Description of the Prior Art FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a conventional system for separating luminance and chrominance signals from a composite video signal utilizing both frame and line comb filters and FIG. 2 is a block diagram of another conventional system for separating luminance and chrominance signals from a composite video signal utilizing only a line comb filter and having a construction different from the system in FIG. 1. Herein, a frame represents one picture of a television broadcasting signal. In a television broadcasting system such as, for example, a NTSC system, each of frames, or pictures consists of 525 lines, which is sent every 1/30 sec from a broadcasting station. In each of the frames, odd and even lines, respectively of 252.5 lines are in turn sent every 1/60 sec from the broadcasting station in a standard interlaced scanning manner. From this fact, it can be seen that each of the frames consists of the two fields. In the NTSC system, each of the lines is provided in the unit of 15.75 KHz (64.5 .mu.sec). Each of frame signals to be used below indicates a video signal which is delayed by 525 lines as mentioned above, i.e., a video signal next to two fields or 1/30 sec and a frame difference signal is obtained by subtracting a frame signal prior to one frame from the current frame signal or subtracting the current frame signal from a frame signal next to one frame. This frame difference signal is comprised of only a chrominance signal component due to removal of a luminance signal component in the composite video signal, as will be described later. The basic principles of the comb filters used in the systems of FIGS. 1 and 2 will now be described with reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B. FIG. 3A illustrates a one-dimensional frequency spectrum showing an arrangement of the luminance and chrominance signals every line in the television broadcasting signal in the NTSC system and FIG. 3B illustrates a one-dimensional frequency spectrum showing an arrangement of the luminance and chrominance signals every frame in the television broadcasting signal in the NTSC system. The television broadcasting signal in the NTSC system is in the mixed form of the chrominance and luminance signals which are superposed on each other on the frequency spectra as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B. The comb filter is provided to separate the chrominance and luminance signals from the composite video signal. In the television broadcasting signal in the NTSC system, the chrominance signal is 180.degree. out of phase every line and, also, every frame (every 525 lines). As a result, since two successive lines of the chrominance signal are oppositely phased with each other, a comb filtered luminance signal output is provided by combining two successive lines of the composite video signal together additively, resulting in cancellation of the chrominance signal. On the contrary, since lines of the luminance signal are originally in phase, a comb filtered chrominance signal output is provided by combining two successive lines of the composite video signal together subtractively, resulting in cancellation of the luminance signal. Therefore, the comb filters in the systems of FIGS. 1 and 2 can separate the luminance and chrominance signals from the composite video signal utilizing the above principles. First, the operation of a construction in FIG. 1 will be described. Upon input of a composite video signal CV, a frame comb filter 1 separates luminance and chrominance signals from the composite video signal CV in the unit of frame and then applies the separated frame chrominance signal FC to an operator 4. At the same time, the composite video signal CV is also inputted by a line comb filter 2. The line comb filter 2 separates luminance and chrominance signals from the composite video signal CV in the unit of line and then applies the separated line chrominance signal LC to an operator 5. The frame comb filter 1 also applies a frame difference signal FD to a moving level detector 3 for detection of a moving level of the video signal. The moving level detector 3 takes a moving factor K corresponding to the moving level of the video signal, based on the frame difference signal FD, and then feeds the taken moving factor K to the operators 4 and 5. Herein, the moving factor K may be any value between 0 and 1. Namely, 0.ltoreq.K.ltoreq.1. In this connection, it is noted that the more the moving factor K is approximate to 1, the more the moving level of the video signal becomes severe. The operator 4 multiplies the received frame chrominance signal FC by a value (1-K) which is obtained by subtracting the moving factor K from 1 and the operator 5 multiplies the received line chrominance signal LC by the moving factor K. Output signals from the operators 4 and 5 are together added in an adder 6, which then outputs the added chrominance signals to a band pass filter 8. In the television broadcasting signal in the NTSC system, the chrominance signal is typically placed at a frequency band of .+-.0.5 MHz around a center frequency of 3.58 MHz, as can be seen on a standard frequency spectrum. In this connection, outputted from the band pass filter 8 is the final chrominance signal C of a predetermined frequency band of about 3 MHz-4.2 MHz. The final chrominance signal C from the band pass filter 8 is applied to a subtracter 9. The composite video signal CV is also inputted by a delay element 7 in which the composite video signal CV is then delayed by a predetermined period of time for synchronization with the chrominance signal C output from the band pass filter 8. The subtracter 9 subtracts the chrominance signal C from the predetermined time delayed composite video signal CV and then outputs the resulting luminance signal as the final luminance signal Y. Then, the operation of a construction in FIG. 2 will be described. Upon input of a composite video signal CV, a line comb filter 11 separates luminance and chrominance signals from the composite video signal CV in the unit of line and then applies the separated line chrominance signal LC to a band pass filter 12. The band pass filter 12 functions to extract a desired chrominance signal component from the received line chrominance signal LC. As a result, outputted from the band pass filter 12 is only a desired component of chrominance signal C of a frequency band of .+-.0.5 MHz around a center frequency fsc. The line chrominance signal LC from the line comb filter 11 is also inputted by a low pass filter 13 which is provided to remove a chrominance subcarrier from the line chrominance signal LC. For this reason, outputted from the low pass filter 13 is only the residual luminance signal component .DELTA.Y in which no chrominance signal component is present. Since the chrominance and luminance signals are overlapped with each other as shown in FIG. 3A, the line comb filter 11 provides the comb filtered or separated line chrominance signal LC in which the residual luminance signal component .DELTA.Y may be included. Noticeably, the residual luminance signal component .DELTA.Y is increased more and more for a moving video signal. The residual luminance signal component .DELTA.Y from the low pass filter 13 is applied to an absolute value generator 14, which then generates an absolute value of the received residual luminance signal component .DELTA.Y. This absolute value is applied to a non-inverting input terminal (+) of a comparator CP1, an inverting input terminal (-) of which is applied with a predetermined threshold value Vth1. The comparator CP1 compares the absolute value at its non-inverting input terminal (+) with the predetermined threshold value Vth1 at its inverting input terminal (-) and outputs the resultant value as a switching control signal to a switch SW1. The composite video signal CV is also inputted by a delay element 15 in which the composite video signal CV is then delayed by a predetermined period of time for synchronization with the chrominance signal C output from the band pass filter 12. A subtracter 16 subtracts the chrominance signal C from the predetermined time delayed composite video signal CV from the delay element 15 and then feeds the resulting luminance signal to a delay element 17 and a band trap filter 18. The switch SW1 is connected to the output of the delay element 17 at its one input terminal b and to the output of the band trap filter 18 at its other input terminal b such that it selectively outputs one of the two inputs as the final luminance signal Y, in response to the switching control signal from the comparator CP1. That is, if the switching control signal from the comparator CP1 is high, resulting from the presence of a dot interference, the switch SW1 is activated to select the output of the band trap filter 18. On the contrary, with the switching control signal from the comparator CP1 being low, the switch SW1 is activated to select the output of the delay element 17. The signal selected in the switch SW1 in this manner is outputted as the final luminance signal Y. The above-mentioned conventional systems for separating the luminance and chrominance signals from the composite video signal utilizing the line and frame comb filters are shown in IDTV Receiver (Kiyoyuki Kawai et al., Toshiba Corporation Consumer Products Engineering Laboratory Yokohama, Japan, IEEE Transactions on consumer Electronics, Vol. CE-33, No. 3, August 1987). In accordance with the construction in FIG. 2, however, the conventional system utilizing only the line comb filter has a disadvantage, in that cross-talk components may occur because of imperfect separations at vertical boundaries since the current line signal, a signal prior to one line and a signal next to one line which are outputted from the line comb filter are filtered directly by the band pass filter and the low pass filter, respectively. The cross-talk components result in occurrence of a dot interference exerting an adverse effect on the quality of picture. Also in accordance with the construction in FIG. 1, the conventional system utilizing both the line and frame comb filters has a disadvantage, in that moving of the chrominance signal or the high frequency signal cannot be detected since the moving level detector 3 in the system detects the moving level of the video signal depending on a signal (i.e., the residual luminance signal component) which is obtained by low pass-filtering the frame difference signal FD.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the field of oil and gas exploration. More particularly, the invention relates to methods for determining at least one property of a subsurface formation penetrated by a wellbore using a formation tester. 2. Background Art Over the past several decades, highly sophisticated techniques have been developed for identifying and producing hydrocarbons, commonly referred to as oil and gas, from subsurface formations. These techniques facilitate the discovery, assessment, and production of hydrocarbons from subsurface formations. When a subsurface formation containing an economically producible amount of hydrocarbons is believed to have been discovered, a borehole is typically drilled from the earth surface to the desired subsurface formation and tests are performed on the formation to determine whether the formation is likely to produce hydrocarbons of commercial value. Typically, tests performed on subsurface formations involve interrogating penetrated formations to determine whether hydrocarbons are actually present and to assess the amount of producible hydrocarbons therein. These preliminary tests are conducted using formation testing tools, often referred to as formation testers. Formation testers are typically lowered into a wellbore by a wireline cable, tubing, drill string, or the like, and may be used to determine various formation characteristics which assist in determining the quality, quantity, and conditions of the hydrocarbons or other fluids located therein. Other formation testers may form part of a drilling tool, such as a drill string, for the measurement of formation parameters during the drilling process. Formation testers typically comprise slender tools adapted to be lowered into a borehole and positioned at a depth in the borehole adjacent to the subsurface formation for which data is desired. Once positioned in the borehole, these tools are placed in fluid communication with the formation to collect data from the formation. Typically, a probe, snorkel or other device is sealably engaged against the borehole wall to establish such fluid communication. Formation testers are typically used to measure downhole parameters, such as wellbore pressures, formation pressures and formation mobilities, among others. They may also be used to collect samples from a formation so that the types of fluid contained in the formation and other fluid properties can be determined. The formation properties determined during a formation test are important factors in determining the commercial value of a well and the manner in which hydrocarbons may be recovered from the well. The operation of formation testers may be more readily understood with reference to the structure of a conventional wireline formation tester shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B. As shown in FIG. 1A, the wireline tester 100 is lowered from an oil rig 2 into an open wellbore 3 filled with a fluid commonly referred to in the industry as xe2x80x9cmud.xe2x80x9d The wellbore is lined with a mudcake 4 deposited onto the wall of the wellbore during drilling operations. The wellbore penetrates a formation 5. The operation of a conventional modular wireline formation tester having multiple interconnected modules is described in more detail in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,860,581 and 4,936,139 issued to Zimmerman et al. FIG. 2 depicts a graphical representation of a pressure trace over time measured by the formation tester during a conventional wireline formation testing operation used to determine parameters, such as formation pressure. Referring now to FIGS. 1A and 1B, in a conventional wireline formation testing operation, a formation tester 100 is lowered into a wellbore 3 by a wireline cable 6. After lowering the formation tester 100 to the desired position in the wellbore, pressure in the flowline 119 in the formation tester may be equalized to the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the wellbore by opening an equalization valve (not shown). A pressure sensor or gauge 120 is used to measure the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the wellbore. The measured pressure at this point is graphically depicted along line 103 in FIG. 2. The formation tester 100 may then be xe2x80x9csetxe2x80x9d by anchoring the tester in place with hydraulically actuated pistons, positioning the probe 112 against the sidewall of the wellbore to establish fluid communication with the formation, and closing the equalization valve to isolate the interior of the tool from the well fluids. The point at which a seal is made between the probe and the formation and fluid communication is established, referred to as the xe2x80x9ctool setxe2x80x9d point, is graphically depicted at 105 in FIG. 2. Fluid from the formation 5 is then drawn into the formation tester 100 by retracting a piston 118 in a pretest chamber 114 to create a pressure drop in the flowline 119 below the formation pressure. This volume expansion cycle, referred to as a xe2x80x9cdrawdownxe2x80x9d cycle, is graphically illustrated along line 107 in FIG. 2. When the piston 118 stops retracting (depicted at point 111 in FIG. 2), fluid from the formation continues to enter the probe 112 until, given a sufficient time, the pressure in the flowline 119 is the same as the pressure in the formation 5, depicted at 115 in FIG. 2. This cycle, referred to as a xe2x80x9cbuild-upxe2x80x9d cycle, is depicted along line 113 in FIG. 2. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the final build-up pressure at 115, frequently referred to as the xe2x80x9csandfacexe2x80x9d pressure, is usually assumed to be a good approximation to the formation pressure. The shape of the curve and corresponding data generated by the pressure trace may be used to determine various formation characteristics. For example, pressures measured during drawdown (107 in FIG. 2) and build-up (113 in FIG. 2) may be used to determine formation mobility, that is the ratio of the formation permeability to the formation fluid viscosity. When the formation tester probe 112 is disengaged from the wellbore wall, the pressure in flowline 119 increases rapidly as the pressure in the flowline equilibrates with the wellbore pressure, shown as line 117 in FIG. 2. After the formation measurement cycle has been completed, the formation tester 100 may be disengaged and repositioned at a different depth and the formation test cycle repeated as desired. During this type of test operation for a wireline-conveyed tool, pressure data collected downhole is typically communicated to the surface electronically via the wireline communication system. At the surface, an operator typically monitors the pressure in flowline 119 at a console and the wireline logging system records the pressure data in real time. Data recorded during the drawdown and buildup cycles of the test may be analyzed either at the well site computer in real time or later at a data processing center to determine crucial formation parameters, such as formation fluid pressure, the mud overbalance pressure, ie the difference between the wellbore pressure and the formation pressure, and the mobility of the formation. Wireline formation testers allow high data rate communications for real-time monitoring and control of the test and tool through the use of wireline telemetry. This type of communication system enables field engineers to evaluate the quality of test measurements as they occur, and, if necessary, to take immediate actions to abort a test procedure and/or adjust the pretest parameters before attempting another measurement. For example, by observing the data as they are collected during the pretest drawdown, an engineer may have the option to change the initial pretest parameters, such as drawdown rate and drawdown volume, to better match them to the formation characteristics before attempting another test. Examples of prior art wireline formation testers and/or formation test methods are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 3,934,468 issued to Brieger; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,860,581 and 4,936,139 issued to Zimmerman et al.; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,969,241 issued to Auzerais. These patents are assigned to the assignee of the present invention. Formation testers may also be used during drilling operations. For example, one such downhole tool adapted for collecting data from a subsurface formation during drilling operations is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,230,557 B1 issued to Ciglenec et al., which is assigned to the assignee of the present invention. Various techniques have been developed for performing specialized formation testing operations, or pretests. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,095,745 and 5,233,866 both issued to DesBrandes describe a method for determining formation parameters by analyzing the point at which the pressure deviates from a linear draw down. Despite the advances made in developing methods for performing pretests, there remains a need to eliminate delays and errors in the pretest process, and to improve the accuracy of the parameters derived from such tests. Because formation testing operations are used throughout drilling operations, the duration of the test and the absence of real-time communication with the tools are major constraints that must be considered. The problems associated with real-time communication for these operations are largely due to the current limitations of the telemetry typically used during drilling operations, such as mud-pulse telemetry. Limitations, such as uplink and downlink telemetry data rates for most logging while drilling or measurement while drilling tools, result in slow exchanges of information between the downhole tool and the surface. For example, a simple process of sending a pretest pressure trace to the surface, followed by an engineer sending a command downhole to retract the probe based on the data transmitted may result in substantial delays which tend to adversely impact drilling operations. Delays also increase the possibility of tools becoming stuck in the wellbore. To reduce the possibility of sticking, drilling operation specifications based on prevailing formation and drilling conditions are often established to dictate how long a drill string may be immobilized in a given borehole. Under these specifications, the drill string may only be allowed to be immobile for a limited period of time to deploy a probe and perform a pressure measurement. Due to the limitations of the current real-time communications link between some tools and the surface, it may be desirable that the tool be able to perform almost all operations in an automatic mode. Therefore, a method is desired that enables a formation tester to be used to perform formation test measurements downhole within a specified time period and that may be easily implemented using wireline or drilling tools resulting in minimal intervention from the surface system. One aspect of the invention relates to a method for determining formation parameters using a downhole tool positioned in a wellbore adjacent a subterranean formation, comprising the steps of establishing fluid communication with the formation; performing a first pretest to determine an initial estimate of the formation parameters; designing pretest criteria for performing a second pretest based on the initial estimate of the formation parameters; and performing a second pretest according to the designed criteria whereby a refined estimate of the formation parameters are determined. One aspect of the invention relates to methods for determining formation properties using a formation tester. A method for determining at least one formation fluid property using a formation tester in a formation penetrated by a borehole includes collecting a first set of data points representing pressures in a pretest chamber of the formation tester as a function of time during a first pretest; determining an estimated formation pressure and an estimated formation fluid mobility from the first set of data points; determining a set of parameters for a second pretest, the set of parameters being determined based on the estimated formation pressure, the estimated formation fluid mobility, and a time remaining for performing the second pretest; performing the second pretest using the set of parameters; collecting a second set of data points representing pressures in the pretest chamber as a function of time during the second pretest; and determining the at least one formation fluid property from the second set of data points. Another aspect of the invention relates to methods for determining a condition for terminating a drawdown operation during a pretest. A method for determining a termination condition for a drawdown operation using a formation tester in a formation penetrated by a borehole includes setting a probe of the formation tester against a wall of the borehole so that a pretest chamber is in fluid communication with the formation, a drilling fluid in the pretest chamber having a higher pressure than the formation pressure; decompressing the drilling fluid in the pretest chamber by withdrawing a pretest piston at a constant drawdown rate; collecting data points representing fluid pressures in the pretest chamber as a function of time; identifying a range of consecutive data points that fit a line of pressure versus time with a fixed slope, the fixed slope being based on a compressibility of the drilling fluid, the constant drawdown rate, and a volume of the pretest chamber; and terminating the drawdown operation based on a termination criterion after the range of the consecutive data points is identified. Another aspect of the invention relates to methods for determining formation fluid mobilities. A method for estimating a formation fluid mobility includes performing a pretest using a formation tester disposed in a formation penetrated by a borehole, the pretest comprising a drawdown phase and a buildup phase; collecting data points representing pressures in a pretest chamber of the formation tester as a function of time during the drawdown phase and the buildup phase; determining an estimated formation pressure from the data points; determining an area bounded by a line passing through the estimated formation pressure and curves interpolating the data points during the drawdown phase and the buildup phase; and estimating the formation fluid mobility from the area, a volume extracted from the formation during the pretest, a radius of the formation testing probe, and a shape factor that accounts for the effect of the borehole on a response of the formation testing probe. Another aspect of the invention relates to methods for estimating formation pressures from drawdown operations during pretests. A method for determining an estimated formation pressure from a drawdown operation using a formation tester in a formation penetrated by a borehole includes setting the formation tester against a wall of the borehole so that a pretest chamber of the formation tester is in fluid communication with the formation, a drilling fluid in the pretest chamber having a higher pressure than the formation pressure; decompressing the drilling fluid in the pretest chamber by withdrawing a pretest piston in the formation tester at a constant drawdown rate; collecting data points representing fluid pressures in the pretest chamber as a function of time; identifying a range of consecutive data points that fit a line of pressure versus time with a fixed slope, the fixed slope being based on a compressibility of the drilling fluid, the constant drawdown rate, and a volume of the pretest chamber; and determining the estimated formation pressure from a first data point after the range of the consecutive data points. Other aspects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description and the appended claims.

Heart failure is a condition that can result from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the heart to fill with blood or pump a sufficient amount of blood through the body. It is not to be confused with “cessation of heartbeat”, which is known as asystole, or with cardiac arrest, which is the cessation of normal cardiac function with subsequent hemodynamic collapse leading to death. Congestive heart failure is often undiagnosed due to a lack of a universally agreed definition and difficulties in diagnosis, particularly when the condition is considered “mild”. Even with the best therapy, heart failure is associated with an annual mortality of 10%. It is the leading cause of hospitalization in people older than 65. Heart failure is characterized by clinical signs and symptoms secondary to the inadequate response to the body metabolic requirements. This condition could occur acutely or have a chronic course. The pathophysiological interpretations of heart failure have had a remarkable evolution in time. This syndrome was considered as a pump deficiency associated with a renal dysfunction in years '50-'60, a pump dysfunction associated with an increase in peripheral resistance in years '70-'80 and is considered at present as a failure of the pump function associated with the neuro-hormonal activation with resulting hemodynamic impairments which take to a dysfunction of many organs and apparatuses. The present drug therapy of cardiac “pump function” includes the use of drugs acting by various modes of action on different points of the etiopathogenesis of the diseases. Non-limiting examples of such drugs are: ACE-inhibitors (Angiotensin Converting Enzymes inhibitors), diuretics, non-digitalis positive inotropic drugs such as adrenergics and inhibitors of phosphodiesterase, arteriolar and venular vasodilators, e.g. hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate, beta-blockers e.g. metoprolol and bisoprolol and digitalis derivatives, e.g. digitoxin. The ageing of the population seems to be a contributing factor to amplify the relevance of the phenomenon. WO 02/058793 relates to the use of polyunsaturated fatty acid for the prevention or treatment of heart failure. No experimental data are provided in this application. Lancet 1999 (354: 447-55) (GISSI-Prevenzione clinical trial) relates to the reduction of total mortality in post-myocardial infarction patients treated with n-3 PUFA for 3.5 years. EP1310249 relates to the use of polyunsaturated fatty acid for the primary prevention of major cardiovascular events in patients, who have not undergone previous infarct episodes. However only some animal data are reported in the patent application and these are not necessarily predictive of the drug efficacy in the treatment of HF in humans. WO 89/11521 describes an industrial process for the extraction of mixtures having a high content in poly-unsaturated acids useful in the treatment of cardiovascular pathologies. U.S. Pat. No. 5,502,077, U.S. Pat. No. 5,656,667, U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,594 and IT 1235879, refer respectively to hypertriglyceridemia, defects of the cholesterol level and hypertension. However, each of the cited documents deal with the treatment of risk factors, not with real and proclaimed illnesses. U.S. Pat. No. 5,753,703 describes the use of L-carnitine or its derivatives in association with polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 series or their esters, in particular EPA and DHA, for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disorders, vascular pathologies, diabetic peripheral neuropathies, and atherosclerotic, thromboembolytic and tissue disorders. EP0409903 describes a process for preparing high concentration mixtures of EPA and DHA and/or their esters useful for treating hyperlipemia and related pathologies, thrombosis, cardiac infarct, platelet aggregation, as anticoagulants in the prevention of atherosclerosis, for the treatment of cerebral infarct, of lesions and occlusions caused by vasomotor spasms, of diabetes and its complications, of chronic and acute inflammations, of autoimmune symptoms, in the prevention of side effects caused by non-steroid anti-inflammatories at the gastrointestinal level and in tumour prevention. CN 1082909 describes compositions based on ethyl esters of EPA and DHA and other polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 series in association with soya phospholipids, oenothera odorata and ginkgetin, as antithrombotic and antidementia agents for treating for example dementia and infarct of the myocardium. U.S. Pat. No. 5,760,081 describes a method for preventing imminent fibrillation of the myocardial ventricle by intravenous infusion of a composition containing EPA, where the subject at risk of imminent fibrillation has already often been the protagonist of an episode of infarct of the myocardium and where the infusion is effected within 3 hours of the infarct episode, possibly using intracardiac injection. These are always situations of extreme emergency and of parenteral intervention, for the specific treatment of ventricular fibrillation. Clinical Drug Investigation 15 (6), 473 relates to the administration of EPA and DHA ethyl esters, at a dose of 4 g per day for decreasing triglycerides and total apolipoprotein C III and increasing antithrombin III, in subjects with abnormal plasmatic lipoprotein symptoms and have undergone an infarct of the myocardium, they having consequently suggested that an administration of these compositions can result in an improvement in the lipoprotein level and hence a decrease in the relative risk factors. WO 00/48592 describes the use of a mixture of EPA and DHA ethyl esters in quantities greater than 25% b.w., for preventing death, in particular “sudden death” in patients who have already suffered an infarct of the myocardium. In the medical field there is still the need of a safe and convenient method for the prevention of deaths, the reduction of the total hospitalisations or the hospitalisations for a cardiovascular reason in patients with heart failure.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (“OFDM”) is a widely used signal multiplexing technique for communications, such as over-the-air (“wireless”) communications. An OFDM modulated signal is assembled at a baseband frequency associated with a communications channel as a weighted sum of N complex sinusoids, where N is an integer larger than or equal to one. Each complex sinusoid has a duration of T seconds with a frequency separation of 1/T Hz. The resulting OFDM configured signal spans a combined band of frequencies of N/T Hz. An OFDM modulator assembles the OFDM modulated signal by spectral translation, summing real and imaginary components of the N complex sinusoids. Weighting terms for this weighted sum are independent random selections of complex data points in a so-called “constellation set” for modulations of the OFDM modulated signal. This OFDM constellation set may be modulated by Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (“QAM”). Due to the additive summation of N sub-carriers to provide a weighted sum for QAM, relatively large peaks in the OFDM modulated signal may result, whether in a positive or negative direction. The average power of an OFDM modulated signal transmitted is maintained in a channel to obtain a threshold system error rate. The peak-to-average power ratio (“PAPR”) is conventionally used to define a dynamic range to be accommodated by components in a signal flow path down stream from the OFDM modulator. Conventionally, a PAPR is used though a peak-to-average ratio of some other energy level, such as voltage level for example, may be used. Clipping of peaks has been used to reduce the PAPR, which reduces the dynamic range, and thus also reduces the expense and complexity of components. Moreover, clipping of excessive peaks, which may cause interference in other carrier signals such those near the baseband frequency of the OFDM modulated signal for example, may reduce possible interference. However, clipping causes signal loss, and thus may negatively impact error rate performance. Accordingly, it would be desirable to modify a time envelope of a time domain signal formed by random QAM of spectral terms of an OFDM modulated signal to reduce the PAPR. Such modification should not modify the spectral terms, as that may introduce additive interference which negatively impacts error rate performance.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a sheet feeding device which is preferably utilized in an image forming apparatus such as a document copying machine, a laser beam printer, etc., and more particularly relates to an improvement in a separation mechanism to separate sheets of paper which are sent out from a paper pile section. 2. Description of the Prior Art It is well known to the public that this kind of a sheet feeding device is of such a type as is provided with a feeding roller to transfer sheets of paper and a pad or a separation roller which is alternately engaged to the feeding roller in the axial direction and which can separate sheets of paper therebetween as a separation mechanism to separate sheets of paper. There are two types of the above separation mechanism, one of which is such a type that the feeding roller and the pad or the separating roller are brought into contact with each other, and the other of which is a non-contact type as disclosed in the Japanese Utility Model Laid-Open No. Sho-63-45732 and the Japanese Laid-Open No. Sho-63-48744. And both of these types have advantages and disadvantages in the sheets separating capacity and the sheet feeding capacity pertaining to presence of traces of rolls on the sheet. The sheet feeding device 1' shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 is attached to a document copying machine provided with a double-side copying feature. The sheet feeding device 1' comprises a guide plate 4 as a guiding member which is fixed at the side of a document copying machine along with the sheet feeding direction (arrow "S") and which guides sheets of paper 3 which are in stock on the intermediate tray 2 after an image has been formed on a single side thereof from the intermediate tray 2 in the sheet feeding direction by means of a transfer roller 7 at the side of the document copying machine, a feeding roller 5 of which axis 8 is arranged at the side of a document copying machine with a right angle to the sheet feeding direction and by which sheets of paper 3 can be sent in the feeding direction, and a pad 6' made of rubber having elasticity, which is provided in parallelism with the axis 8 at the side of a document copying machine and can separate sheets of paper 3 sheet by sheet between the pad 6' and the feeding roller 5, thereby causing the sheets of paper 3 to be separated sheet by sheet and to be sent for forming an image on the other side thereof. The feeding roller 5 and the pad 6' are engaged alternately in non-contact with each other in the axial direction thereof and respective engaging portions thereof constitute a separation portion 9. The separation portion 9 are so set that they can be located at the position on a line "C" can pass through a minimum clearance portion formed between the feeding roller 5 and the guide plate 4 and can intercross at right angles with the guiding surface "l" of the guide plate 4. Such a sheet feeding device 1' is so composed that sheets of paper 3 can be separated sheet by sheet and can be sent by utilization of the difference of friction forces Frc, Fcc, and Fcp which occur between the feeding roller 5 and sheets of paper 3, between mutual sheets of paper 3 and between sheets of paper 3 and the pad 6' when a sheet of paper 3 passes through the separation portion 9 with the sheet of paper 3 made wavelike in the axial direction. Hence, the strength of the friction forces has been adjusted in the order to Frc>Fcp>Fcc. Therefore, even though a plurality of sheets of paper 3 are carried in between the feeding roller 5 and the pad 6', only a sheet of paper 3 at the uppermost layer which is in contact with the feeding roller 5 is separated by the difference of the friction forces and is transferred in the separation portion 9. The other sheets of paper 3 lower than the second sheet of paper 3 can be retained by the inclined face of the pad 6', which is inclined from the guide plate 4 toward the feeding roller 5 at the separation portion 9 or beforehand thereof. On the other hand, as an intermediate tray 2 which has a large stock capacity is needed by influence of recent mass information tendency, an intermediate tray 2 of which height "T" of sheets accommodation is high has been employed. Thereby, the number of sheets of paper 3 which may be carried in the separation portion 9 simultaneously has been diversified. For instance, as shown in FIG. 7(a), in the case one or two sheets of paper 3 are carried in, the leading edge of the sheets of paper 3 is bent downwards and is brought into contact with the guide plate 4 and the leading side from the portion "d" is bent in the feeding direction (an arrow "S"). Next, the leading edge of sheets of paper 3 is guided along with the guiding surface "l" and is carried in the separation portion 9 where they can be separated sheet by sheet. Hence, as shown in FIG. 7(b), in the case that a great deal of sheets of paper 3 are transferred from the intermediate tray 2 toward the separation portion 9 at a time, the leading edge of sheets of paper 3 is brought into contact with the face 6'a of the pad 6' and is made just like being jammed before the pad 6 in the sheet feeding direction. Under such a condition, in the case that the engaging width "a" of the separation portion 9 formed between the feeding roller 5 and the pad 6' is large, only the sheet of paper 3 at the uppermost layer is not further sent in beyond the point "Z" of intersection where the feeding roller 5 and the pad 6' intercross when being observed from the side thereof. Contrarily, in the case that the engaging width thereof is small, there may occur such a problem that a number of sheets of paper 3 are sent in toward the separation portion 9 at a time. Especially, the main reason why a sheet of paper 3 is not further sent in from the above point "Z" of intersection at the edge at the upstream side in the sheet feeding direction of the separation portion 9 is further located at the upstream side in the sheet feeding direction than the minimum clearance portion located on the line "C" between the feeding roller 5 and the guide plate 4. Namely, as the clearance between the feeding roller 5 and the guide plate 4 gets more narrow toward the downstream side in the sheet feeding direction, the leading edge of a sheet of paper 3 which is in a jammed condition before the face 6'a of the pad 6' loses the degree of freedom thereof more as it goes further in the sheet feeding direction.

