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[ "This list of the Cenozoic life of Alabama contains the various prehistoric life-forms whose fossilized remains have been reported from within the US state of Alabama and are between 66 million and 10,000 years of age.\n\nA", "†Abderospira\n †Abderospira aldrichi\n †Abderospira meyeri\n †Abderospira sabina\n †Abdounia\n †Abdounia enniskilleni\n †Abdounia recticona\n Abra\n †Abra nitens\n †Absonocytheropteron\n †Absonocytheropteron watervalleyensis\n †Acanthionella\n †Acanthionella oecioporosa – type locality for species\n Acanthocardia\n †Acanthocardia claibornensis\n †Acanthocardia tuomeyi\n Acanthodesia\n †Acanthodesia savartii\n Accipiter\n †Accipiter striatus\n Acirsa\n †Acirsa gracilior", "Acanthodesia\n †Acanthodesia savartii\n Accipiter\n †Accipiter striatus\n Acirsa\n †Acirsa gracilior\n Aclis – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Aclis modesta\n †Acrocoelum\n †Acrocoelum cancellatum\n †Acropomatidarum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n Acropora\n †Acropora saillans\n Actaeonema\n †Actaeonema sulcatum\n Acteocina\n †Acteocina commixta\n †Acteocina leai\n Acteon\n †Acteon claibornicola", "Acteocina\n †Acteocina commixta\n †Acteocina leai\n Acteon\n †Acteon claibornicola\n †Acteon costellatus\n †Acteon idoneus\n †Acteon pomilius\n †Actinacis\n †Actinacis barretti\n †Actinocyclina\n †Actinocyclina bainbridgensis\n Actinocythereis\n †Actinocythereis gibsonensis\n †Acuticythereis\n †Acuticythereis cocoaensis\n Adeonellopsis\n †Adeonellopsis cyclops – type locality for species\n †Adeonellopsis galeata\n †Adeonellopsis magniporosa – type locality for species\n †Adeonellopsis porosa – type locality for species", "†Adeonellopsis porosa – type locality for species\n †Adeonellopsis transversa\n †Adeorbis – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Adeorbis incertus\n †Adeorbis punctiformis\n Aequipecten\n †Aequipecten cocoana\n †Aequipecten deshayesi\n Aetobatus\n Agaronia\n †Agaronia alabamensis\n †Agaronia bombylis\n †Agaronia mediavia\n †Agomphus\n †Agomphus alabamensis – type locality for species\n Aimulosia\n †Aimulosia clavula – type locality for species\n Alaba", "Aimulosia\n †Aimulosia clavula – type locality for species\n Alaba\n †Alaba plicatovaricosa\n †Alaba varicifer\n Albula\n †Albula bashiana – or unidentified related form\n †Albulidarum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n Alderina – tentative report\n †Alderina nodulosa\n †Allomorone – type locality for genus\n †Allomorone burlesonis – type locality for species\n Alopias\n †Alopias latidens\n †Alveinus\n †Alveinus minutus\n Amaura\n †Amaura tombigbeensis\n †Ambigostrea", "†Alopias latidens\n †Alveinus\n †Alveinus minutus\n Amaura\n †Amaura tombigbeensis\n †Ambigostrea\n †Ambigostrea tecticosta\n †Ambystoma\n †Ambystoma maculotum\n Ampheristus\n Amphiblestrum\n †Amphiblestrum curvatum – type locality for species\n †Ampullina\n †Ampullina recurva\n Amusium\n †Amusium ocalanum\n Anas\n †Anas crecca\n †Anas platyrhynchos\n Ancilla\n †Ancilla staminea\n †Ancilla subglobosa\n Angaria – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Angaria concionaria\n Angulus", "†Angaria concionaria\n Angulus\n †Angulus entaenia\n †Angulus plana\n †Angulus prolenta\n Anodontia\n †Anodontia subvexa\n Anolis\n †Anolis carolinensis\n Anomia\n †Anomia argentaria\n †Anomia ephippioides\n †Anomia hammetti\n †Anomia lisbonensis\n †Anomia navicelloides\n †Anomia taylorensis\n Antalis\n †Antalis arciforme\n †Antalis blandum\n †Antalis minutistriatum\n †Antalis thalloides\n Antropora\n †Antropora damicornis\n †Antropora minuta\n †Antropora pyriforme\n †Antropora pyriformis\n †Antropora recta\n †Antropora rectum", "†Antropora pyriforme\n †Antropora pyriformis\n †Antropora recta\n †Antropora rectum\n †Antropora wadei\n Apalone\n †Apalone spinifera\n †Aphelops\n †Aphelops mutilus\n Aplodinotus – tentative report\n †Apogonidarum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Apogonidarum rostrosus – type locality for species\n †Aporolepas\n †Aporolepas howei\n Aporrhais\n †Aporrhais aldrichi\n Aprionodon\n †Aprionodon greyegertoni – type locality for species\n Arca\n †Arca hatchetigbeensis", "Aprionodon\n †Aprionodon greyegertoni – type locality for species\n Arca\n †Arca hatchetigbeensis\n Archaeolithothamnium\n †Archicythereis – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Archicythereis yazooensis\n Architectonica\n †Architectonica alabamensis\n †Architectonica aldrichi\n †Architectonica alveatum\n †Architectonica amoena\n †Architectonica antrosa\n †Architectonica bellensis\n †Architectonica bimixta\n †Architectonica caelatura\n †Architectonica cossmanni", "†Architectonica bimixta\n †Architectonica caelatura\n †Architectonica cossmanni\n †Architectonica cupola\n †Architectonica elaborata\n †Architectonica fungina\n †Architectonica greggi\n †Architectonica huppertzi\n †Architectonica intusa\n †Architectonica johnsoni\n †Architectonica meekana\n †Architectonica ornata\n †Architectonica periscelida\n †Architectonica petrosus\n †Architectonica planiformis\n †Architectonica sabinia\n †Architectonica sylvaerupis\n Arcopagia\n †Arcopagia raveneli\n †Arcopagia trumani\n Arcoscalpellum", "†Architectonica sylvaerupis\n Arcopagia\n †Arcopagia raveneli\n †Arcopagia trumani\n Arcoscalpellum\n †Arcoscalpellum toulmini – type locality for species\n †Arctodus\n †Arctodus simus\n †Area\n †Area hatchetigbeensis\n Argobuccinum\n †Argobuccinum showalteri\n †Argobuccinum tuomeyi\n Argyrotheca\n †Argyrotheca macneili – type locality for species\n †Ariidarum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n Astarte\n †Astarte americana\n †Astarte callosa\n †Astarte proruta", "Astarte\n †Astarte americana\n †Astarte callosa\n †Astarte proruta\n †Astarte triangulata\n †Astarte triangulatoides\n Asthenotoma\n †Asthenotoma strigosa\n Astrangia\n †Astrangia wilcoxensis – type locality for species\n Astyris\n †Astyris crassus\n †Astyris subfaxa – or unidentified comparable form\n †Astyris subfraxa\n Athleta\n †Athleta haleanus\n †Athleta limopsis\n †Athleta lisbonensis\n †Athleta petrosa\n †Athleta rugatus\n †Athleta sayanus\n †Athleta tuomeyi\n Atrina\n †Atrina cawcawensis\n †Atrina jacksoniana", "†Athleta sayanus\n †Athleta tuomeyi\n Atrina\n †Atrina cawcawensis\n †Atrina jacksoniana\n †Aturia\n †Aturia alabamensis\n Atys\n †Atys claibornensis\n †Atys meyeri\n †Atys robustoides\n Aythya\n †Aythya collaris\n †Aythya valisineria – or unidentified comparable form", "B", "Bactridium\n †Bactridium teges\n †Baculites\n Bairdia\n †Bairdia gosportensis – type locality for species\n Bairdoppilata\n †Balanophylla\n †Balanophylla haleana\n Balanophyllia\n †Balanophyllia annularis – type locality for species\n †Balanophyllia augustinensis\n †Balanophyllia demophyllum\n †Balanophyllia desmophyllum\n †Balanophyllia elaborata\n †Balanophyllia haleana\n †Balanophyllia ponderosa – type locality for species\n Balanus\n Balcis\n †Balcis aciculata\n †Balcis claibornia\n †Balcis notata\n †Balcis wheeleri", "Balanus\n Balcis\n †Balcis aciculata\n †Balcis claibornia\n †Balcis notata\n †Balcis wheeleri\n †Baluchicardia\n †Baluchicardia greggiana\n †Baluchicardia wilcoxensis\n Barbatia\n †Barbatia aspera\n †Barbatia cuculloides\n †Barbatia lignitifera\n †Barbatia ludoviciana\n Barnea\n †Barnea alatoidea\n Bartramia\n †Bartramia longicauda\n †Basilosaurus\n †Basilosaurus cetoides\n Basterotia\n †Basterotia prima\n †Bathosella\n †Bathosella undata – tentative report\n Bathytoma\n †Bathytoma congesta\n †Bathytoma marieana", "†Bathosella undata – tentative report\n Bathytoma\n †Bathytoma congesta\n †Bathytoma marieana\n †Bathytoma nonplicata – or unidentified comparable form\n Bathytormus\n †Bathytormus clarkensis\n †Bathytormus flexurus\n †Bathytormus protextus\n †Bauzaia\n †Bauzaia mucronata – type locality for species\n †Bayania\n †Bayania claibornensis\n †Bayania secale\n Beisselina\n †Beisselina trulla\n †Belemnosella\n †Belemnosella floweri\n †Bellatara\n †Bellatara floridana\n †Belosaepia\n †Belosaepia alabamensis\n †Belosaepia harrisi", "†Bellatara\n †Bellatara floridana\n †Belosaepia\n †Belosaepia alabamensis\n †Belosaepia harrisi\n †Belosaepia saccaria\n †Belosaepia uncinata\n †Belosaepia ungula\n †Belosaepia veatchi\n Bison\n †Bison antiquus\n Bittium\n †Bittium anita\n †Bittium elegans\n †Bittium estellense\n Blarina\n †Blarina carolinensis\n †Bolis\n †Bolis enterogramma\n †Bolis lisboa\n Bonasa\n †Bonasa umbellus\n †Bonellitia\n †Bonellitia annosa\n †Bonellitia bastropensis\n †Bonellitia elevata\n †Bonellitia graciloides\n †Bonellitia parilis", "†Bonellitia bastropensis\n †Bonellitia elevata\n †Bonellitia graciloides\n †Bonellitia parilis\n †Bonellitia silvaerupis\n †Bonellitia tortiplica\n Bornia\n †Bornia plectopygia\n †Bornia prima\n †Bornia scintillata\n Botula\n †Botula carolinensis\n Brachidontes\n †Brachidontes alabamensis\n †Brachidontes stubbsi\n †Brachycythere\n †Brachycythere martini\n †Brachycythere mississippiensis\n †Brachycythere watervalleyensis\n Brachydontes – tentative report\n Branta\n †Branta canadensis\n †Brazosiella\n †Brazosiella kokeni", "Brachydontes – tentative report\n Branta\n †Branta canadensis\n †Brazosiella\n †Brazosiella kokeni\n †Brazosiella moseleyi\n †Brissopatagus\n †Brissopatagus alabamensis\n †Bristocorbula\n †Bristocorbula fossata\n †Buffonellaria\n †Buffonellaria entomostoma\n Bufo\n †Bufo americanus\n †Bufo woodhousei\n Bullia\n †Bullia altilis\n †Bullia calli\n †Bullia calluspira\n †Bullia ellipticum\n †Bullia priamopse\n †Bullia scamba\n †Bullia tenera\n †Bullia tuomeyi\n †Bulliopsis\n †Bulliopsis choctavensis\n †Bulovia", "†Bullia scamba\n †Bullia tenera\n †Bullia tuomeyi\n †Bulliopsis\n †Bulliopsis choctavensis\n †Bulovia\n †Bulovia weisbordi – tentative report\n Buntonia\n †Buntonia shubutaensis\n †Burnhamia\n Busycon", "C", "Caberea\n †Caberea boryi\n Cadulus\n †Cadulus abruptus\n †Cadulus depressus\n †Cadulus turgidus\n Caestocorbula\n †Caestocorbula fossata\n †Caestocorbula murchisonii\n †Caestocorbula wailesiana\n Callianassa\n Calliostoma\n †Calliostoma claibornianum\n Callista\n †Callista aldrichi\n †Callista annexa\n †Callista lisbonensis\n †Callista perovata\n Callopora\n †Callopora vicina – type locality for species\n Callucina\n †Callucina papyracea\n †Calorhadia\n †Calorhadia aldrichiana\n †Calorhadia bella\n †Calorhadia compsa", "†Callucina papyracea\n †Calorhadia\n †Calorhadia aldrichiana\n †Calorhadia bella\n †Calorhadia compsa\n †Calorhadia elongatoidea\n †Calorhadia equalis\n †Calorhadia opulenta\n †Calorhadia pharcida\n †Calorhadia semen\n †Calorhadia semenoides\n Calyptraea\n †Calyptraphorus\n †Calyptraphorus aldrichi\n †Calyptraphorus compressus\n †Calyptraphorus stamineus\n †Calyptraphorus trinodiferus\n †Calyptraphorus velatus\n Campanile\n †Campanile claytonense\n Cancellaria\n †Cancellaria alveata\n †Cancellaria costata", "Campanile\n †Campanile claytonense\n Cancellaria\n †Cancellaria alveata\n †Cancellaria costata\n †Cancellaria panones\n †Cancelrana\n †Cancelrana lanceolata\n Canis\n †Canis rufus\n Cantharus\n †Cantharus elegantissimus\n †Cantharus johnsoni\n Capulus\n †Capulus expansus\n Carcharhinus\n †Carcharhinus gibbesi\n Carcharias\n †Carcharias hopei\n †Carditella\n †Carditella aldrichi\n Cardium – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature; see Cerastoderma\n †Caricella\n †Caricella bolaris", "†Caricella\n †Caricella bolaris\n †Caricella cherokeensis\n †Caricella claibornensis\n †Caricella demissa\n †Caricella doliata\n †Caricella dolita\n †Caricella heilprini\n †Caricella leana\n †Caricella ludoviciana\n †Caricella podagrina\n †Caricella praetenuis\n †Caricella pyruloides\n †Caricella stenzeli\n Carphophis\n †Carphophis anoenus\n Caryocorbula\n †Caryocorbula coloradoensis\n †Caryocorbula densata\n †Caryocorbula deshayesii\n †Caryocorbula deusseni\n †Caryocorbula willistoni\n Caryophyllia", "†Caryocorbula deshayesii\n †Caryocorbula deusseni\n †Caryocorbula willistoni\n Caryophyllia\n †Caryophyllia mcglameryae – type locality for species\n †Castoroides\n †Catenicella\n †Catenicella subseptentrionalis\n Catoptrophorus\n †Catoptrophorus semipalmatus\n Cavilinga\n †Cavilinga amica\n Celleporaria\n †Celleporaria damicornis\n †Celleporaria fissurata\n †Celleporaria granulosa\n †Celleporaria orbiculifera\n †Celleporaria seposita – type locality for species\n Celleporina\n †Celleporina globosa", "†Celleporaria seposita – type locality for species\n Celleporina\n †Celleporina globosa\n †Celleporina umbonata\n Centroberyx\n †Ceriopora\n †Ceriopora vesiculosa\n Cerithiella\n †Cerithiella chamberlaini\n †Cerithiella delicatula\n †Cerithiella fluviatilis\n †Cerithiella nassula\n †Cerithiella preconica\n †Cerithiella regularoides\n †Cerithiella terebropsis\n †Cerithioderma\n †Cerithioderma primum\n Cerithiopsis\n †Cerithiopsis dalli\n †Cerithiopsis greggiensis\n †Cerithiopsis solitaria", "Cerithiopsis\n †Cerithiopsis dalli\n †Cerithiopsis greggiensis\n †Cerithiopsis solitaria\n Cerithium – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Cerithium agnotum\n †Cerithium claibornense\n †Cerithium tombigbeense\n Cervus\n †Cervus elaphus\n Chama\n †Chama monroensis\n Charonia\n †Charonia showalteri\n Cheiloporina\n †Cheiloporina saillans\n Chiton\n †Chiton eocenensis\n †Chiton prostremus\n Chlamys\n †Chlamys anatipes\n †Chlamys beverlyi\n †Chlamys cainei", "†Chiton prostremus\n Chlamys\n †Chlamys anatipes\n †Chlamys beverlyi\n †Chlamys cainei\n †Chlamys cawcawensis\n †Chlamys chickaria\n †Chlamys choctavensis\n †Chlamys clarkeana\n †Chlamys clinchfieldensis\n †Chlamys danvillensis\n †Chlamys dennisoni\n †Chlamys deshayesi\n †Chlamys deshayesii\n †Chlamys gainstownensis\n †Chlamys glendonensis\n †Chlamys howei\n †Chlamys mcquirti\n †Chlamys nupera\n †Chlamys spillmani\n †Chlamys wahtubbeana", "†Chlamys howei\n †Chlamys mcquirti\n †Chlamys nupera\n †Chlamys spillmani\n †Chlamys wahtubbeana\n †Chlorophthalmidarum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Chlorophthalmidarum postangulatus – type locality for species\n †Chlorophthalmus – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Chlorophthalmus postangulatus – type locality for species\n Chrysemys\n †Chrysemys picta", "†Chlorophthalmus postangulatus – type locality for species\n Chrysemys\n †Chrysemys picta\n †Chrysodomus – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Chrysodomus striatus\n Cibicides\n †Cibicides lobatulus\n Cidaris\n †Cidaris pratti\n †Cidaris spendens – or unidentified related form\n †Cidaris splendens\n †Cimomia\n †Cimomia haltomi\n †Cimomia subrecta\n †Cimomia vaughani\n †Cirsochilus\n †Cirsochilus claibornense\n †Cirsochilus lineatum\n Cirsotrema\n †Cirsotrema claibornense", "†Cirsochilus claibornense\n †Cirsochilus lineatum\n Cirsotrema\n †Cirsotrema claibornense\n †Cirsotrema creolum\n †Cirsotrema danvillense\n †Cirsotrema linteum\n †Cirsotrema nassulum\n †Cirsotrema ranellinum\n Clava – or unidentified comparable form\n †Clava globoleve\n Clavatula – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Clavatula tupis\n Clavilithes\n †Clavilithes hubbardanus\n †Clavilithes humerosus\n †Clavilithes kennedyanus\n †Clavilithes pachyleurus", "†Clavilithes humerosus\n †Clavilithes kennedyanus\n †Clavilithes pachyleurus\n †Clavilithes penrosei\n †Clavilithes protextus\n †Clavilithes raphanoides\n †Clavilithes samsoni\n Clavus\n †Clavus lonsdallii\n †Clavus pulchreconcha\n †Clavus solitariuscula\n †Clavus surculopsis\n Cliona\n †Cliona microtuberum\n Clithrocytheridea\n †Clithrocytheridea caldwellensis\n †Clithrocytheridea garretti\n †Clithrocytheridea grigsbyi\n †Clithrocytheridea shubutensis\n Closia\n †Closia larvata\n †Closia plicata\n †Closia semen\n Clypeaster", "Closia\n †Closia larvata\n †Closia plicata\n †Closia semen\n Clypeaster\n †Clypeaster rogersi\n Cochlespira\n †Cochlespira bella\n †Cochlespira engonata\n †Cochlespira greggi\n †Cochlespirella\n †Cochlespirella nana\n Codakia – tentative report\n †Codakia claytonia\n †Codakia symmetrica\n Colinus\n †Colinus virginianus\n Coluber\n †Coluber constrictor\n Columbellopsis\n †Columbellopsis elevata\n †Columbellopsis mississippiensis\n †Congeris\n †Congeris brevior", "†Columbellopsis elevata\n †Columbellopsis mississippiensis\n †Congeris\n †Congeris brevior\n †Congridarum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n Conomitra\n †Conomitra fusoides\n †Conomitra texana\n †Conomitra traceyi\n Conopeum\n †Conopeum arborescens\n †Conopeum similior – type locality for species\n †Conopeum wilcoxianicum – type locality for species\n †Conorbis\n †Conorbis conoides\n Conus\n †Conus granopsis\n †Conus improvidus\n †Conus sauridens\n †Conus smithvillensis", "Conus\n †Conus granopsis\n †Conus improvidus\n †Conus sauridens\n †Conus smithvillensis\n †Coptostoma\n †Coptostoma rameum\n Coralliophaga\n †Coralliophaga claibornensis\n †Coralliophaga prima\n Corbicula – tentative report\n †Corbicula cornelliana\n Corbula\n †Corbula alabamiensis\n †Corbula compressa\n †Corbula concha\n †Corbula extenuata\n †Corbula milium\n †Corbula subcompressa\n Cordieria\n †Cordieria biconica\n †Cordieria ludoviciana\n †Cormohipparion\n †Cormohipparion emsliei\n †Cornulina\n †Cornulina armigera", "†Cordieria ludoviciana\n †Cormohipparion\n †Cormohipparion emsliei\n †Cornulina\n †Cornulina armigera\n †Cornulina hatchetigbeensis\n †Cornulina minax\n †Cornulina philadelphica\n †Coronia\n †Coronia alternata\n †Coronia casteri\n †Coronia childreni\n †Coronia lancea\n †Coronia lerchi\n †Coronia margaritosa\n †Coronia mediavia\n †Coronia nodoidea\n †Coronina\n †Coronina childreni\n †Corvina\n †Corvina gemma\n †Corvina intermedia\n Corvus\n †Corvus corax\n †Coryphodon\n Costacallista\n †Costacallista aequorea", "†Corvina intermedia\n Corvus\n †Corvus corax\n †Coryphodon\n Costacallista\n †Costacallista aequorea\n †Costacallista aldrichi\n †Costacallista mortoni\n †Costazzia\n †Costazzia antiqua – type locality for species\n †Crasinella\n †Crasinella minor\n Crassatella\n †Crassatella alta\n †Crassatella aquiana\n †Crassatella gabbi\n †Crassatella ioannes\n †Crassatella sepulcollis\n †Crassatella texalta\n †Crassatella trapaquara\n †Crassatella trapoquara\n †Crassatella tumidula\n Crassinella\n †Crassinella minor\n Crassostrea", "†Crassatella trapoquara\n †Crassatella tumidula\n Crassinella\n †Crassinella minor\n Crassostrea\n †Crassostrea alabamiensis\n Crenella\n †Crenella isocardioides\n †Crenella latifrons\n †Crenella margaritacea\n Crenilabium\n †Crenilabium cossmanni\n Crepidula\n †Crepidula dumosa\n †Crepidula lirata\n Creseis\n †Creseis elba\n †Creseis nimba\n †Cricella\n †Cricella leana\n Crisia\n †Crisia hornesi\n Crisulipora\n †Crisulipora grandipora – type locality for species\n †Crisulipora promineus\n †Crisulipora rugosodorsalis", "†Crisulipora promineus\n †Crisulipora rugosodorsalis\n †Crommium\n †Crommium perovatum\n †Crommium tombigbeense\n Crotalus\n †Crotalus horridus\n Cryptobranchus\n †Cryptobranchus alleganiensis\n †Cryptochorda\n †Cryptochorda clarkensis\n †Cryptochorda mohri\n †Cubitostrea\n †Cubitostrea divaricata\n †Cubitostrea lisbonensis\n †Cubitostrea perplicata\n †Cubitostrea sellaeformis\n †Cubitostrea smithvillensis\n Cucullaea\n †Cucullaea gigantea\n †Cucullaea macrodonta\n †Cucullaea saffordi\n †Cucullaria\n †Cucullaria aldrichi", "†Cucullaea gigantea\n †Cucullaea macrodonta\n †Cucullaea saffordi\n †Cucullaria\n †Cucullaria aldrichi\n †Cucullaria ozarkensis\n Cultellus\n †Cultellus conradi\n Cuna\n †Cuna monroensis\n †Cuna parva\n †Cuneocorbula\n †Cuneocorbula subengonata\n Cushmanidea\n †Cushmanidea keyserensis\n †Cushmanidea papula\n †Cushmanidea serangodes\n Cuspidaria\n †Cuspidaria attenuata\n †Cuspidaria prima\n †Cyamocytheridea\n †Cyamocytheridea watervallensis\n Cyanocitta\n †Cyanocitta cristata\n Cyathoseris\n †Cyathoseris formosa", "Cyanocitta\n †Cyanocitta cristata\n Cyathoseris\n †Cyathoseris formosa\n †Cyathoseris valmondasiaca – tentative report\n †Cyclaster\n †Cyclaster drewryensis – type locality for species\n Cyclicopora\n †Cyclicopora colum\n †Cyclicopora filifera\n †Cyclicopora spongiopsis\n Cyclostremiscus\n †Cyclostremiscus – type locality for species informal\n †Cyclostremiscus dalli\n †Cyclostremiscus exacuus\n †Cyclostremiscus sylvaerupis\n Cygnus\n Cylichna\n †Cylichna acrotoma\n †Cylichna dekayi\n †Cylichna meyeri\n †Cylindracanthus", "Cygnus\n Cylichna\n †Cylichna acrotoma\n †Cylichna dekayi\n †Cylichna meyeri\n †Cylindracanthus\n †Cylindracanthus acus\n †Cylindracanthus rectus\n Cyllene – or unidentified comparable form\n †Cyllene bellana\n †Cymatholcus\n †Cymatholcus schucherti – type locality for species\n †Cynthiacetus\n †Cynthiacetus maxwelli\n Cypraea\n Cypraedia\n †Cypraedia gilberti\n †Cypraeorbis\n †Cypraeorbis alabamensis\n †Cypraeorbis nuculoides\n †Cypropterina\n †Cypropterina transovuloides\n †Cythereis – tentative report\n †Cythereis collei", "†Cypropterina\n †Cypropterina transovuloides\n †Cythereis – tentative report\n †Cythereis collei\n †Cythereis gosportensis – type locality for species\n †Cythereis longicostata – type locality for species\n Cytherella\n Cytherelloidea\n †Cytherelloidea cocoaensis\n †Cytherelloidea montgomeryensis\n Cytheretta\n †Cytheretta alexanderi\n †Cytherideis\n †Cytherideis alta – type locality for species\n †Cytherideis gosportensis – type locality for species\n †Cytherideis perforata – type locality for species\n †Cytheriopsis", "†Cytherideis perforata – type locality for species\n †Cytheriopsis\n †Cytheriopsis hydana\n Cytheromorpha\n †Cytheromorpha calva\n Cytheropteron\n †Cytheropteron montgomeryensis\n †Cytheropteron variosum\n Cytherura\n †Cytherura semireticulata – type locality for species\n †Cytherura ultra – type locality for species", "D", "Daphnella\n †Daphnella gregorioi\n Dasyatis\n Dasypus\n †Dasypus bellus\n Dendrophyllia\n †Dendrophyllia dendrophylloides\n †Dendrophyllia lisbonensis – type locality for species\n Dentalina\n Dentalium\n †Dentalium annulatum\n †Dentalium blandum\n †Dentalium eugenii\n †Dentalium jacksonense\n †Dentalium mediaviense\n †Dentalium microstria\n †Dentalium minutis\n †Dentalium minutistriatum\n †Dentalium multannulatum\n †Dentalium nediaviense\n †Dentalium sylvaerupis\n †Dentalium thalloides\n †Dentiterebra\n †Dentiterebra prima", "†Dentalium sylvaerupis\n †Dentalium thalloides\n †Dentiterebra\n †Dentiterebra prima\n Desmeplagioecia\n †Desmeplagioecia compressa\n Desmognathus\n †Desmognathus ochrophaeus\n †Dhondtichlamys\n †Dhondtichlamys greggi\n Diadophis\n †Diadophis punctatus\n Diaperoecia\n †Diaperoecia clava\n †Diaperoecia rugosa – type locality for species\n †Diaperoecia walcotti – type locality for species\n †Diastopora\n †Diastopora magnipora\n Dichocoenia\n †Dichocoenia alabamensis – type locality for species\n Didymosella", "Dichocoenia\n †Dichocoenia alabamensis – type locality for species\n Didymosella\n †Didymosella crassa\n †Dinematichthys\n †Dinematichthys midwayensis – type locality for species\n †Dinohyus\n †Dinohyus hollandi – or unidentified related form\n Diodon – tentative report\n Diodora\n †Diodora alabama\n †Diodora mauryi\n †Diodora mediavia\n †Diodora tenebrosa\n †Diodora unilineata\n Diplodonta\n †Diplodonta corbiscula\n †Diplodonta hopkinsensis\n †Diplodonta inflata\n †Diplodonta nana\n †Diplodonta ungulina\n †Diplopholeos", "†Diplodonta inflata\n †Diplodonta nana\n †Diplodonta ungulina\n †Diplopholeos\n †Diplopholeos lineatum\n †Dirocerithium\n †Dirocerithium vinctum\n †Dirocerithium whitfieldi\n †Discocyclina\n †Discocyclina weaveri\n Discorbis\n †Discorbis hemisphaerica\n †Discotrochus\n †Discotrochus orbigianus\n †Discotrochus orbignianus\n Distorsio\n †Distorsio septemdenta\n †Ditremaster\n †Ditremaster beckeri\n †Dolicholatirus – tentative report\n †Dolicholatirus interstriatus\n †Dolicholatirus tombigbeensis\n †Doliocassis", "†Dolicholatirus interstriatus\n †Dolicholatirus tombigbeensis\n †Doliocassis\n †Doliocassis nupera\n Donax\n †Donax acutangula\n Dorsanum\n †Dorsanum bellaliratum\n Dosinia – tentative report\n †Dosiniopsis\n †Dosiniopsis lenticularis\n Dumetella\n †Dumetella carolinensis", "E", "†Eburneopecten\n †Eburneopecten corneoides\n †Eburneopecten hamiltonensis\n †Eburneopecten scintillatus\n †Echanthus\n †Echanthus georgiensis\n Echinocyamus\n †Echinocyamus macneili\n †Echinocyamus nacneili\n Echinocythereis\n †Echinocythereis jacksonensis\n Echinolampas\n †Echinolampas aldrichi\n †Echinolampus\n †Echinolampus aldrichi\n †Echinopsis – tentative report\n †Ectopistes\n †Ectopistes migratorius\n †Egerella\n †Egerella elimatula\n †Egerella limatula\n †Egerella subtrigonia\n †Egertonia\n †Egertonia isodonta", "†Egerella elimatula\n †Egerella limatula\n †Egerella subtrigonia\n †Egertonia\n †Egertonia isodonta\n Elaphe\n †Elaphe guttata – or unidentified comparable form\n †Elaphe vulpina\n †Elimia\n †Elimia sylvaerupsis\n †Elimia trigemmata\n Emarginula\n †Emarginula arata\n Endopachys – type locality for genus\n †Endopachys claibornensis – type locality for species\n †Endopachys lonsdale\n †Endopachys lonsdalei – type locality for species\n †Endopachys maclurii\n †Enoploclytia\n †Enoploclytia tumimanus\n Enoplostomella", "†Endopachys maclurii\n †Enoploclytia\n †Enoploclytia tumimanus\n Enoplostomella\n †Enoplostomella crassimuralis\n †Enoplostomella defixa\n †Enoplostomella lingulifera – type locality for species\n †Enoplostomella rhomboidalis\n †Enoplostomella vallata\n †Entalophora\n Entosolenia\n †Entosolenia laevigata\n †Eoclathurella\n †Eoclathurella meridionalis\n †Eocypraea\n †Eocypraea eosmithi\n †Eocypraea estellensis\n †Eodrilla\n †Eodrilla