This invention relates to a clearing machine for brushwood of the type having a stationary blade portion with projecting cutters and a rotary blade plate cooperating with the former, wherein the rotary blade plate comprises sickle-shaped cutters cooperating with the projecting cutters of the stationary blade portion. Machines of the above-mentioned type are known to have been used as lawn mowers or as bush cutters. The known machines are not suitable for cutting and clearing of heavier brushwood the base diameter of which may be up to 15cm, due to the size of the machines and particularly due to the mutual working principle of the blades of such cutters. Attention has recently been paid to the possibilities of using fast growing brushwood as raw material for board producing industry or for pulp and paper industry. One of the problems associated with the use of brushwood has been the lack of a suitable brushwood clearing machine. An object of this invention is to solve the above problem and to provide a suitable machine for effective mechanical clearing of brushwood.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a camera having a movable mirror for leading light emanated from an object to a viewfinder optical system, and in particular relates to a movable mirror drive mechanism and the structure of the peripheral part thereof in a camera. The present invention also relates to a control apparatus for a cam drive mechanism and a control method therefor. 2. Description of the Related Art Inside SLR cameras, a movable mirror (quick-return mirror) is provided, which is capable of moving up and down; more specifically, capable of rotating between a mirror-down position (a position advanced into an optical path), in which the movable mirror is positioned in an optical path of an imaging optical system to reflect incident light emanated from an object (object-emanated light) toward a viewfinder optical system, and a mirror-up position (a position retracted from an optical path), in which the movable mirror is retracted from the optical path of the imaging optical system to allow the object-emanated light to travel toward a shutter. The shutter is provided behind the movable mirror and controls exposure on a photographic light-receiving medium such as an image sensor or silver-salt film, etc. If the camera is structured such that the mirror drive mechanism for driving the movable mirror, and the shutter control mechanism for controlling the travel of shutter curtains (blades) and the charging operation of the shutter are separately arranged on the laterally opposite sides of the mirror box that accommodates the movable mirror, miniaturization of the camera in the lateral (widthwise) direction thereof is limited. By contrast, in the camera disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2006-126389, the mirror drive mechanism and the shutter control mechanism are integrally arranged on one of the laterally opposite sides of the mirror box. In addition, a drive mechanism which makes a cam member rotate using a motor and controls the operation of a driven object via a cam surface formed on the cam member has been widely used. For instance, in SLR cameras which incorporate a quick-return mirror, operations of the drive mechanism therefor are controlled such that the cam member is rotated by the driving force of the motor, which is a drive source of the drive mechanism, that a member having a cam follower (hereinafter referred to as the “driven member”) is moved via a cam surface of the cam member, and that the mirror-up operation, the mirror-down operation of the mirror drive mechanism and the shutter charging operation of the shutter charge mechanism are performed at predetermined timings. The following cam members are known in the art as the type of cam member described above: an end-face cam rotatable about an axis of rotation which includes a cam surface formed at an end surface thereof in the direction along the axis of rotation, and a peripheral cam rotatable about an axis of rotation which includes a cam surface formed on a peripheral surface thereof surrounding the axis of rotation. In either of these cam members, the cam surface includes the following two cam areas: a cam area which presses the cam follower of the driven member in accordance with rotation of the cam member (specifically, an inclined cam area, the amount of projection thereof along the direction of the rotation axis increases in the direction of rotation of the cam member in the case of the end-face cam, or an inclined cam area the amount of projection of which away from the rotation axis increases in the direction of rotation of the cam member in the case of the peripheral cam), and a cam area which runs in the direction opposite to the direction in which the aforementioned cam area presses the cam follower as proceeding in the direction of rotation (specifically, an inclined cam area, the amount of projection thereof toward the axis of rotation decreases in the direction of rotation in the case of the end-face cam, or an inclined cam area which approaches the axis of rotation in the direction of rotation in the case of the peripheral cam). The former cam area and the latter cam area will be hereinafter referred to as the pressing cam area and the recessed cam area, respectively. The cam follower is pressed under load conditions in the pressing cam area, whereas the direction of action of the load on the cam surface is reversed upon the area of the cam surface, against which the cam follower abuts, being switched from the pressing cam area to the recessed cam area. Variations of this load on the cam surface cause a difference in speed of rotation of the cam member during rotation thereof, so that there is a possibility of the rotational speed of the cam member with the recessed cam area in use becoming greater than assumed. Specifically, in the case where the driven member is biased in a direction to bring the cam follower into contact with the cam surface, the biasing force acts as an assisting torque in a direction to press the recessed cam area against the cam follower to promote (assist) rotation of the cam member, which enhances the tendency to increase the rotational speed of the cam member. Additionally, if the cam member rotates at high speed, the operating speed of the driven system including the driven member becomes greater than that in the case of using an assumed cam curve, so that there is a possibility of shock which acts on the driven system becoming great. For instance, in the mirror drive mechanism for SLR cameras, bouncing of the movable mirror upon completion of the mirror-up operation or the mirror-down operation becomes great, which limits an increase in photographing frame speed. Additionally, in the case where the rotational speed of the cam member is great and the angle of inclination of the recessed cam area of the cam surface (the amount of displacement given to the cam follower per unit of rotation angle of the cam member) is great, there is a possibility of the cam follower becoming incapable of following the cam surface and thus being instantaneously disengaged from the cam surface. As countermeasures for the prevention of such malfunctions in the operation of the mirror drive mechanism in the recessed cam area, it is conceivable to reduce the inclination of the recessed cam area. However, if the inclination of the recessed cam area is reduced, problems with the cam member becoming great in size and with the cam curve deviating from an ideal cam curve arise. As another countermeasure for the preventing malfunctions, controlling the operation of the motor to apply a brake on the cam member to halt the cam member by driving the motor in the reverse direction or making the motor stop driving at a timing when no loads are imposed on the cam member and are known in the art (disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication H05-69600). In the case where the mirror drive mechanism and the shutter control mechanism are installed together on one of the laterally opposite sides of the mirror box, there is a problem with the space for installation of these mechanisms being limited due to mutual interference of the components thereof. Specifically, in the case where a motor for driving the movable mirror and a motor for charging the shutter are provided independently like the camera disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2006-126389, it is difficult arrange the components in a limited space; for instance, instead of preventing the camera from increasing in size in the lateral (widthwise) direction, there has been a possibility of the camera increasing in size in the vertical direction (height direction) or the forward/rearward direction (optical axis direction). Accordingly, an objective of the present invention is to provide a camera capable of being made compact in size while having superior space utilization in the internal structure thereof. In addition, if a brake is applied to the cam member via control of a motor upon the area of the cam surface in use (in operation) being switched from the pressing cam area to the recessed cam area, the rotational speed of the cam member becomes excessively small, which causes the operation of the driven system to delay with respect to an assumed timing. For instance, in the case where this motor control method is applied to the mirror drive mechanism for SLR cameras, the mirror-up operation and the mirror-down operation deteriorates in operating speed, which downgrades the performance in photographing frame speed. Accordingly, another objective of the present invention is to provide a control apparatus and a control method, for use to control a cam drive mechanism, each of which suppresses variations in the speed of the cam member due to load variations on the cam member and is superior in operating performance. The first aspect of the present invention relates to a camera, including a movable mirror which is pivoted about a mirror up-and-down pivot orthogonal to an optical axis of an imaging optical system of the camera to be rotatable between an advanced position, in which the movable mirror is positioned in an optical path of the imaging optical system and is inclined at an angle to reflect incident light emanated from an object toward a viewfinder optical system of the camera, and a retracted position, in which the movable mirror is retracted upward from the optical path to allow the object-emanated light to travel toward a shutter which is installed in a rearward position with respect to the optical path; and a mirror drive mechanism for rotating the movable mirror. The mirror drive mechanism includes a slider which is supported on a side of the movable mirror to be linearly movable in a vertical direction that corresponds to an up-and-down rotation of the movable mirror, which rotates the movable mirror to the retracted position and the advanced position by moving upward and downward, respectively, the slider including a cam follower; an end-face cam member which is positioned above the mirror up-and-down pivot with respect to the vertical direction to be rotatable about a rotational shaft extending in the vertical direction, wherein the end-face cam member includes an end-face cam with which the cam follower is in contact, and the end-face cam member changes a position of the slider in the vertical direction via the end-face cam and the cam follower by rotating; and an end-face cam driver which rotates the end-face cam member. “Upward/downward direction (vertical direction)” in the specification of the present invention denotes the direction of displacement of a predetermined point on the movable mirror (i.e., a direction substantially orthogonal to the mirror up-and-down pivot) when the movable mirror is rotated about the mirror up-and-down pivot as viewed from the front of the movable mirror (along the optical axis of the imaging optical system). It is desirable for the end-face cam driver to include a mirror drive motor having a rotational output shaft, and a mirror-drive gear train which transmits a driving force of the rotational output shaft to the end-face cam member. The mirror drive motor is provided at a position away from the slider, in a camera widthwise direction along the mirror up-and-down pivot, with the rotational output shaft extending upward. The mirror-drive gear train includes a plurality of gears, each of which is rotatably supported by a rotational shaft extending in the vertical direction, the mirror-drive gear train being arranged in a space, defined in the camera widthwise direction, between the mirror drive motor and the slider. It is desirable for the camera to include a shutter drive mechanism which is installed in the above-mentioned space. It is advisable for the shutter charge mechanism, which is for making the shutter drive mechanism perform a shutter charge operation, to be configured of the following components. Namely, a charge lever which is pivoted about a charge-lever pivot which is parallel to the mirror up-and-down pivot and makes the shutter drive mechanism perform the shutter charge operation by swinging about the charge-lever pivot; a peripheral-cam-integrated member which is rotatably supported by a rotational shaft parallel to the mirror up-and-down pivot and makes the shutter charge lever swing in accordance with rotation of the peripheral-cam-integrated member; a shutter charge motor having a rotational output shaft parallel to the mirror up-and-down pivot; and a shutter-charge gear train which is configured of a plurality of gears, each rotatable about a rotational shaft parallel to the mirror up-and-down pivot and transmits a driving force of the rotational output shaft of the shutter charge motor to the peripheral-cam-integrated member. The shutter charge lever, the peripheral-cam-integrated member and the shutter-charge gear train are supported below the slider, and the shutter charge motor is supported below the shutter drive mechanism. In addition, if the shutter charge lever, the peripheral-cam-integrated member and the shutter-charge gear train are configured to be supported below the slider and if the shutter charge motor is configured to be supported below the shutter drive mechanism, the arrangement of these components becomes superior, particularly in regard to space utilization. It is desirable for the mirror drive mechanism, the shutter drive mechanism and the shutter charge mechanism to be arranged between a mirror box, which supports the movable mirror therein, and a battery chamber which accommodates a battery. It is desirable for a camera body of the camera to include a front bulging portion which bulges forward from a front side of the battery chamber; a finger hooking recess which is formed between the front bulging portion and the mirror box; and a hand-held grip, a contour of which includes contours of the front bulging portion and the finger hooking recess, wherein the mirror drive motor is positioned behind the finger hooking recess. It is desirable for the camera to further include an information display which is provided on top of the camera at an inclined position so that a front side of the information display is positioned higher than a rear side of the information display, with respect to a forward/rearward direction parallel to the optical axis. The mirror-drive gear train and the end-face cam member are at least partly arranged in a space formed below the front of the information display. As an example of the specific structure of the slider, the slider can include a first slider which includes a first contact portion which contacts a pressed portion of the movable mirror holding member from below, wherein the first slider presses the pressed portion at the first contact portion to thereby rotate the movable mirror to the retracted position when moving upward; a second slider, which is movable relative to the first slider in the vertical direction, which includes a second contact portion which contacts the pressed portion of the movable mirror holding member from above, and wherein the second slider presses the pressed portion at the second contact portion to thereby rotate the movable mirror to the advanced position when moving downward; and a resilient connecting member which biases the first slider relative to the second slider in a direction to reduce a distance between the first contact portion and the second contact portion. In this case, it is desirable for the cam follower to be provided on the first slider, wherein the camera further includes a slider biaser which biases the first slider upward to make the cam follower come into contact with the end-face cam. The resilient connecting member biases the second slider downward toward the first slider with a biasing force greater in biasing force than the slider biaser. It is desirable for the first slider and the second slider to include a clearance limit portion which limits a minimum clearance in the vertical direction between the first contact portion and the second contact portion. A size of the minimum clearance, which is defined by the clearance limit portion, is determined to allow the pressed portion of the movable-mirror holding member to be held between the first contact portion and the second contact portion with a predetermined clearance therebetween. The second aspect of the present invention relates to a control apparatus and a control method for a cam drive mechanism. In an embodiment, a control apparatus for a cam drive mechanism is provided, including a motor; a driven member having a cam follower; a rotatable cam member which rotates by a driving force of the motor; a cam surface which is formed on the rotatable cam member, the cam surface including a pressing cam area which is inclined so as to press the cam follower against a load when the rotatable cam member is rotated by rotation of the motor in a single direction, and a recessed cam area which is inclined in an inclination direction opposite to an inclination direction of the pressing cam area; and a motor controller which rotates the rotatable cam member by the rotation of the motor in the single direction. The motor controller changes a rotational speed of the motor between a time when the rotatable cam member is positioned at a first rotational position thereof at which the recessed cam area and the cam follower are faced against each other, and a time when the rotatable cam member is positioned at a second rotational position thereof at which the pressing cam area and the cam follower are faced against each other. In an embodiment, a method is provided for controlling a cam drive mechanism, including a motor, a driven member having a cam follower, a rotatable cam member which rotates by a driving force of the motor, and a cam surface which is formed on the rotatable cam member and includes a pressing cam area which is inclined so as to press the cam follower against a load when the rotatable cam member is rotated by rotation of the motor in a single direction, and a recessed cam area which is inclined in an inclination direction opposite to an inclination direction of the pressing cam area, wherein the method includes rotating the motor in the single direction at a predetermined speed when the rotatable cam member is positioned at a first rotational position thereof at which the pressing cam area and the cam follower are faced against each other, and rotating the motor in the single direction at a speed that is different from the predetermined speed when the rotatable cam member is positioned at a second rotational position thereof at which the recessed cam area and the cam follower are faced against each other. In either of the control method or apparatus, when the rotatable cam member is positioned at the first rotational position, it is desirable for the motor controller to control an operation of the motor so that the motor rotates the rotatable cam member at a speed that is slower than that when the rotatable cam member is positioned at the second rotational position. The rotational speed of the motor can be changed by changing the duty ratio of a pulse waveform for driving the motor or by changing the motor drive voltage. It is desirable for the motor controller to change the duty ratio by making an energizing period and a non-energizing period of the motor in a cycle period different in duration from each other. Alternatively, it is desirable for the motor controller to change the duty ratio by setting a duration of a short-circuit in a cycle period between terminals of the motor. The duty ratio when the rotatable cam member is positioned at the first rotational position, at which the recessed cam area and the cam follower are faced against each other, is preferably smaller than 50 percent. The second aspect of the present invention is effective especially in a configuration in which the biasing force in a direction to bring the cam follower into contact with the cam surface acts on the driven member. It is desirable for the control apparatus to include a biaser which exerts a biasing force on the driven member in a direction to bring the cam follower into contact with the cam surface, wherein the load acts on a rotation of the rotatable cam member due to the biasing force on the driven member when the pressing cam area of the cam surface presses the cam follower, and a torque in a direction to assist rotation of the rotatable cam member acts on the rotatable cam member due to the biasing force on the driven member when the cam follower comes into contact with the recessed cam area of the cam surface. Namely, variations of the load on the rotatable cam member become great due to the biasing force on the driven member; however, variations in rotational speed of the rotatable cam member can be suppressed by control of the rotational speed of the motor according to the present invention. It is desirable for the control apparatus to include a code plate mounted on the rotatable cam member, and a contact brush having a terminal which selectively contacts lands on the code plate. The motor controller detects a rotational position of the rotatable cam member from changes in relative contact position between the contact brush and the lands to control the rotational speed of the motor. According to the first aspect of the present invention, an internal structure including the drive mechanism for the movable mirror is efficiently arranged in a space alongside one side of the movable mirror, which makes it possible to achieve a compact camera even though it is configured of a relatively large number of components. According to the control apparatus and the control method for the cam drive mechanism of the second aspect of the present invention, by varying the rotational speed of the motor in accordance with load variations on the rotatable cam member, variations in the speed of the rotatable cam member due to the load variations can be suppressed, which makes it possible to drive the rotatable cam member according to an assumed cam curve. Specifically, by driving the motor at a reduced speed, rather than driving the motor in the reverse direction or making the motor stop driving, in a state where the recessed cam area and the cam follower face each other, the rotatable cam member can be prevented from being accelerated, and the rotational speed of the rotatable cam member can be prevented from being excessively reduced, which makes it possible to give excellent operating performance to the cam drive mechanism. The present disclosure relates to subject matter contained in Japanese Patent Application Nos. 2013-157532 (filed on Jul. 30, 2013) and 2013-201697 (filed on Sep. 27, 2013) which are expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

The present invention relates to the growth of single-crystal Aluminum Nitride (AlN), and more particularly, to relatively large, single-crystal AlN, which are grown by sublimation-recondensation at growth rates exceeding 0.5 mm/hr. Status of III-Nitride Technology Using Commercially Available Substrates Several types of materials are routinely used to form semiconductor substrates. Sapphire is popular, because relatively high-quality, inexpensive sapphire substrates are commercially available. However, sapphire is far from being an ideal substrate for GaN epitaxy. Its lattice mismatch to GaN is large (about 16%), it has little distinction between the + and xe2x88x92[0001] directions which can give rise to +/xe2x88x92c-axis domains in epitaxial films of GaN, and its differential thermal expansion can lead to cracking during the cooling process after the device fabrication process. In spite of those problems, recently, Nichia Ltd (Japan) has announced the production of the first violet laser with commercial possibilities (more than 10,000 hours of operating life) using sapphire substrates. Currently, LDs (Laser Diodes) are selling for around $2,000 apiece. Using sapphire substrates leads to a costly fabrication process since it requires growing buffer layers and using Lateral Epitaxial Overgrowth techniques (LEO). Even though this announcement is very promising, Nichia""s lasers still have problems. Some sources claim that heat builds up in these lasers as they shine. Sapphire, with a very low thermal conductivity, traps that heat, a fault that may trigger burnout down the road. To build an even more durable blue laser, Nichia and others are investigating other alternatives such as free-standing substrates. In this technique, the substrate is removed after a thick GaN layer is grown atop the sapphire. This method leaves the GaN as the base for building the laser. This base should be better at dissipating heat, in addition to matching the alloy layers above. However, this alternative may increase fabrication cost. Single-crystal substrates of SiC are attractive due to their close lattice match to AlN/GaN in the plane perpendicular to the c-axis (the so-called c-plane) and high thermal conductivity. In addition, SiC substrates can be made electrically conducting, which is attractive for some applications (such as LEDs and LDs). However, 2H SiC (to match the 2H crystal structure of GaN) is not available and the lattice mismatch along the c-axis between GaN and both 4H and 6H SiC is substantial. In addition, the chemical bonding between the Group IV elements of the SiC and the Group-III or Group-V elements of the nitrides is expected to create potential nucleation problems leading to electronic states at the interface. For devices that use GaN or Ga1xe2x88x92xInxN, nominally the most desirable substrate would be large area GaN single crystal wafers. Several methods to grow bulk GaN crystals have been proposed. While this possibility has become more attractive in the last few years, it does not appear to be commercially feasible to fabricate large bulk crystals of GaN in the short term. It may therefore be desirable to provide alternative substrates such as AlN, for fabricating nitride-based (e.g., GaN) commercial devices. A sublimation-recondensation technique was developed for AlN crystal growth by Slack and McNelly (G. A. Slack and T. McNelly, J. Cryst. Growth 34, 263 (1976) and 42, 560 (1977), hereinafter the xe2x80x9cSlack referencexe2x80x9d). In this technique, polycrystalline source material is placed in the hot end of a crucible while the other end is kept cooler. The crystal nucleates in the tip and grows as the crucible is moved through the temperature gradient. This approach demonstrated relatively slow crystal growth of 0.3 mm/hr while the crystal growth chamber was maintained at 1 atm (100 kPa) of N2. To make such substrates commercially feasible, it would be desirable to increase the growth rate. A number of researchers skilled in art have examined the possibility. However, most artisans in this field have based their work on rate equations derived by Dryburgh (Estimation of maximum growth rate for aluminum nitride crystals by direct sublimation, J. Crystal Growth 125, 65 (1992)), which appear to overestimate the growth rate of AlN and, in particular, suggest that the maximal growth conditions are near stoichiometric vapor conditions, i.e., the Al and N2 partial pressures should be adjusted so that the Al partial pressure is twice that of the N2. This for example, is a significant teaching of U.S. Pat. Nos.: 5,858,085; 5,972,109; 6,045,612; 6,048,813; 6,063,185; 6,086,672; and 6,296,956; all to Hunter. In addition, the art teaches that the N2 partial pressure should be maintained at less than atmospheric pressure. Unfortunately, however, most attempts at increasing the growth rate of AlN crystals under such stoichiometric and/or sub atmospheric pressure conditions have met with limited success. In addition, it appears to be impossible to achieve the growth rate, or the electronics-grade quality Hunter discloses in his patents with the nitrogen pressure below one atmosphere. Additional AlN work was completed by Segal et al. (A. S. Segal, S. Yu. Karpov, Yu. N. Makarov, E. N. Mokhov, A. D. Roenkov, M. G. Ramm, Yu. A. Vodakov, xe2x80x9cOn mechanisms of sublimation growth of AlN bulk crystals,xe2x80x9d J. Crystal Growth 211, 68 (2000)). While this work was published subsequently to the conception of the present invention, it appears to be the first peer reviewed publication to suggest that Dryburgh""s growth equations are incorrect. Segal et al., however, teach growth conditions and experiments that are open, which allows the Al vapor to escape. Disadvantageously, it would be difficult to grow large boules of AlN this way since: (i) control of growth would be difficult (since it would be non-uniform across the surface), (ii) a large amount of Al would be wasted, (iii) the excess Al in the rest of the furnace would create problems because of its high reactivity, and (iv) it would be difficult to maintain high differences in temperature (T) between the source and growing crystal surface. A need therefore exists for electronics-grade AlN substrates that address the aforementioned drawbacks. An aspect of the invention includes an apparatus for the growth of bulk single crystal aluminum nitride. The apparatus includes a housing defining a growth chamber, the housing including a gas outlet configured for selectively evacuating and venting the growth chamber, a gas inlet configured for pressurizing the growth chamber, and a viewing port configured for pyrometric monitoring of crystal growth temperatures within the growth chamber. A radio frequency (rf) coil is disposed within the growth chamber and configured for inducing an electromagnetic field therein. A quartz tube is disposed coaxially within the coil. A first set of shielding is disposed coaxially within the quartz tube, including from about 5 to about 7 concentric pyrolytic boron nitride (pBN) cylinders, each of the pBN cylinders having a wall thickness of greater than about 0.05 inches (0.13 cm), each of the cylinders having a length dimension along the longitudinal axis greater than the length dimension of the coil. A second set of shielding is disposed coaxially within the first set of shielding, the second set of shielding including two concentric, open joint tungsten cylinders, each of the tungsten cylinders having a wall thickness of less than about 0.005 inches (0.013 cm); each of the tungsten cylinders having a length dimension along the longitudinal axis less than the length dimension of the rf coil. A push tube is disposed coaxially within the second set of shielding; the push tube having a proximal side and a distal side, the distal side including a set of metallic baffles having a center hole which provides for the pyrometric monitoring of crystal growth temperatures, the proximal side including another set of metallic baffles. A crucible is disposed coaxially within the push tube, the crucible having a conically shaped distal end and a proximal end; the crucible defining a crystal growth enclosure; the proximal end including a high purity, polycrystalline aluminum nitride source material, the distal end being configured for growth of the bulk single crystal aluminum nitride. The push tube is disposed on a push rod assembly configured for sliding the crucible and the push tube along the longitudinal axis. The first set of shielding and the second set of shielding are configured to provide a thermal gradient axially within the cavity of the crucible of greater than about 100xc2x0 C./cm. Another aspect of the invention includes a method for growing bulk single crystals of aluminum nitride. The method includes utilizing the apparatus described above, purging the growth chamber by evacuating the growth chamber to a pressure less than or equal to about 0.01 mbar (1 Pa), and refilling the growth chamber with substantially pure nitrogen gas to a pressure of about 1 bar (100 kPa). The growth chamber is then evacuated to a pressure less than or equal to about 0.01 mbar (1 Pa), and then pressurized to about 1 bar (100 kPa) with a gas including about 95% nitrogen and about 5% hydrogen. The chamber is heated to a first temperature, the heating including ramping the temperature of the conical upper end of the crucible to about 1800xc2x0 C. in a period of about 15 minutes. The growth chamber is then pressurized to about 1.3 bar (130 kPa) with the gas including about 95% nitrogen and about 5% hydrogen, and heated to a growth temperature. A distal end of the crucible is then ramped to about 2200xc2x0 C. in a period of about 5 hours. The push tube and the crucible are moved axially through the growth chamber at a rate of about 0.6 to about 0.9 millimeters per hour, wherein single crystals of aluminum nitride are grown. A further aspect of the invention includes a method for growing bulk single crystals of aluminum nitride. The method includes evacuating a growth chamber, pressurizing the growth chamber to about 1 bar with a gas including about 95% nitrogen and about 5% hydrogen, and placing source polycrystalline AlN in a proximal end of a crystal growth enclosure. The method further includes placing a distal end of the crystal growth enclosure in a high temperature region of the growth chamber, ramping the high temperature region to about 1800xc2x0 C., maintaining pressure in the growth chamber at about 1.3 bar, and ramping the high temperature region to about 2200xc2x0 C. The distal end of the crystal growth enclosure is moved towards a low temperature region of growth chamber at a rate of about 0.6 to about 0.9 millimeters per hour, wherein a single crystal of aluminum nitride grows at the distal end of the crystal growth enclosure. A still further aspect of the invention includes a method of producing bulk single crystals of AlN, which includes providing in a crystal growth enclosure Al and N2 vapor capable of forming bulk crystals, maintaining in the crystal growth enclosure a N2 partial pressure which is greater than the stoichiometric pressure relative to the Al, maintaining the total vapor pressure in the crystal growth enclosure at super-atmospheric pressure, and providing at least one nucleation site in the crystal growth enclosure. The method also includes cooling the nucleation site relative to other locations in the crystal growth enclosure, and depositing the vapor under conditions capable of growing single crystalline AlN originating at the nucleation site. A variation of this aspect includes producing a prepared substrate by cutting a wafer or a cylinder from the bulk single crystal; preparing a surface on the wafer or cylinder receptive to an epitaxial layer; and depositing an epitaxial layer or a complete crystal boule on the surface. The invention also includes a system for producing bulk single crystals of AlN. The system includes a source of Al and N2 vapor, a crystal growth enclosure for containing the vapor, and at least one nucleation site in the crystal growth enclosure. The crystal growth enclosure has a selective barrier configured to permit migration of N2 therethrough, and to substantially prevent migration of Al therethrough. A pressurization system is configured to maintain in the crystal growth enclosure, a N2 partial pressure greater than stoichiometric pressure relative to the Al, and to maintain the total vapor pressure in the crystal growth enclosure at super-atmospheric pressure. A selective heating system is configured to maintain the nucleation site at a temperature lower than at other locations in the crystal growth enclosure.