depygis\n †Eodrilla lonsdalei\n †Eodrilla texana\n †Eodrilla texanopsis\n †Eodrillia", "†Eodrilla depygis\n †Eodrilla lonsdalei\n †Eodrilla texana\n †Eodrilla texanopsis\n †Eodrillia\n †Eodrillia depygis\n †Eodrillia lonsdalii\n †Eophysema\n †Eophysema ozarkana\n †Eophysema subvexa\n †Eopleurotoma\n †Eopleurotoma bimoniata\n †Eopleurotoma cainei\n †Eopleurotoma cochlea\n †Eopleurotoma desnoyersii\n †Eopleurotoma gemmavia\n †Eopleurotoma hoeninghausii\n †Eopleurotoma lisboncola\n †Eopleurotoma nodocarinata\n †Eopleurotoma nupera\n †Eopleurotoma rugatina\n †Eopleurotoma rugosa\n †Eopleurotoma sayi", "†Eopleurotoma nupera\n †Eopleurotoma rugatina\n †Eopleurotoma rugosa\n †Eopleurotoma sayi\n †Eopleurotoma thyroidifera\n †Eopleurotoma veatchi\n †Eosinica\n †Eosinica elevata\n †Eosurcula\n †Eosurcula beaumontii\n †Eosurcula lesueurii\n †Eosurcula moorei\n †Eosurcula pulcherrima\n †Eosurcula sanctimauritii\n †Eosurcula superpons\n †Eosurcula tardereperta\n †Eosurcula tuomeyi\n †Epicyon\n †Epicyon haydeni – or unidentified comparable form\n Epilucina\n †Epilucina rotunda\n Epitonium\n †Epitonium exquisitum", "Epilucina\n †Epilucina rotunda\n Epitonium\n †Epitonium exquisitum\n †Epitonium mcglameriae\n †Epitonium multiliniferum\n †Epitonium munistriatum\n †Epitonium subacutum\n †Epitonium vetustum\n Eptesicus\n †Eptesicus fuscus\n Equus\n Ervilia\n †Ervilia lignitica\n †Ervilia meyeri\n Erycina\n †Erycina plicatula\n †Erycina whitfieldi\n †Etyus\n †Etyus buccata\n †Etyus magniporosa\n †Etyus strangulata\n †Eucheilodon\n †Eucheilodon reticulata\n Eulima\n †Eulima cainei\n †Eulima extremis", "†Eucheilodon\n †Eucheilodon reticulata\n Eulima\n †Eulima cainei\n †Eulima extremis\n Eulimella – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Eulimella propenotata\n Eupatagus\n †Eupatagus antillarum\n Eupleura\n †Eupleura morula\n †Eurhodia\n †Eurhodia patelliformis\n †Euritina\n †Euritina tecta\n †Eurycea\n Eurytellina\n †Eurytellina linifera\n †Eurytellina mooreana – tentative report\n †Eurytellina papyria\n †Eurytellina vaughani\n †Euscalpellum\n †Euscalpellum eocenense\n Euspira", "†Eurytellina papyria\n †Eurytellina vaughani\n †Euscalpellum\n †Euscalpellum eocenense\n Euspira\n †Euspira aldrichi\n †Euspira leana\n †Euspira marylandica\n †Euspira newtonensis\n †Euspira perspecta\n †Euspira sabina\n Euthria\n †Euthria dubia\n †Eutrephoceras\n †Eutrephoceras johnsoni\n †Eutrephoceras jonesi – type locality for species\n Evalea\n †Evalea bartschi\n †Evalea melanella\n †Exilia\n †Exilia pergracilis\n †Exilifusus\n †Exilifusus thalloides\n †Exochoecia\n †Exochoecia rugosa – type locality for species\n †Exogyra", "†Exilifusus thalloides\n †Exochoecia\n †Exochoecia rugosa – type locality for species\n †Exogyra\n †Exogyra costata", "F", "Falco\n †Falco sparverius\n Falsifusus\n †Falsifusus harrisi\n †Falsifusus ludlovicianus\n †Falsifusus ottonis\n †Falsifusus subfilosus\n Fibularia\n †Fibularia alabamensis\n †Ficopsis\n †Ficopsis penita\n †Ficopsis texana\n Filisparsa\n †Filisparsa bini – type locality for species\n †Filisparsa biseriata\n †Filisparsa gracilis – type locality for species\n †Filisparsa ingens\n †Filisparsa laxata – type locality for species\n †Filisparsa typica\n Fimbria\n †Fimbria lirata\n †Fimbria undata\n †Fimbria urdata\n Fissurella", "†Filisparsa typica\n Fimbria\n †Fimbria lirata\n †Fimbria undata\n †Fimbria urdata\n Fissurella\n Flabellum\n †Flabellum conoideum – type locality for species\n †Flabellum cuneiforme\n †Flabellum johnsoni – type locality for species\n †Flabellum magnocostatum\n †Flabellum matthewsense\n †Flabellum pachyphyllum\n †Flabellum wailesii\n †Flabellum wallesii\n Floridina\n †Floridina antiqua\n Floridinella\n †Floridinella vicksburgica\n Fulgurofusus\n †Fulgurofusus quercollis\n †Fulgurofusus rugatus\n Fusimitra", "Fulgurofusus\n †Fulgurofusus quercollis\n †Fulgurofusus rugatus\n Fusimitra\n †Fusimitra millingtoni\n †Fusimitra perexilis\n †Fusimitra polita\n †Fusitoma\n †Fusitoma sipha\n Fustiaria\n †Fustiaria danai", "G", "†Gagaria\n †Gagaria chickasawhay – type locality for species\n †Gagaria salis – tentative report\n Galeocerdo\n †Galeocerdo alabamensis – type locality for species\n †Galeocerdo clarkensis – type locality for species\n †Galeocerdo latidens\n Galeodea\n †Galeodea brevidentata\n †Galeodea dubia\n †Galeodea koureos\n Galeorhinus\n †Galeorhinus falconeri – or unidentified comparable form\n †Galeorhinus recticonus\n Gari\n †Gari blainvillii\n †Gari claibornense\n †Gari ebora\n †Gari eborea\n †Gari filosum\n †Gari harrisi", "†Gari blainvillii\n †Gari claibornense\n †Gari ebora\n †Gari eborea\n †Gari filosum\n †Gari harrisi\n †Gari ozarkana\n †Gari smithi\n †Gastopoda\n Gastrochaena\n †Gastrochaena larva\n †Gastrochaena striatula\n Gavia\n †Gavia immer\n Gegania\n †Gegania antiquata\n Gemma\n †Gemma sanctimauricensis\n †Genartina\n †Genartina texana\n Genota\n †Genota gardnerae\n †Genota gardneri\n †Genota heilprini\n Geodia\n †Georgiacetus\n †Georgiacetus vogtlensis\n Gephyrotes\n †Gephyrotes quadriserialis\n Gibbolucina\n †Gibbolucina pandata", "Gephyrotes\n †Gephyrotes quadriserialis\n Gibbolucina\n †Gibbolucina pandata\n †Gigantostrea\n †Gigantostrea sylvaerupis\n †Gigantostrea trigonalis\n †Gilbertia\n †Gilbertia estellensis\n †Gilbertina\n †Gilbertina estellensis\n Ginglymostoma\n †Ginglymostoma blankenhorni – or unidentified comparable form\n †Ginglymostoma serra\n †Gitolampas\n †Gitolampas georgiensis\n Glossus\n †Glossus mediavia\n †Gluttulina – tentative report\n †Gluttulina irregularis\n Glycymeris\n †Glycymeris aviculoides\n †Glycymeris filosa", "†Gluttulina irregularis\n Glycymeris\n †Glycymeris aviculoides\n †Glycymeris filosa\n †Glycymeris idonea\n †Glycymeris lisbonensis\n †Glycymeris minor\n †Glycymeris staminea\n †Glycymeris trigonella\n Glyptoactis\n †Glyptoactis alticostata\n †Glyptoactis nasuta\n †Glyptoactis sillimani\n †Glyptoactis trapaquara\n †Glyptostyla\n †Glyptostyla bacula\n †Glyptotoma\n †Glyptotoma conradiana\n Goniopora\n †Goniopora aldrichi – type locality for species\n †Grammella\n †Grammella pusilla – type locality for species\n †Graphularia", "†Grammella\n †Grammella pusilla – type locality for species\n †Graphularia\n Graptemys\n †Graptemys geographica\n †Grateloupia\n †Grateloupia hydana\n Grus\n †Gryphaeostrea\n †Gryphaeostrea plicatella\n †Gryphaeostrea vomer\n Gyroidina\n †Gyroidina soldanii", "H", "†Hadralucina – tentative report\n †Hadralucina augustana\n †Haimesiastraea – type locality for genus\n †Haimesiastraea conferta – type locality for species\n Haliaeetus\n †Haliaeetus leucocephalus – or unidentified comparable form\n Haliris\n †Haliris granuloides\n †Hamimesiastraea\n †Hamimesiastraea coniferta\n †Hamulus\n †Hamulus onyx\n Haplocytheridea\n †Haplocytheridea goochi\n †Haplocytheridea montgomeryensis\n Hastula\n †Hastula houstonia\n †Hastula venusta\n Haustator\n †Haustator carinata\n †Haustator perdita", "Hastula\n †Hastula houstonia\n †Hastula venusta\n Haustator\n †Haustator carinata\n †Haustator perdita\n †Haustator rina\n Hemiaster\n †Hemiaster moscovensis – type locality for species\n Hemipristis\n †Hemipristis curvatus\n †Hemipristis wyattdurhami – type locality for species\n †Hemisurcula\n †Hemisurcula silicata\n Henryhowella\n †Henryhowella florienensis\n †Hercoglossa\n †Hercoglossa mcglameryae\n †Hercoglossa orbiculata\n †Hercoglossa ulrichi\n †Hercoglossa walteri\n Hermanites – tentative report\n †Hermanites dohmi", "†Hercoglossa ulrichi\n †Hercoglossa walteri\n Hermanites – tentative report\n †Hermanites dohmi\n †Hermanites hysonensis\n †Herpetopora\n †Herpetopora danica\n †Hesperiturris – tentative report\n †Hesperiturris nodocarinatus\n Heterodon\n †Heterodon platirhinos – or unidentified comparable form\n Heterodontus\n †Heterodontus woodwardi – or unidentified comparable form\n Hexaplex\n †Hexaplex colei\n †Hexaplex engonatus – type locality for species\n †Hexaplex vanuxemi\n Hincksina", "†Hexaplex colei\n †Hexaplex engonatus – type locality for species\n †Hexaplex vanuxemi\n Hincksina\n †Hincksina costulifera – type locality for species\n †Hincksina elegans – type locality for species\n †Hincksina jacksonica\n †Hindsiella\n †Hindsiella faba\n Hippomenella\n †Hippomenella capitimortis\n †Hippomenella costulata\n †Hippomenella crassicollis\n †Hippomenella pungens – type locality for species\n †Hippomenella transversa\n Hipponix\n †Hipponix pygmaeus\n †Hipponix sylvaerupis\n †Hipponix vagus\n Hippopleurifera", "Hipponix\n †Hipponix pygmaeus\n †Hipponix sylvaerupis\n †Hipponix vagus\n Hippopleurifera\n †Hippopleurifera costulata\n †Hippopleurifera crassicollis\n †Hippopleurifera incondita\n †Hippopleurifera moodysbranchensis\n †Hippopleurifera rotula\n Hippoporella\n †Hippoporella perforata – type locality for species\n Hippoporina\n †Hippoporina lucens\n †Hippoporina midwayaica\n Hyla\n †Hyla gratiosa\n †Hyposaurus\n †Hyposaurus rogersii\n †Hypotodus\n †Hypotodus robustus", "I\n\n Idmonea\n †Idmonea grallator\n †Idmonea milneana\n †Idmonea petri\n †Idmonea triforata\n Isognomon\n †Isognomon cornelliana\n\nJ\n\n †Jaekelotodus\n †Jaekelotodus trigonalis\n †Jefitchia\n †Jefitchia copelandi\n Jupiteria\n †Jupiteria jonesi\n †Jupiteria smirna\n\nK", "K\n\n †Kapalmerella\n †Kapalmerella arenicola\n †Kapalmerella dumblei\n †Kapalmerella mortoni\n †Kapalmerella pleboides\n Katherinella\n †Katherinella trigoniata\n †Katherinella trinitatis\n †Keilostoma\n †Keilostoma mediavia\n †Kleidionella\n †Kleidionella grandis\n †Konarocythere\n †Konarocythere spurgeonae\n Kuphus\n †Kuphus incrassatus\n\nL", "Lacazella\n †Lacazella nana – type locality for species\n Lacerna\n †Lacerna hexagonalis\n †Lacinia\n †Lacinia alveata\n †Lacinia claibornensis\n †Lacunaria\n †Lacunaria alabamiensis\n †Lacunaria erecta\n †Laevibuccinum\n †Laevibuccinum constrictum\n †Laevibuccinum harrisi\n †Laevibuccinum lineatum\n †Laevibuccinum popleum\n †Laevibuccinum prorsum\n Laevicardium\n Laganum\n †Laganum floridanum\n †Lagonoecia\n †Lagonoecia lamellifera – type locality for species\n Lamarckina\n Lamna\n †Lamna lerichei", "†Lagonoecia lamellifera – type locality for species\n Lamarckina\n Lamna\n †Lamna lerichei\n †Lamna mediavia – type locality for species\n Lampropeltis\n †Lampropeltis getulus\n †Lampropeltis triangulum\n †Lapparia\n †Lapparia mooreana\n †Lapparia pactilis\n Latirus\n †Latirus biplicatus\n †Latirus elaboratus\n †Latirus extricatus\n †Latirus interstriatus\n †Latirus moorei\n †Latirus plicatus\n †Latirus tepus\n †Ledina\n †Ledina smirna\n †Leiorhinus\n †Leiorhinus prorutus\n Leiosella", "†Latirus tepus\n †Ledina\n †Ledina smirna\n †Leiorhinus\n †Leiorhinus prorutus\n Leiosella\n †Leiosella grandisora – type locality for species\n †Leiosella rostrifera\n Lenticulina\n †Lepidocyclina\n †Lepidocyclina mantelli\n †Lepidocyclina undosa – or unidentified comparable form\n Lepton\n †Lepton vaughani\n †Levifusus\n †Levifusus alveata\n †Levifusus bellanus\n †Levifusus bispinosus\n †Levifusus dalei\n †Levifusus dallianus\n †Levifusus irrasus\n †Levifusus mortonii\n †Levifusus mortoniopsis\n †Levifusus pagodiformis", "†Levifusus irrasus\n †Levifusus mortonii\n †Levifusus mortoniopsis\n †Levifusus pagodiformis\n †Levifusus prepagoda\n †Levifusus regularoides\n †Levifusus supraplanus\n †Levifusus suteri\n †Levifusus trabeatus\n Lichenopora\n †Lichenopora goldfussi\n †Lichenopora grignonensis\n †Lichenopora prolifera\n Limacina\n †Limacina choctavensis\n †Limacina elongatoidea\n Limaria\n †Limaria ozarkana\n Limopsis\n †Limopsis aviculoides\n Linga\n †Linga alveata\n †Linga carinifera\n †Linga pomilia\n †Linga smithi\n †Linthia", "Linga\n †Linga alveata\n †Linga carinifera\n †Linga pomilia\n †Linga smithi\n †Linthia\n †Linthia alabamensis – type locality for species\n †Linuparus\n †Linuparus wilcoxensis\n †Lirodiscus\n †Lirodiscus jacksonensis\n †Lirodiscus mediavia\n †Lirodiscus protractus\n †Lirodiscus scutellarius\n †Lirodiscus smithvillensis\n †Lirodiscus tellinoides\n †Lirofusus\n †Lirofusus subtenuis\n †Lirofusus thoracicus\n †Lisbonia\n †Lisbonia expansa\n Lithophaga\n †Lithophaga claibornensis\n †Lithophaga gainesensis", "†Lisbonia\n †Lisbonia expansa\n Lithophaga\n †Lithophaga claibornensis\n †Lithophaga gainesensis\n †Lithophaga nigra – or unidentified related form\n †Lithophaga petricoloides\n Lithophyllum – tentative report\n †Lithophysema\n †Lithoporella\n Lithothamnion – tentative report\n †Litorhadia\n †Litorhadia acala\n †Litorhadia aldrichiana\n †Litorhadia elongatoidea\n †Litorhadia mater\n Longchaeus\n †Longchaeus larvata\n Lopha\n †Lopha vicksburgensis\n †Lophoranina\n †Lophoranina georgiana\n Loxoconcha", "Lopha\n †Lopha vicksburgensis\n †Lophoranina\n †Lophoranina georgiana\n Loxoconcha\n †Loxoconcha clarkensis – type locality for species\n †Loxoconcha cocoaensis\n †Loxoconcha concentrica\n †Loxoconcha creolensis\n †Loxoconcha jacksonensis\n †Loxoconcha stavensis – type locality for species\n †Loxoconcha watervalleyensis\n Lucina\n †Lucina carinifera\n †Lucina dolabra\n †Lucina fortidentalis\n †Lucina hamata\n †Lucina papyracea\n †Lucina pomilia\n †Lucina primoidea\n †Lucina sylvaerupis\n Lunularia\n †Lunularia claibornica", "†Lucina pomilia\n †Lucina primoidea\n †Lucina sylvaerupis\n Lunularia\n †Lunularia claibornica\n †Lunularia distans\n †Lunularia ovata\n †Lunularia verrucosa – type locality for species\n Lunulites\n †Lunulites bouei\n †Lunulites distans\n †Lunulites jacksonensis\n †Lunulites truncata\n Lynx\n †Lynx rufus\n Lyria\n †Lyria lyroidea\n †Lyria wilcoxiana\n †Lyrodiscus\n †Lyrodiscus smithvillensis\n †Lyropecten\n †Lyropecten duncanensis\n †Lyrosurcula\n †Lyrosurcula dalli\n †Lyrosurcula funiculigera\n †Lyrosurcula sexvaricosa", "†Lyrosurcula\n †Lyrosurcula dalli\n †Lyrosurcula funiculigera\n †Lyrosurcula sexvaricosa\n †Lyrosurcula shaleri\n †Lyrosurcula sylvaerupis", "M", "Macoma\n †Macoma danai\n †Macoma scandula\n †Macoma sillimani\n Macrocallista\n †Macrocallista sylvaerupis\n Macropneustes\n †Macropneustes mortoni\n †Mactropsis\n †Mactropsis aequorea\n †Mactropsis rectilinearis\n Madracis\n †Madracis ganei\n †Madracis gregorioi – type locality for species\n †Madracis gregoriori\n †Madracis herricki\n †Mammut\n †Mammut americanum\n †Mammuthus\n †Mammuthus columbi\n Margaretta\n †Margaretta parviporosa\n †Margaretta vicksburgia – type locality for species", "Margaretta\n †Margaretta parviporosa\n †Margaretta vicksburgia – type locality for species\n †Margaretta vicksburgica – type locality for species\n Marginella\n †Marginella constricta\n †Marginella constrictoides\n †Marginella silabra\n Martesia\n †Martesia elongata\n †Martesia recurva\n †Mastigophora\n †Mastigophora hyndmanni\n †Mathilda\n †Mathilda claibornesis\n †Mathilda elongatoides\n †Mathilda leana\n †Mathilda leona\n †Mathilda singularis\n †Mazzalina\n †Mazzalina inaurata\n †Mazzalina plena\n †Mazzalina tuomeyi", "†Mathilda singularis\n †Mazzalina\n †Mazzalina inaurata\n †Mazzalina plena\n †Mazzalina tuomeyi\n Mecynoecia\n †Mecynoecia cornuta – type locality for species\n †Mecynoecia elongatobula\n †Mecynoecia elongatotubre\n †Mecynoecia lunata\n †Mecynoecia proboscidea\n †Mecynoecia quisenberryae\n †Mecynoecia semota\n †Megalonyx\n †Megalonyx jeffersonii\n Melanella\n Melanerpes\n †Melanerpes carolinus – or unidentified comparable form\n Melanopsis\n †Melanopsis anita\n Meleagris\n †Meleagris gallopavo", "Melanopsis\n †Melanopsis anita\n Meleagris\n †Meleagris gallopavo\n †Membranioporella – tentative report\n †Membranioporella subgossizi – type locality for species\n Membranipora\n †Membranipora arcana – type locality for species\n †Membranipora tubulosa – type locality for species\n Membraniporella – tentative report\n Membraniporidra\n †Membraniporidra similis\n †Membraniporidra spissimuralis\n †Membraniporina\n †Membraniporina sinesolum\n †Mercimonia – tentative report\n †Mercimonia mercenaroidea\n Meretrix", "†Membraniporina sinesolum\n †Mercimonia – tentative report\n †Mercimonia mercenaroidea\n Meretrix\n †Meretrix ripleyana\n Mergus\n Mesalia\n †Mesalia alabamiensis\n †Mesalia allentonensis\n †Mesalia biplicata\n †Mesalia bowlesi\n †Mesalia claibornensis\n †Mesalia persa\n †Mesalia pumila\n †Mesalia vetusta\n †Mesalia watsonensis\n †Mesomorpha\n †Mesomorpha duncani – type locality for species\n Mesophyllum\n †Mesorhytis\n †Mesorhytis hatchetigbeensis\n †Metradolium\n †Metradolium transversum\n Metrarabdotos", "†Mesorhytis\n †Mesorhytis hatchetigbeensis\n †Metradolium\n †Metradolium transversum\n Metrarabdotos\n †Metrarabdotos grande – type locality for species\n †Metrarabdotos moniliferum\n Metula\n †Metula sylvaerupis\n †Michela\n †Michela trabeatoides\n †Micrancilla\n †Micrancilla alibamasiana – type locality for species\n Microdrillia\n †Microdrillia infans\n †Microdrillia robustula\n †Microdrillia rostratula\n †Microdrillia turriculata\n Microecia\n †Microecia hirta\n †Microecia vibrio\n Micromeris\n †Micromeris minutissima", "Microecia\n †Microecia hirta\n †Microecia vibrio\n Micromeris\n †Micromeris minutissima\n Micropora\n †Micropora coriacea\n Microtus\n †Microtus pennsylvanicus\n Miltha\n †Miltha claibornensis\n †Miltha gaufia\n †Miltha greggi\n †Miltha pandata\n Miodontiscus – or unidentified comparable form\n †Miodontiscus aldrichianus\n †Miodontiscus timothii\n Mitrella\n †Mitrella alabamensis\n †Mitrella bucciniformis\n †Mitrella erecta\n †Mitrella parva\n Mitrolumna\n †Mitrolumna eocenensis\n Mnestia\n †Mnestia dekayi\n Modiolaria", "†Mitrella parva\n Mitrolumna\n †Mitrolumna eocenensis\n Mnestia\n †Mnestia dekayi\n Modiolaria\n †Modiolaria alabamensis\n Modiolus\n †Modiolus cretaceus\n †Modiolus saffordi\n †Monoceratina\n †Monoceratina alexanderi\n †Monoptygma\n †Monoptygma curtum\n †Monoptygma leai\n †Monoptygma lymneoides\n Montacuta\n †Montacuta bicuspidata\n †Montacuta claiborniana\n †Montacuta herberti\n †Multiporina\n †Multiporina parvipora – type locality for species\n Murex\n †Murex fusates\n †Murex gosportensis\n †Murex migus\n †Murex septemnarius", "Murex\n †Murex fusates\n †Murex gosportensis\n †Murex migus\n †Murex septemnarius\n Murexiella\n †Murexiella crispangula – type locality for species\n †Murexiella mantelli – type locality for species\n †Murotriton\n †Murotriton grassator\n †Murotriton mcglameriae\n Myliobatis\n †Mylohyus\n †Mylohyus fossilis\n Myotis\n †Myotis lucifugus\n Myrtea\n †Myrtea astartiformis\n †Myrtea bisculpta\n †Myrtea ulrichi\n Mysella\n †Mysella dalli\n †Mysella minuta", "N", "†Nannippus\n †Nannippus aztecus\n †Nannippus lenticularis – or unidentified comparable form\n †Nanohalus\n †Nanohalus cossmanni\n Narona\n †Narona greggi\n †Narona quercollis\n Nassarius\n †Nassarius exilis\n Natica\n †Natica aperta\n †Natica gilberti\n †Natica magnoumbilicata\n †Natica mediavia\n †Natica onusta\n †Natica permunda\n †Natica reversa\n †Natica saffordia\n Naticarius\n †Naticarius reversa\n †Naticarius semilunata\n Nebrius\n Negaprion\n †Negaprion gibbsi\n Nellia\n †Nellia bifaciata\n †Nellia midwayanica", "Nebrius\n Negaprion\n †Negaprion gibbsi\n Nellia\n †Nellia bifaciata\n †Nellia midwayanica\n †Nellia tenella\n †Nemipterus\n †Nemipterus caribbaeus – type locality for species\n Nemocardium\n †Nemocardium gambrinum\n †Nemocardium harrisi\n †Nemocardium lene\n †Nemocardium nicolletti\n †Neohipparion\n †Neohipparion eurystyle\n Neotoma\n †Neotoma floridana\n Neritina\n †Neritina unidenta\n Nerodia\n †Nerodia sipeodon\n Neverita\n †Neverita limula\n Niso\n †Niso umbilicata\n Nodosaria\n Nonion\n †Nonion planatum\n Nonionella", "†Neverita limula\n Niso\n †Niso umbilicata\n Nodosaria\n Nonion\n †Nonion planatum\n Nonionella\n †Nonionella hantekeni\n Norrisia\n †Norrisia micromphala\n †Norrisia nautiloides\n †Norrisia nitens\n †Norrisia parva\n Nucleolites\n †Nucleolites conradi\n †Nucleolites gouldii\n †Nucleopsis\n †Nucleopsis subvaricata\n Nucula\n †Nucula capsiopsis\n †Nucula magnifica\n †Nucula mauricensis\n †Nucula mediavia\n †Nucula monroensis\n †Nucula ovula\n †Nucula potomacensis\n †Nucula ripae\n †Nucula sphenopsis\n Nuculana\n †Nuculana bella", "†Nucula ovula\n †Nucula potomacensis\n †Nucula ripae\n †Nucula sphenopsis\n Nuculana\n †Nuculana bella\n †Nuculana coelata\n †Nuculana coelatella – tentative report\n †Nuculana corpulentoides\n †Nuculana crassiparva\n †Nuculana fiski\n †Nuculana magna\n †Nuculana marieana\n †Nuculana milamensis\n †Nuculana multilineata\n †Nuculana ozarkola\n †Nuculana plana\n †Nuculana saffordana\n †Nuculana trumani\n †Nuculana wautubbeana\n Nycticeius\n †Nycticeius humeralis", "O", "Oculina – type locality for genus\n †Oculina alabamensis – type locality for species\n †Oculina smithi – type locality for species\n †Oculina wagneriana – type locality for species\n Odocoileus\n †Odocoileus virginianus\n Odontaspis\n †Odontaspis hopei\n †Odontaspis macrota\n †Odontaspis malletiana – type locality for species\n †Odontaspis speyeri\n †Odontaspis verticalis – tentative report\n †Odontogryphaea\n †Odontogryphaea thirsae\n †Odontopolys\n †Odontopolys compsorhytis\n †Odontopolys sublevis\n Odostomia", "†Odontopolys\n †Odontopolys compsorhytis\n †Odontopolys sublevis\n Odostomia\n †Odostomia insignifica\n †Odostomia laevis\n †Odostomia matthewsensis\n †Oligopygus\n †Oligopygus haldemani\n †Oligopygus rotundus\n Oliva\n †Oliva platonica\n Olivella\n †Olivella mediavia\n †Olivella semilignitica\n Oncousoecia\n †Oncousoecia quinqueseriata\n †Oncousoecia varians\n Opheodrys\n †Opheodrys aestivus\n †Orthosurcula\n †Orthosurcula adeona\n †Orthosurcula indenta\n †Orthosurcula langdoni\n †Orthosurcula longipersa\n †Orthosurcula persa", "†Orthosurcula indenta\n †Orthosurcula langdoni\n †Orthosurcula longipersa\n †Orthosurcula persa\n Orthoyoldia\n †Orthoyoldia psammotaea\n †Oryctomya – or unidentified comparable form\n †Oryctomya prima\n Ostrea\n †Ostrea arrosis\n †Ostrea crenulimarginata\n †Ostrea falco\n †Ostrea glauconoides\n †Ostrea intermedoides\n †Ostrea johnsoni\n †Ostrea ludoviciana\n †Ostrea pulaskensis\n †Ostrea selaeformis\n †Ostrea sinuosa\n Otionella\n †Otionella perforata\n †Otodus\n †Otodus angustidens\n †Otostomia\n †Otostomia melanella\n Otus", "†Otionella perforata\n †Otodus\n †Otodus angustidens\n †Otostomia\n †Otostomia melanella\n Otus\n †Otus asio\n Ovulactaeon\n †Ovulactaeon aldrichi\n †Oxyrhina\n †Oxyrhina praecursor", "P", "†Pachecoa\n †Pachecoa catonis\n †Pachecoa decisa\n †Pachecoa declivis\n †Pachecoa ellipsis\n †Pachecoa ledoides\n †Pachecoa lisbonensis\n †Pachecoa microcancellata\n †Pachecoa ovalis\n †Pachecoa pectuncularis\n †Pachecoa perplana\n †Pachecoa pulchra\n †Palaeohypotodus\n †Palaeohypotodus rutoti – or unidentified comparable form\n †Palaeophis\n †Palaeophis virginianus\n †Palaeorhaphis\n †Palaeorhaphis pergracilis\n Panopea\n †Panopea alabama\n †Panopea bellsensis\n †Panopea oblongata\n †Panopea porrectoides\n Panthera", "†Panopea alabama\n †Panopea bellsensis\n †Panopea oblongata\n †Panopea porrectoides\n Panthera\n †Panthera onca\n †Papillina\n †Papillina altilis\n †Papillina cooperi\n †Papillina dumosa\n †Papillina mohri\n †Papillina papillata\n †Papillina staminea\n Paracyathus\n †Paracyathus bellus\n †Paracyathus cylindricus – type locality for species\n †Paracyathus granulosus – type locality for species\n †Paracyathus rugosus – type locality for species\n Paracypris\n †Paracypris franquesi\n Paracytheridea", "Paracypris\n †Paracypris franquesi\n Paracytheridea\n †Paracytheridea belhavenensis\n †Parmicorbula – or unidentified comparable form\n †Parmicorbula gibbosa\n Pasithea\n †Pasithea guttula\n †Pasithea striata\n †Pasitheola\n †Pasitheola claibornensis\n †Pasitheola guttula\n †Pasitheola tornatelloides\n †Patulaxis\n †Patulaxis scrobiculata\n Pecten\n †Pecten byramensis\n †Pecten howei\n †Pecten perlanus\n †Pecten perplanus\n †Pecten poulsoni\n †Pediomeryx\n Pekania\n †Pekania pennanti\n Pelecyora\n †Pelecyora hatchetigbeensis", "†Pediomeryx\n Pekania\n †Pekania pennanti\n Pelecyora\n †Pelecyora hatchetigbeensis\n Penion\n †Penion bellus\n †Penion crebrissimus\n †Penion delabechii\n †Penion gracilis\n †Penion imbricatulus\n †Penion leai\n †Periarchus\n †Periarchus lyelli\n †Periarchus pileussinensis\n †Periarchus protuberans\n Perigastrella\n †Perigastrella costellifera\n †Perigastrella oscitans\n †Perigastrella ovoidea\n †Perigastrella plana\n †Perigastrella trapezoidea\n Periploma\n †Periploma butlerianum\n †Periploma claibornense", "†Perigastrella trapezoidea\n Periploma\n †Periploma butlerianum\n †Periploma claibornense\n †Periploma collardi\n †Periploma complicatum\n †Perissolax\n †Perissolax eocensis\n †Peristomella\n †Peristomella coccinea\n †Peristomella erecta – type locality for species\n Peromyscus\n Petricola\n †Petricola claibornensis\n Petrophyllia\n †Petrophyllia gardnerae – type locality for species\n Phalium\n †Phalium brevicostatum\n †Phalium taitii\n Philine\n †Philine alabamensis\n Pholadomya\n †Pholadomya claibornensis\n Pholas", "†Phalium taitii\n Philine\n †Philine alabamensis\n Pholadomya\n †Pholadomya claibornensis\n Pholas\n †Pholas alatoidea\n †Pholas aldrichi\n Phos\n †Phos iterandum\n †Phos lucrifactum – tentative report\n †Phos mangonizatum\n †Phos sagenum\n †Phos texanum\n Phyllodus\n Physodon\n †Physodon secundus\n Physoida\n †Physoida clarkeana\n Pica\n †Pica pica\n Picoides\n †Picoides villosus – or unidentified comparable form\n Pinna\n Pipistrellus\n Piranga\n †Piranga olivacea – or unidentified comparable form\n Pitar\n †Pitar cornelli", "Piranga\n †Piranga olivacea – or unidentified comparable form\n Pitar\n †Pitar cornelli\n †Pitar exiguus\n †Pitar juliae\n †Pitar macbeani\n †Pitar nuttali\n †Pitar nuttalliopsis\n †Pitar