(a) Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an epoxy resin film and a method of producing the epoxy resin film which is excellent in properties including mechanical properties such as strength and elongation and adhesion properties. (b) Description of the Related Art The method of producing high molecular weight epoxy resins by employing relatively low molecular weight difunctional epoxy resins and dihydric phenols as polymerization materials is generally called two-stage method, and the first literature on this method is the specification of U.S. Pat. No. 2,615,008 which corresponds to the published specification of Japanese Patent Application filed by the same applicant as the assignee of the U.S. Patent and published under publication No. 28-4494. In these literatures is disclosed a method of producing a higher molecular weight epoxy resin having an epoxy equivalent weight of 5,600 by carrying out a reaction at 150.degree. to 200.degree. C. by using sodium hydroxide as a copolymerizing catalyst in the absence of solvents. The average molecular weight of the obtained epoxy resin is presumed to be about 11,000. In these literatures, however, there is no example where solvents are used. An example of the literatures in which the use of solvents is disclosed is the specification of U.S. Pat. No. 3,306,872. Particular examples of the literatures in which the use of solvents in working examples is disclosed include Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 54-52200, Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 60-118757, Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 60-118757, Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 60-144323 and Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 60-114324. The solvents used in these literatures include methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, cyclohexanone, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether and ethylene glycol monomethyl ether. These solvents are classified into ketone solvents and ether (cellosolve) solvents. In the specification of U.S. Pat. No. 3,306,872, either methyl ethyl ketone or ethylene glycol monomethyl ether is used as a solvent, and the concentration of the solids content is 20 to 60% by weight. The catalysts used therein are hydroxides and phenolates of alkyl metals and benzyltrimethylammonium. The polymerization reaction is continued at a temperature of 75.degree. to 150.degree. C. until the weight average molecular weights of the formed high molecular weight epoxy resins increase to at least 40,000 or more. The average molecular weights of the obtained high molecular weight epoxy resins are measured by the viscosity method to be 50,000 to 1,000,000. However, it is known that, in the viscosity method, the calculated average molecular weights are very dependent on the parameters established for the calculation, and, therefore, the average molecular weights of the high molecular weight epoxy resins produced in the U.S. Pat. No. 3,306,872 are not entirely accurate. Another working example wherein a high molecular weight epoxy resin is supposed to be obtained by carrying out the polymerization in a solvent is disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 54-52200, in which it is disclosed that a high molecular weight epoxy resin having an average molecular weight of 45,500 is obtained by using ethylene glycol monoethyl ether as a solvent. Further, it is disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 60-118757 that high molecular weight epoxy resins having average molecular weights of at most 31,000 are obtained by using methyl isobutyl ketone, cyclohexanone or ethylene glycol monoethyl ether as a solvent. In Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 60-144323 disclosed is the production of a high molecular weight epoxy resin having an average molecular weight of 53,200 by the use of methyl ethyl ketone as a solvent, and in Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 60-144324 disclosed is the production of a high molecular weight epoxy resin having an average molecular weight of 66,000 by the use of methyl ethyl ketone as a solvent. In every one of these four literatures, the average molecular weights are measured by gel permeation chromatography, but the measuring conditions and the calculation methods are not disclosed. The molecular weights measured by gel permeation chromatography vary largely depending on the measuring conditions including the kinds of the fillers used and the kinds of the eluents used and the calculating methods so that it is difficult to obtain accurate average molecular weights, and, therefore, the determined values of the average molecular weights of the high molecular weight epoxy resins produced in these literatures are not entirely accurate. These high molecular weight epoxy resins which have been known heretofore are not linear high molecular weight epoxy resins but are branched high molecular weight epoxy resins, which cannot be formed into films of 100 .mu.m or less thickness having sufficient strength. Further, none of the literatures described above disclose that the obtained high molecular weight epoxy resins are able to be formed into film, nor give examples of such epoxy resins. Also, since the obtained epoxy resins are soluble in the solvents other than amide solvents, it is apparent that the methods disclosed in these literatures could not provide so called ultra high molecular weight epoxy resins which are linearly polymerized so highly as to highly as to have the capability of being formed into films having sufficient strength. A method of producing epoxy resin sheets by using linear high molecular weight epoxy resins is disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 51-87560. In the method, sheets of 0.3 to 0.5 mm thickness are produced from a mixture prepared by heat-melting linear high molecular weight epoxy resins and low molecular weight epoxy resins and mixing them with salts of organic carboxylic acids. The sheets obtained by the method have a strength of about 10 MPa and an elongation of 350 to 870%. There is disclosed that the linear high molecular weight epoxy resins used have a molecular weight of 30,000 to 250,000, but there is no description concerning the method of measuring the molecular weights, so that it is impossible to compare the molecular weights with the molecular weight of the linear high molecular weight epoxy resin used in the present invention. From working examples which show the capability of the high molecular weight epoxy resins to be heat-melted at 190.degree. C., it is presumable that these epoxy resins have a styrene-conversion weight average molecular weight of less than 50,000 as determined by gel permeation chromatography. As the results of measurements carried out by the present inventors with a differential scanning thermometer, it was proved that linear high molecular weight epoxy resins produced from bisphenol A epoxy resin and bisphenol A have melting points or softening points of 300.degree. C. or higher when their styrene-conversion weight average molecular weights are 50,000 or more, and melting points or softening points of 350.degree. C. or higher when their styrene-conversion weight average molecular weights are 100,000 or more. That is, the high molecular weight epoxy resins disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Kokai Koho (Laid-open) No. 51-87560 are presumed to have considerably lower molecular weights or are much more branched, as compared with the high molecular weight epoxy resins used in the present invention.

The present invention relates to implantable medical devices, and more particularly to a method and apparatus for detecting a power link between an external programmer/controller device and an implantable medical device. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,569,307 there is disclosed an implantable cochlear stimulator (ICS) having back telemetry features. The back telemetry features allow an external wearable processor (WP), inductively linked with the ICS, to receive data and status signals from the ICS. These data and status signals assure that the WP is in proper signal contact with the ICS, and that the ICS is functioning properly. More particularly, as disclosed in the '307 patent, only when a prescribed combination of various status signals within the ICS are present, is a back-telemetry carrier signal and FSK data transmitted to the WP. The back-telemetry carrier signal, when received at the WP, thus acts as a handshake signal to signal the WP that the ICS is in proper signal communication with the WP, and that operation of the ICS can proceed. If the backtelemetry carrier signal is not received by the WP, then the WP does not send the necessary initialization data to the ICS, and operation of the ICS cannot proceed. The '307 patent is incorporated herein by reference. Unfortunately, detection of the back-telemetry power signal requires appropriate detection circuitry within the external unit. While such detection circuitry may be of any straightforward design, it takes additional components and consumes additional power. Additional componentry and higher power consumption were not significant design considerations for a WP of the type disclosed in the '307 patent because the WP therein disclosed is a belt-worn or pocket-carried device powered with an easy-to-replace battery. However, such is not the case with the newer external units designed to be worn behind the ear. Rather, such behind-the-ear (BTE) units must be both physically small and light weight. Moreover, such BTE units, while ultimately designed, perhaps, for use with more-efficient implantable units, must be backwards compatible. That is, the small, light-weight BTE unit must still provide the operating power and control signals necessary to operate an existing ICS, including an ICS of the type described in the '307 patent. Hence, it is seen that there is a need for power-link detection circuitry within the BTE unit that is able to detect when a valid power link exists between the BTE and the ICS. Such power-link detection circuitry must be much smaller than, and must consume significantly less power than, the detection circuitry that would otherwise have to used to detect a back-telemetry carrier signal.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a measuring chip that is employed in a surface plasmon resonance measuring apparatus for quantitatively analyzing a substance in a sample by utilizing the excitation of a surface plasmon. The present invention also relates to a method of manufacture of a measuring chip as described above. 2. Description of the Related Art In metals, if free electrons are caused to vibrate in a group, compression waves called plasma waves will be generated. The compression waves generated in a metal surface and quantized are called surface plasmon. A variety of surface plasmon resonance measuring apparatuses have been proposed to quantitatively analyze a substance in a sample by taking advantage of a phenomenon that surface plasmon is exited by light waves. Among the apparatuses, an apparatus employing a system called “Kretschmann configuration” is particularly well known (e.g., see Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 6 (1994)-167443). The surface plasmon resonance measuring apparatus employing the “Kretschmann configuration” is equipped mainly with a dielectric block formed, for example, into the shape of a prism; a metal film, formed on a surface of the dielectric block, for placing a sample thereon; a light source for emitting a light beam; an optical system for making the light beam enter the dielectric block so that a condition for total internal reflection is satisfied at the interface between the dielectric block and the metal film and that various angles of incidence, including a surface plasmon resonance condition, are obtained; and photodetection means for measuring the intensity of the light beam satisfying total internal reflection at the interface to detect surface plasmon resonance. In order to obtain various angles of incidence in the aforementioned manner, a relatively thin light beam may be caused to strike the above-mentioned interface at different angles of incidence, or relatively thick convergent or divergent rays may be caused to strike the interface so that they contain components incident at various angles. In the former, a light beam whose reflection angle varies with deflection of the light beam, can be detected by a small photodetector that is moved in synchronization with the light beam deflection, or by an area sensor extending in the direction where the angle of reflection varies. In the latter, on the other hand, rays reflected at various angles can be detected by an area sensor extending in a direction where all the reflected rays can be received. In the surface plasmon resonance measuring apparatus mentioned above, if a light beam strikes the metal film at a specific incidence angle θsp equal to or greater than a critical angle of incidence at which total internal reflection takes place, evanescent waves having electric field distribution are generated in the sample in contact with the metal film, whereby surface plasmon is excited at the interface between the metal film and the sample. When the wave vector of the evanescent light is equal to the wave number of the surface plasmon and therefore the wave numbers between the two are matched, the evanescent waves and the surface plasmon resonate and light energy is transferred to the surface plasmon, whereby the intensity of light satisfying total internal reflection at the interface between the dielectric block and the metal film drops sharply. The sharp intensity drop is generally detected as a dark line by the above-mentioned photodetection means. Note that the above-mentioned resonance occurs only when the incident light beam is a p-polarized light beam. Therefore, in order to make the resonance occur, it is necessary that a light beam be p-polarized before it strikes the interface. If the wave number of the surface plasmon is found from a specific incidence angle θsp at which attenuated total reflection (hereinafter referred to as ATR) takes place, the dielectric constant of a sample to be analyzed can be calculated by the following Equation:Ksp(ω)=(ω/C){∈m(ω)∈s}1/2/{∈m(ω)+∈s}1/2 where Ksp represents the wave number of the surface plasmon, ω represents the angular frequency of the surface plasmon, c represents the speed of light in vacuum, and ∈m, and ∈s represent the dielectric constants of the metal and the sample, respectively. If the dielectric constant ∈s of the sample is found, the density of a specific substance in the sample is found based on a predetermined calibration curve, etc. As a result, the specific substance can be quantitatively analyzed by finding the incidence angle θsp at which the intensity of reflected light drops. In the conventional surface plasmon resonance measuring apparatus employing the aforementioned system, the metal film on which a sample is placed must be exchanged for a new one each time a measurement is made. Because of this, the metal film is fixed to a first dielectric block in the form of a plate, and a second dielectric block in the form of a prism is provided as an optical coupler for making the aforementioned total internal reflection occur. The first dielectric block is united with a surface of the second dielectric block. The second dielectric block is fixed with respect to an optical system, and the first dielectric block and the metal film are used as a measuring chip. In this manner, the measuring chip can be exchanged for a new one, every time a measurement is made. However, in the case where the conventional exchangeable measuring chip is employed, a gap occurs between the first dielectric block and the second dielectric block and the refractive index becomes discontinuous. To prevent the discontinuity, it is necessary that the two dielectric blocks be united through an index-matching solution. The operation of uniting the two dielectric blocks in a body is fairly difficult, and consequently, the conventional measuring chip is not easy to handle in making a measurement. Particularly, in the case where measurement is automated by automatically loading a measuring chip into a turret, then rotating the turret, and automatically supplying the measuring chip to a measuring position where a light beam enters the measuring chip, the loading and removal of the measuring chip is time-consuming, resulting in a reduction in the efficiency of the automatic measurement. In addition, there is a possibility that the conventional measuring chip will have a detrimental influence on the environment, because it uses an index-matching solution. In view of the circumstances mentioned above, the applicant has proposed a surface plasmon resonance measuring chip that can be easily exchanged for a new one without requiring an index-matching solution (Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2000-212125). This surface plasmon resonance measuring chip is equipped with a dielectric block; a metal film, formed on a surface of the dielectric block, for placing a sample thereon; a light source for emitting a light beam; an optical system for making the light beam enter the dielectric block at various angles of incidence so that a condition for total internal reflection is satisfied at an interface between the dielectric block and the metal film; and photodetection means for detecting the intensity of the light beam satisfying total internal reflection at the interface to detect surface plasmon resonance. The dielectric block is formed as a single block that includes an entrance surface which the light beam enters, an exit surface from which the light beam emerges, and a surface on which the metal film is formed. The metal film is united with the dielectric block. In the surface plasmon resonance measuring chip disclosed in the aforementioned publication No. 2000-212125, the dielectric block is formed as a single block that includes an entrance surface which the light beam enters, an exit surface from which the light beam emerges, and a surface on which the metal film is formed (this block also functions as an optical coupler because it includes an entrance surface and an exit surface), and the dielectric block is united with the metal film. Therefore, if only the measuring chip is installed in and removed from the optical system, the measuring chip can be easily exchanged for a new one. That is, since the surface plasmon resonance measuring chip does not require the aforementioned two dielectric blocks, the measuring chip does not have to employ an index-matching solution through which the two dielectric blocks are united. Thus, the measuring chip is capable of eliminating the inconvenience of handling that is caused by employing an index-matching solution. In addition, if the measuring chip does not need to employ an index-matching solution, the measuring chip is prevented from having a detrimental influence on the environment. Note that desirable materials for the dielectric block are glass and synthetic resin. Particularly, synthetic resin is advantageous in that measuring chips can be manufactured at low costs by injection molding. However, in the case where measuring chips are formed from synthetic resin, the problem of a reduction in the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio for the output signal of the photodetection means that detects surface plasmon resonance will arise.

1. Field of the Invention The invention described herein relates to communications systems, and more particularly relates to transmission and processing of segmented or packetized data. 2. Related Art Channel bonding is the process of taking multiple independent communications channels between two points and treating them as though they were a single “virtual” channel with more total bandwidth than would otherwise be possible. In addition to greater capacity, this arrangement has additional benefits such as increased overall reliability of a virtual channel. Given that a virtual channel is made of multiple physical channels, there is inherent redundancy that allows for continued operation if one or more physical channels fail. The concept of channel bonding is illustrated generally in the cable communications system of FIG. 1. In this example, a cable modem termination system (CMTS) 110 is shown in communication with a cable modem (CM) 130. Data passes from CMTS 110, via channels 120a through 120i, to CM 130. During a given session, some or all of channels 120a though 120i can be bonded together, so that segmented data for the session (e.g., packets) can be sent through these channels. A given segment or packet will be sent over one of the channels; the next segment or packet may be sent over the same channel, or over a different channel in this bonding channel set (BCS). The CM 130 must then reassemble the segments or packets in order before delivery to an end user. One approach for sending data on the bonded channels is for the sending end to transmit entire packets, spreading them out among the channels based on load balancing, rate limiting, or other means for selecting channels. Another approach is to concatenate a series of packets into a byte stream, subdividing the stream into segments for transmission on various channels. In either case, the packets/segments are tagged with a sequence number by the transmitting entity (e.g., the CMTS) so that the receiving entity (e.g., the CM) can reproduce the data stream in the proper packet/segment order. This is known as resequencing, and ensures that data is not delivered out of order to the end user. Resequencing across multiple bonded channels, however, can be a time-intensive process and may consume considerable memory. Segments or packets may be received out of order. At the receiving end, gaps may appear, where a segment or packet goes missing while one or more later numbered segments are received on any of the several bonded channels. Such later numbered segments must be saved in memory until the missing segment is received. At this point the missing segment can be delivered to the end user, along with any saved segments that sequentially follow the missing segment. Such saved segments must be read from memory and delivered to the user in numerical order. A high-performance, low-cost device like a cable modem can benefit from an efficient method for queuing packets for resequencing. Ideally, an implementation in a CM or CMTS would be fast and not require large amounts of memory/register resources. What is needed, therefore, is a system and method for efficiently resequencing packets or other data segments at a receiving node, wherein the resequencing process requires minimal memory and operates relatively rapidly. Further embodiments, features, and advantages of the present invention, as well as the operation of the various embodiments of the present invention, are described below with reference to the accompanying drawings.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to an organic light-emitting device (also known as OLED) and a method for manufacturing the same and, more particularly, to a white light emitting organic electroluminescent (EL) device able to directly cast continuous full color light containing three different frequency bands and a method for manufacturing such an organic electroluminescent device. 2. Description of the Prior Art The organic electroluminescent device, upon which C. W. Tang and S. A. Van Slyke (Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.) have made efforts since 1987 so as to deposit hole/electron transmission materials such as aluminum trisoxine [a.k.a., tris (8-quinolinol) aluminum] by vacuum evaporation on an indium-tin oxide (ITO) glass followed by the deposition of a metal electrode, has attracted tremendous attention due to its advantages over other display panels. These advantages include self-luminescence, large visual angle, short response time, compact size, light weight, reduced dimension in thickness, high brightness, low power consumption, simple fabrication, and the ability for light emitting in a full color range. Therefore, such an organic electroluminescent device is increasingly required to replace the currently used white light sources such as fluorescent lamps and light bulbs so as to save energy, and the technologies thereon have widely been studied in the industry all over the world. Please refer to FIG. 1, which is a cross-sectional view showing the structure of an organic EL device disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,769,292, issued Sep. 6, 1988, filed Oct. 14, 1987 by Van Slyke et al (Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.), entitled “Electroluminescent device with modified thin film luminescent zone.” The organic EL device 10 comprises in sequence: a transparent substrate 11, a light transmission anode 13 formed of tin oxide or indium-tin oxide (ITO) by evaporation, a hole transmission layer (HTL) 15, a luminescent layer 17, and a metal cathode 19. The luminescent layer 17 is formed by a thin film comprised of an organic host material capable of sustaining hole and electron injection and a fluorescent material (not shown) capable of emitting light in response to electron-hole recombination. When an external voltage across the anode 13 and the cathode 19 is applied to the device 10, the anode 13 injects holes (positive charge carriers) through the hole transmission layer 15 into the luminescent layer 17 while the cathode 19 injects electrons through the hole transmission layer 15 into the luminescent layer 17. The portion of the luminescent layer 17 adjacent the anode 13 thus forms a hole injecting and transporting zone 15. The injected holes and electrons each migrate toward the oppositely charged electrode. This results in electron-hole recombination to form an exciton within the organic luminescent medium 17, which leads to energy released as light according to the chosen fluorescent material. The afore-mentioned prior art organic EL device has advantages in good quality and enduring lifetime. However, the structure employed can only cast monochromatic lights according to various chosen fluorescent materials, and fail to achieve the objects of emitting white light or continuous full color light. Please refer to FIG. 2, which is a schematic band diagram showing the structure of an organic EL device disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,668,438, issued Sep. 16, 1997, filed Jun. 6, 1996 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,886,464, issued Mar. 23, 1999, filed Apr. 18, 1997 by Shi et al (Motorola, Inc., Schaumburg, Ill.), both entitled “Organic electroluminescent device with emission from hole transmission layer.” In the EL structure, an anode 22 is formed of tin oxide or indium tin oxide (ITO), an organic hole transmission layer (HTL) 23 is formed on the anode 22, an organic electron transmission layer (ETL) 24 is formed on the hole transmission layer 23, and a cathode 25 is formed on the electron transmission layer 24. The materials for the hole and electron transmission layers 23 and 24 are so selected as to satisfy the following inequality:  (EC1−EC2)<(EV1−EV2) where EC1 and EV1 respectively represent a conduction band level and a valence band level of the material selected for the hole transmission layer 23; and EC2 and EV2 respectively represent a conduction band level and a valence band level of the material selected for the electron transmission layer 24. The inequality ensures that the energy barrier for holes to be injected into the valence band of electron transmission layer 24 from the valence band of hole transmission layer 23 is greater than that for electrons to be injected into the conduction band of the hole transmission layer 23 from the conduction band of electron transmission layer 24. In other words, the number of electrons to be injected from the electron transmission layer 24 into the hole transmission layer 23 is much larger than the number of holes to be injected from the hole transmission layer 23 into the electron transmission layer 24. Therefore, electrons and holes recombine in the part of hole transmission layer 23 close to the interface of electron transmission layer 24 and hole transmission layer 13, where light emission occurs. Moreover, in order to facilitate holes to be injected into the hole transmission layer 23 from the anode 22, the EL structure further provides a hole injection layer interposed between the anode 22 and the hole transmission layer 23. Although the afore-mentioned prior art organic EL device has high electroluminescence efficiency due to light emission from the hole transmission layer 23. However, the structure employed can only cast monochromatic lights according to various chosen fluorescent materials, and fail to achieve the objects of emitting white light or continuous full color light. In recent years, there are several methods that have been investigated and developed by the industry to realize an organic EL device capable of emitting white light or full color light, including: 1. Color conversion: In this method, a monochromatic light passes through a color conversion material composed of different color conversion layers and is then resolved and converted into light with different colors, e.g. three primary colors, such as red, blue, and green so that an organic EL device capable of emitting white light or full color light can be obtained. However, this method also suffers from a number of problems. First, for example, most of the available color conversion materials are not satisfactory in color purity and luminescence efficiency. Secondly, the background light (such as blue light and UV light) may also be absorbed by the color conversion layers, which often leads to poor contrast and defective pixel quality. 2. Color filter: In this method, white light is used as the back-lighting source of the organic EL material. It is useful to achieve full color light when accompanied by LCD color filters. However, the key problem of this method is how to obtain a reliable white light. 3. Three independent colors (RBG): In this method, three primary colors red (R), green (G) and blue (B) are independently demonstrated to realize a full color display or a white light source. However, since the three colors are independently demonstrated, RBG pixels require different driving voltages. It suffers from complicated fabrication process and larger size. In addition, in such a device, high precision is critically required for the RBG pixels. It is found that the fabrication process may be difficult and complicated. On one hand, the RBG pixels formed of three different organic EL materials may have different luminescence efficiencies, lifetimes, driving conditions. For example, the red light shows poor purity and may shift to orange color. The red light also has shorter lifetime and may adversely affect the overall performance of the display. On the other hand, the method is performed by a two-wavelength approach; therefore, chromatic aberration may occur. Therefore, the present invention has been made to solve such problems in view of the forgoing status and to further provide a method for manufacturing a white light emitting organic electroluminescent (EL) device able to directly cast continuous full color light containing three different frequency bands so as to realize white light emitting.

FIG. 1 is an illustration of selected components of a disk drive 10 according to the prior art. The disk drive includes at least one magnetic recording disk 12 that rotates on spindle 13 in direction 15 driven by a spindle motor (not shown). Housing or baseplate 16 provides support for the components. The upper portion of the outer protective case, which is present for normal operation, is removed for this illustration. The data is recorded concentric or spiral, generally circular data tracks 50, only a small portion of which are shown. In practice there are thousands of tracks that extend 360 degrees around the disk. The disk drive includes actuator 14 pivots on pivot point 17 driven by a rotary voice coil motor (VCM) (not shown). The actuator 14 includes a rigid actuator arm 18. A flexible wiring cable 24, which is usually called the “flex cable,” connects the devices on the actuator including read and write heads (not shown) in the slider 22 and the read/write integrated circuit chip (R/W IC) (not shown) to the drive's electronics (not shown). The R/W IC is typically mounted on the actuator arm or can be integrated into the flexible wiring cable, which is usually called the “flex cable.” A flexible suspension 20 includes a flexure element (not shown) and is attached to the end of arm 18. Air-bearing slider 22 contains the read/write heads (not shown). As the disk 12 rotates, the slider with read/write heads is positioned over a track to read and write the magnetic transitions. The read head also detects the angularly spaced servo sectors 60 in the data tracks. Only two of the many servo sectors 60 are shown for simplicity. Disk drives often have more than one disk mounted on the spindle and the upper and lower surfaces of each disk can have magnetic recording material thereon, and the actuators with components mounted thereon are replicated as needed to access each of the recording surfaces. The flex cable 24 provides electrical connections between the actuators and the drive electronics on a circuit board (not shown). The flex cable 24 is rigidly attached by stationary bracket 23 at one end, which connects to drive electronics. The other end of the flex cable is attached to the set of actuators 14 which move in unison in response to the VCM. In the example shown in FIG. 1, a stiffener 26A is illustrated as being part of the flex cable. The stiffener 26A, which is a thin layer of aluminum is bonded to one side the flex cable. Although only one stiffener segment is shown, another stiffener segment can be located close to the actuator as is shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 2 is an illustration of a prior art flex cable 24 prior to being installed in a disk drive. The bracket end 24B is rigidly attached by stationary bracket 23 when installed. The trace pad area 25 provides the connections to drive electronics (not shown) for each of the plurality of embedded conductive traces 24T. Only two of the plurality of trace pads 24P are shown for simplicity. There are two stiffeners 26A, 26B in this example attached to the bottom surface of the flex cable. The stiffener 26B is located at the actuator connecter end 24A. FIG. 3 is an illustration of an section view taken along line A-A of the prior art flex cable shown in FIG. 2. A standard single-layer flex cable includes a set conductive traces 24T encapsulated inside flexible encapsulation material 24M, e.g. polyimide. The width and conducting capacity of the individual traces can vary according to requirements. The traces are typically made of copper.

1. Technical Field The present invention pertains to the field of medicine, in particular to the field of anticoagulant therapy. 2. Background Information Anticoagulants are substances that prevent coagulation; that is, they stop blood from clotting. Anticoagulants are widely used in human therapy as a medication for thrombotic disorders, for example primary and secondary prevention of deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, myocardial infarctions and strokes in those who are predisposed. An important class of oral anticoagulants acts by antagonizing the effects of vitamin K, for example the coumarins which include warfarin. A second class of compounds inhibit coagulation indirectly via a cofactor such as antithrombin III or heparin cofactor II. This includes several low molecular weight heparin products which catalyse the inhibition of predominantly factor Xa (and to a lesser degree thrombin) via antithrombin III (bemiparin, certoparin, dalteparin, enoxaparin, nadroparin, parnaparin, reviparin, tinzaparin), Smaller chain oligosaccharides (fondaparinux, idraparinux) inhibit only factor Xa via antithrombin III. Heparinoids (danaparoid, sulodexide, dermatan sulfate) act via both cofactors and inhibit both factor Xa and thrombin. A third class represents the direct inhibitors of coagulation. Direct factor Xa inhibitors include apixaban, edoxaban, otamixaban, rivaroxaban, and direct thrombin inhibitors include the bivalent hirudins (bivalirudin, lepirudin, desirudin), and the monovalent compounds argatroban and dabigatran. As blood clotting is a biological mechanism to stop bleeding, a side effect of anticoagulant therapy may be unwanted bleeding events. It is therefore desirable to provide an antidote to be able to stop such anticoagulant-related bleeding events when they occur (Zikria and Ansell, Current Opinion in Hematology 2009, 16(5): 347-356). One way to achieve this is by neutralizing the activity of the anticoagulant compound present in the patient after administration. Currently available anticoagulant antidotes are protamine (for neutralization of heparin) and vitamin K for neutralization of vitamin K antagonists like warfarin. Fresh frozen plasma and recombinant factor Vila have also been used as non-specific antidotes in patients under low molecular weight heparin treatment, suffering from major trauma or severe hemorrhage (Lauritzen, B. et al, Blood, 2005, 607A-608A). Also reported are protamine fragments (U.S. Pat. No. 6,624,141) and small synthetic peptides (U.S. Pat. No. 6,200,955) as heparin or low molecular weight heparin antidotes; and thrombin muteins (U.S. Pat. No. 6,060,300) as antidotes for thrombin inhibitor. Prothrombin intermediates and derivatives have been reported as antidotes to hirudin and synthetic thrombin inhibitors (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,817,309 and 6,086,871). For direct factor Xa inhibitors, inactive factor Xa analogs have been proposed as antidotes (WO2009042962). Furthermore, recombinant factor Vila has been used to reverse the effect of indirect antithrombin III dependent factor Xa inhibitors such as fondaparinux and idraparinux (Bijsterveld, N R et al, Circulation, 2002, 106: 2550-2554; Bijsterveld, N R et al, British J. of Haematology, 2004 (124): 653-658). A review of methods of anticoagulant reversal is provided in Schulman and Bijsterveld, Transfusion Medicine Reviews 2007, 21(1): 37-48. There is a need to provide improved antidotes for anticoagulant therapy, and in particular to provide antidotes for direct thrombin inhibitors like dabigatran for which no specific antidotes have been disclosed so far.

1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a process for preparing polyol blends. It involves delayed co-initiation whereby a second initiator is added to the reaction vessel after a first initiator has reached the specified equivalent weight. 2. Description of the Prior Art It is well known to prepare polyurethane products by the reaction of an organic polyisocyanate and a polyol such as a polyoxyalkylene polyether polyol. Such polyols are prepared by reacting an initiator containing two or more active hydrogen atoms as determined by the Zerewittinoff method with an epoxide, preferably an alkylene oxide. Generally the reaction between the organic polyisocyanate and polyol is carried out in the presence of a blowing agent, catalyst, and other well known ingredients. It is also known that polyol blends can be used to vary the properties of the polyol (such as viscosity) and/or the polyurethane products. The problem with using blends, however, is that they are expensive to make because of the time and energy involved in mechanically blending the individual polyols to form the blend. It is also known to prepare polyol blends by simultaneously reacting two or more initiators (co-initiation process) with an epoxide to form a polyol blend. This eliminates the need for mechanical blending and thereby reduces the cost of manufacturing the polyol.

This invention relates to tubular medical grafts, and more particularly to connectors for use in making tubular connections between tubular grafts and a patient's tubular tissue structures. Goldsteen et al. U.S. patent application No. 08/745,618, filed Nov. 7, 1996, Sullivan et al. U.S. patent application 08/844,992, filed Apr. 23, 1997, and Sullivan et al. U.S. patent application 08/869,808, filed Jun. 5, 1997 (all of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein) show examples of medical procedures in which it is necessary to make one or more tubular connections between a patient's tubular body tissue structures and a tubular graft. The graft may be either natural body tissue relocated from elsewhere in the patient's body, an artificial graft structure, or a combination of natural and artificial structures. In the exemplary procedures shown in the three references mentioned above it is typically necessary to connect an end of the graft to a side wall of the patient's pre-existing body tubing, but it may also sometimes be necessary to connect an end of a graft to an end of a pre-existing body tube. The three references mentioned above deal primarily with procedures that are performed to the greatest extent possible percutaneously and through lumens of a patient's tubular body structures. Thus graft connectors are sometimes needed that can be delivered and installed via such lumens. At other times, however, graft connectors are needed that can be installed during more traditional surgical procedures. It is important for graft connectors to be easy and quick to install (whether percutaneously or surgically), but to be secure after installation. It is typically preferred for a graft connector to be relatively flexible after installation so that it does not form an unnaturally rigid structure in the patient's body. Improvements are constantly sought in all of these aspects of graft connectors. In view of the foregoing, it is an object of this invention to provide improved tubular graft connectors for making tubular connections between tubular grafts and a patient's tubular body tissue structures. It is a more particular object of this invention to provide tubular graft connectors that are easy and quick to install, in some cases percutaneously and in some cases surgically, but which are strong and secure after installation.

The present invention relates to integrated circuit devices, and more particularly, to a method and structure for providing novel transmission lines for CMOS integrated circuits. As clocking systems and switching speeds on integrated circuits progress into the GigaHertz (GHz) range and beyond, chip interconnects become more and more critical. Signal delays on transmission lines terminated in their characteristic impedance are of the order of 70 picoseconds per centimeter (ps/cm) when oxide insulators are used. Long signal connections and clock distribution lines operating in the GHz range require the use of low impedance terminated transmission lines for good signal quality and controlled timing skews. These controlled and low impedance lines may not only be terminated at the receiving end by matching impedance but low output impedance drivers may also be used to provide a matching impedance at the sending end of the line. FIGS. 1A-1C show the classical types of high frequency transmission lines used in microwave, hybrid and printed board circuits for signal interconnections and clock distribution. In FIG. 1A, a coaxial line for use in connecting electronic circuits is illustrated. In particular, FIG. 1A includes a transmission line 102 that is enclosed by an insulator material 104 which in turn is enclosed by a conductive material 106. Additionally, because power supply ringing and substrate bounce are becoming so problematic, metal power supply and ground planes have been incorporated into these types of circuits. FIG. 1B illustrates the incorporation of these power supply and ground planes. Specifically, FIG. 1B includes an insulator material 108. Power supply or ground planes 112A and 112B are deposited on the insulator material 108. Additionally, a transmission line 110 is deposited on the insulator material 108 in between the power supply or ground planes 112A and 112B. The incorporation of these planes reduces power supply transients and bounce associated with inductive and resistive voltage drops in the power supply bus. Similarly, a conductive ground plane, as shown in FIG. 1C, can be used to reduce ground bounce and transient-voltages. In particular, FIG. 1C includes a ground plane 114A and an insulator material 116 deposited on the ground plane 114A. FIG. 1C also includes a transmission line 118 located within the insulator material 116. Additionally, a ground plane 114B is deposited on the insulator material 116. These techniques have resolved problems associated with high frequency transmission lines for microwave, hybrid and printed board circuits. Still, there is a need to provide a solution for these types of problems for CMOS-scaled integrated circuits. Due to the continued reduction in scaling and increases in frequency for transmission lines in integrated circuits such solutions remain a difficult hurdle. For these and other reasons there is a need for the present invention. The above mentioned problems with transmission lines in CMOS integrated circuits and other problems are addressed by the present invention and will be understood by reading and studying the following specification. Structures and methods are described which accord improved benefits. Improved methods and structures are provided for impedance-controlled low-loss transmission lines in CMOS integrated circuits. The present invention offers a reduction in signal delay. Moreover, the present invention further provides a reduction in skew and crosstalk. Embodiments of the present invention also provide the fabrication of improved transmission lines for silicon-based integrated circuits using conventional CMOS fabrication techniques. Embodiments of a method for forming transmission lines in an integrated circuit include forming a first layer of electrically conductive material on a substrate. A first layer of insulating material is then formed on the first layer of electrically conductive material. The method also includes forming a pair of electrically conductive lines on the first layer of insulating material. Moreover, a transmission line is also formed on the first layer of insulating material. In particular, the transmission line is formed between and parallel with the pair of electrically conductive lines. The method also includes forming a second layer of insulating material on both the transmission line and the pair of electrically conductive lines. A second layer of electrically conductive material is then formed on the second layer of insulating material. One method of the present invention provides transmission lines in an integrated circuit. Another method includes forming transmission lines in a memory device. The present invention includes a transmission line circuit, a differential line circuit, a twisted pair circuit as well as systems incorporating these different circuits all formed according to the methods provided in this application. These and other embodiments, aspects, advantages, and features of the present invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art by reference to the following description of the invention and referenced drawings or by practice of the invention. The aspects, advantages, and features of the invention are realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities, procedures, and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims.

Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, or sometimes alternatively Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) is a technology that employs the simultaneous use of two or more storage mediums (e.g., hard disk drives, flash or solid state memories, etc.) to achieve greater levels of performance, reliability, and/or larger data volume sizes. Frequently, the term “RAID” is often used as an umbrella term for data storage schemes that can divide and replicate data among multiple storage mediums, regardless of price or the storage medium's independent nature. Generally, a RAID array distributes data across several storage mediums, but the array is seen by the computer user and operating system levels as one single disk. Often a RAID array includes some form of data redundancy, such that, the failure of one (and sometimes more) disks or storage mediums in the array will not result in loss of data. In such an embodiment, a failed disk may be replaced by a new one, and the data on the failed disk can be reconstructed from the remaining disks. There are various combinations of RAID approaches which strike different balances between the competing goals of performance, reliability, and/or larger data volume sizes. RAID levels 0, 1, and 5 are the most commonly found, and cover most requirements. RAID 0 (a.k.a., striped disks) is generally used to increase data volume size and distributes data across several disks in a way that gives improved speed and allows a user access to the full capacity of the disks, but provides no redundancy. In fact, if any one of the disks fails, the data storage on the entire array is often lost. RAID 1 (a.k.a., mirrored disks) is generally used to optimize redundancy at the cost of capacity and often uses two or more disks that each store the same data so that data is not lost as long as one disk survives. Total capacity of the array is just the capacity of a single disk. RAID 5 (a.k.a., striped disks with parity) generally strikes a balance between capacity and redundancy at the price of speed, and combines three or more disks in a way that protects data against loss of any one disk; the storage capacity of the array is reduced by one disk. Other RAID approaches (e.g., RAID 6, RAID 1+0, etc.) may be used in various embodiments.

1. The Field of the Invention Many boat engines incorporate an engine cooling system which draws water from the body of water in which the boat is operated and pumps the water into the engine's cooling system. This cooling water is circulated through cavities and passageways within and about the engine and exhausted back into the body of water thereby cooling the engine. Typical boat engines withdraw cooling water from the body of water in which the boat is situated through intake portals in the stern drive portion of the drive mechanism. When the boat is resting in a body of water, the stern drive is below the water line and the intake portals are immersed in the water. Cooling water exits the cooling system through exhaust ducts which are typically found higher on the stern drive mechanism than the intake portals and not necessarily below the water line. When a boat is removed from a body of water, some of this cooling water is retained within the cooling cavities and passageways of the engine. The presence of this retained water within the cooling system of the engine is typically not a problem when the boat is used frequently. However, when the boat is stored for a period of time, particularly in colder climates, this water can cause problems. Retained water within the engine cooling system can cause corrosion of engine parts and if allowed to freeze it can cause mechanical damage to the engine. Due to these risks, boat owners often replace the retained water by flushing out the retained water in the cooling system with fresh water and then winterize the boat engine. To winterize a boat engine means to replace the retained water in the cooling system with an anti-freeze/anti-corrosion lubricating solution. 2. The Relevant Technology Several methods for flushing a boat engine's cooling system are known in the art. Most boat engines have drain plugs which can be removed, allowing the liquid in the cooling system to be drained out and be replaced. However, drain plugs are often difficult to remove while the engine is installed in a boat. Draining the cooling system in this manner also requires the removal of cooling system hoses. Even when the engine is drained in this manner, pockets of retained water often remain trapped within the cooling system chambers. Another known method of replacing retained cooling water with antifreeze is immersing the stern drive portion of the engine in a large reservoir of antifreeze, completely submerging the intake portals, and running the engine until the cooling system is filled with antifreeze. However, this process is often impractical, requiring large amounts of antifreeze to fill bulky reservoirs or producing messy leaks that waste antifreeze and pollute the environment. A third known method contemplates completely sealing off the intake portals and delivering antifreeze or liquid directly to the intake portals. This approach requires a complex device to deliver the liquid. Some devices deliver the liquid under pressure directly to the intake portals requiring a sufficiently liquid-tight seal be maintained around the intake portals. Maintaining the liquid-tight seal is difficult when the seal is under pressure and the seal often leaks profusely. If a non-pressurized delivery system is used to deliver the liquid directly to the intake portals, the supply of antifreeze to the intake portals is often inadequate and does not effectively and efficiently flush and winterize the engine's cooling system. Furthermore, if there is a need to change the kind of liquid being supplied to the system during the process, such as switching from water to antifreeze, this third method may require the user to shut off the engine or run the engine without any coolant while the source of liquid is changed. Typically, once the antifreeze has been flushed through the cooling system using the methods described above, the antifreeze is discharged from exhaust ducts. Known methods of collecting the discharged antifreeze, such as placing a catch basin on the ground beneath the exhaust ducts, waste antifreeze, pollute the environment and require considerable clean up after use. The present invention avoids the unnecessary waste and expense of the above mentioned methods by providing a practically-sized, open reservoir that fits with a waterproof seal around the stern drive to prevent leaks and pollution, submerges the intake portals and provides means for collecting and reusing antifreeze discharged from the exhaust ducts.

The present disclosure relates to depilatory systems, and to medical devices used for the removal of undesired epidermal tissue and related processes. In particular, the present invention provides for a unique application for delicate body cavity treatment, for example for nasal hair removal, without injuring the texture of the delicate skin and which may be performed by a user, elegantly and simply without support from others necessarily required.

The practical implementation of low-k materials in insulation layer stacks for metal interconnects faces formidable challenges. Ultimately, it is desirable to integrate low-k dielectric materials in metal interconnects that achieve the full benefit of the reduced dielectric constant, while producing a structurally robust, patterned insulation layer with minimal damage. As low-k damage accumulates, it manifests in metal interconnects with inferior performance and poor reliability.

Passive wireless transponders are known in the art. “Passive” in this context means that the transponder includes no internal energy source, such as a battery. Typically, such transponders receive the energy they need to operate by induction from an external radio-frequency (RF) electromagnetic field. For this purpose, the transponder generally comprises both a power antenna, for receiving energy from the field, and a communication antenna, for transmitting and/or receiving communication signals to and/or from an external base station. Such transponders may be used, inter alia, to transmit and receive signals used in determining the location of an object within the body of a patient. Transponders of this sort are described, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/029,473, to Govari, filed Dec. 21, 2001, and published as U.S. 2003/0120150 A1, which is assigned to the assignee of the present patent application, and whose disclosure is incorporated herein by reference. As another example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,239,724, to Doron et al., whose disclosure is incorporated herein by reference, describes a telemetry system for providing spatial positioning information from within a patient's body. The system includes an implantable telemetry unit having (a) a first transducer, for converting a power signal received from outside the body into electrical power for powering the telemetry unit; (b) a second transducer, for receiving a positioning field signal that is received from outside the body; and (c) a third transducer, for transmitting a locating signal to a site outside the body, in response to the positioning field signal. PCT patent publication WO 00/38571 A1 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,261,247, to Ishikawa et al., whose disclosures are incorporated herein by reference, describe an anatomical position sensing system using one or more substantially spherical transponders for measuring relative positions and distances. The transponders are capable of receiving and transmitting RF signals, thus communicating between themselves and with a separate CPU. The CPU controls a broadband antenna to transmit a low-frequency RF power signal to energize the transponders. Once energized, the transponders transmit range signals in all directions at other frequencies. These signals are used in determining the positions of the transponders. In one embodiment described by Ishikawa et al., the transponder is fabricated on a spherical substrate, and includes nine coils in three sets of three coils. Each set is orthogonal to the others and comprises three coils: one transmit coil, one receive coil, and one power coupling coil. The coil sets are grouped in this fashion to ensure that at least one coil set is oriented to provide potentially optimum power coupling and signal communication therewith. Each of the power coupling coils is connected to a power circuit, which rectifies the varying magnetic energy coupled into the coil. The power circuits are connected in series to provide power to the other transponder circuits.

While a subscriber roams in a mobile network, the mobile terminal updates its location by using a location update procedure. The procedure is initiated when the current location area identifier either broadcast or sent as a dedicated system information by the radio access network changes. In this process, the authentication or security parameters used to enable security, authentication or ciphering procedures e.g. in the air interface are required for the new connection leg as well. When the location area changes, the serving Visitor Location Register (VLR) may change, too. In such a situation, the new VLR receives an identification confirmation information, such as security or authentication parameters and an International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) from the previous or old VLR. Then, the relation between an old Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI), allocated to the mobile terminal, and the IMSI is lost in the old VLR. Moreover, as a part of the location update procedure, the HLR sends the subscriber parameters which need to be known by the new VLR for proper call handling. In particular, data related to the location of the mobile terminal and to the management of the subscriber is exchanged between the HLR and the VLR. The main service provided to the mobile subscriber is the capability to set up or to receive calls within the whole service area. To support this, the location registers have to exchange data. The HLR sends to the VLR all the data needed to support the service to the mobile subscriber. The HLR then instructs the previous VLR to cancel the location registration of this subscriber. Exchanges of data may occur when the mobile subscriber receives a particular service, when he wants to change some data attached to his subscription or when some parameters of the subscription are modified by administrative means. Accordingly, the HLR is a database in charge of the management of the mobile subscribers. A mobile network may contain one or several HLRs depending on the number of subscribers, on the capacity of the equipment and on the organisation of the network. Two kinds of information are stored in the HLR: the subscription information and some location information enabling the charging and routing of calls towards the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) where the mobile terminal is located. Two types of numbers are attached to each mobile subscription and are stored in the HLR: the IMSI and one or more Mobile Station International ISDN numbers (MSISDN). The IMSI or the MSISDN may be used as a key to access the information in the database for a mobile subscription. The VLR contains a database which includes the IMSI, the MSISDN, a Mobile Station Roaming Number for mobile terminals having an ongoing call, the TMSI if applicable, a Local Mobile Station Identity if used, the location area where the mobile terminal has been registered and which is used to call the station. The above information is passed between the VLR and the HLR by the procedures described in the GSM specification 03.12. The organisation of the subscriber data is outlined in the GSM specification 03.08. Furthermore, an Authentication Centre (AuC) is associated with the HLR and stores an identity for each mobile subscriber registered with the associated HLR. This key is used to generate data used to authenticate the IMSI and a key used to cipher communication over the radio path between the mobile terminal and the mobile network. The procedures used for authentication and ciphering are described in the GSM specification 03.20. The development of the third generation UMTS network has led to a release 99 GSM/UMTS system in which a new type of Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) is introduced as the UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), and new security parameters associated with it. The security function associated with the GSM SIM utilise GSM Authentication Vectors (AVs), i.e. GSM triplets. The new security functions associated with the UMTS USIM utilise UMTS AVs consisting of UMTS quintuplets comprising additional authentication parameters required for the UMTS network. However, a problem arises, when a USIM mobile terminal roams from a non-UMTS capable GSM MSC/VLR (release 98 MSC/VLR) to a UMTS capable GSM MSC/VLR (release 99 MSC/VLR), for the following reasons. Initially, the release 98 MSC/VLR contains the subscriber data and the security parameters for the subscriber. Due to a subscriber movement, the following scenario is executed. The UE notices the change of the location area and starts a location update procedure by sending a L3-MM LOCATION UPDATE REQUEST message to the mobile network. The new MSC/VLR identifies that the old location area from where the UE is coming is controlled by another MSC/VLR. It initiates a MAP (Mobile Application Part) version 3 negotiation towards the old MSC/VLR, and a fall-back to MAP version 2 is performed, since the old release 98 MSC/VLR only supports MAP version 2. The new MSC/VLR sends the old location area identifier and the TMSI to the old MSC/VLR in order to retrieve the IMSI and the authentication parameters. In response thereto, the old release 98 MSC/VLR returns the IMSI and the GSM triplets (GSM AVs) of the subscriber. Here, the problem arises, since the new release 99 MSC/VLR does not know whether the subscriber has a USIM in the mobile terminal and whether UMTS AVs should be used. In the new MAP version 3 operations, a SEND IDENTIFICATION message used between VLRs and a SEND AUTHENTIFICATION INFO message used between the VLR and the HLR are already specified in the release 99 GSM-UMTS to support the transmission of UMTS AVs. However, the way they are used in the specification does not cope with the above problem. Furthermore, a mechanism for achieving intersystem operability between UMTS and GSM networks has been suggested for allowing secure interoperation between both networks for GSM users (SIM). According to the suggested mechanism, the MSC/VLR is able to derive a UMTS authentication vector from a received GSM authentication vector, by means of standardised conversion functions, in order to provide the UMTS security parameters to the UMTS radio access network. On the mobile side, the UE derives the UMTS authentication parameters from the GSM authentication parameters by means of the standardised conversion functions when the mobile terminal is located in the UMTS radio access network. However, also in this case, the above problem arises in case a new MSC/VLR does not know the SIM type provided in the mobile terminal.

A lithographic apparatus is a machine that applies a desired pattern onto a substrate, usually onto a target portion of the substrate. A lithographic apparatus can be used, for example, in the manufacture of integrated circuits (ICs). In such a case, a patterning device, which is alternatively referred to as a mask or a reticle, may be used to generate a circuit pattern to be formed on an individual layer of the IC. This pattern can be transferred onto a target portion (e.g. including part of, one, or several dies) on a substrate (e.g. a silicon wafer). Transfer of the pattern is typically via imaging onto a layer of radiation-sensitive material (resist) provided on the substrate. In general, a single substrate will contain a network of adjacent target portions that are successively patterned. Conventional lithographic apparatus include so-called steppers, in which each target portion is irradiated by exposing an entire pattern onto the target portion at once, and so-called scanners, in which each target portion is irradiated by scanning the pattern through a radiation beam in a given direction (the “scanning”-direction) while synchronously scanning the substrate parallel or anti-parallel to this direction. It is also possible to transfer the pattern from the patterning device to the substrate by imprinting the pattern onto the substrate. Within the lithographic apparatus moveable parts may be used. For example, the support and/or the substrate table may be moveable. Forces may be exerted on the moveable parts by a positioning device. Metals such as steel and aluminum have been used for the moveable part and the positioning device. However, metals may have a high weight.

The present invention relates to a locking mechanism for systems employing rotatable indicia carrying members. It has particular application in systems in which rotatable indicia carrying members are used for printing purposes, such as data recorders and particularly credit card bill printing devices. It is important in such devices that the rotatable indicia carrying members be positioned so that the desired indicia is accurately aligned with the appropriate spaces on a bill manifold. Also, during the actual printing operation, which usually involves a reciprocating platen which applies pressure to both the bill manifold and the indicia carrying member, it is important that the rotatable indicia carrying member be rigidly locked against movement, so that it does not blur the printed image. In providing a mechanism for aligning and locking rotatable indicia carrying members, known prior art devices have utilized relatively complex mechanical linkages having numerous parts. The linkages have been designed so that the aligning and the locking functions are each effected through individual movements of their respective members, which movements are then coordinated by appropriate linkages. With linkages involving many relatively moving parts, it becomes often necessary to check the alignment of the parts themselves so that their own registration, and their respective coordination, will be proper.

The present inventive concept relates generally to semiconductor memory devices, and more particularly, to a three dimensional (3D) flash memory devices and data storage devices including same. The continuing integration of flash memory provides the superior performance and cost competitiveness required by contemporary users. There are limits to the level of increased integration that may be achieved by flash memory having two-dimensional (2D) structures. To overcome such limits, 3D flash memory is used with increasing frequency in many applications. However, the use of 3D flash memory is not without its problems including increased program disturbance effects.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention related to a magnetic tape cartridge. More particularly, it relates to an improvement in a spring for pushing the top end of a reel shaft of a magnetic tape cartridge. 2. Related Art A video tape cartridge is generally constructed in such a manner that a pair of circular openings are formed in a bottom plate of a lower half casing which is to be coupled to an upper half casing; a pair of reels around of which video tapes are wound are loosely fitted to the openings and a pressing spring is secured to the inner surface of a top plate in the upper casing so as to press the top end of a projection at the center of the reel by the extreme end of the spring. When the upper and lower casings are coupled together, a front cover 3 is attached in the front of the coupled casings so as to be capable of opening and closing; a pair of reels 4, 5 is put inside the casings in a freely rotatable manner and each of projections 6, 7 provided at the center of reels is pressed by each of the extreme end of a leaf spring 8 as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. Thus, the conventional VHS type video tape cartridge has been assembled. The leaf spring 8 of the conventional video tape cartridge is, however, so fabricated that it is firmly attached to the inner surface of the top plate in the upper half casing by melt-bonding boss 11 at its central portion and the leaf spring end are greatly curved toward their extreme ends so as to have a sufficient flexibility thereby allowing vertical movement of the reels when the cartridge is placed on a video tape recorder. Accordingly, the direction of a force for pressing the projections 6, 7 of the reels 4, 5 assumes the direction as shown by the arrow mark A which is perpendicular to a plane of the extreme end 9, or 10. There is a fairly large amount of clearance between each of the inner walls 13 of the winding cores and each of shafts 12 of the video tape recorder inserted into the winding core when a video tape cartridge is mounted on the video tape recorder, on account of which the axial line of each of the tape recorder shafts 12 is not in coincidence with that of each of the reels under condition that the projection 7 of the reel is always pushed inwardly whereby both the axial lines are always deflected toward each other during operations of the video tape recorder. If a magnetic tape wound on the winding core 13 of the reel is drawn out under the condition as described above, a irregular movement of the reel takes place around the shaft of the video tape recorder whereby there occurs a jittering phenomenon due to variations in tensile force in the magnetic tape.