petropolitanus\n †Pitar poulsoni\n †Pitar ripleyanus\n †Pitar securiformis\n †Pitar texibrazus\n †Pitar trigoniata\n †Plagiarca\n †Plagiarca rhomboidella\n Plagiobrissus\n †Plagiobrissus dixie\n Plagioecia\n †Plagioecia birta – type locality for species\n †Plagioecia divagans – type locality for species", "†Plagioecia birta – type locality for species\n †Plagioecia divagans – type locality for species\n †Plagioecia tubifer – type locality for species\n †Plagiosmittia\n †Plagiosmittia regularis\n †Planaria – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Planaria nitens\n Planorbis – or unidentified comparable form\n †Platyoptera\n †Platyoptera extenta\n Platytrochus\n †Platytrochus claibornensis\n †Platytrochus goldfussi\n †Platytrochus stokesi\n †Pleiolama", "†Platytrochus claibornensis\n †Platytrochus goldfussi\n †Platytrochus stokesi\n †Pleiolama\n †Pleiolama vera – or unidentified comparable form\n Plethodon\n †Plethodon glutinosus\n Pleurofusia\n †Pleurofusia claibarena\n †Pleurofusia collaris\n †Pleurofusia huppertzi\n †Pleuroliria\n †Pleuroliria subdeviata\n †Pleuroliria supramirifica\n †Pleuroliria tizis\n Pleuromeris\n †Pleuromeris inflatior\n †Pleuromeris parva\n †Pleuromeris tortidens\n †Pleuronea\n †Pleuronea alveolata\n †Pleuronea elevata\n †Pleuronea fenestrata", "†Pleuronea\n †Pleuronea alveolata\n †Pleuronea elevata\n †Pleuronea fenestrata\n †Pleuronea fibrosa\n †Pleuronea fusiformis\n †Pleurostoma\n †Pleurostoma adolescens\n Pleurotomaria – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n Pleurotomella\n †Pleurotomella whitfieldi\n †Plevrofusia – tentative report\n †Plevrofusia huppertzi\n Plicatula\n †Plicatula filamentosa\n Podilymbus\n †Podilymbus podiceps\n Poirieria\n †Poirieria harrisi\n Polinices\n †Polinices aratus", "Podilymbus\n †Podilymbus podiceps\n Poirieria\n †Poirieria harrisi\n Polinices\n †Polinices aratus\n †Polinices eminulus\n †Polinices onustus\n †Polinices weisbordi\n Polyschides\n †Polyschides turritus\n Pomatodelphis\n †Pomatodelphis inaequalis\n †Pontogeneus\n †Pontogeneus brachyspondylus\n Porella\n †Porella crassoparies – type locality for species\n †Porella crassoparites\n †Porella cylindrica – type locality for species\n †Porella erecta – type locality for species\n Porina", "†Porella erecta – type locality for species\n Porina\n †Porina saillans – type locality for species\n †Potamides – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Potamides fulvarupis\n †Priscoficus\n †Priscoficus juvenis\n †Priscoficus triserialis\n Pristis\n †Pristis lathami\n Proboscina\n †Proboscina clavatiramosa\n †Proboscina conveniens – type locality for species\n †Proboscina cranei – type locality for species\n †Proboscina latabrevis – type locality for species", "†Proboscina cranei – type locality for species\n †Proboscina latabrevis – type locality for species\n †Proboscina subechinata\n Propeamussium\n †Propeamussium alabamense\n †Propeamussium squamulum – or unidentified comparable form\n †Prosthennops\n †Prosthennops serus – or unidentified comparable form\n †Protocardia\n †Protohippus\n †Protohippus gidleyi\n †Protoscutella\n †Protoscutella mississipiensis\n †Protoscutella mississippiensis\n †Protosurcula\n †Protosurcula gabbii\n Prunum\n †Prunum columba\n Pseudemys", "†Protosurcula\n †Protosurcula gabbii\n Prunum\n †Prunum columba\n Pseudemys\n †Pseudemys cocinna\n †Pseudolatirus\n †Pseudolatirus tortilis\n Pseudoliva\n †Pseudoliva forma\n †Pseudoliva nanafaliaensis\n †Pseudoliva perspectiva\n †Pseudoliva santander\n †Pseudoliva scalina\n †Pseudoliva tuberculifera\n †Pseudoliva unicarinata\n †Pseudoliva vetusta\n Pseudomalaxis\n †Pseudomalaxis rotella\n †Pseudomalaxis tipa\n †Pseudomalaxis verrilli\n Pseudoneptunea – or unidentified comparable form\n †Pseudoneptunea harrisi", "†Pseudomalaxis verrilli\n Pseudoneptunea – or unidentified comparable form\n †Pseudoneptunea harrisi\n †Pseudophragmina\n †Pseudophragmina stephensoni\n Pteria\n †Pteria limula\n †Pteria vanwinkleae\n †Pteropsella\n †Pteropsella lapidosa\n †Pteropsella papyria\n †Pteropsella praelapidosa\n †Pterosphenus – type locality for genus\n †Pterosphenus schucherti – type locality for species\n Pterothrissus\n Pterynotus\n †Pterynotus matthewsensis\n Puellina\n †Puellina inarmata\n †Puellina radiata\n †Puellina simulator\n Pycnodonte", "Puellina\n †Puellina inarmata\n †Puellina radiata\n †Puellina simulator\n Pycnodonte\n †Pycnodonte johnsoni\n †Pycnodonte pulaskensis – or unidentified related form\n †Pycnodonte sylvaerupis\n †Pycnodonte trigonalis\n †Pycnodonte vicksburgensis\n Pyramidella\n †Pyramidella anita\n †Pyramidella bastropensis\n †Pyramidella chavani\n †Pyramidella cossmanni\n †Pyramidella dalli\n †Pyramidella mitchelliana\n †Pyramidella obtusoides\n †Pyramidella perexilis\n †Pyramidella propeacicula\n †Pyramidella pseudopymaea\n †Pyramimitra", "†Pyramidella perexilis\n †Pyramidella propeacicula\n †Pyramidella pseudopymaea\n †Pyramimitra\n †Pyramimitra olssoni\n †Pyramimitra terebraeformis\n †Pyrgulina\n †Pyrgulina claibornensis", "Q\n\n Quinqueloculina\n †Quinqueloculina hauerina – tentative report\n †Quinqueloculina jacksonensis\n Quiscalus\n †Quiscalus quiscula\n\nR", "Raja\n †Rana\n †Rana catesbeiana\n †Rana pipiens\n †Ranellina\n †Ranellina sulcata\n Rangifer\n †Rangifer tarandus\n Raphitoma\n †Raphitoma georgei\n †Raphitoma pannekoekae\n †Raphitoma specus\n †Raphitoma veatchi\n †Raphitoma venusta\n †Rectonychocella\n †Rectonychocella tenuis – type locality for species\n †Recurvella\n †Recurvella dolabra\n Reithrodontomys\n Reteporella\n †Reteporella laciniosa\n †Reteporella lacintosa – type locality for species\n Retusa\n †Retusa galba\n †Retusa sylvaerupis\n †Rhabdopitaria", "Retusa\n †Retusa galba\n †Retusa sylvaerupis\n †Rhabdopitaria\n †Rhabdopitaria discoidalis\n †Rhabdopitaria subcrassa\n †Rhagasostoma\n †Rhagasostoma levigata – type locality for species\n Rhamphostomella\n †Rhamphostomella simplex – type locality for species\n Rhinobatos\n Rhinoclavis\n †Rhinoclavis mediavia\n Rhinoptera\n Rhizoprionodon\n Rhizorus\n †Rhizorus conradianus\n †Rhizorus subradius\n †Rhizorus volutatus\n †Rhopostoma\n †Rhopostoma creniferum\n †Rhopostoma cruciferum\n Rhynchoconger\n †Rhynchoconger sanctus", "†Rhopostoma creniferum\n †Rhopostoma cruciferum\n Rhynchoconger\n †Rhynchoconger sanctus\n †Rhytisoria\n †Rhytisoria alabamensis\n Rimella\n †Rimella laqueatus\n †Ringicardium\n †Ringicardium harrisi\n Ringicula\n †Ringicula alabamensis\n †Ringicula biplicata\n †Ringicula butleriana\n †Ringicula claibornensis\n †Ringicula lisbonensis\n †Ringicula trapaquara\n Rissoina\n †Rissoina alabamenesis – tentative report\n †Rissoina alabamensis\n †Rissoina cossmanni\n †Rogueus\n †Rogueus johnsoni\n Rosseliana\n †Rosseliana parvipora", "†Rissoina cossmanni\n †Rogueus\n †Rogueus johnsoni\n Rosseliana\n †Rosseliana parvipora\n Rostellaria\n †Rostellaria decisus\n †Rostellaria explicatus\n †Rostellaria mohri\n †Rostellaria ottonis\n †Rostellaria proscissus\n †Rostellaria quercollis\n †Rostellaria rannelloides\n †Rostellaria symmetricus\n †Rotularia\n †Rotularia mcglameryae\n †Rotularia mcglemeryae\n †Rudiscala\n †Rudiscala harrisi\n †Rudiscala sessilis", "S", "†Sablea – tentative report\n Saccella\n †Saccella catasarca\n †Saccella parva\n †Saccella quercollis\n †Saccella robusta\n Salenia – tentative report\n Sassia\n †Sassia septemdentata\n Saxicavella\n †Saxicavella alabamensis\n †Saxolucina\n †Saxolucina claibornensis\n †Saxolucina gaufia\n Sayornis\n †Sayornis phoebe – or unidentified comparable form\n Scalaria – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Scalaria quinquefasciata\n Scalina\n †Scalina staminea\n †Scalina trapaquara", "†Scalaria quinquefasciata\n Scalina\n †Scalina staminea\n †Scalina trapaquara\n Scaphander\n †Scaphander alabamensis\n †Scaphander ligniticus\n Scaphella\n †Scaphella newcombiana\n †Scaphella showalteri\n †Sceptrum\n †Sceptrum perulum\n †Schedocardia\n †Schedocardia hatchetigbeensis\n Schizaster\n †Schizaster americanus\n †Schizaster armiger\n †Schizemiella\n †Schizemiella claibornica\n Schizomavella\n †Schizomavella arborea – type locality for species\n †Schizomavella porosa\n Schizoporella\n †Schizoporella viminea", "†Schizomavella porosa\n Schizoporella\n †Schizoporella viminea\n †Schizorthosecos\n †Schizorthosecos grandiporosum – type locality for species\n †Schizorthosecos interstitia\n †Schizorthosecos radiatum\n †Scintilla\n †Scintilla alabamiensis\n †Scintilla clarkeana\n Scobinella\n †Scobinella elaborata\n †Scobinella hammettensis\n †Scobinella reticulatoides\n †Scobinella sativa\n †Scobinella sculpturata\n Scolopax\n †Scolopax minor\n Scrupocellaria\n †Scrupocellaria clausa\n †Scrupocellaria cookei\n †Scrupocellaria milneri", "Scrupocellaria\n †Scrupocellaria clausa\n †Scrupocellaria cookei\n †Scrupocellaria milneri\n †Scrupocellaria rathbuni – type locality for species\n †Scrupocellaria resneri – type locality for species\n †Scrupocellaria triangulata – type locality for species\n †Scrupocellaria vaughani – type locality for species\n †Scrupocellaria williardi\n Scyliorhinus\n †Scyliorhinus enniskilleni – type locality for species\n Seila\n †Seila constricta\n Semele\n †Semele langdoniana\n †Semele linosa\n †Semele monroensis", "Seila\n †Seila constricta\n Semele\n †Semele langdoniana\n †Semele linosa\n †Semele monroensis\n †Semele profunda\n Semihaswellia\n †Semihaswellia exilis – type locality for species\n Serpula\n †Serpula adnata – tentative report\n Serpulorbis\n †Serpulorbis major\n †Serpulorbis squamulosus\n Siderastrea\n †Siderastrea conferta – type locality for species\n †Sideroseris\n †Sideroseris durhami\n Sigatica\n †Sigatica boettgeri\n †Sigatica clarkeana\n Sigmomorphina – tentative report\n †Sigmomorphina inequalis\n Sinum", "†Sigatica clarkeana\n Sigmomorphina – tentative report\n †Sigmomorphina inequalis\n Sinum\n †Sinum arctatum\n †Sinum beatricae\n †Sinum bilix\n †Sinum declive\n †Sinum fiski\n †Sinum inconstans\n Siphonalia\n †Siphonalia newtonensis\n †Siphonalia perlata\n †Siphonalia quadrilineata\n Siphonochelus\n †Siphonochelus gracilis\n Skena\n †Skena pignus\n Skenea\n †Skenea pignus\n †Smilodon\n †Smilodon fatalis\n Smittina\n †Smittina ampla – type locality for species\n †Smittina angulata\n †Smittina cophia – type locality for species", "†Smittina angulata\n †Smittina cophia – type locality for species\n †Smittina coronata\n †Smittina exigua\n †Smittina granulosa – type locality for species\n †Smittina jacksonica\n †Smittina portentosa\n †Smittina pupa – type locality for species\n †Smittina reticuloides – type locality for species\n †Smittina telum – type locality for species\n †Smittina tubulata\n Smittipora\n †Smittipora tenuis\n Solariella\n †Solariella cancellata\n †Solariella fungina\n †Solariella louisiana\n †Solariella stalagmium", "†Solariella cancellata\n †Solariella fungina\n †Solariella louisiana\n †Solariella stalagmium\n †Solariella sylvaerupis\n †Solariella tricostata\n Solariorbis\n †Solariorbis depressus\n †Solariorbis liniferus\n †Solariorbis planulatus\n †Solariorbis rotulus\n †Solariorbis subangulatus\n †Solarium\n †Solarium periscelidum\n Solemya\n †Solemya alabamensis\n †Solemya petricoloides\n Solena\n †Solena lisbonensis\n Sorex\n Sphenotrochus\n †Sphenotrochus claibornensis – type locality for species\n †Sphenotrochus nanus", "Sphenotrochus\n †Sphenotrochus claibornensis – type locality for species\n †Sphenotrochus nanus\n Sphyraena – tentative report\n Sphyrna\n †Sphyrna gilmorei – type locality for species\n Spilogale – tentative report\n †Spilogale putorius\n †Spiratella\n †Spiratella augustana\n Spiroloculina\n †Spiroloculina bidentata\n Spirorbis\n †Spirorbula – tentative report\n Spisula\n †Spisula decisa\n †Spisula jacksonensis\n †Spisula parilis\n †Spisula praetenuis\n Spondylus\n †Spondylus dumosus\n †Spondylus hollisteri\n Sportella", "†Spisula praetenuis\n Spondylus\n †Spondylus dumosus\n †Spondylus hollisteri\n Sportella\n †Sportella alabamensis\n †Sportella gregorioi\n †Sportella oblonga\n †Stamenocella\n †Stamenocella grandis\n †Stamenocella inferaviculifera\n †Stamenocella intermedia – type locality for species\n †Stamenocella mediaviculifera\n †Stamenocella midwayanica\n †Stamenocella pyriformis\n †Steganoporella\n †Steganoporella vicksburgica\n Steginoporella\n †Steginoporella jacksonica\n Stenocyathus\n †Stephanomorpha – type locality for genus", "†Steginoporella jacksonica\n Stenocyathus\n †Stephanomorpha – type locality for genus\n †Stephanomorpha monticuliformis – type locality for species\n Sterna\n Stomachetosella\n †Stomachetosella crassicollis\n Storeria\n †Strepsidura\n †Strepsidura contorea\n †Strepsidura heilprini\n †Strepsidura mediavia\n †Streptochetus\n †Streptochetus conybearii\n †Streptochetus limulus\n Striarca – or unidentified comparable form\n †Striarca harrisi\n †Striatolamia\n †Striatolamia macrota\n Strioturbonilla\n †Strioturbonilla harrisi", "†Striatolamia\n †Striatolamia macrota\n Strioturbonilla\n †Strioturbonilla harrisi\n Strix\n †Strix varia – or unidentified comparable form\n †Stromatopora\n †Stromatopora minuta – type locality for species\n †Stromatopora polygona\n Strombus\n †Strombus albirupianus\n Stylophora\n †Stylophora ponderosa\n †Sullivania\n †Sullivania exilloides\n †Sullivania fisherensis\n †Sullivania hicoricola\n †Sullivania roscoei\n †Sullivania tombigbeensis\n Surculites\n †Surculites engonatus\n †Surculoma\n †Surculoma calantica", "†Sullivania tombigbeensis\n Surculites\n †Surculites engonatus\n †Surculoma\n †Surculoma calantica\n †Surculoma falsabenes\n †Surculoma fita\n †Surculoma nebulosa\n †Surculoma penrosei\n †Surculoma servatoidea\n †Surculoma subequalis\n †Surculoma tabulata\n Sveltella\n †Sveltella parva\n †Sveltella sotoensis\n †Sveltella turritissima\n Sveltia\n †Sveltia alveata\n †Sveltia gilberti\n †Sveltia priama\n †Sycospira\n †Sycospira americanae\n †Sycostoma\n †Sycostoma americanae\n Sylvilagus\n †Synthetoceras", "†Sycospira\n †Sycospira americanae\n †Sycostoma\n †Sycostoma americanae\n Sylvilagus\n †Synthetoceras\n †Synthetoceras davisorum – type locality for species\n †Synthetoceras tricornatus – or unidentified comparable form", "T", "†Tallahattaophis – type locality for genus\n †Tallahattaophis dunni – type locality for species\n Tapirus\n Teinostoma\n †Teinostoma angulare\n †Teinostoma subrotundum\n †Teleoceras\n †Teleosteorum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n Tellina\n †Tellina aldrichi\n †Tellina alta\n †Tellina bellsiana\n †Tellina cossmanni\n †Tellina cynoglossa\n †Tellina cynoglossula\n †Tellina estellensis\n †Tellina greggi\n †Tellina leana\n †Tellina linifera\n †Tellina semipapyria", "†Tellina estellensis\n †Tellina greggi\n †Tellina leana\n †Tellina linifera\n †Tellina semipapyria\n †Tellina semirotunda\n †Tellina subtriangularis\n †Tellina tallicheti\n †Tellina temperata\n †Tellina trumani\n Temnocidaris – tentative report\n Tenagodus\n †Tenagodus vitis\n Tenarea – tentative report\n †Tenuiacteon\n †Tenuiacteon pertenuis\n Terebra\n †Terebra mirula\n †Terebra polygyra\n †Terebra texagyra\n †Terebra ziga\n Terebratulina\n †Terebratulina alabamensis\n †Terebratulina brundidgensis\n †Terebratulina lachryma", "Terebratulina\n †Terebratulina alabamensis\n †Terebratulina brundidgensis\n †Terebratulina lachryma\n †Terebrifusus\n †Terebrifusus – type locality for species A informal\n †Terebrifusus amoenus\n †Terebrifusus multiplicatus\n Teredo\n †Teredo ringens\n †Teredo simplex\n †Teredo simplexopsis\n †Textivenus\n †Textivenus retisculpta\n Textularia\n †Textularia cuyleri – or unidentified comparable form\n †Textularia dibollensis\n †Textularia hannai\n Thamnophis\n †Thamnophis sirtalis\n Thecidellina", "†Textularia dibollensis\n †Textularia hannai\n Thamnophis\n †Thamnophis sirtalis\n Thecidellina\n †Thecidellina alabamensis – type locality for species\n Thiara\n †Thiara aldrichi\n †Tibiella\n †Tibiella marshi\n †Tiburnus\n †Tiburnus eboreus\n †Tornatellaea\n †Tornatellaea bella\n †Tornatellaea lata\n †Tornatellaea quercollis\n Tornus\n †Tornus infraplicatus\n †Toulminella\n †Toulminella alabamensis\n †Toweius\n †Toweius petalosus – type locality for species", "†Toulminella\n †Toulminella alabamensis\n †Toweius\n †Toweius petalosus – type locality for species\n †Trachichthyidarum – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Trachichthyidarum stringeri – type locality for species\n Trachyleberis\n †Trachyleberis davidwhitei\n †Trachyleberis montgomeryensis\n †Trachyleberis washburni\n Trachyphyllia\n †Transovula\n †Transovula regularoidea\n Trapezium\n †Trapezium claibornense\n Trichiurides\n Trichiurus", "†Transovula regularoidea\n Trapezium\n †Trapezium claibornense\n Trichiurides\n Trichiurus\n †Triginglymus – type locality for genus\n †Triginglymus gnythophoreus\n †Triginglymus hyperochus – type locality for species\n †Trigonarca – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Trigonarca corbuloides\n Trigonostoma\n †Trigonostoma aurorae\n †Trigonostoma babylonicum\n †Trigonostoma gemmatum\n †Trigonostoma marieanum\n †Trigonostoma panones\n †Trigonostoma penrosei", "†Trigonostoma gemmatum\n †Trigonostoma marieanum\n †Trigonostoma panones\n †Trigonostoma penrosei\n †Trigonostoma pulcherrimum\n †Trinacria\n †Trinacria cuneus\n Trionyx\n Triphora\n †Triphora distincta\n †Triphora major\n †Triphora similis\n †Tripia\n †Tripia anteatripla\n †Tritonatractus\n †Tritonatractus pearlensis\n Trochita\n †Trochita aperta\n Trochocyathus\n †Trochocyathus cingulatus – type locality for species\n †Trochocyathus lakii – type locality for species\n †Trochoseris\n †Trochoseris aperta", "†Trochocyathus lakii – type locality for species\n †Trochoseris\n †Trochoseris aperta\n Trochus – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Trochus gumus\n Trophon\n †Trophon caudatoides\n †Tropisurcula\n †Tropisurcula crenula – tentative report\n †Trypanotoma\n †Trypanotoma carlottae\n †Trypanotoma longispira\n †Trypanotoma melanella\n †Trypanotoma terebriformis\n †Trypanotopsis\n †Trypanotopsis texana\n Trypostega\n †Trypostega elongata – type locality for species", "†Trypanotopsis texana\n Trypostega\n †Trypostega elongata – type locality for species\n †Trypostega inornata\n †Trypostega venusta\n Tubiola\n †Tubiola nautiloides\n Turbinella – or unidentified related form\n †Turbinolia\n †Turbinolia claibornensis – type locality for species\n †Turbinolia dickersoni – type locality for species\n †Turbinolia gigantissima – type locality for species\n †Turbinolia pharetra\n †Turbinolia subtercisa\n †Turbinolia tenuis – type locality for species\n †Turbinolia vicksburgensis", "†Turbinolia subtercisa\n †Turbinolia tenuis – type locality for species\n †Turbinolia vicksburgensis\n Turbo – report made of unidentified related form or using admittedly obsolete nomenclature\n †Turbo zecus\n Turboella\n †Turboella ziga\n Turbonilla\n †Turbonilla agrestis\n †Turbonilla bidentata\n †Turbonilla clinensis\n †Turbonilla neglecta\n †Turbonilla pellegrina\n †Turbonilla sabina\n †Turbonilla tardiusculus\n †Turbonilla tuscahomensis\n Turdus\n †Turdus migratorius\n Turricula\n †Turricula aldreperta", "†Turbonilla tuscahomensis\n Turdus\n †Turdus migratorius\n Turricula\n †Turricula aldreperta\n †Turricula nasuta\n †Turricula plenta\n †Turricula taltibia\n Turris\n †Turris adeona\n †Turris bimoniatus\n †Turris capax\n †Turris leania\n †Turris longipersa\n †Turris mediavia\n †Turris moniliata\n †Turris nodoideus\n †Turris persa\n †Turris quercollis\n †Turris sigma\n †Turris specus\n Turritella\n †Turritella aldrichi\n †Turritella apita\n †Turritella bellifera\n †Turritella carninata – or unidentified comparable form", "†Turritella apita\n †Turritella bellifera\n †Turritella carninata – or unidentified comparable form\n †Turritella claytonensis\n †Turritella dutexata\n †Turritella eurynome\n †Turritella gatunensis – or unidentified comparable form\n †Turritella ghigna\n †Turritella gilberti\n †Turritella hilli\n †Turritella houstonia\n †Turritella humerosa\n †Turritella levicunea\n †Turritella lisbonensis\n †Turritella multilira\n †Turritella nasuta\n †Turritella nerinexa\n †Turritella obruta\n †Turritella postmortoni", "†Turritella nasuta\n †Turritella nerinexa\n †Turritella obruta\n †Turritella postmortoni\n †Turritella praecincta\n †Turritella tennesseensis\n Tylocidaris\n †Tylocidaris salina – type locality for species\n Tympanuchus\n †Tympanuchus cupido", "U\n\n Umbonula\n †Umbonula ceratomorpha\n †Umbonula miser\n Umbraculum\n †Umbraculum sylvaerupis\n Uromitra\n †Uromitra gracilis\n †Uromitra terplicata\n Ursus\n †Ursus americanus\n\nV", "Venericardia\n †Venericardia apodensata\n †Venericardia aposmithi\n †Venericardia aposmithii\n †Venericardia augustoscrobis\n †Venericardia bashiplata\n †Venericardia carolinensis\n †Venericardia claiboplata\n †Venericardia claviger\n †Venericardia complexicosta\n †Venericardia cookei\n †Venericardia densata\n †Venericardia diversidentata\n †Venericardia gulielmi\n †Venericardia hatcheplata\n †Venericardia horatiana\n †Venericardia mediaplata\n †Venericardia nanaplata\n †Venericardia pilsbryi\n †Venericardia planicosta", "†Venericardia nanaplata\n †Venericardia pilsbryi\n †Venericardia planicosta\n †Venericardia rotunda\n †Venericardia smithii\n †Venericardia stewarti\n †Venericardia tortidens\n †Venericardia turneri\n Verticordia\n †Verticordia eocensis\n †Verticordia sotoensis\n Vincularia\n †Vincularia vicksburgia – type locality for species\n Vitrinella\n †Vitrinella aldrichi\n †Vokesula\n †Vokesula aldrichi\n †Vokesula smithvillensis\n †Volutilithes\n †Volutilithes clarae\n †Volutilithes florencis\n †Volutilithes limopsis", "†Volutilithes\n †Volutilithes clarae\n †Volutilithes florencis\n †Volutilithes limopsis\n †Volutilithes rugatus\n †Volvaria\n †Volvaria alabamiensis\n †Volvariella\n †Volvariella aldrichi", "W\n\n †Weisbordella\n †Weisbordella johnsoni\n †Wythella\n\nX\n\n Xanthilites\n †Xanthilites alabamensis\n Xenophora\n Xestoleberis\n Xylophaga\n †Xylophaga mississippiensis\n\nY\n\n Yoldia\n †Yoldia eborea\n †Yoldia pistorupes\n †Yoldia semenoides\n\nZ\n\n †Zeugmatolepas\n †Zeugmatolepas cretae – or unidentified comparable form\n †Zygorhiza\n †Zygorhiza kochii – type locality for species\n\nReferences\n \n\nCenozoic\nAlabama" ]

[ "Hyacinthaceae is a family of bulbous monocotyledenous flowering plants (anthophytes) in the order Asparagales. Named after the genus Hyacinthus, Hyacinthaceae include many garden plants and are distributed mostly in Mediterranean climates, including South Africa, Central Asia and South America. Their flowers have six tepals and six stamens with a superior ovary, which previously placed them within the lily family (Liliaceae), and their leaves are fleshy, mucilaginous, and arranged in a basal rosette.", "23,420 species of vascular plant have been recorded in South Africa, making it the sixth most species-rich country in the world and the most species-rich country on the African continent. Of these, 153 species are considered to be threatened. Nine biomes have been described in South Africa: Fynbos, Succulent Karoo, desert, Nama Karoo, grassland, savanna, Albany thickets, the Indian Ocean coastal belt, and forests.", "The 2018 South African National Biodiversity Institute's National Biodiversity Assessment plant checklist lists 35,130 taxa in the phyla Anthocerotophyta (hornworts (6)), Anthophyta (flowering plants (33534)), Bryophyta (mosses (685)), Cycadophyta (cycads (42)), Lycopodiophyta (Lycophytes(45)), Marchantiophyta (liverworts (376)), Pinophyta (conifers (33)), and Pteridophyta (cryptogams (408)).", "43 genera are represented in the literature. Listed taxa include species, subspecies, varieties, and forms as recorded, some of which have subsequently been allocated to other taxa as synonyms, in which cases the accepted taxon is appended to the listing. Multiple entries under alternative names reflect taxonomic revision over time.", "Albuca \nGenus Albuca:\n Albuca abyssinica Jacq. indigenous\n Albuca acuminata Baker, indigenous\n Albuca affinis Baker, indigenous\n Albuca albucoides (Aiton) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca altissima Dryand. accepted as Albuca canadensis (L.) F.M.Leight.\n Albuca angolensis Welw. ex Baker, accepted as Ornithogalum abyssinicum (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Albuca anisocrispa Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo, endemic\n Albuca annulata Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo, endemic", "Albuca annulata Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo, endemic\n Albuca arenosa J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca aspera U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca viscosa L.f.\n Albuca aurea Jacq. indigenous\n Albuca autumnula (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca bakeri Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo, endemic\n Albuca barbata (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca batteniana Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, indigenous\n Albuca baurii Baker, indigenous\n Albuca bifolia Baker, endemic", "Albuca baurii Baker, indigenous\n Albuca bifolia Baker, endemic\n Albuca bifoliata R.A.Dyer, indigenous\n Albuca bontebokensis U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca viscosa L.f.\n Albuca boucheri U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Albuca bracteata (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca brevipes Baker, accepted as Albuca suaveolens (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Albuca bruce-bayeri U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca hallii U.Mull.