Vitamin D3 Receptor (VDR) is a ligand dependent transcription factor that belongs to the superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors. The VDR protein is 427 amino acids, with a molecular weight of ˜50 kDa. The VDR ligand, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (the hormonally active form of Vitamin D) has its action mediated by its interaction with the nuclear receptor known as Vitamin D receptor (“VDR”). The VDR ligand, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1α,25(OH)2D3) acts upon a wide variety of tissues and cells both related to and unrelated to calcium and phosphate homeostasis. The activity 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in various systems suggests wide clinical applications. However, use of conventional VDR ligands is hampered by their associated toxicity, namely hypercalcemia (elevated serum calcium). Currently, 1α,25(OH)2D3, marketed as Rocaltrol® pharmaceutical agent (product of Hoffmann-La Roche), is administered to kidney failure patients undergoing chronic kidney dialysis to treat hypocalcemia and the resultant metabolic bone disease. Other therapeutic agents, such as Calcipotriol® (synthetic analog of 1α,25(OH)2D3) show increased separation of binding affinity on VDR from hypercalcemic activity. Chemical modifications of 1α,25(OH)2D3 have yielded analogs with attenuated calcium mobilization effects (R. Bouillon et. al., Endocrine Rev. 1995, 16, 200-257). One such analog, Dovonex® pharmaceutical agent (product of Bristol-Meyers Squibb Co.), is currently used in Europe and the United States as a topical treatment for mild to moderate psoriasis (K. Kragballe et. al., Br. J. Dermatol. 1988, 119, 223-230). Other Vitamin D3 mimics have been described in the publication, Vitamin D Analogs: Mechanism of Action of Therapeutic Applications, by Nagpal, S.; Lu, J.; Boehm, M. F., Curr. Med. Chem. 2001, 8, 1661-1679. Although some degree of separation between the beneficial action and calcium raising (calcemic) effects has been achieved with these VDR ligands, to date the separation has been insufficient to allow for oral administration to treat conditions such as osteoporosis, cancers, leukemias, and severe psoriasis. One example of a major class of disorder that could benefit from VDR mediated biological efficacy in the absence of hypercalcemia is osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a systemic disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue leading to bone fragility and increased susceptibility to fractures of the hip, spine, and wrist (World Health Organization WHO 1994). Osteoporosis affects an estimated 75 million people in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Within the past few years, several antiresorptive therapies have been introduced. These include bisphosphonates, hormone replacement therapy (HRT), a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), and calcitonins. These treatments reduce bone resorption, bone formation, and increase bone density. However, none of these treatments increase true bone volume nor can they restore lost bone architecture. Another major disorder that could benefits from VDR mediated biological activity is psoriasis. Psoriasis is one of the most common dermatologic diseases and is a chronic inflammatory skin condition characterized by erythematous, sharply demarcated papules and rounded plaques, covered by silvery micaceous scale. Synthetic VDR ligands with reduced calcemic potential have been synthesized. For example, a class of bis-phenyl compounds stated to mimic 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,218,430 and the article; “Novel nonsecosteroidal vitamin D mimics exert VDR-modulating activities with less calcium mobilization than 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3” by Marcus F. Boehm, et. al., Chemistry & Biology 1999, Vol 6, No. 5, pgs. 265-275. Synthetic VDR ligands having an aryl-thiophene nucleus are described in U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/384,151, filed 29 May 2002. There remains a need for improved treatments using alternative or improved pharmaceutical agents that mimic 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 to stimulate bone formation, restore bone quality, and treat other diseases without the attendant disadvantage of hypercalcemia.

Constructing a magnet with multiple north-south poles is well-known in the art. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,127,544 issued to Blume, Jr., discloses an apparatus for magnetizing permanent magnet materials to form band-like poles. Blume discloses an apparatus comprised of an upper and a lower assembly. Each assembly has a north primary pole piece, a south primary pole piece and an electro-magnetic coil which establishes a magnetic potential difference between the primary pole pieces. These two assemblies, as their electro-magnets are activated, form alternate north-south magnetic poles on magnetic material passed between the assemblies. However, using this configuration, the north-south poles are not well-defined. This lack of definition is caused by a phenomena referred to as a "Bloch wall". When a "Bloch wall" occurs, the transition from one polarity to another is accompanied by a decrease in the magnetic field and a gradual switching from north to south and from south to north poles. This transition requires a finite distance through the material in which to occur so as to complete the switch. Therefore, the distance associated with the polarity switch fails to have well-defined poles. Another prior art multi-pole magnet, U.S. Pat. No. 4,513,216 issued to Mueller, teaches a multi-pole rotor having its multiple north-south fields on its circumference. Mueller discloses a rotor having a minimum of three pieces, two of which are crown gears and one of which is a ferrous ring which completes a magnetic circuit on the internal side. Depending upon the cylindrical height of the particular rotor, Mueller uses spacer material, referred to as pole carriers, for structural strength. Hence, Mueller's assembly consists of many parts which present considerable problems in manufacturing, particularly significantly increasing material and labor costs. Therefore, a need arises for a magnet which is easily magnetized, having a minimum number of pieces and exhibiting multi-poles which are well-defined. Many types of encoders, including optical, mechanical, and magnetic, are also well-known in the art. Optical encoders provide high resolution, but have the disadvantages of high cost and the requirement of a clean working environment. Mechanical encoders are generally low cost items, but have only fair resolution and must also be operated in a clean environment for optimal performance. In contrast, magnetic encoders are not only constructed out of low cost material, but also perform under hostile environmental conditions. However, present magnetic encoders, specifically dynamic magnetic encoders, are constructed with ferrous gear teeth or any high permeable metal (such as steel) protrusions. (Dynamic encoders require movement to decode, i.e. when motion ceases so does the output signal.) The size, i.e. thickness, of the teeth or protrusions of the dynamic, incremental magnetic encoder severely limits the resolution of the system. These same teeth or protrusions create numerous manufacturing difficulties including mechanical alignment problems and increased assembly cost. Other magnetic encoders currently used, for example static magnetic encoders which may transmit information with or without movement, have magnets constructed from a solid piece, thereby suffering from the same problem of pole definition described above for Blume. Furthermore, as noted above, both of the above presently used magnetic encoders are incremental encoders, i.e. provide only a relative count with respect to an index point, which considerably limits their use. Therefore, a need arises for an encoder which is low cost, operates in a hostile environment, and has a medium resolution. A further need arises for an absolute encoder which, unlike an incremental encoder, provides an accurate readout regardless of position, i.e. no index position is required.

Such food transport containers are known from the background art. In the known food transport containers of this type, the fan of the air circulation device takes in the air directly from the interior of the food transport container, with the result that dirt particles and other impurities pass from the interior of the food transport container into the fan and lead to rapid fouling thereof. In all of the drawings, identical or functionally equivalent elements are denoted by the same reference characters.

The present invention relates to a concetration valve for a gas detecting apparatus, or the like, in a system for determining the presence a particular gaseous material or materials in a sample gas, such as air. More specifically, the invention contemplates a concentration valve having adsorbing means operable to adsorb at least one gaseous material or vapor from a sample gas in a sampling position, and having means operable in an analyzing position for heating the adsorbing means to desorb into a carrier gas any gaseous material or vapor adsorbed from the sample gas. The carrier gas with the desorbed gaseous material or vapor therein is delivered to a suitable analyzing apparatus, e.g., a gas chromatograph. As general background relating to the detection of a particular gaseous material or vapor from a sample gas, attention is directed to Dravnieks et al U.S. Pat. No. 3,430,482. Prior art specifically disclosing earlier concentration valves for use with apparatuses for detecting gaseous or vaporous materials in sample gases includes my U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,675,466 and 3,733,908, and Showalter et al U.S. Pat. No. 3,925,022. These patents also provide general background information respecting the field of detecting gaseous materials or vapors in sample gases, such as air. Consequently, a further discussion of the general field herein is unnecessary.

1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to semiconductor devices, and, more particularly, to a physical arrangement of a cache memory system. 2. Description of the Related Art In modern computer systems, a significant factor in determining the overall performance of the computer system is the speed with which it accesses memory. Generally, faster memory accesses result in higher performance. Unfortunately, however, high-speed memory is expensive. Thus, it is generally economically unfeasible to construct a computer system that uses high-speed memory components as its main memory. To provide a computer system with enhanced speed that is still economical to produce, many modern computer systems employ a memory system that consists of a hierarchy of several different levels. That is, the computer system has a relatively large and inexpensive main memory, which may be comprised of a relatively slow dynamic RAM, or the like, and at least one relatively small high-speed cache. The computer system attempts to maximize its speed of operation by utilizing the high-speed cache as much as possible, as opposed to the slow main memory. In fact, many computer systems have prefetch and cache management instructions that are highly successful when used with software that can predict the portions of main memory that are likely to be needed. The prefetches and cache management instructions can optimize moving data between the main memory and the caches. Thus, as long as the predictions are accurate, each request for memory should result in a hit in the cache, and faster overall operation. Faster operaton of the cache may be achieved by locating the cache on the same die as the microprocessor. Such an arrangment minimizes the length of the electrical interconnections/lines extending between the cache and the microprocessor. Shorter line lengths translate into faster operation because signals take less time to travel therebetween. There are, however, drawbacks to locating the cache on the same die as the microprocessor. For example, locating the cache on the die will substantially increase the number of transistors on the die. As the number of transistors increases, so does the error rate. That is, locating the cache on the die will increase the likelihood that the overall device will not operate properly, requiring the relatively expensive microprocessor to be scrapped along with the relatively inexpensive cache. Further, if the cache is located on the die, it is problematic to have different size caches on different microprocessor products. That is, it may be desirable to have several products that use the same microprocessor core with a different size or number of caches. Each of these products may have to undergo an expensive redesign and verification process before being released for production. Locating the cache external to the microprocessor die has the advantage of flexibility in manufacturing. That is, the same microprocessor may be packaged with a variety of sizes and numbers of external caches without the need for separate designs. Moreover, a defect in the relatively inexpensive cache does not affect the usability of the expensive microprocessor die. As discussed above, however, the external cache ordinarily operates at a slower speed than a similar internal cache. Further, an external cache is ordinarily permanently soldered to a printed circuit board, such as a mother or daughter board. Thus, the external microprocessor takes up valuable printed circuit board real estate, and is difficult to update. That is, because the cache is soldered in place it cannot be easily upgraded by the end user when larger, faster, or less expensive caches become available. The present invention is directed to overcoming, or at least reducing the effects of, one or more of the problems set forth above. In one aspect of the present invention, a semiconductor module is provided. The semiconductor module is comprised of a die, a casing and a plurality of electrical connections. The casing extends about the die and defines a plurality of openings extending therethrough. The openings are arranged in a first preselected pattern to receive pins of a semiconductor device therein. A plurality of electrical connections are disposed in at least a portion of the plurality of openings and are adapted to electrically communicate with the pins of the semiconductor device inserted therein and the die. In another aspect of the present invention, a semiconductor stack is provided. The semiconductor stack is comprised of a first semiconductor device, a second semiconductor device, and a socket. The first semiconductor device has a plurality of pins extending therefrom and arranged in a first preselected pattern. The socket is adapted to receive the plurality of pins. The second semiconductor device is disposed between the socket and the first semiconductor device and includes a die, a casing, and a plurality of electrical connections. The casing extends about the die and defines a plurality of openings extending therethrough. The openings are arranged in a first preselected pattern to receive the pins of the first semiconductor device. The plurality of electrical connections are disposed in at least a portion of the plurality of openings. The electrical connections are adapted to electrically communicate with the pins of the first semiconductor device inserted therein and the die.

Traditionally nuclear medicine focused on the generation of two-dimensional images constructed from a volume of interest, although a variety of imaging devices have been proposed to perform three-dimensional imaging using an Anger type gamma camera. Since about 1980, several nuclear camera manufacturers have commercially introduced rotational type nuclear camera systems featuring a rotatable detector or camera head having a parallel hole collimator for data collection and an associated digital computer. The computer processes the collected data and performs known CT-type algorithms for reconstructing tomograms, i.e., two-dimensional images of a patient along a plane intersecting the patient. One such ECT system is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,426,578 to Bradcovich, et al. and assigned to the assignee of the instant application. Bradcovich, et al. invented a system that features a counterbalanced C-arm supporting a camera head at one end thereof for rotation about a longitudinal axis through a patient. The radial distance between the camera head and the longitudinal axis is rendered adjustable by displacement of the C-arm along a circumferential path relative to a so-called carrier member which rotatably attaches the C-arm to a stationary base. Another ECT apparatus is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,216,381 to Lange which features a rotatable detector head supported by a pair of elongated frame members that pivotally support the detector head as it rotates about a longitudinal axis through a patient. In the Lange arrangement, the radial distance between the longitudinal axis and the detector head is adjusted by tilting the elongated frame pair which are mounted within a circular frame supported, in turn, by a pair of upright stanchions. Regardless of the type of apparatus used to support the rotatable camera head, the reconstruction algorithms are always based on the collection of projection data acquired at a set of viewing angles about the patient by the rotating detector and subsequent back-projection of the data by means of the computer. For a detailed discussion of the general approach see, for example, Keyes Jr., "Computed tomography in nuclear medicine". Accurate retracing of projection lines during back-projection is essential to assuring good image resolution and quality. In ECT operation a major degradation in image quality is caused by deviations between the actual photon paths of the data collected and their paths traced during back-projection. Regardless of the specific type of reconstruction algorithm used to generate the desired planar images or tomograms, the techniques uniformly assume that the camera head always follows the expected path. In practice, however, the actual path of the detector deviates from the expected path so that its position at each angle will exhibit some offset due mostly to mechanical flex in the detector support system and, to a lesser degree, to electronic image plane shift. This is caused by slight variances among the camera's Photo Multiplier Tubes' operation which originates from the varying orientation between the detector plane and the earth/ambient magnetic field. These deviations have largely been ignored resulting in errors in the reconstructed image. Errors of this sort are generally unavoidable. It has been found, however, that they are nonetheless predictable since the amount of deviation in any particular system is measurable. While the amount of deviation varies as a function of viewing angle the errors tend to be relatively constant from rotation to rotation over a long period of time.

The present invention relates to a lead frame used for a package including a heatsink, that is used for a device such as a mold-type high-frequency power device, and a semiconductor device using the lead frame. A conventional semiconductor device being provided with a package including a heatsink is disclosed in, for example, in Japanese Published Unexamined Patent Application No. 130782/1995 (Tokukaihei 7-130782, published on May 19, 1995). Referring to FIGS. 6(a) through 9(b), the following explanation describes the construction thereof. FIG. 6(a) is a plan view showing a conventional semiconductor device in a forming process. FIG. 6(b) is a sectional view taken along line 6bxe2x80x946b shown in FIG. 6(a). Further, FIG. 7(a) is a sectional view taken along line 7axe2x80x947a shown in FIG. 6(a). FIG. 7(b) is a sectional view taken along line 7bxe2x80x947b shown in FIG. 6(a). The semiconductor device (conventional example 1) is formed by a chip 52 and a package 54 including the chip 52. The package 54 is constituted by a lead frame 56, bonding wires 58, a heatsink 60, and a sealing member 62. The lead frame 56 is constituted by a die pad 56a and leads 56b and is provided with a chip 52 which is die-bonded via an Ag paste 64 on the die pad 56a. As the chip 52, for example, a GaAsMMIC (Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit) chip can be adopted. The bonding wires 58 is formed by an Au wire and has two kinds of wires of GND wires 58a and lead wires 58b for connecting chip pads 52a, which are formed on the chip 52, and the die pad 56a or the leads 56b, which are formed on the lead frame 56. A GND wiring on a circuit of the chip 52 is formed by the GND wires 58a, and a GND inductance occurs during an operation. A heatsink 60 is a copper block that is entirely bonded to a back of a surface of the die pad 56a via a conductive paste 66, the surface having the chip 52 disposed thereon. Further, a surface of the heatsink 60, that is entirely bonded to the die pad 56a, has a back surface exposed from a sealing member 62. When the present semiconductor device is packaged, the exposed surface is soldered onto a packaged surface. With this arrangement, it is easier to release heat occurring during an operation of the chip 52, through the heatsink 60 to the outside of a semiconductor package. The semiconductor device is formed in the following manufacturing process. Firstly, the copper heatsink 60 of 2.0xc3x972.8xc3x970.7 mm, that is separately formed, is entirely bonded via the conductive paste 66 on the back of the copper lead frame 56 having a thickness of 0.15 mm. The Ag paste 64 is applied onto the die pad 56a of the lead frame 56, and the chip 52 is die-bonded. Afterwards, by the bonding wires 58, the chip pads 52a of the chip 52 are wire-bonded to the die pad 56a or the leads 56b of the lead frame 56. And then, the semiconductor device is transfer molded by the sealing member 62. Next, FIGS. 8(a) through 9(b) show a conventional semiconductor device (conventional example 2) being provided with another conventional package including a heatsink. FIG. 8(a) is a plan view showing the semiconductor device of the conventional example 2 in a forming process. FIG. 8(b) is a sectional view taken along line 8bxe2x80x948b shown in FIG. 8(a). And FIG. 9(a) is a sectional view taken along line 9axe2x80x949a shown in FIG. 8(a). FIG. 9(b) is a sectional view taken along line 9bxe2x80x949b shown in FIG. 8(a). Here, those members that have the same functions and that are described in conventional example 1 are indicated by the same reference numerals and the description thereof is omitted. Here, conventional example 2 is different from conventional example 1 as follows: in conventional example 2, a lead frame 56 of a semiconductor device does not include a die pad 56a (see FIG. 6(a)), and a heatsink 60 also serves as a die pad. Further, in the lead frame 56, lower surfaces of all leads 56b are mounted on the upper surface of the heatsink 60 via an insulating paste 68. Moreover, GND wires 58a are bonded onto the upper surface of the heatsink 60 and form a GND wiring on a circuit of a chip 52, so that a GND inductance occurs during an operation. The semiconductor device of conventional example 2 is formed in the following manufacturing process. Firstly, a Ag paste 64 is applied to the center of the surface of the heatsink 60 that has the chip 52 mounted thereon, and the chip 52 is die-bonded. And then, the heatsink 60 and the lead frame 56 are disposed with the insulating paste 68. Afterwards, the chip pads 52a are wire-bonded to the leads 56b or the upper surface of the heatsink 60 also serving as the die pad 56a. And then, the semiconductor device is completed after performing the same process as conventional example 1. Incidentally, when the semiconductor device, particularly a high-frequency power device is packaged into a resin mold, a heat-releasing property and a high-frequency property are important. Namely, in view of releasing heat, the chip 52 has a large amount of self-heating, so that it is necessary to reduce and simplify (reduce heat resistance) a heating path and to release generated heat efficiently to the outside so as to restrict a higher temperature in the chip 52. Moreover, in view of the high-frequency property, a GND inductance needs to be minimized. However, a package 54 used for a semiconductor device of the conventional art has the following problem regarding a heat-releasing path and a GND inductance. Firstly, in conventional example 1, on the heat-releasing path, many members are disposed between the chip 52 serving as a heat-releasing part and the outside of the semiconductor device. The heat-releasing path has an extremely large heat resistance of, for example, 50xc2x0 C./W. FIG. 10 shows the heat-releasing path under such a condition for each heat resistance (simple resistance). FIG. 10 is a conceptual drawing showing the heat-releasing path of conventional example 1. To be specific, the heat-releasing path is: a heat-releasing part of the chip 52xe2x86x92a base member of the chip 52 (R1)xe2x86x92the Ag paste 64 (R2)xe2x86x92die pad 56a (R3)xe2x86x92a conductive paste 66 (R4)xe2x86x92the heatsink 60 (R5)xe2x86x92the outside of the package 54. This can be cumulatively expressed as follows: package heat resistance: Rth=R1+R2+R3+R4+R5. As described above, conventional example 1 has a long and complicated heat-releasing path, so that the package heat resistance is high. Thus, when the semiconductor device of conventional example 1 is continuously operated, the temperature may rise too much inside the package 54. When the temperature is too high in the package 54, the following phenomenon appears so as to cause a problem. Firstly, an output power value serving as an electrical property is reduced with time. Further, even when an input power is increased to obtain a desired output power, the output power value is at saturation due to a high temperature of the inside, so that the output power value cannot be raised any more. In order to solve the problem, it is necessary to shorten and simplify the heat-releasing path to a minimum, to reduce heat resistance of the package 54, and to improve a heat-releasing property so as to prevent an increase in temperature inside the package 54. Hence, conventional example 2 achieves a construction which does not include the die pad 56a so as to realize a heat-releasing path in which R3 and R4 are omitted. Here, in conventional example 2, the lead frame 56 and the heatsink 60 are mounted on the leads 56b of the lead frame 56. The leads 56b are separated later to form terminals of the semiconductor device, so that the leads 56b need to be electrically insulated. Therefore, a part for mounting the lead frame 56 and the heatsink 60 is generally mounted via the insulating paste 68, an insulating tape, an insulating adhesive, and others. However, this arrangement causes the following problem. In conventional example 2, the lead frame 56 and the heatsink 60 are firstly disposed, and then, the chip 52, the heatsink 60, and the lead frame 56 are wire-bonded via the bonding wires 58. The heatsink is heated at this time so as to generate gas of organic components from the insulating paste 68 and others. The generation of gas deteriorates the surfaces of the lead frame 56 and the heatsink 60 so as to increase a possibility of causing a connecting defect of the wire bonding. Thus, the reliability of the wire bonding is reduced and a fraction defective is increased. Further, the heat sink 60 is heated so as to reduce the adhesion of the insulating paste 68 and others, so that the heatsink 60 becomes detached from the lead frame 56. Furthermore, in conventional example 2, it is necessary to apply the insulating paste 68 and others merely on the surfaces of a large number of the leads 56b disposed in the lead frame 56, the surfaces being connected to the heatsink 60. Thus, the manufacturing cost is further raised due to an increase in the fraction defective as well. Additionally, there has been a problem of a GND inductance, that appears in the above conventional arts. In a frequency area of 1 GHz or more, which is applicable to a high-frequency power device, grounding is made by the GND wires 58a, so that a GND inductance occurs. In view of a circuit of the chip 52, the grounding (GND) on the circuit is raised from an original grounding by the appearing GND inductance. Therefore, the output value of the conductive device is reduced from an originally set output value by a value corresponding to the GND inductance, so that a predetermined output value cannot be obtained. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce a GND inductance to solve the above problem. In this case, the number of the GND inductance wires 58a can be increased to reduce a GND inductance. However, another problem occurs as follows. It is necessary to increase the chip pads 52a to dispose a larger number of the GND wires 58a, causing a larger size of the chip. Here, in the case of a chip such as a GaAsMMIC chip serving as the chip 52, a GaAsMMIC wafer serving as a base member is more expensive than Si, so that the cost of the chip 52 is almost determined by the number of the chips 52 mounted on a wafer. Consequently, a larger chip increases the cost of the semiconductor device. Further, when the pitches of the GND wires 58a are reduced to increase the number of the GND wires 58a, a GND inductance cannot be effectively reduced in a frequency area of 1 GHz or more due to influence of mutual inductance. As described above, with the conventional lead frame and the semiconductor device using the same, it is difficult to improve a heat-releasing property and a high frequency property without deterioration in reliability and productivity and without increasing the cost accordingly. Hence, the capability of the semiconductor chip cannot be fully exerted. The present invention is devised to solve the above-mentioned problems. The objective is to provide a lead frame for a semiconductor device that can reduce a heat resistance and improve a heat-releasing property without deterioration in reliability and productivity and accordingly without an increase in cost. Further, the objective is to provide a lead frame for a semiconductor device that can reduce a GND inductance and improve a high-frequency property so as to efficiently exert the capability of a mounted semiconductor chip. Furthermore, the objective is to provide a semiconductor device using such a lead frame used for a semiconductor device. The lead frame of the present invention is a lead frame used for a semiconductor device. In order to achieve the above objective, the lead frame is provided with an island for mounting a semiconductor chip, a metallic block disposed on the island, and leads extended to the island. In the island, a penetrating hole being larger than the mounted semiconductor chip is formed in an area, in which the semiconductor chip is mounted, and the metallic block is disposed so as to cover the penetrating hole. According to the above arrangement, the penetrating hole formed in the island of the lead frame is larger than the mounted semiconductor chip, so that the semiconductor chip can be disposed in the penetrating hole. Moreover, the metallic block covers the penetrating hole, so that the semiconductor chip can be disposed on a surface of the metallic block in the penetrating hole, and the metallic block can be used as a heatsink. Therefore, unlike the conventional art, it is possible to form a heat-releasing path without the necessity for the island disposed between the heatsink and the semiconductor chip serving as a heating part, thereby improving a heat-releasing property. Moreover, unlike a construction in which the heatsink is mounted on the leads, in the above arrangement, the metallic block serving as the heatsink is disposed on the island of the lead frame. Therefore, it is possible to form a construction in which the leads and the metallic block are insulated from one another without using an insulating paste for mounting the metallic block. Namely, a method can be adopted in which the metallic block is electrically brought into conduction with the island. Hence, it is possible to prevent a problem such as reduction in adhesion of the heatsink, reduction in reliability of wire-bonding, and more complicated process, that are caused by the insulating paste, which is normally used for a construction in which the heatsink is mounted on the leads. It is further desirable that the island and the metallic block be formed so as to be separated from the leads in the lead frame. According to this arrangement, the island and the metallic block are formed so as to be separated from the leads, for example, upon forming the semiconductor device. The island and the metallic block can be electrically insulated from the leads. Therefore, the island can act as a GND on a circuit of the semiconductor chip. When the island acts as the GND, ground terminals of the semiconductor chip can be wire-bonded to the island. Here, in this arrangement, the semiconductor chip and the island can be disposed on a surface of the metallic block. Thus, as compared with a construction in which the ground terminals are wire-bonded to a surface having the semiconductor chip disposed thereon, it is possible to reduce a height difference between the wire-bonded surfaces. With this arrangement, it is possible to shorten bonding wires so as to reduce a GND inductance on the circuit. As a result, the lead frame having the above construction can improve a high-frequency property. In order to achieve the above objective, the semiconductor device of the present invention is provided with the lead frame, and the semiconductor chip which is mounted on the metallic block in the penetrating hole formed in the lead frame. According to the above construction, the metallic block acts as the heatsink, and the semiconductor chip is directly disposed on the heatsink. With this arrangement, it is possible to reduce a heat resistance and to simplify the heat-releasing path, so that heat generated in the semiconductor chip can be released more efficiently. Consequently, even in the case of a continuous operation of the semiconductor device, it is possible to prevent an increase in temperature of the semiconductor chip therein and reduction in an electrical property such as an output voltage value. In order to achieve the above objective, the semiconductor device of the present invention is provided with the lead frame, in which the island and the metallic block are formed so as to be separated from the leads, and the semiconductor chip having the ground terminals mounted on the metallic block in the penetrating hole, The ground terminals of the semiconductor chip are connected to the GND wires connected to the island. According to this arrangement, the semiconductor chip is directly disposed on the metallic block, and the ground terminals of the semiconductor chip are connected to the island of the lead frame via the GND wires. Thus, as compared with a construction in which a surface having the semiconductor chip disposed thereon is connected to the ground terminals, it is possible to reduce a height difference between the connected surfaces because of a thickness of the island. With this arrangement, the GND wires (bonding wires) can be shortened. Therefore, it is possible to reduce a GND inductance on the circuit of the semiconductor chip as well as to reduce a heat resistance so as to improve a heat-releasing property. As a result, in the present semiconductor device, it is possible to prevent reduction in an output value that is caused by a GND inductance. In order to achieve the above objective, the semiconductor device of the present invention includes the semiconductor chip having the ground terminals that are mounted on a surface of the heatsink, and a metallic member disposed on the surface of the heatsink that has the semiconductor chip mounted thereon, the ground terminals and the metallic member being wire-bonded to one another. In the above arrangement, the semiconductor chip is directly disposed on the heatsink, and the ground terminals of the semiconductor chip are connected to the metallic member disposed on the heatsink. With this arrangement, it is possible to efficiently release heat generated in an operation of the semiconductor chip, via the heatsink to the outside of the semiconductor device. Consequently, it is possible to prevent an increase in temperature of the semiconductor device so as to prevent reduction in an output value, saturation, and other problems that are caused by a higher temperature. Moreover, the metallic member is disposed on the surface of the heatsink that has the semiconductor chip mounted thereon, so that a height difference can be reduced between an upper surface of the metallic member and the surface of the semiconductor chip that has the ground terminals disposed thereon. This arrangement makes it possible to shorten the bonding wires for grounding of the semiconductor chip. Therefore, it is possible to reduce a GND inductance on the circuit of the semiconductor chip so as to prevent reduction in an output value that is caused by the GND inductance. For a fuller understanding of the nature and advantages of the invention, reference should be made to the ensuing detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1(a) is a plan view showing a forming process of a semiconductor device in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1(b) is a sectional view taken along line 1bxe2x80x941b shown in FIG. 1(a). FIG. 2(a) is a sectional view taken along line 2axe2x80x942a shown in FIG. 1(a). FIG. 2(b) is a sectional view taken along line 2bxe2x80x942b shown in FIG. 1(a). FIG. 3 is a conceptual drawing showing a heat-releasing path of the semiconductor device of FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b). FIG. 4 is a conceptual drawing showing an area surrounding GND wires of the semiconductor device shown in FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b). FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing for comparing GND wire lengths of semiconductor devices shown in one embodiment and a comparative example of the present invention. FIG. 6(a) is a plan view showing a forming process of a conventional semiconductor device. FIG. 6(b) is a sectional view taken along line 6bxe2x80x946b shown in FIG. 6(a). FIG. 7(a) is a sectional view taken along line 7axe2x80x947a shown in FIG. 6(a). FIG. 7(b) is a sectional view taken along line 7bxe2x80x947b shown in FIG. 6(a). FIG. 8(a) is a plan view showing a forming process of another conventional semiconductor device. FIG. 8(b) is a sectional view taken along line 8bxe2x80x948b shown in FIG. 8(a). FIG. 9(a) is a sectional drawing taken along line 9axe2x80x949a shown in FIG. 8(a). FIG. 9(b) is a sectional drawing taken along line 9bxe2x80x949b shown in FIG. 8(a). FIG. 10 is a conceptual drawing showing a heat-releasing path of the conventional semiconductor device as a comparative example. FIG. 11(a) is a schematic drawing showing an area surrounding the GND wires of the conventional semiconductor device. FIG. 11(b) is a schematic drawing showing an area surrounding the GND wires of another conventional semiconductor device as another comparative example.

1. Field The present application generally relates to optical metrology of structures formed on semiconductor wafers, and, more particularly, to controlling a fabrication tool using a support vector machine. 2. Related Art Optical metrology involves directing an incident beam at a structure, measuring the resulting diffracted beam, and analyzing the diffracted beam to determine a feature of the structure. In semiconductor manufacturing, optical metrology is typically used for quality assurance. For example, after fabricating a periodic grating in proximity to a semiconductor chip on a semiconductor wafer, an optical metrology system is used to determine the profile of the periodic grating. By determining the profile of the periodic grating, the quality of the fabrication process utilized to form the periodic grating, and by extension the semiconductor chip proximate the periodic grating, can be evaluated. One conventional optical metrology system uses a diffraction modeling technique, such as rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA), to analyze the diffracted beam. More particularly, in the diffraction modeling technique, a model diffraction signal is calculated based, in part, on solving Maxwell's equations. Calculating the model diffraction signal involves performing a large number of complex calculations, which can be time consuming and costly.

The use of integrated circuits (ICs) with configurable circuits has dramatically increased in recent years. One example of an IC with configurable circuits is a field programmable gate array (FPGA). An FPGA is a field programmable IC that often has configurable logic circuits, configurable interconnect circuits, and non-configurable input/output (I/O) circuits. The logic circuits (also called logic blocks) are typically arranged as an internal array of circuits. These logic circuits are typically connected together through numerous interconnect circuits (also called interconnects). The logic and interconnect circuits are often surrounded by the I/O circuits which provide the interface between the internal FPGA components and components that exist outside the FPGA. The configurable logic and configurable interconnect circuits of the FPGA are typically configured according to a user design. The user design specifies the operations to be performed by the one or more configurable logic circuits and the various interconnections needed to route the data to and from such circuits in a manner that performs the user design. However, a common limiting factor in the functionality of FPGAs and other ICs with configurable circuits are that the I/O circuits are not configurable. Rather, the I/O circuits are static in the sense that they optimally operate with a particular external interface specifying a specific operating voltage and operating frequency. The peripheral component interconnect (PCI) standard specifies one such external interface. In a particular revision, the PCI interface specifies an operating voltage of 3.3V and an operating frequency of 133 MHz. Therefore, a configurable IC comprised of only non-configurable I/O circuits that optimally operate with the 3.3V PCI interface are limited to operating with interfaces that specify the same operational parameters as the PCI interface (i.e., 3.3V, 133 MHz), regardless of the virtually unlimited number of possible internal logic and interconnect configurations. The use of the configurable IC, specifically the I/O circuits of the configurable IC, with any interface other than the interface for which the I/O circuits were designed to operate could cause physical or electrical damage to the I/O circuits or other components of the IC. For example, use of 3.3V interface specific I/O circuits with a 5V interface could cause oxide breakdown within the transistors/gates of the 3.3V I/O circuits and thereby cause physical damage to the gates/transistors. As a result, the non-configurable I/O circuits of an IC become a constraining factor to the broader applicability of the IC as the IC is constrained to operating with a single interface. FIG. 1 presents a typical p-channel transistor (i.e., PMOS transistor) used in implementing part of an I/O circuit. The transistor of FIG. 1 includes a substrate region 110 composed of n-type semiconductor material which separates the source and drain regions 120 each doped with oppositely charged p-type semiconductor material. The transistor also includes a gate formed over a layer of silicon dioxide 140 that bridges the source and drain regions. By applying a charge to the gate 140, such as a positive voltage at the gate 140, negative charges are drawn up from the substrate 110 into the channel 130 and positive charges are forced away from the channel 130 as shown in FIG. 2. As the charge on the gate 210 increases, more negative charges are attracted into the channel 130. The negative charges become distributed throughout the channel 130 to create an inversion layer through which a current may pass from the source and the drain 120. The current passing through the inversion layer increases as a voltage threshold (VTH) measuring the minimum voltage required to distribute the charges along the channel 130 is exceeded. Initially, the current across the channel 130 increases linearly until the transistor reaches a saturation state. The linear increase of the current is determined through the following equation:IDL=μn*Cox*(W/L)*((VGS−VTH)*VDS−(V2DS/2))  (1)where ID equates to the current from source to drain, μn specifies the mobility of the charge carriers in the channel, Cox specifies the thickness of the gate oxide, W specifies the gate width, L specifies the gate length, VGS specifies the gate to source voltage, VTH specifies the threshold voltage of the transistor, and VDS specifies the drain to source voltage. Saturation occurs when VGS exceeds VTH and VDS exceeds VGS less VTH. If VGS exceeds VDS, the current no longer increases linearly. Rather, the current passing through inversion layer is determined using the following equation:IDS=((μn*Cox)/2)*(W/L)*(VGS−VTH)2  (2) Together equations (1) and (2) assist in determining a particular transistor's usefulness in operating with a particular external interface (i.e., operating voltage and operating frequency of the external interface). The I/O circuits, specifically the transistors comprising the I/O circuits, are said to be optimally operating with an interface when the transistors support a voltage of the interface while producing sufficient current to support the operating frequency specified by the interface. FIG. 3 illustrates an output driver 300 for an I/O circuit found in the prior art. In FIG. 3, data and tri-state signals control the operation of the output driver 300 through a pair of level-shifting gates 310 and 320. The level-shifting OR gate 310 receives the complementary value of the data signal and the non-complementary value of the tri-state signal (i.e., the complementary tri-state signal passes through an inverter to restore the tri-state signal to its non-complementary value). These signals in conjunction with the OR gate 310 control the operation of PMOS transistor 330. The level-shifting AND gate 320 receives complementary values of both the data signal and tri-state signal in order to control the operation of NMOS transistor 340. Specifically, when the complementary value of the tri-state signal is high (i.e., active) and the complementary value of the data signal is low (i.e., inactive), the PMOS transistor 330 is closed and the NMOS transistor 340 is open thus allowing a current from a power source to be driven across the output path 350 at a specified voltage of a particular external interface. When both the complementary values of the tri-state and data signals are high, then the PMOS transistor 330 is open and the NMOS transistor 340 is closed causing the output of the output driver 300 to be grounded. For an output driver 300 interfacing with a 3.3V interface, the output driver 300 would include a set 3.3V transistors for the transistors 330 and 340. This allows the output driver 300 to withstand the specified 3.3V of the interface and to produce a sufficient current for passing data through the interface at a specified frequency of the interface. However, as mentioned above, a short coming of such prior art output drivers and I/O circuits is that these circuits are unable to adequately function over different interfaces. For example, application of an IC containing lower voltage circuits to a higher voltage interface results in electrical or physical damage to the I/O circuits as the smaller channel, thinner oxide layered transistors of the lower voltage I/O circuit cannot withstand the higher voltage. Similarly, application of an IC containing higher voltage I/O circuits to a lower voltage interface results in an insufficient current needed to propagate signals at a specified speed of the lower voltage interface. This occurs primarily because the voltage threshold for the transistors of the I/O circuit is only minimally exceeded resulting in the weak output current. By modifying some of the characteristics of these transistors, the operating range of the transistors can be expanded to operate over a larger range of voltages or frequencies albeit with compromises to other properties of the transistor. Examples using the aforementioned equations (1) and (2) and other equations will now be given to illustrate the various compromises. A transistor can be made to withstand larger operating voltage ranges by increasing the oxide thickness and the channel length of the transistor. However, increases to the oxide thickness and the channel length have the undesired effect of decreasing the current passing through the transistor. The tradeoff resulting from increasing oxide thickness is illustrated through the Cox variable of equations (1) and (2). In these equations, Cox represents the oxide thickness of the transistor. Cox is defined by the following equation:Cox=∈*A/d  (3)where ∈ specifies a dielectric constant, A specifies the area, and d specifies the oxide thickness. As the oxide thickness (i.e., variable d) increases, the value of Cox decreases causing the current drive, IDL or IDS, to similarly decrease. A similar tradeoff occurs between the channel length and the current drive. As evident in equations (1) and (2), this tradeoff is due to the inverse relationship between the current and the length of the transistor. The decrease in current drive resulting from the increased oxide thickness and gate length can be offset through an increased gate width. Here again, a tradeoff results. In this instance, the size of the transistor increases causing the I/O circuit comprising the transistor to occupy additional surface area of the IC that could otherwise have been used to implement user logic or functionality. This also causes the parasitic capacitance to increase further resulting in a reduced operating frequency as shown below with reference to equation (9). An example will now be given to illustrate the drop off in current that results from utilizing an I/O circuit with particular signaling parameters (e.g., operating voltage and/or operating frequency) for a particular interface in a different interface specifying a different set of signaling parameters. Equations (4) and (5) illustrate the current drop by solving the saturation equation (2) using signaling parameters of two different interfaces. First, equation (4) approximately computes the current produced when an I/O circuit comprising 3.3V transistors is applied to a 3.3V interface:K*(3.3−1)2=K*5.29  (4)where K is a fixed constant representing the properties of the 3.3V transistor ((μn*Cox)/2)* (W/L), 3.3 is the gate to source voltage (VGS) and 1 is the threshold voltage (VTH) for a 3.3V transistor. Equation (5) approximately computes the current produced when the 3.3V transistors of the I/O circuit are applied to a 1.5V interface:K*(1.5−1)2=K*0.25  (5)Comparing the two results illustrates an approximate 20 to 1 drop in resulting current (5.29/0.25=21.16) when applying the I/O circuit with higher voltage transistors to a lower voltage interface (where K is constant since the same transistors are used to determine the current for two different interfaces). Equations (6)-(8) illustrate a similar change that occurs to the output resistance of an I/O circuit by solving the linear region equation (1) using signaling parameters of two different interfaces. Equation (6) first illustrates an equation for computing the resistance based on the correspondence between resistance and current (i.e., R=V/I) and equation (1):R=1/(K*(VGS−VTH−(VDS/2)))  (6) In equation (6), K is a fixed constant that represents the properties of a 3.3V transistor operating within the linear region (μn*Cox*W/L). From this equation, the changes to resistance for the given I/O circuit can be computed. Equation (7) approximately computes the resistance when an I/O circuit comprising 3.3V transistors having a 1V voltage threshold are applied to a 3.3V interface. Specifically, to compute equation (7), VDS is assumed to have a negligible value that does not affect the overall result:R=1/(K*(3.3−1))=0.435/K  (7) Equation (8) approximately computes the resistance when the 3.3V transistors of the I/O circuit are applied to a 1.5V interface:R=1/(K*(1.5−1))=2/K  (8)Comparing the two results illustrates an approximate 5 to 1 change in resistance when the same transistors for the same I/O circuit are applied to two different interfaces. Some ICs “finger” additional I/O circuits to a particular I/O circuit, where the particular I/O circuit comprises a single I/O circuit or multiple I/O circuits already within a fingered arrangement, in order to recover some of the lost current. Fingering involves connecting several I/O circuits in parallel. FIG. 4 illustrates the fingering of the output drivers of FIG. 3. Such a parallel placement of the I/O circuits 400 provides a linear gain in the strength of the current. However, the current is recuperated at the cost of a much larger I/O circuit 400 that occupies valuable surface area of the IC that could otherwise be used to provide additional user design functionality. Additionally, fingering increases the overall capacitance for the combined circuits. The increased capacitance results in a lower obtainable operating frequency as illustrated by the inverse relationship between frequency and capacitance in equation (9):F=1/(2*π*XC*C)  (9)where F specifies the frequency, XC specifies the inductive reactance, and C specifies the capacitance. As such, fingering is a not a viable option for producing an I/O circuit that optimally operates over two distinct frequencies and two distinct voltages. Therefore, a need exists for a configurable I/O circuit that can configurably select from and optimally operate with multiple voltages while producing sufficient current at the voltages to support multiple operating frequencies. Also, a need exists for the configurable I/O circuit to provide such functionality while avoiding the increases in circuit size resulting from extraneous fingering of I/O circuits and the loss of operating frequency due to the increased capacitance of larger (i.e., wider) I/O circuits. Accordingly, the configurable I/O circuit should configurably support higher voltage lower speed interfaces while also configurably supporting lower voltage higher speed interfaces without increasing design complexity, size, or manufacturing complexity of the IC.

The capacity of a cell to alter its morphology and migrate is inherent to cancer cell metastasis. Although the precise biological mechanisms shaping cellular morphology during metastasis have not been elucidated, it is known that such changes involve cell-matrix interactions and cytoskeletal elements. The involvement of Na+ channels in shaping cellular morphology has been described for neurons (Mattei et al., Journal of Neuroscience Research, 55(6):666-73, 1999). As of yet, the intracellular mechanisms through which Na+ channel activity regulate cancer cellular morphology are unclear, although ion channels have been implicated in several types of cellular behavior that could be related to the different stages of metastasis. These include proliferation, migration, and adhesion/interaction with the cellular matrix. Voltage-gated ion channels, classically associated with impulse conduction in excitable tissues, are also found in a variety of epithelial cell types where their function is not well known. Nine mammalian sodium channel genes have been identified and found to be expressed and functional. These genes are greater than 50% identical in amino acid sequence in the transmembrane and extracellular domains. Recently, several types of voltage-gated ion channels have been discovered in rat and human prostate cancer cells. Several independent studies have also linked a prostate voltage gated sodium (Na+) channel α-subunit with the invasiveness of human prostate cell lines including LNCaP and PC-3 (see Diss, et al., The Prostate, 48:165-178, 2001 and Smith et al., FEBS Letters, 423:19-24, 1998.). Further, electrophysiological studies using a whole-cell patch clamp indicated that the identified prostate cell sodium channel is sensitive to tetrodotoxin (TTX) at 600 nM, identifying the channel as voltage dependent TTX sensitive Na+ channel protein. Comparisons between rodent and human prostate cancer cell lines led to the conclusion that the level of Na+ channel expression is associated positively with the invasiveness of prostate cancer cells in vitro. Encouragingly, both protein and functional studies strongly support sodium channel blockade as a viable mechanism for PCa cell inhibition. Recently, the effect of four anticonvulsants on the secretion of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) by human prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP, DU-145 and PC-3) was measured using ELISA's specific for each protein. The results demonstrated that both phenyloin and carbamazepine, which inactivate voltage-gated sodium channels (NVSC), inhibit the secretion of PSA by LNCaP and IL-6, DU-145 and PC-3 cell lines (Abdul, M. and Hoosein, N., Anticancer Research, 21(3B):2045-8, 2001 May-June). Additionally, the authors demonstrate a reduced capacity to form colonies in Matrigel upon treatment with phenyloin. These data indicate further that sodium channel blockade is a strong candidate for effective treatment of PCa. Experiments using tritiated batrachotoxin (BTX) have revealed an allosteric relationship between BTX and the phenyloin binding site in brain tissue. This relationship led applicant to investigate the neuronal hydantoin receptor in the brain for conformation and lipophilic properties. Since there was little structural data about the phenyloin-binding site on the NVSC, a defined series of compounds was designed, synthesized and evaluated to identify novel Na+ channel blocking agents. Such compounds have utility in treating diseases associated with hyper sodium channel activity, including treating epilepsy, pain, bipolar disease, depression Amytrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and neoplastic disease such as androgen-sensitive and androgen-independent prostate cancer. Prostate neoplasia is the most common cause of cancer in men and the second leading cause of cancer death among men in the U.S. Approximately 189,000 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer and approximately 30,000 will die from this disease in 2002. Human prostate cancer cells express a voltage gated sodium channel, a 260 Kd transmembrane protein that is similar to neuronal subtypes. Whole cell patch clamping experiments indicate that the prostate voltage sodium channel (PVSC) also functions similarly to neuronal subtypes. Significantly, Na+ Channel expression in prostate cancer cells has been correlated positively to invasiveness in the highly metastatic cell line MAT-LyLu (rat). PVSC has been found to be sensitive to Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and it has been reported that TTX inhibits the invasiveness of PC-3 cells (human) by 31% (P=0.02) Laniado, et al. American Journal of Pathology, 150(4): 1213-21, 1997. Furthermore, TTX (6 mM) produces alterations in prostate cancer cell morphology, including a decrease in cell process length, field diameter; increases in cell body diameter and process thickness. S. P. Fraser, Y. Ding, A. Liu, C. S. Foster M. B. A. Djamgoz. Cell Tissue Research. 295: 505-512, 1999 and Grimes J A. Djamgoz M B. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 175(1):50-8, 1998. Therefore, PVSC serves as an effective target for potential prostate cancer therapeutics, thus presenting a need for new inhibitors of this sodium channel.

Up to now, as an ink-jet ink exhibiting good water resistance, there has been an ink which contains a water soluble dye dispersed or dissolved in a high boiling point solvent, and which contains a water soluble dye dissolved in a volatile solvent. However, a dye is inferior to a pigment in resistance characteristics such as light stability, and therefore ink using a pigment as a coloring agent has been required. But, it is difficult to disperse a pigment stably in an organic solvent, and it is also difficult to ensure stable dispersibility and ejectibility. On the other hand, in cases when ink using a high boiling solvent is applied onto a non-absorptive recording medium, a solvent in the ink is not volatized, results in difficulty of drying via evaporation of the solvent. Accordingly, ink using high boiling solvent cannot be printed on a non-absorptive recording medium. Generally, ink using a volatile organic solvent can be properly printed onto a non-absorptive recording medium, due to adhesiveness of resin used and volatilization of the solvent. However, such ink, in which the volatile solvent is a major component, is easily dried at the nozzles of a recording head due to volatilization of the solvent, requiring frequent maintenance. Resistance of ink to some solvents may not be sufficient because the ink essentially requires good solubility in a solvent used. Further, in an on-demand printer using a piezo element, usage of a large amount of a volatile solvent in ink increases frequency of maintenance, and also tends to cause problems of dissolution and swelling of members contacting the ink in the printer. In addition, a volatile solvent has numerous restrictions as a dangerous material under the Fire Defense Law. Consequently, in an on-demand printer using a piezo element, it is necessary to employ ink containing a volatile solvent in a small amount. However, components used in an actinic ray curable ink usually are ones having a relatively high viscosity. Therefore, it has been difficult to design ink having a viscosity capable of being ejected in conventional printers and further having good curability and high stability. In order to overcome the problems described above, an actinic ray curable composition is disclosed (see for example, Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication No. 2001-220526) which contains a cationic photopolymerization initiator, an epoxy compound, a compound having an oxetane ring with a hydroxyl group, and a vinyl ether. In the above document, the epoxy compound and the compound having an oxetane ring with a hydroxyl group both are cationically polymerizable compounds having a solubility parameter (sp value) exceeding 10, and the epoxy compound content of the composition is 47 to 63% by weight based on the total weight of cationically polymerizable compound. An extensive study of the above actinic ray curable composition has been studied, and, as a result, it has been proven that ink of this composition has problems in its curability, strength of a cured layer therefrom, ejection stability from nozzles, its adhesion to a substrate, solvent resistance, and water resistance. Further, an actinic ray curable composition is disclosed (see for example, Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication No. 2002-188035), which contains 10 to 50% by weight of a compound having an oxirane ring, 50 to 90% by weight of a compound having an oxetane ring and 0 to 40% by weight of a vinyl ether. In the patent above document, the compound having an oxirane ring (epoxy compound) is a cationically polymerizable compound having a solubility parameter (sp value) exceeding 10, the epoxy compound content of the composition is not more than 50% by weight based on the total weight of cationically polymerizable compound, and some of the compound having an oxetane ring have an sp value exceeding 8.0, and others have an sp value of not more than 8.0. An extensive study of the above actinic ray curable composition has been studied, and, as a result, it has been proven that ink of this composition containing particularly a compound having an oxetane ring and having an sp value exceeding 8.0 has problems in its curability, strength of a cured layer therefrom, ejection stability from nozzles, its adhesion to a substrate, solvent resistance, and water resistance.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to a viscous fluid coupling device. In particular, the present invention is concerned with a pump plate assembly of a viscous fluid fan clutch for a vehicle. 2. Statement of the Related Art A thermostatically-controlled viscous fluid clutch assembly for driving and rotating a vehicle cooling fan is well-known. A multi-bladed fan is removably secured to a body of the clutch assembly. The fan and clutch assembly are installed between an accessory pulley of a vehicle engine (typically the water pump pulley) and a radiator. The clutch assembly drives the fan at high speeds close to input speed when cooling is required and permits the fan to rotate at low speeds when cooling is not required. Thermostatic control of the fan through the clutch assembly reduces the load on an engine and the noise caused by fan rotation, resulting in horsepower gain and improved fuel economy. Generally, a clutch plate, housed within the clutch assembly, having lands and grooves is mated to the body having complementary lands and grooves. A pump plate separates a pair of internally-contained chambers, a receiving chamber and a collecting chamber, from a reservoir. Gates in the pump plate permit selective flow of a viscous fluid from the reservoir to the receiving chamber and into a shear zone between the lands and grooves of the body and clutch plate. Fluid shear in the lands and grooves transfers input torque from the clutch plate to drive the body and the attached fan. When cooling is not required, gates in the pump plate are closed and the fluid in the shear zone is pumped into the receiving chamber. Orifices in the pump plate permit passage of the fluid from the receiving chamber into the reservoir. The removal of a majority of the fluid from the shear zone substantially reduces the shear between the clutch plate and the body, thereby substantially reducing the rotation of the fan. When an engine is not running, fluid in the reservoir may settle at an equilibrium level in a conventional clutch assembly. Fluid pressure may cause the migration of fluid from the reservoir into the receiving chamber through the pump plate orifices and into the shear zone. When an engine is next started, fluid that has migrated into the shear zone results in annoying high-speed operation of the fan. Such high-speed operation creates unwanted noise from the fan blades. Also, excessive rotation of the fan of a cold engine increases the engine warm-up period. The art continues to seek improvements. It is desirable that a viscous fluid clutch assembly provide thermostatic operation of a fan when cooling is required. Furthermore, it is desirable that a clutch assembly prevent the migration of fluid from a reservoir to the shear zone when the engine is not in operation, thereby eliminating high-speed operation and unwanted fan noise when a cold engine is started.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an apparatus and method for allocating resources in a mobile communication system, and in particular, to a resource allocation apparatus and method for efficiently transmitting Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) packets in a mobile communication system. 2. Description of the Related Art Wireless communication systems have been developed to cope with the situation where it is not possible to connect a fixed wire network up to terminals. The typical wireless communication systems include not only the normal mobile communication system for providing voice and data services, but also a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), a Wireless Broadband Internet (Wibro), a Mobile Ad-Hoc network, etc. Mobile communication, unlike the normal wireless communication, is premised on mobility of users. The ultimate aim of mobile communication is to enable users to exchange information and media at anytime and anyplace using Mobile Stations (MSs) such as a portable phone, a Personal Data Assistant (PDA), and a radio pager. With the rapid development of communication technology, the mobile communication system has reached a phase of providing not only the normal voice call services but also high-speed data services in which the transmission of high-volume digital data such as moving images as well as e-mail and still images is possible using the mobile terminals. In addition, due to various user demands for high-quality services, there is an increasing need for a communication system capable of efficiently providing high-speed packet data services. In order to meet the need, many companies are looking for a new method capable of reducing the cost related to providing voice services without depriving the convenience of and familiarity with the existing services from the users. The cost reduction accelerates integration of the data network and the voice network, and a careful system design and planning is needed to prevent the integration of the data network and the voice network from affecting the quality and reliability of the voice network. In this context, Voice over IP (VoIP) is now under discussion, which transmits voice packets over a packet network. Traffic characteristics of the VoIP service will now be described with reference to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating traffic characteristics of a VoIP service in a normal mobile communication system, in which an Adaptive Multirate Codec (AMR) vocoder generates traffic. The generation period and traffic size of voice data, though they are subject to change according to the vocoder type, have the following characteristics. A period where traffic exists is called a talkspurt period 101, while the other period is called a silent period 103. The vocoder generates packet data with a predetermined size every 20 ms 102 in the talkspurt period 101, and generates a Silent Indicator (SID) having a fixed size every 160 ms 104 in the silent period 103. While a size of the voice data is about 40 bytes even at the full rate, a size of the normal Internet data is several hundreds to several thousands of bytes. Therefore, it can be considered that the size of the voice data is significantly greater than the size of the normal Internet data. Transmitting a Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) for transmitting scheduling information or resource allocation information at every transmission time in order to transmit small-sized voice data generated every 20 ms 102 can be significant signaling overhead. Therefore, a persistent resource allocation method or a persistent scheduling method has been proposed to efficiently support the services having the foregoing characteristics. With reference to FIG. 2, a description will now be made of the persistent resource allocation method or the persistent scheduling method. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a persistent scheduling method in a normal mobile communication system. A terminal is allocated particular time and particular resource in the entire 20-ms period through upper layer signaling or PDCCH. In the case of FIG. 2, the terminal is allocated persistent resources in three Transmission Time Intervals (TTIs). The persistent resources can be identified through upper layer signaling or PDCCH during call setup. In the latter case, the PDCCH needs to have bit information indicating whether the corresponding resource allocation is the dynamic resource allocation or the persistent resource allocation. It can be noted in FIG. 2 that 3 TTIs 201, 202 and 203 are allocated at intervals of 5 ms for the 20-ms period using the persistent resource allocation method, and it can be appreciated that a total of 4 transmission opportunities can be given considering a Hybrid Automatic Repeat reQuest (HARQ) Round Trip Time (RTT). However, in the case of FIG. 2, the third one of the transmission opportunities is persistently allocated. Then the terminal attempts demodulation of a Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH), over which data is transmitted, at particular times 201, 202 and 203 where the resources are allocated, using information on the previously persistently allocated resources even when there is no PDCCH information transmitted to the terminal. However, the foregoing normal persistent resource allocation method or persistent scheduling method should always persistently allocate resources as many times as the required number of transmissions, causing a reduction in the scheduling flexibility and the total resource efficiency. In order to solve this problem, a new method is now under discussion, in which a transmission side allocates resources using the persistent resource allocation method only for initial transmission, and when retransmission occurs, as it has failed to receive a Not-Acknowledge (NACK) message indicating a failure to receive data from a reception side, the transmission side performs dynamic resource allocation using PDCCH. With reference to FIG. 3, a description will now be made of the initial transmission-limited persistent resource allocation method. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a method of using persistent scheduling only for initial transmission in a normal mobile communication system. In FIG. 3, a base station allocates resources with the persistent resource allocation method only in one TTI in the 20-ms period as shown by reference numerals 303 and 306. A terminal can perceive that the base station allocates resources with the persistent resource allocation method always at the initial time 303 in the 20-ms period, and when the base station fails in its transmission of resource allocation information caused by the persistent resource allocation method at the initial time, the base station transmits resource allocation information or scheduling information using PDCCH 301 as shown by reference numerals 309, 310, 311 and 312. When the terminal perceives that there is resource allocation information transmitted thereto through PDCCH 301 at the transmission times 309, 310, 311 and 312, the terminal receives data 304, 305, 307 and 308 through resources indicated by the resource allocation information transmitted at the transmission times 309, 310, 311 and 312. In FIG. 3, the base station allocates resources with the persistent scheduling method at the predetermined transmission times 303 and 306, and performs resource allocation dynamically at the transmission times 309, 310, 311 and 312, and the terminal receives data through the resources 304, 305, 307 and 308 indicated by resource allocation information for the dynamically allocated resources. However, since the method, shown in FIG. 3, which allocates resources with the persistent resource allocation method only for the initial transmission and allocates resources dynamically for the next transmissions, increases the required number of PDCCHs as the number of retransmissions at the transmission side increases, the method may also increase the signaling overhead as in the dynamic resource allocation scheme. At a low initial transmission Block Error Rate (BLER), the number of terminals performing retransmission is small. However, the normal system has difficulty in maintaining the low initial transmission BLER for the following four reasons. 1. Inaccuracy of Selecting Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) Level When performing persistent resource allocation for initial transmission, the base station fixes not only the position and amount of wireless resources but also the MCS level. In the downlink, the terminal makes a decision (selection) based on received Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) information, and in the uplink, the base station makes a decision based on the pilot transmitted by the terminal. In this case, a measurement error on CQI and pilot strength may occur. When a moving velocity of the terminal is high, the measurement error will increase considerably. Since this value is not correct, it is difficult to select an MCS level so that the base station can maintain a low BLER. 2. Instability of Power Control There is a need to maintain a constant reception power level through power control in order to maintain the scheduled MCS. To this end, it is necessary to measure CQI or pilot. However, a measurement error on the CQI or pilot occurs due to the measurement error or the velocity of the terminal, making it difficult to perform perfect power control. 3. Inter-Cell Interference Even though an MCS level was correctly selected, if inter-cell interference measured during the decision is different from inter-cell interference during actual transmission, it is not possible to satisfy the desired BLER. Since an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) system is significantly susceptible to interference compared to the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system, the OFDMA system has more difficulty in maintaining a low initial BLER. 4. Power Shortage of Terminals Located in Cell Boundary In the uplink, a terminal located in the cell boundary may not support a high data rate or a high initial transmission BLER due to a power shortage. In this case, the terminal can transmit data with low transmission power if the terminal increases an initial data rate and transmits the data after dividing it into several segments.