-Doblies\n Albuca buffelspoortensis Van Jaarsv. endemic", "Albuca buffelspoortensis Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Albuca canadensis (L.) F.M.Leight. indigenous\n Albuca caudata Jacq., endemic\n Albuca chartacea (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo & A.P.Dold) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca ciliaris U.Mull.-Doblies indigenous\n Albuca circinata Baker, accepted as Albuca namaquensis Baker\n Albuca clanwilliamaegloria U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca collina Baker indigenous\n Albuca concordiana Baker indigenous\n Albuca consanguinea (Kunth) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Albuca concordiana Baker indigenous\n Albuca consanguinea (Kunth) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca cooperi Baker indigenous\n Albuca corymbosa Baker, indigenous\n Albuca craibii (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo & A.P.Dold) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca cremnophila Van Jaarsv. & A.E.van Wyk, endemic\n Albuca crinifolia Baker, indigenous\n Albuca crispa J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca crudenii Archibald, endemic\n Albuca dalyae Baker, indigenous\n Albuca darlingana U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Albuca dalyae Baker, indigenous\n Albuca darlingana U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Albuca deaconii Van Jaarsv. indigenous\n Albuca decipiens U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca deserticola J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca deserticola J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. deserticola, indigenous\n Albuca dilucula (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca dyeri (Poelln.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca echinosperma U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous", "Albuca echinosperma U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca etesiogaripensis U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca exigua (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, A.P.Dold, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, endemic\n Albuca exuviata Baker, indigenous\n Albuca fastigiata Dryand. endemic\n Albuca fastigiata Dryand. var. fastigiata, indigenous\n Albuca flaccida Jacq. indigenous\n Albuca foetida U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca fragrans Jacq. indigenous\n Albuca gariepensis J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Albuca fragrans Jacq. indigenous\n Albuca gariepensis J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca gethylloides (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca gildenhuysii (Van Jaarsv.) Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Albuca glandulifera J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca glandulosa Baker, indigenous\n Albuca glauca Baker, indigenous\n Albuca glaucifolia (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca goswinii U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous", "Albuca goswinii U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca grandis J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca granulata Baker, accepted as Albuca shawii Baker\n Albuca hallii U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca hesquaspoortensis U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca humilis Baker, indigenous\n Albuca imbricata F.M.Leight. accepted as Albuca juncifolia Baker\n Albuca jacquinii U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca viscosa L.f.\n Albuca juncifolia Baker, indigenous", "Albuca juncifolia Baker, indigenous\n Albuca juncifolia Baker subsp. xanthocodon (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca xanthocodon Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, indigenous\n Albuca karachabpoortensis (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca karooica U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca cooperi Baker\n Albuca kirstenii (J.C.Manning & Goldblatt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Albuca kirstenii (J.C.Manning & Goldblatt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca knersvlaktensis (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca leucantha U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca littoralis (N.R.Crouch, D.Styles, A.J.Beaumont & Mart.-Azorin) J.C.Manning, endemic\n Albuca longifolia Baker, indigenous\n Albuca longipes Baker, indigenous\n Albuca macowanii Baker, indigenous\n Albuca massonii Baker, indigenous", "Albuca macowanii Baker, indigenous\n Albuca massonii Baker, indigenous\n Albuca mater-familias U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca flaccida Jacq.\n Albuca maxima Burm.f., accepted as Albuca canadensis (L.) F.M.Leight.\n Albuca melleri (Baker) Baker, accepted as Ornithogalum abyssinicum (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Albuca monarchos (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca namaquensis Baker, indigenous\n Albuca nana Schonland, indigenous", "Albuca namaquensis Baker, indigenous\n Albuca nana Schonland, indigenous\n Albuca nathoana (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca navicula U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca nelsonii N.E.Br. indigenous\n Albuca obtusa J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca osmynella (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca ovata (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca papyracea J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Albuca papyracea J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca paradoxa Dinter, indigenous\n Albuca patersoniae Schonland, indigenous\n Albuca paucifolia (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca paucifolia (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. karooparkensis, endemic\n Albuca paucifolia (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. paucifolia, endemic\n Albuca pearsonii (F.M.Leight.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Albuca pearsonii (F.M.Leight.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca pentheri (Zahlbr.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca polyphylla Baker, indigenous\n Albuca prasina (Ker Gawl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca prolifera J.H.Wilson, indigenous\n Albuca psammophora (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca pseudobifolia Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo, endemic\n Albuca riebeekkasteelberganula U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Albuca riebeekkasteelberganula U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Albuca robertsoniana U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca rogersii Schonland, indigenous\n Albuca roodeae (E.Phillips) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca rupestris Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, indigenous\n Albuca sabulosa (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca scabrocostata (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca schlechteri Baker, indigenous", "Albuca schlechteri Baker, indigenous\n Albuca schoenlandii Baker, indigenous\n Albuca secunda (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca seineri (Engl. & K.Krause) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca semipedalis Baker, endemic\n Albuca setosa Jacq. indigenous\n Albuca shawii Baker, indigenous\n Albuca spiralis L.f. indigenous\n Albuca stuetzeliana (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca suaveolens (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Albuca suaveolens (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca subglandulosa (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca tenuifolia Baker, indigenous\n Albuca thermarum Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Albuca tortuosa Baker, indigenous\n Albuca toxicaria (C.Archer & R.H.Archer) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca trachyphylla U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca transvaalensis Mogg, indigenous\n Albuca unifolia (Retz.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Albuca unifolia (Retz.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca unifoliata G.D.Rowley, endemic\n Albuca villosa U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca villosa U.Mull.-Doblies subsp. glabra U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Albuca villosa U.Mull.-Doblies subsp. villosa, near endemic\n Albuca virens (Ker Gawl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Albuca virens (Ker Gawl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. arida (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Albuca virens (Ker Gawl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. virens, indigenous\n Albuca viscosa L.f. indigenous\n Albuca viscosella U.Mull.-Doblies, accepted asAlbuca viscosa L.f.\n Albuca vittata Ker Gawl. indigenous\n Albuca watermeyeri (L.Bolus) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Albuca weberlingiorum U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Albuca xanthocodon Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, indigenous\n Albuca zebrina Baker, endemic", "Amphisiphon \nGenus Amphisiphon:\n Amphisiphon stylosa W.F.Barker, accepted as Daubenya stylosa (W.F.Barker) A.M.van der Merwe & J.C.Manning\n Androsiphon capense Schltr. accepted as Daubenya capensis (Schltr.) A.M.van der Merwe & J.C.Manning\n\nBaeoterpe \nGenus Baeoterpe:\n Baeoterpe corymbosa (L.) Salisb. accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Boweia \nGenus Bowiea:\n Bowiea gariepensis Van Jaarsv. accepted as Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook.f. subsp. gariepensis (Van Jaarsv.) Bruyns\n Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook.f. indigenous\n Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook.f. subsp. gariepensis (Van Jaarsv.) Bruyns, indigenous\n Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook.f. subsp. volubilis, indigenous\n\nBrachyscypha \nGenus Brachyscypha:\n Brachyscypha undulata (Thunb.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pusilla Jacq. indigenous", "Coelanthus \nGenus Coelanthus:\n Coelanthus complicatus Willd. ex Roem. & Schult. accepted as Lachenalia reflexa Thunb. indigenous", "Daubenya \nGenus Daubenya:\n Daubenya alba A.M.van der Merwe, endemic\n Daubenya angustifolia (L.f.) A.M.van der Merwe & J.C.Manning, accepted as Massonia angustifolia L.f. indigenous\n Daubenya aurea Lindl. endemic\n Daubenya capensis (Schltr.) A.M.van der Merwe & J.C.Manning, endemic\n Daubenya comata (Burch. ex Baker) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, endemic\n Daubenya marginata (Willd. ex Kunth) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, endemic\n Daubenya namaquensis (Schltr.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Daubenya namaquensis (Schltr.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Daubenya stylosa (W.F.Barker) A.M.van der Merwe & J.C.Manning, endemic\n Daubenya zeyheri (Kunth) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, endemic", "Desertia \nGenus Desertia:\n Desertia luteovirens Mart.-Azorin, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, accepted as Massonia luteovirens (Mart.-Azorin, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, indigenous", "Dipcadi \nGenus Dipcadi:\n Dipcadi bakerianum Bolus, indigenous\n Dipcadi brevifolium (Thunb.) Fourc. indigenous\n Dipcadi ciliare (Zeyh. ex Harv.) Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi crispum Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi glaucum (Burch. ex Ker Gawl.) Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi gracillimum Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi longifolium (Ker Gawl.) Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi marlothii Engl. indigenous\n Dipcadi papillatum Oberm. indigenous\n Dipcadi platyphyllum Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi rigidifolium Baker, indigenous", "Dipcadi platyphyllum Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi rigidifolium Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi vaginatum Baker, indigenous\n Dipcadi venenatum Schinz, accepted as Dipcadi longifolium (Ker Gawl.) Baker\n Dipcadi viride (L.) Moenc, indigenous", "Drimia \nGenus Drimia:\n Drimia acarophylla E.Brink & A.P.Dold, endemic\n Drimia albiflora (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl. indigenous\n Drimia angustifolia Baker, indigenous\n Drimia anomala (Baker) Baker, endemic\n Drimia arenicola (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia barkerae Oberm. ex J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia calcarata (Baker) Stedje, indigenous\n Drimia capensis (Burm.f.) Wijnands, endemic", "Drimia calcarata (Baker) Stedje, indigenous\n Drimia capensis (Burm.f.) Wijnands, endemic\n Drimia chalumnensis A.P.Dold & E.Brink, endemic\n Drimia ciliaris Jacq. accepted as Drimia elata Jacq.