The present invention relates to a method for the preparation of a polyurea resin. More particularly, the invention relates to a method for the preparation of a polyurea resin having a high hardness and usefulness as a molding material of various kinds of rollers, e.g., calendering rollers, used in the industries of paper, fabrics, magnetic tapes and the like, casters and the like as well as excellent heat resistance by the reaction of a polyamine compound and a polyisocyanate compound. As is disclosed in Japanese Patent Kokai 63-202612, a method is known for the preparation of a high-hardness polyurea resin having usefulness as a material of high-hardness rollers and the like, in which an aromatic polyamine compound such as a derivative of aminobenzoic acid and a polyisocyanate are reacted. This method, however, is not quite satisfactory because the hardness of the polyurea resin prepared by this method is not high enough for the purpose although the resin obtained by the method is excellent in respect of the impact strength and heat resistance. Alternatively, a proposal is made in Japanese Patent Kokai 64-1715, according to which a polyurea resin is prepared by the reaction of an aromatic polyamine compound and a cyclic trimer of an aliphatic polyisocyanate compound. Although the resin obtained by this method has a sufficiently high hardness, the resin cannot be used in practical applications where high toughness of the resin is required because of the very poor impact strength of the resin. Thus, no prior art method has been established by which a polyurea resin having a high hardness and excellent heat resistance and still having good impact strength suitable for practical applications can be easily prepared.

Generally, all the stirring heads of a same cabinet are simultaneously driven, and users of paint cans will grasp one of the cans and then put it back in place without having to take any particular care and without resulting in an interruption of working of the corresponding stirring head.

1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a production method for a ceramic structure or a ceramic honeycomb structure. The method includes extrusion a ceramic material by use of a dedicated die. The invention particularly relates to an improvement of a extrusion rate during extrusion. 2. Description of the Related Art A honeycomb structure assembled into an exhaust gas purification apparatus of an automobile, for example, is one of the structures produced from ceramics such as cordierite (refer, for example, to Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 8-11528). This honeycomb structure includes a cylindrical outer cladding, partitions arranged in grid form inside the outer cladding and a large number of cells separated by partitions and penetrating in an axial direction. To produce this ceramic honeycomb structure, a ceramic material containing ceramic powder, water, a binder and a lubricant is mixed and kneaded, extruded, and then dried and sintered. In the honeycomb structure described above, it has been required to reduce the thickness of the partitions and the cell width in order to improve the performance of the exhaust gas purification apparatus. To satisfy this required, the slit width for forming the partitions must be reduced in the die used for extrusion. However, the reduction of the slit width of the die for extrusion affects an extrusion step and eventually, productivity of an overall production process. In other words, when extrusion is conducted by use of an extruder using a die that has a reduced slit width, an extrusion pressure at the same extrusion rate is higher than when the slit width is great. Therefore, so long as the extruder having the same pressurization performance as that of existing extruders is employed, the extrusion rate unavoidably drops. The drop of this extrusion rate governs the overall production process of the honeycomb structure, and productivity drops. The extrusion rate can be improved to a certain extent when a bigger extruder is used to increase the pressure. In this case, however, the temperature of the resulting molding rises and the shape of the extrusion cannot be retained. Therefore, a cooler for cooling the extruder must be added or the capacity of the cooler must be increased. As a result, the setup cost increases. When the pressurization force is excessively increased, the die used for extrusion is broken, or extrusion defect occurs due to deflection of the die. Therefore, an increase in the pressurization force is limited. For these reasons, development of a technology that can acquire a higher extrusion rate at a lower extrusion pressure than ever has been desired to extrude a honeycomb structure as the ceramic structure described above. In other words, when a extrusion pressure and a extrusion rate are plotted on the abscissa and the ordinate, respectively, and their relation is expressed by a graph, and when the gradient (rate/pressure) is defined as “extrusion rate efficiency”, development of a technology capable of increasing this extrusion rate coefficient has been desired. If such a technology was available, the technology could be applied to the production of ceramic structures, having a sheet form and various other forms, besides the honeycomb structure described above.

Photoactivation devices irradiate a target substance, site or compound. They are useful in a variety of areas such as oncology, photography, industrial photocuring, and other commercial applications. Current medical therapies, for example, use photoactivation devices to irradiate photosensitizers (molecules which can absorb light to produce a chemical reaction which would not occur in their absence). In response to light, photosensitizers catalyze oxidation and/or reduction of certain chemical moieties. Such reactions can be identified in skin diseases of phototoxicity in humans, livestock, and experimental animals; light-activated pesticides; and medical treatments including photochemotherapy and phototherapy of jaundice, herpes simplex and psoriasis. It has been shown that photosensitizers can cause cell death, DNA damage, protein damage, membrane damage, mutagenesis, and tumor destruction. Oncologists capitalize on this phenomena by introducing photosensitizers to tumor sites in localized concentrations. The site is subsequently exposed to light resulting in the generation of singlet oxygen which destroys the cancer cells and vasculature. Photosensitizer chemistry is also used in genetic, proteomic and other biochemical analysis. See, for example, International Application No. WO 01/83502 demonstrating multiplexed assays using photoactive compounds. These assays are based on releasable labels (e.g. fluorescent, electrochemical, etc,) that are connected to targets or probes by cleavable linkages. By using the sensitizer chemistries to cleave the label, detectable signals are generated which can be used to monitor binding or hybridization events such as antibody/antigen reactions, enzyme/substrate interaction, probe/target hybridization, and protein/receptor binding. For purposes of sample handling and general convenience, it is desirable to conduct these assays in a conventional microtiter or multiwell plate. Various types of light sources can be used to carry out the above mentioned applications. An example of one light-emitting device which may be used in photocuring and phototherapy applications is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,634,711 (the '711 patent). In the '711 patent, a hand-held portable light emitting device features an array of light emitting diodes and a tapered optical assembly to direct light from the array of light emitting diodes at a photoreaction site. U.S. Pat. No. 5,445,608 (the '608 patent) also discloses a light emitting device that can be used in phototherapy applications. In the '608 patent, an implantable probe has an array of light emitting diodes mounted on a bar inside the implantable probe. The probe is normally intended to be implanted inside a patient's body to irradiate a treatment site. Lamps are also used to irradiate photoactive compounds. Lamps however are bulky and generate unwanted heat. Excess heat can damage the target site or fixture. For example, excess heat can melt (or soften) a sample holding structure such as a multiwell plate in multiplexed assays. Excess heat also can destroy the samples within the wells. Another drawback of excess heat is that each reaction site (e.g., each well of a multiwell plate) receives an unequal amount of light. That is, there is an uneven distribution of light from well to well because the distance between the light source and each well is different. Consequently, the samples contained within the wells receive an unequal amount of light. A uniform distribution of light is desirable in assays that generate varying results based upon their exposure to light. None of the above discussed light emitting devices provide for the features and advantages of the present invention as described hereinafter. It is therefore desirable to provide an apparatus and method for uniformly delivering separate light to individual wells such that each sample is separately irradiated. Still other advantages of the present invention will become apparent upon reading the following disclosure in combination with the drawings.

The transmission bit rate in switching equipment is technologically limited by the switching speed of the switching elements utilized in the switching equipment, whereas higher transmission bit rates are definitely possible on the links between the switching equipment. An article in the reference Nachrichtentechnische Zeitschrift, Vol. 43 (1990), No. 11, pages 810-815 discloses a switching network for switching message cells that are transmitted according to the ATM (asynchronous transfer mode) principle. Given this modularly structured switching network, the modules are connected to one another via connecting lines or links on which the transmission bit rate is four times higher than in the switching elements of the modules. Further, the message cells in this switching network are respectively subdivided into segments and provided with destination information that describes the switching network output to which the respective message cell should proceed. On the basis of this destination information, the output to be used and, thus, further path to the next switching element in the next stage of the switching network, is individually defined in every switching element for every message cell. Given what is thus referred to as "self-routing switching network", the destination information carried along by every message cell is interpreted in every switching element of the switching network. As a result every message cell, so to speak, itself seeks its route to the appertaining switching network output. In addition to incurring the outlay for interpreting the destination information to be undertaken in every switching element, this switching network design also requires a constant availability of information about the current switching network configuration in the switching elements, resulting in a relatively high complexity of the switching elements. The present invention resolves the problem of avoiding the aforementioned disadvantages.

New approaches are urgently needed to improve agricultural production, given the steadily growing global population that is predicted to reach 6-9 billion persons by mid-century, the continual strain on existing and finite agricultural lands, and the recent diversion of valuable agricultural land from production of crops to production of biomass for fuels. Here we describe new approaches that may serve to generically increase agricultural production by stemming the adverse effects of microorganisms on plants. Melander and coworkers recently reported a study wherein they identified novel synthetic compounds that inhibit biofilm formation (Huigens, R. W., III; Richards, J. J.; Parise, G.; Ballard, T. E.; Zeng, W.; Deora, R.; Melander, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 6966-6967). Biofilms are communities of microorganisms (primarily bacteria but also can include archaea, protozoa, and algae) anchored to a surface (Molecular Ecology of Biofilms; McLean, J. C.; Decho, A. W., Eds, Horizon Scientific Press: Norfolk England, 2002.; see also “Biofilm” in Wikipedia). It is estimated that the majority of all bacteria are present in biofilms rather than in free-swimming (planktonic) form. The inspiration for the Melander paper stemmed in part from recognition that marine natural products that serve as antifouling agents or antifeedants function to inhibit biofilm formation. The marine organisms in particular are marine sponges, which have long been recognized as valuable sources of bioactive compounds (Thakur, N. L.; Muller, W. E. G. Curr. Sci. 2004, 86, 1506-1512). Moreover, the authors identified a common structural motif in a variety of such marine natural products, a 2-aminoimidazole, and hypothesized that the imidazole moiety, in conjunction with an annulated ring, constituted the core pharmacophore of the marine product. Synthetic analogues of this core unit proved to exhibit high activity in the inhibition of biofilm formation. The five main crops on which modern societies depend most heavily include corn, cotton, rice, soybeans, and wheat. All of these crops are affected in a deleterious manner by biofilm formation. In addition, other valuable plants such as those producing fruits and vegetables are similarly affected. Plants grown for biomass stand to increase as a valuable crop, albeit not for food, and also can benefit from protection from biofilm formation. Forestry crops also suffer from biofilms.

The disclosed embodiments generally relate to the field of data base management, and more particularly to clustering a set of documents in a document repository into cluster groups, and then organizing the clustered groups into an ordered reading list based upon the relational strength and usefulness to a topic. Such an ordered reading list comprises a document trail for efficient topical reading by a user. The documents are displayed to a reader/user with visual cues associated with document fragments indicating characteristic aspects of the fragment. The ability to store documents electronically has led to an information explosion. Information bases such as the Internet, corporate digital data networks, electronic government record warehouses, and so forth, store vast quantities of information, which motivates development of effective information organization systems. Two commonly used organizational approaches are categorization and clustering. In categorization, a set of classes are predefined, and documents are grouped into classes based on content similarity measures. Clustering is similar, except that no predefined classes are defined, rather, documents are grouped or clustered based on similarity, and groups of similar documents define the set of classes. U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,539,653 and 7,711,747 are typical examples of clustering techniques. The use of such clustering management system to facilitate organization, or even when such documents are organized into groups manually, is usually followed by readers/users of the clustered groups manually reading through the data of the documents therein, and then making subjective judgment calls about whether or not a document is relevant or useful to a related topic. The problem involved is that such a judgment can only occur by the manual reading of the entire document itself. Manual reading of related documents usually involves a lot of wasted time due to document redundancies and overlap. It is not uncommon for each document in a series to have much duplicate information already provided by documents earlier in the series. People reading such a series of documents often must spend a significant amount of time trying to determine what novel content exists in each subsequent document in the series. This frequently leads to “skimming” where readers attempt to quickly parse documents at some level of granularity (e.g., by paragraph) to try to quickly determine if the information provided is novel or useful. This can lead to a waste of time and missed information. Many proposed solutions in the conceptual space shared by the subject embodiments attempt to make decisions on behalf of a user. Documents are split into fragments of information (typically at the paragraph level) and those fragments are grouped into categories by topic. Sophisticated text analysis techniques are used to determine whether two paragraphs (often written by different authors in different documents) convey the same basic idea. In many cases, information fragments deemed “redundant” are discarded before the user has a chance to see and decide. This can result in a loss of context. Stitching fragments from different documents (written in different voices by different authors, with potentially different sentiments and points of view) can result in a compilation of difficult to understand and cobbled together concepts. Additionally, many solutions in this space use “seed documents” or search engine results to determine the starting position and ranking order of the documents, which loses contextual information such as chronology or dependency. Thus, there is a need for improved systems and methods for further organizing a document repository for more efficient reader/user review of accessible documents by minimizing presented overlap, redundancy or non-useful information, and highlighting desired new, particularly useful or strongly related information to the desired topic. Such needed systems and methods would keep the original documents in the document trail sequence completely intact and only highlight the fragments of information and the preselected intended characteristic aspects using clear visual cues that allow the users to immediately identify at least information in the following categories: New—information that appears later in the document sequence, but is seen for the first time in the current document. Novel—unique information that only appears in the current document; Redundant—duplicate information that has appeared previously in the document sequence; and, Current position in the trail—where the document that the reader is currently reviewing exists in the overall trail of documents. The present embodiments are directed to solving one or more of the specified problems and providing a fulfillment of the desired needs.

1. Field of the Invention One embodiment of the present invention relates to a semiconductor device including an oxide semiconductor, and a manufacturing method thereof. One embodiment of the present invention is not limited to the above technical field. The technical field of one embodiment of the invention disclosed in this specification and the like relates to an object, a method, or a manufacturing method. One embodiment of the present invention relates to a process, a machine, manufacture, or a composition of matter. Specifically, examples of the technical field of one embodiment of the present invention disclosed in this specification include a semiconductor device, a display device, a liquid crystal display device, a light-emitting device, a lighting device, a power storage device, a memory device, a method for driving any of them, and a method for manufacturing any of them. In this specification and the like, a semiconductor device generally means a device that can function by utilizing semiconductor characteristics. A transistor and a semiconductor circuit are embodiments of semiconductor devices. In some cases, a memory device, a display device, or an electronic device includes a semiconductor device. 2. Description of the Related Art A technique by which a transistor is formed using a semiconductor thin film formed over a substrate having an insulating surface has been attracting attention. The transistor is used in a wide range of electronic devices such as an integrated circuit (IC) or an image display device (also simply referred to as a display device). A silicon-based semiconductor material is widely known as a material for a semiconductor thin film applicable to the transistor, but an oxide semiconductor has been attracting attention as an alternative material. For example, a technique for manufacturing a transistor using zinc oxide or an In—Ga—Zn-based oxide semiconductor as an oxide semiconductor is disclosed (see Patent Documents 1 and 2). In recent years, demand for integrated circuits in which semiconductor elements such as miniaturized transistors are integrated with high density has risen with increased performance and reductions in the size and weight of electronic devices.

The use of computer systems and computer-related technologies continues to increase at a rapid pace. This increased use of computer systems has influenced the advances made to computer-related technologies. Indeed, computer systems have increasingly become an integral part of the business world and the activities of individual consumers. Computers have opened up an entire industry of internet shopping. In many ways, online shopping has changed the way consumers purchase products. For example, a consumer may want to know what they will look like in and/or with a product. On the webpage of a certain product, a photograph of a model with the particular product may be shown. However, users may want to see more accurate depictions of themselves in relation to various products.

1. Field The present devices and methods relate generally to ambulatory infusion pumps. 2. Description of the Related Art Ambulatory infusion pumps (also referred to herein simply as “infusion pumps”) are relatively small, at least substantially self-contained devices that are used to introduce drugs and other infusible substances (collectively “medicament”) into patients' bodies. Some infusion pumps are configured to be worn on a belt or carried in a clothing pocket. Other infusion pumps are configured to be adhered to skin in patch-like fashion. Infusion pumps are advantageous in that they may be used to, for example, subcutaneously introduce (or “infuse”) medicament on an ongoing or even continuous basis outside of a clinical environment. Infusion pumps are also advantageous in that they greatly reduce the frequency of subcutaneous access events such as needle-based shots. One example of a medicament that may be introduced by an infusion pump is a liquid formulation of insulin. Other exemplary medicaments that may be introduced by an infusion pump include, but are not limited to, drugs that treat cancers and drugs that suppress the perception of pain. Many conventional infusion pumps have improved patient health and quality of life. Nevertheless, the present inventors have determined that conventional infusion pumps are susceptible to a wide range of improvements. By way of example, but not limitation, the present inventors have determined that it would be desirable to provide an infusion pump that is smaller, more accurate and/or provides more operational flexibility than conventional infusion pumps.

Not applicable. Not applicable. The present invention relates to ink pads used with rubber stamps and, more particularly, to handles for ink pads used in artistic rubber stamping. The stamping industry is divided into two distinct fields: the art stamping field and the industrial stamping field. In the industrial field, the impression to be formed usually comprises a single word or phrase formed in a single color. The rubber stamps used for this purpose are of limited size, normally fitting within the dimensions of a standard-sized inkpad. In the art stamping field, on the other hand, the goal is to form an artistic image. There are wide variations in the size and design of rubber stamps used for this purpose. Many of these rubber stamps are quite large in size, extending beyond the dimensions of a standard sized inkpad. For these large rubber stamps, inkpads have been designed which have raised foam pads, which are impregnated with ink. The rubber stamp can be tamped onto the inkpad without being limited by the dimensions of the inkpad base. The limitation of this method is that the artist cannot see if the rubber stamp has been completely covered with ink in the desired way. Therefore, most rubber stamp artists prefer to place the rubber stamp face up on a table and turn the inkpad so that the ink side is facing down. They then grasp the inkpad by the sides of the case and tamp the inkpad onto the rubber stamp, thereby being able to see exactly where the ink is being applied. The disadvantage of this approach is that the fingers extend beyond the edges of the inkpad, invariably coming into contact with the inked surface of the rubber stamp. The ink from the fingers may inadvertently transfer to the artwork, ruining a work of art that might have been time-consuming to create. Given the different goals underlying the use of rubber stamps in the art stamping field and in the industrial stamping field, most products designed for use in one field are not appropriate for use in the other field. This division between the two stamping fields is accentuated by the difference in the marketing and distribution channels for the two sets of products: art stamping supplies are usually sold through art, hobby supply, or gift stores, while industrial stamping supplies are usually available in office supply outlets. The present invention is particularly effective when used in the field of art stamping. As briefly mentioned above, in the art-stamping field there are wide variations in the size and design of rubber stamps used. Specialized inkpads have been developed to accommodate them. The most commonly available specialized inkpads have a raised foam surface that is impregnated with ink. An example of an inkpad designed to accommodate the problem of transferring ink to fingers, is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,870,953 to Winston (1997) which is marketed under the name xe2x80x9cColorbox Options Platesxe2x80x9d. In this configuration, inkpads made of foam strips are arranged on a plastic base and can be impregnated with various ink colors. The small pads have a peg handle that protrudes from the bottom of the pad and serves to anchor it to the base, as well as being able to serve as a handle for a rubber stamp artist who wants to use it to tamp onto a rubber stamp. There are several disadvantages to this system, the primary one being that the inkpads must be manufactured specifically to this design. Another disadvantage of the aforementioned configuration is that the peg design of the handle is uncomfortable to hold after a short time. Additionally, in order for the user to release the xe2x80x9cOptionsxe2x80x9d plate, the plate needs to be reinserted into the base unit, a process that often results in transferring ink to the user""s fingers. Several devices exist in unrelated fields which use the hook and loop fasteners used in the present invention to attach handles to various objects. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,850,502 to Davis (1986), a detachable handle system for carrying containers is described which consists of two handles mounted to the sides of a container by hook and loop fasteners. U.S. Pat. No. 4,202,139 to Hong, et al. (1980) discloses a hand held sanding pad. Sand paper is adhered to one surface of the sanding pad and hook and loop fasteners are used to attach a soft, conformable handle to the opposite surface of the sanding pad. The object of the present invention is the provision of a novel and improved detachable handle for conveniently grasping and lifting an inkpad without getting ink on one""s fingers. The objects and advantages of the present invention are: (a) to provide a handle for conveniently grasping and lifting an inkpad to apply ink to a rubber stamp without getting ink on one""s fingers (b) to provide a handle system that fits existing inkpads, thus providing an economical solution to the problem without the need to purchase a specially manufactured inkpad (c) to permit conventional (ink side up) use and storage of the inkpad when the handle is removed (d) to provide a handle that is ergonomic and comfortable to use (e) to provide a handle that may be removed with a minimum of effort My invention provides a detachable handle for any existing inkpad, thus providing the rubber stamp artist with the ability to use the handle with inkpads that they already own, making it economical. Further objects and advantages are: to provide a handle which is simple to use and inexpensive to manufacture, which can be packaged with multiple bases thus enabling one handle to be used with many inkpads, and is of such a size as to fit standard sized inkpads despite small variations in design of said inkpads.

The present invention relates to an ultrasonic washing apparatus having a sound pressure sensor for detecting an ultrasonic wave for washing generated by an ultrasonic vibrator. In a prior ultrasonic washing apparatus, a housing has a central hollow portion and an inclined hollow portion, A nozzle is formed at the end of the inclined portion, and a step portion is formed in the central hollow portion. An ultrasonic vibrator is mounted on the step portion, A high frequency oscillator is connected to the ultrasonic vibrator through connected lines, and a liquid flowing inlet is connected to the central hollow portion of the housing and to a liquid supply means. When a liquid as a washing liquid is supplied to the housing by the liquid supply means and the oscillating output from the high frequency oscillator is applied to the ultrasonic vibrator, liquid with ultrasonic waves flows from the nozzle of the housing, and a surface of an object such as a semiconductor placed in the front of the nozzle is washed by the liquid and ultrasonic waves. In this ultrasonic washing apparatus, since a sound pressure sensor is large, the sound pressure sensor must be placed at the position of the object for detecting the ultrasonic waves in the liquid flowing from the nozzle of the housing, and the voltage detected by. the sound pressure sensor is measured by a voltmeter. Therefore, the ultrasonic waves in the liquid cannot be detected by the sound pressure sensor when the object is washed.

An air filter designed to remove particulate is generally a device composed of fibrous materials. These fibrous materials may remove solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air. Air filters are used in applications where air quality is important, notably in building ventilation systems and in engines. Air filters may be used in automobiles, trucks, tractors, locomotives and other vehicles that use internal combustion engines. Air filters may be used with gasoline engines, diesel engines, or other engines that run on fossil fuels or other combustible substances. Air filters may be used with engines in which combustion is intermittent, such as four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, as well as other types of engines that take in air so that a combustible substance may be burned. For example, air filters may be used with some gas turbines. Filters may also be used with air compressors or in other devices that take in air. Filters may be made from pleated paper, foam, cotton, spun fiberglass, or other known filter materials. Generally the air intakes of internal combustion engines and compressors tend to use either: paper, foam, or cotton filters. Some filters use an oil bath. Air filters for internal combustion engines prevents abrasive particulate matter from entering the engine's cylinders, where it would cause mechanical wear and oil contamination. Many fuel injected engines utilize a flat panel pleated paper filter element. This filter is usually placed inside an enclosed, plastic box connected to a throttle body by way of ductwork. Vehicles that use carburetors or throttle body fuel injection systems typically use a cylindrical air filter positioned above the carburetor or the throttle body. A drawback to enclosed air boxes that require flat panel paper filters is that as particulate matter builds up in the filter, air flow through the filter becomes restricted. Such a restricted air flow generally leads to a reduction in engine performance, such as a decrease in engine power output and a greater fuel consumption. Moreover, as the paper filter becomes increasingly clogged, pressure inside the filter decreases while the atmospheric air pressure outside the filter remains the same. When the difference in pressure becomes too great, contaminants may be drawn through the paper filter directly into the engine. Thus, the ability of the paper filter to protect the engine from contamination and internal damage tends to decrease near the end of the filter's service life. Typically, paper air filters are removed from the vehicle and discarded, and a new paper air filter is then installed. Considering that there are millions of vehicles throughout the world, the volume of discarded air filters that could be eliminated from landfills is a staggering number. Another drawback to enclosed air boxes is that they typically conduct air through a tortuous path of hoses or ductwork before the air enters the intake of the engine. In some cases, the air box is a greater source of air restriction than is the paper filter. Similar to a contaminated air filter, a restrictive air box decreases engine performance and fuel economy. What is needed, therefore, is an air intake system which exhibits reduced air resistance and includes an air filter which may be periodically cleaned and reused.

1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the field of data communication and more particularly to the use of optimization methodologies to enhance the results of facsimile transmission. 2. Background Art In today's fast-paced business environment, a major portions of many workers' responsibilities include the receipt and processing of information. Data, in the form of letters memos, reports, charts, graphs, etc., arrives in many forms in many different locations. Much of this information is presently transmitted, received, and processed using electronic data transmission technologies. For example, email, instant messaging, digital voice communication, etc. are becoming increasingly popular methods of transmitting information. While significant quantities of data and information are readily available in a digital format, paper remains a viable method for communicating information in the modern world. Despite the rapid growth of email and instant messaging as communication tools, facsimile transmission remains a very popular solution for rapid transmission of data from one place to another. Facsimile machines remain a staple of most business offices and many workers still rely on facsimile transmission, even when other communication methodologies are available. Facsimile transmissions enjoy many advantages over other forms of information transmission. For example, no expensive computer system is required for sending or receiving a facsimile transmission. Given that facsimile machines use standard phone lines for communicating, the installation and support of a facsimile machine is a fairly simple task that can be completed very quickly. Additionally, most office workers are very familiar with the operation of a facsimile machine and need little training or supervision to accomplish the task. A standard facsimile transmission is accomplished by placing a document into a facsimile machine and, using the facsimile machine, scanning the image to create an electronic data file. The electronic data file is then transmitted over standard phone lines to the receiving facsimile machine where the data file is interpreted and printed out onto paper by the receiving facsimile machine. The process is fairly straightforward and can be accomplished quickly and efficiently by many readily available facsimile machines. Given the widespread proliferation and acceptance of the facsimile machine, it is not surprising to learn that facsimile transmission is still one of the most widely used methods of data transmission found in the world today. However, even though facsimile transmission remains very popular, there are several factors that must be addressed when adopting facsimile transmission for certain applications. For example, most facsimile machines have a wide variety of settings that allow for the configuration of the machine for different purposes. Settings such as “fine,” “superfine,” etc. can affect the quality of the As shown by the discussion herein, without additional improvements in the systems and methods utilized in locating and processing information for users, search results provided by standard search engines will continue to be sub-optimal, at least for certain classes of users and certain types of searches.

The present invention relates to vehicles such as utility vehicles, golf cars and NEVS, and more particularly to mechanisms for limiting vehicle speed or engine speed. Speed control systems for vehicles such as golf cars and utility vehicles are known and are used to limit the maximum speed of the vehicle. Generally, these speed control systems operate by either limiting maximum vehicle travel speed, or “ground” speed, or alternatively limiting the maximum speed of the vehicle engine.

V0-contacts are contact vias which are used as vertical interconnects between the source/drain of CMOS devices and the metal lines in multilevel interconnect schemes. In prior art FeRAM memories, in order to simplify process development, a huge space is designed in between the V0-contact and the capacitor side wall to avoid shorts and capacitor damage. FIG. 1 shows a top view of a conventional layout of a V0-mask 101, TW-mask 103, TE-mask 105 and BE-mask 107 of a FeRAM memory chip mask 110. There is a huge space between the V0-mask 101 and the masks 103, 105, 107. FIG. 2 shows a cross-sectional view of the conventional layout of an FeRAM memory chip 200. A cover layer 201 (solid line) is over a BE-mask 107 (the cover layer can be Al2O3, for example). The TE 207 and a bottom electrode BE 209 sandwich a PZT ferroelectric layer 211 forming a ferroelectric capacitor 213 of a capacitor stack 223 of the FeRAM memory chip 200. An encapsulation layer 216 (solid line) is deposited onto the TE 207 prior to depositing the TE-mask 105. An encapsulation layer 215 (solid line) covers the ferroelectric capacitor 213. The cover layer 201 and encapsulation layers 215, 216 help protect the ferroelectric capacitor 213 from damage. A TW-contact 205 extends through the cover layer 201, TE-mask 105, and the encapsulation layers 215, 216, to provide an electrical connection to a top electrode TE 207. A CS-contact 223 provides a contact to the source/drain of a CMOS device. A V0-contact 221 passes though a dielectric covering 222 and connects electrically to the CS-contact 223. As can be seen, there is a huge space between the V0-contact 221 and a capacitor stack contact 223, making the memory chip 200 large. In the prior art, despite the cover and encapsulation layers, this huge space has been necessary to prevent short circuits and capacitor damage. It would be desirable to reduce the size of the memory cell and overall FeRAM chip without the resulting short circuits or capacitor damage.

The tumor-necrosis factor (TNF)-related cytokines are mediators of host defense and immune regulation. Members of this family exist in membrane-anchored forms, acting locally through cell-to-cell contact, or as secreted proteins capable of diffusing to more distant targets. A parallel family of receptors signals the presence of these molecules leading to the initiation of cell death or cellular proliferation and differentiation in the target tissue. Presently, the TNF family of ligands and receptors has at least 11 recognized receptor-ligand pairs, including: TNF:TNF-R; LT-α:TNF-R; LT-α/β:LT-β-R; FasL:Fas; CD40L:CD40; CD30L:CD30; CD27L:CD27; OX40L:OX40 and 4-1BBL:4-1BB. TNF family members can best be described as master switches in the immune system controlling both cell survival and differentiation. Only TNF and LT-α are currently recognized as secreted cytokines contrasting with the other predominantly membrane-anchored members of the TNF family. While a membrane form of TNF has been well characterized and is likely to have unique biological roles, secreted TNF functions as a general alarm signaling to cells more distant from the site of the triggering event. Thus TNF secretion can amplify an event leading to the well-described changes in the vasculature lining and the inflammatory state of cells. In contrast, the membrane bound members of the family send signals though the TNF type receptors only to cells in direct contact. For example T cells provide CD40 mediated Similar cell-cell contact limitations on the ability to induce cell death apply to the well-studied Fas system. Most membrane-associated LT-α/β complexes (“surface LT”) have a LT-α1/β2 stoichiometry. (Browning et al., Cell, 72, pp. 847-56 (1993); Browning et al., J. Immunol., 154, pp. 33-46 (1995)). Surface LT ligands do not bind TNF-R with high affinity and do not activate TNF-R signaling. The LT-β receptor (LT-β-R), does however bind these surface lymphotoxin complexes with high affinity (Crowe et al., Science, 264, pp. 707-10 (1994)). LTβ-R signaling, like TNF-R signaling, has anti-proliferative effects and can be cytotoxic to tumor cells. In applicants' co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 08/378,968, compositions and methods for selectively stimulating LT-β-R using LT-β-R activating agents are disclosed. LT-β-R activating agents are useful for inhibiting tumor cell growth without co-activating TNF-R-induced proinflammatory or immunoregulatory pathways. Recent gene targeting studies suggest a role for LT-α/β in the development of secondary lymphoid organs. (Banks et al., J. Immunol., 155, pp. 1685-1693 (1995); De Togni et al., Science, 264, pp. 703-706 (1994)). Indeed, LT-α-deficient mice lack lymph nodes (LN) and Peyer's patches (PP). Moreover, their spleens have disrupted architecture and the expression of functional markers on cells of the splenic marginal zone is altered. (Banks et al., 1995; De Togni et al., Science, 264, pp. 703-706 (1994), Matsumoto et al., Science, 271, pp. 1289-1291 (1996)). None of these characteristics have been described for either of the TNF receptor knock out mice. (Erickson et al., Nature, 372, pp. 560-563 (1994); Pfeffer et al., Cell, 73, pp. 457-467 (1993); Rothe et al., Nature, 364, pp. 798-802 (1993). Applicants have recently defined a role for membrane LT-α/β complexes in secondary lymphoid organ development by showing that the progeny of mice which had been injected during gestation with a soluble form of mouse LT-β-R fused to the human IgG1 Fc portion (LT-β-R-Ig) lacked most lymph nodes and showed disrupted splenic architecture. (Rennert et al, 1996, “Surface Lymphotoxin alpha/beta complex is required for the development of peripheral lymphoid organs.” J. Exp Med, 184: 1999-2006). In another study, mice transgenic for a similar LT-β-R-Ig construct which starts to be expressed three days after birth, were shown to have LN. However, their splenic architecture was disrupted and several markers of splenic marginal zone cells were not expressed (Ettinger et al., “Disrupted splenic architecture, but normal lymph node development in mice expressing a soluble LTβ-R/IgG1 fusion protein”., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93: 13102-7). Together these data indicate there is a temporal requirement for membrane LT functions to mediate effects on the development of secondary lymphoid organs, but not for effects on splenic architecture. The TNF system may also function in development of the spleen. Splenic marginal zone cells of TNF-deficient mice do not express macrophage markers or MAdCAM-1 (Alexopoulou et al., 60th Int. TNF Congress, Eur. Cytokine Network, pp. 228 (1996); Pasparakis et al., 60th Int. TNF Congress, Eur. Cytokine Network, pp. 239 (1996)). TNF-R55-deficient mice also lack MAdCAM-1 (but not MOMA-1) staining in the splenic marginal zone. (Neumann et al., J. Exp. Med., 184, pp. 259-264 (1996), Matsumoto et al., Science, 271, pp. 1289-1291 (1996)). The expression of these markers as seen in the spleen of TNF-R75-deficient mice appears normal. (Matsumoto et al., Science, 271, pp. 1289-1291 (1996)). Lymphoid-like tissues do not only arise as a part of developmental processes but also appear under some pathological circumstances such as chronic inflammation, a process recently termed neolymphoorganogenesis. (Picker and Butcher, Annu. Rev. Immunol., 10, pp. 561-591 (1992), Kratz, et al., J. Exp. Med., 183, pp. 1461-1471 (1996)). TNF family members apparently influence such processes. Mice transgenic for the LT-α gene driven by the rat insulin promoter (RIP-LT) developed LT-induced chronic inflammatory lesions with characteristics of organized lymphoid tissues. (Kratz, et al., J. Exp. Med., 1183, pp. 1461-1471 (1996); Picarella et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 89, pp. 10036-10040 (1992)). The evaluation of LT function during a T cell-dependent immune response, using LT-α-deficient mice, showed the necessity of LT for GC formation, possibly for maintaining an organized follicular dendritic cell (FDCs) structure, and for humoral responses. (Banks et al., J. Immunol., 155, pp. 1685-1693 (1995); Matsumoto et al., Science, 271, pp. 1289-1291 (1996); Matsumoto et al., Nature, 382, pp. 462-466 (1996)). TNF-R55-deficient mice also lack FDCs, fail to develop GC and fail to develop an optimal antibody response to sheep red blood cells (SRBC). This suggests that TNF-R55 might be triggered by soluble LT or TNF signals for most of these responses (Le Hir et al., J. Exp. Med., 183, pp. 2367-2372 (1996), Alexopoulou et al., 60th Int. TNF Congress. Eur. Cytokine Network, pp. 228 (1996); Pasparakis et al., 60th Int. TNF Congress, Eur. Cytokine Network, pp. 239 (1996)). The LT-β-receptor, a member of the TNF family of receptors, specifically binds to surface LT ligands. LT-β-R binds LT heteromeric complexes (predominantly LT-α1/β2 and LT-α2/β1) but does not bind TNF or LT-α(Crowe et al., Science, 264, pp. 707-10 (1994)). LT-β-R mRNAs are found in the human spleen, thymus and in general organs with immune system involvement. Although studies on LT-β-R expression are in their early stages, LT-β-R expression patterns appear to be similar to those reported for TNF-R55 except that LT-β-R is lacking on peripheral blood T and B cells and T and B cell lines. Cell surface lymphotoxin (LT) complexes have been characterized in CD4+ T cell hybridoma cells (II-23.D7) which express high levels of LT. (Browning et al., J. Immunol., 147, pp. 1230-37 (1991); Androlewicz et al., J. Biol. Chem., 267, pp. 2542-47 (1992), both of which are herein incorporated by reference). The expression and biological roles of LTβ-R, LT subunits and surface LT complexes have been reviewed by C. F. Ware et al. “The ligands and receptors of the lymphotoxin system”, in Pathways for Cytolysis, Current Topics Microbiol. Immunol., Springer-Verlag, pp. 175-218 (1995) specifically incorporated by reference herein. LT-α expression is induced and LT-α secreted primarily by activated T and B lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells. Among the T helper cells, LT-α appears to be produced by Th1 but not Th2 cells. LT-α has also been detected in melanocytes. Microglia and T cells in lesions of multiple sclerosis patients can also be stained with anti-LT-α antisera (Selmaj et al., J. Clin. Invest., 87, pp. 949-954 (1991)). Lymphotoxin β (also called p33) is expressed on the surface of human and mouse T lymphocytes, T cell lines, B cell lines and lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells. LTβ is the subject of applicants' co-pending international applications PCT/US91/04588, published Jan. 9, 1992 as WO 92/00329; and PCT/US93/11669, published Jun. 23, 1994 as WO 94/13808, which are herein incorporated by reference. Surface LT complexes are primarily expressed by activated T (helper, Th1, and killer cells) and B lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells as defined by FACS analysis or immunohistology using anti-LT antibodies or soluble LT-β-R-Ig fusion proteins. In applicants copending U.S. application Ser. No. 08/505,606, filed Jul. 21, 1995, compositions and methods for using soluble LT-β receptors and anti-LT-β receptor and ligand specific antibodies as therapeutics for the treatment of immunological diseases mediated by Th1 cells are disclosed. Surface LT has also been described on human cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) clones, activated peripheral mononuclear lymphocytes (PML), IL-2-activated peripheral blood lymphocytes (LAK cells), pokeweed mitogen-activated or anti-CD40-activated peripheral B lymphocytes (PBL) and various lymphoid tumors of T and B cell lineage. Engagement of alloantigen-bearing target cells specifically induces surface LT expression by CD8+ and CD4+ CTL clones. Applicants have described herein several immunological functions for surface LT, and show the effects of LT-α/β binding reagents on the generation and character of immunoglobulin responses, maintenance of the cellular organization of secondary lymphoid tissues including effects on the differentiation state of follicular dendritic cells and germinal center formation, and addressing expression levels which influence cell trafficking. Thus applicants define therapeutic applications for surface LT-α/β and LT-α receptor binding agents. Studies have shown that B cells are activated in the lymph nodes (LN) and spleen following encounters with various antigens. In a specialized structure called a germinal center which forms in the B cell rich regions of LN and spleen, the B cells mature and memory B cells form (Tsiagbe, et al. Crit. Rev. Immunol. 16, 381-421 (1996)). B cells are capable of undergoing transformation into tumors at most points during their development (Freedman, et al, Cancer Medicine 3rd Ed., pp. 2028-2068 (1994)). Transformation of B cells leads to lymphomas and those derived from B cells in germinal centers are often called follicular lymphomas. The exact delineation of the various subsets of lymphomas is still in transition as more surface markers are found permitting a more precise designation of the cell of origin. Follicular lymphomas can be divided into a number of subgroups based on the stage or type of B cell that is proliferating and the prognosis varies depending on the cell type. Conventional chemotherapy regimes are capable of affecting a cure in many of the patients with low-grade type cells. Nonetheless a portion of these patients are resistant to chemotherapy and have a poor prognosis. Therefore, despite the progress in treating tumors, there remains a need for a treatment for those tumors especially for those follicular lymphomas typically resistant to chemotherapy, as well as for treatment regimes with fewer side effects than existing therapies.

Toner printing is one common method for forming an image on a receiver. In toner printing, toner particles are patterned to form toner images and these toner images are transferred and fused to the receiver to form a print. Toner particles typically take the form of small particles of a transparent binder material having a colorant such as a pigment or a dye therein. The colorant reflects color forming wavelengths of light while absorbing other wavelengths and causes the toner particle to appear to have a particular color. To form multi-color images, a plurality of toner images are transferred in register and collectively fused to a receiver to form a composite toner image. Typically each toner image is formed using a different toner having a different color of reflective colorant. The colors are selected so that toners can be combined to form specific ranges colors on a receiver according to a subtractive color model in which increases in color gamut are made possible by subtracting a greater proportion of an ambient light. Prints made according to the subtractive color model therefore have a lowest density at unprinted areas and highest density where there is the most toner. The density difference between the brightest point in a toner print and the darkest point in a toner print is known as the dynamic range of the print. It is generally preferred to provide prints having a high dynamic range as this expands the color gamut of the prints. However, it is difficult to provide high dynamic range in a toner print on a reflective receiver using toners having reflective colorants. For example, it has proven to be challenging to extend the dynamic range of a toner print by providing for additional high density levels. This requires that a printer be capable of providing one or more printable levels that are have a visibly higher density than preceding ones. This approach becomes increasingly challenging with each new level of additional density because absorbing ambient light to an extent that is visibly differentiable from the density of a very high density portion of an image requires a substantial amount of toner. The incremental difference in toner required to create each new level of higher density required to increase the dynamic range of the print increases significantly with each new level of higher density and quickly becomes inefficient. Further, this approach can create artifacts in terms of continuing depositing colorants such as toner and ink. Additionally, as the color subtraction model requires the basic colorants to absorb short (blue), medium (green) and long (red) wavelength portions of the visible spectrum similar to the human visual system, the basic primary colors for any printing process are perceived by human as cyan, magenta and yellow. When density is created by combining these colors, it can be difficult to provide additional levels of density without creating an unintended color shift. To address the color shifting problem and to reduce the amount of toner required to form an image, a black colorant is used. The black toner absorbs the full range of visible spectrum and therefore allows greater color stability and reduced colorant consumption when higher densities are required. Other supplemental colorants, such as orange, violet, light cyan, light magenta and light black, have also been used to extend the printing capabilities to a larger color gamut and to achieve higher quality prints. Nonetheless, all reflective colorants obey the color subtraction model and ultimately the incremental amounts of toner required to achieve visible density gains in the high density becomes prohibitive because of cost limitations or limitations on the ability of a toner printer to pattern, transfer or fuse such amounts of toner to a receiver. Alternatively, there are examples of efforts to increase the low density limits of dynamic range by improving the brightness of receivers used in toner printing. For example, many cellulosic or paper fibers have a naturally yellow color, and even after bleaching, the fibers in such papers can limit the overall brightness of the receiver and therefore the overall dynamic range of a print made thereon. It has therefore been known to add fluorescing colorants in the form of optical brighteners to such receivers. These optical brighteners absorb invisible wavelengths of an ambient light and use the absorbed energy from these wavelengths to emit a visible blue light. The visible blue light tends to combine with the yellow light to provide a brighter receiver. As a practical matter, it has been found that it is typically necessary to add significant amounts of optical brightener to a receiver to achieve brightness gains that are generally stable over time. This can occur in some instances because the content of the paper fibers and the environment in which the receiver materials are used or stored can cause an increase in the yellow content of the receiver fiber over time and the optical brighteners are added in amounts that are intended to offset the potential long term yellowing of the receiver fibers. This causes a variety of color variations. For example, when human skin tones are printed on receivers having such high levels of optical brighteners, these unwanted blue emissions give the skin tones a bluish hue. The excessive blue hue in human skin tones can appear to be an unnatural coloration and will be objectionable to most viewers as the reproductions of the original image will be flawed. It will also be appreciated that such optical brighteners add cost to the receiver and must be added to such receivers in a uniform manner such that the cost of receivers having high loadings of optical brighteners can be significant. Additionally, in the case of toner printing it is possible for the binder to absorb wavelengths of light that are typically absorbed by optical brighteners and re-emitted by the optical brighteners that are typically used in a receiver. Accordingly, optical brighteners on a portion of a receiver that is covered by a clear fused toner mass will re-emit a lower intensity of light than optical brighteners that are not covered by the receiver. This creates a variation in density in a print between toner covered portions and uncovered portions that can lower apparent image quality and create unrealistic artifacts. Similarly, the emissivity of the fluorescent materials in a receiver can make it difficult to provide natural transitions between areas having higher levels of fluorescent material and areas having lower levels of fluorescent material. It is also known to use fluorescent toners having fluorescent colorants for security printing purposes and to provide spot colors. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,713,861 describes coating a fluorescent material over a document image for anti-copying purposes. It has also been proposed to incorporate fluorescing pigments or dyes into liquid toner particles as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,105,451 (Lubinsky et al.). Additionally, U.S. Patent Application Publication 2010/0164218 (Schulze-Hagenest et al.) describes the use of substantially clear (colorless) fluorescent toner particles in printing methods over color toner images. Such clear fluorescent toner particles can be used for security purposes since they are not colored except when excited with appropriate light. Other invisible fluorescent pigments for toner images are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,664,017 (Patel et al.). Printing processes for providing one or more color toner images are known, but it is also desired that fluorescing effects can also be provided for any type of color toner image in order to expand the color gamut while using conventional non-fluorescing color toners. However, it has been difficult to properly design desired fluorescing effects using known fluorescing colorants (dyes and pigments) as many of them are very sensitive to the illuminating radiation. Further, color reproduction using fluorescing color toners produces unrealistically “bright” colors for most objects. This is usually an undesirable effect. For example, when an illuminating light has some portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is absorbed by fluorescing colorants that emit at a different wavelength, the overall resulting emissions are very “bright” and may overwhelm the non-fluorescing traditional colors in the color toner images. This again results in unrealistic images. Additionally, where fluorescent colorants are used in toners, it can be difficult to form toner images having high density high gamma image portions. Accordingly, there remains a need for toner printing systems and methods that can form toner images with enhanced dynamic range in an efficient manner without creating additional image artifacts.

The healthy heart produces regular, synchronized contractions. Rhythmic contractions of the heart are normally controlled by the sinoatrial (SA) node, specialized cells located in the upper right atrium. The SA node is the normal pacemaker of the heart, typically initiating 60-100 heart beats per minute. When the SA node is pacing the heart normally, the heart is said to be in normal sinus rhythm (NSR). If heart contractions are uncoordinated or irregular, the heart is denoted to be arrhythmic. Cardiac arrhythmia impairs cardiac efficiency and can be a potential life threatening event. Cardiac arrhythmias have a number of etiological sources including tissue damage due to myocardial infarction, infection, or degradation of the heart's ability to generate or synchronize the electrical impulses that coordinate contractions. When the heart rate is too rapid, the condition is denoted tachycardia. Tachycardia may have its origin in either the atria or the ventricles. Tachycardias occurring in the atria of the heart, for example, include atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. Both conditions are characterized by rapid, uncoordinated contractions of the atria. Bradycardia occurs when the heart rhythm is too slow. This condition may be caused, for example, by delayed impulses from the SA node, denoted sick sinus syndrome, or by a blockage of the electrical impulse between the atria and ventricles. Bradycardia produces a heart rate that is too slow to maintain adequate circulation. Implantable cardiac rhythm management systems may include pacemakers, which have been used as an effective treatment for patients with serious arrhythmias. These systems typically comprise circuitry to sense signals from the heart and a pulse generator for providing electrical pulses to the heart. Leads extending into the patient's heart are connected to electrodes that contact the myocardium for sensing the heart's electrical signals and for delivering pulses to the heart. Pacemakers deliver low energy electrical pulses timed to assist the heart in producing a contractile rhythm that maintains cardiac pumping efficiency. When a pace pulse produces a contraction in the heart tissue an electrical cardiac signal associated with the heart contraction is produced, denoted the evoked response. Pace pulses may be intermittent or continuous, depending on the needs of the patient. There exist a number of categories of pacemaker devices, with various modes for sensing and pacing the heart. Single chamber pacemakers may pace and sense one heart chamber. A typical single chamber pacemaker is connected to a lead extending either to the right atrium or the right ventricle. Dual chamber pacemakers may pace and sense two chambers of the heart. A typical dual chamber pacemaker is typically connected to two leads, one lead extending to the right atrium and one lead to the right ventricle. Bi-ventricular or bi-atrial pacemakers may be used to provide pacing pulses to both the left and right ventricles or the left and right atria, respectively. Multi-chamber pacing, including bi-ventricular and/or bi-atrial pacing may be particularly advantageous for delivering cardiac resynchronization therapy for patient's suffering from congestive heart failure (CHF). Pacemakers can be programmed to provide pace pulses to the heart on demand or at a fixed rate. When a pacemaker paces the heart at a fixed rate, the pacemaker provides pace pulses to the heart without taking into account the heart's spontaneous action. In contrast, pacemakers may sense the spontaneous activity of the heart and provide pace pulses synchronized to the spontaneous activity. Rate adaptive pacemakers provide pacing at rates responsive to the patient's metabolic activity. Changes in metabolic activity may reflect exercise or non-exercise related changes, such as stress or excitement. The level of metabolic activity may be determined by sensing motion, respiratory rate, QT interval, venous oxygen saturation, temperature, or other patient conditions, for example. The pacemaker automatically adjusts the pacing rate to accommodate the sensed changes in the patient's condition. Cardiac rhythm management systems may also include cardioverter/defibrillators to provide treatment for patients with serious cardiac tachyarrhythmias. The CRM system may sense cardiac activity and recognize an aberrant fast rhythm. Upon recognition of a tachyarrhythmia, the CRM system may automatically deliver one or a series of high energy shocks to the heart, interrupting the tachyarrhythmia or fibrillation and allowing the heart to resume a normal rhythm. In CRM systems that include sensing channels for sensing one or more heart chambers, the ventricular and/or atrial sensing channels may be blanked or rendered refractory following certain events, such as following delivery of a pacing pulse. During the blanking or refractory periods, cardiac events are not sensed by the sensing channel, or sensed events are ignored or used differently than cardiac events sensed during other periods. Sensing channels are typically blanked after pacing to prevent reentry of an output pacing pulse into the system. Sensing channels may be rendered refractory to prevent misinterpretation of input data due to sensing after potentials or crosstalk between sensing channels. The present invention involves enhanced methods and systems for managing refractory periods for single and multi-chamber pacing and provides various advantages over the prior art.

Memo pad holders generally serve a single purpose, namely to hold a memo pad or sundry miscellaneous articles in a storage compartment. Thus, such holders function in a manner not unlike a standard storage box. Aware of the limitations of a standard storage box, the present inventor has devised an improvement to increase the functionality of a memo pad holder such that items may be held on the cover of such holder in addition to the storage compartment in which a pad or sundry articles are usually held.

In general, electronic endoscopes are configured by including a solid-state image pickup device, such as CCD, for imaging an observation object at a distal end of an insertion portion of the electronic endoscope, and are configured to output an image signal output from the solid-state image pickup device to a monitor or the like as an external device, and thereby making the image signal displayed as an observation image. For example, in the endoscope disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2000-14635, a circuit board for driving a solid-state image pickup device is connected to a distal end of a signal cable (signal line) for transmitting an image signal picked up by the solid-state image pickup device, behind the solid-state image pickup device at the distal end portion of the insertion portion of the endoscope. The solid-state image pickup device, the circuit board, and the distal end of the signal cable are arranged inside a shield frame which is a frame body for fixing these portions. Further, an objective optical system unit having an objective lens for forming an optical image of an object on the light receiving surface of the solid-state image pickup device is provided in front of the shield frame. In the following, a portion configured by combining the solid-state image pickup device, the circuit board, the signal cable, the shield frame, and the objective optical system unit is referred to as an image pickup apparatus for the sake of convenience. The image pickup apparatus is fitted from behind into a stepped through hole provided in the distal end portion main body forming the distal end portion of the insertion portion, so as to be attached. Further, a V-shaped fixing groove is formed in the outer peripheral surface of the objective optical system unit. On the other hand, a fixing screw is arranged in a portion of the distal end main body, which portion faces the fixing groove. The fixing screw is screwed in the radial direction of the objective optical system unit, so as to abut against the fixing groove, whereby the distal end portion main body and the image pickup apparatus including the objective optical system unit are fixed to each other. According to the technique disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2000-14635, the stepped through hole provided in the distal end portion main body has a shape corresponding to the external shape of the image pickup apparatus. For this reason, the combination of the image pickup apparatus and the distal end portion main body is limited only to the case where they are in one to one correspondence. In the electronic endoscope having such a configuration, it is impossible to replace the image pickup apparatus with, for example, another image pickup apparatus having a shape different from that of the original one and including a different number of pixels therefrom and a lens system of a viewing angle different therefrom. That is, when an endoscope user intends to use the electronic endoscope in combination with an image pickup apparatus of different specification, for example, with an image pickup apparatus having an external shape which is made smaller than the external shape of the originally provided image pickup apparatus because of a change in at least one of the solid-state image pickup device and the objective optical system unit, the endoscope user needs to separately purchase an electronic endoscope of different specification. The present invention has been made in order to solve the above described problem. An object of the present invention is to provide an electronic endoscope capable of easily replacing the image pickup apparatus of the electronic endoscope with an image pickup apparatus of different specification.