\n Drimia ciliata (L.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia cochlearis Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo & A.P.Dold, endemic\n Drimia convallarioides (L.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia cooperi (Baker) Benth. ex Baker, accepted as Drimia echinostachya (Baker) Eggli & N.R.Crouch", "Drimia cooperi Baker, accepted as Ledebouria concoor (Baker) Jessop, endemic\n Drimia cremnophila Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Drimia cuscutoides (Burch. ex Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Drimia intricata (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt indigenous\n Drimia cyanelloides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia delagoensis (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia depressa (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia dregei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Drimia depressa (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia dregei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia echinostachya (Baker) Eggli & N.R.Crouch, endemic\n Drimia elata Jacq. indigenous\n Drimia ensifolia Eckl. accepted as Ledebouria ensifolia (Eckl.) S.Venter & T.J.Edwards\t\n Drimia exuviata (Jacq.) Jessop, endemic\n Drimia fasciata (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Drimia filifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia fimbrimarginata Snijman, endemic", "Drimia filifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia fimbrimarginata Snijman, endemic\n Drimia flagellaris T.J.Edwards, D.Styles & N.R.Crouch, endemic\n Drimia fragrans (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia haworthioides Baker, endemic\n Drimia hesperantha J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia hyacinthoides Baker, endemic\n Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia intricata (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Drimia intricata (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Drimia involuta (J.C.Manning & Snijman) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia karooica (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia kniphofioides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia ligulata J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia loedolffiae Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Drimia macrantha (Baker) Baker, indigenous\n Drimia macrocentra (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia marginata (Thunb.) Jessop, endemic\n Drimia media Jacq., endemic", "Drimia marginata (Thunb.) Jessop, endemic\n Drimia media Jacq., endemic\n Drimia minor (A.V.Duthie) Jessop, endemic\n Drimia montana A.P.Dold & E.Brink, endemic\n Drimia multifolia (G.J.Lewis) Jessop, endemic\n Drimia multisetosa (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia mzimvubuensis Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Drimia nana (Snijman) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia neriniformis Baker, accepted as Drimia sphaerocephala Baker\n Drimia physodes (Jacq.) Jessop, indigenous", "Drimia physodes (Jacq.) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia platyphylla (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Drimia pulchromarginata J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia pusilla Jacq. endemic\n Drimia robusta Baker, accepted as Drimia elata Jacq.\n Drimia salteri (Compton) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia sanguinea (Schinz) Jessop, indigenous\n Drimia sclerophylla J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia sigmoidea J.C.Manning & Deacon, indigenous\n Drimia sphaerocephala Baker, indigenous", "Drimia sigmoidea J.C.Manning & Deacon, indigenous\n Drimia sphaerocephala Baker, indigenous\n Drimia stenocarpa J.C.Manning & Deacon, endemic\n Drimia uniflora J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Drimia uranthera (R.A.Dyer) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia vermiformis J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Drimia virens (Schltr.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Drimiopsis \nGenus Drimiopsis:\n Drimiopsis atropurpurea N.E.Br. accepted as Ledebouria atropurpurea (N.E.Br.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Drimiopsis burkei Baker, accepted as Ledebouria burkei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Drimiopsis burkei Baker subsp. stolonissima U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ledebouria burkei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. stolonissima (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies)", "Drimiopsis comptonii U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ledebouria comptonii (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Drimiopsis davidsoniae U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ledebouria davidsoniae (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Drimiopsis lachenalioides (Baker) Jessop, accepted as Ledebouria lachenalioides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Drimiopsis linioseta Hankey & Lebatha, accepted as Ledebouria linioseta (Hankey & Lebatha) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Drimiopsis maculata Lindl. & Paxton, accepted as Ledebouria petiolata J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Drimiopsis maxima Baker, accepted as Ledebouria humifusa (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Drimiopsis pusilla U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ledebouria pusilla (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Drimiopsis reilleyana U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ledebouria reilleyana (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\t\n Drimiopsis woodii Baker, accepted as Ledebouria woodii (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Eliokarmos \nGenus Eliokarmos:\n Eliokarmos craibii Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, accepted as Ornithogalum craibii (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, endemic\n\nElsiea \nGenus Elsiea:\n Elsiea corymbosa F.M.Leight. accepted as Ornithogalum esterhuyseniae Oberm.\n\nEthesia \nGenus Ethesia:\n Ethesia tanquana Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo, accepted as Ornithogalum tanquanum (Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Eucomis \nGenus Eucomis:\n Eucomis amaryllidifolia Baker, indigenous\n Eucomis autumnalis (Mill.) Chitt. indigenous\n Eucomis autumnalis (Mill.) Chitt. subsp. amaryllidifolia (Baker) Reyneke, indigenous\n Eucomis autumnalis (Mill.) Chitt. subsp. autumnalis, indigenous\n Eucomis autumnalis (Mill.) Chitt. subsp. clavata (Baker) Reyneke, indigenous\n Eucomis bicolor Baker, indigenous\n Eucomis bifolia Jacq. accepted as Massonia bifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Eucomis bifolia Jacq. accepted as Massonia bifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Eucomis comosa (Houtt.) Wehrh. indigenous\n Eucomis comosa (Houtt.) Wehrh. var. comosa, endemic\n Eucomis comosa (Houtt.) Wehrh. var. striata (G.Don) Willd. endemic\n Eucomis grimshawii G.D.Duncan & Zonn. endemic\n Eucomis humilis Baker, indigenous\n Eucomis montana Compton, indigenous\n Eucomis pallidiflora Baker, indigenous\n Eucomis pallidiflora Baker subsp. pallidiflora, indigenous", "Eucomis pallidiflora Baker, indigenous\n Eucomis pallidiflora Baker subsp. pallidiflora, indigenous\n Eucomis pallidiflora Baker subsp. pole-evansii (N.E.Br.) Reyneke ex J.C.Manning, indigenous\n Eucomis pillansii L.Guthrie, accepted as Eucomis regia (L.) L'Her.\n Eucomis pole-evansii N.E.Br. accepted as Eucomis pallidiflora Baker subsp. pole-evansii (N.E.Br.) Reyneke ex J.C.Manning\n Eucomis regia (L.) L'Her. endemic\n Eucomis schijffii Reyneke, indigenous\n Eucomis vandermerwei I.Verd. endemic", "Eucomis schijffii Reyneke, indigenous\n Eucomis vandermerwei I.Verd. endemic\n Eucomis zambesiaca Baker, indigenous", "Galtonia \nGenus Galtonia:\n Galtonia candicans (Baker) Decne. accepted as Ornithogalum candicans (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Galtonia princeps (Baker) Decne. accepted as Ornithogalum princeps (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Galtonia regalis Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, accepted as Ornithogalum regale (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Galtonia viridiflora I.Verd. accepted as Ornithogalum viridiflorum (I.Verd.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Hyacinthus \nGenus Hyacinthus:\n Hyacinthus bifolius Boiteau ex Cav. accepted as Lachenalia pygmaea (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Hyacinthus corymbosus L. accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Hyacinthus gawleri (Kunth) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Hyacinthus orchioides L. accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton, indigenous", "Hyacinthus orchioides L. accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton, indigenous\n Hyacinthus paucifolius W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia paucifolia (W.F.Barker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Lachenalia \nGenus Lachenalia:\n Lachenalia adamii G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia alba W.F.Barker ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia albida Tratt. accepted as Lachenalia contaminata Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia algoensis Schonland, endemic\n Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. endemic\n Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. var. aurea (Lindl.) Engl. accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, endemic\n Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. var. quadricolor (Jacq.) Engl. accepted as Lachenalia quadricolor Jacq. endemic", "Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. var. vanzyliae W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia vanzyliae (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan & T.J.Edwards, endemic\n Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Hort. ex Asch. & Graebn. accepted as Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. indigenous\n Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Pers. accepted as Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. indigenous\n Lachenalia ameliae W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia angelica W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia anguinea Sweet, endemic", "Lachenalia angelica W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia anguinea Sweet, endemic\n Lachenalia angustifolia Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia contaminata Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia arbuthnotiae W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia arenicola G.D.Duncan & Helme, endemic\n Lachenalia argillicola G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia attenuata W.F.Barker ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia aurea Lindl. accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia aurioliae G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia bachmannii Baker, endemic", "Lachenalia aurioliae G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia bachmannii Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia barbarae G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia barkeriana U.Mull.-Doblies, B.Nord. & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Lachenalia bicolor Lodd. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia bifolia (Burm.f.) W.F.Barker ex G.D.Duncan accepted as Lachenalia bulbifera (Cirillo) Engl. endemic\n Lachenalia bifolia Ker Gawl. accepted as Lachenalia rosea Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia bolusii W.F.Barker, endemic", "Lachenalia bolusii W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia botryoides Tratt. accepted as Lachenalia purpureo-caerulea Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia bowieana Baker accepted as Lachenalia nervosa Ker Gawl. indigenous\n Lachenalia bowkeri Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia brevipes Baker accepted as Lachenalia bachmannii Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia bruynsii G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia buchubergensis Dinter, indigenous\n Lachenalia bulbifera (Cirillo) Engl. endemic", "Lachenalia buchubergensis Dinter, indigenous\n Lachenalia bulbifera (Cirillo) Engl. endemic\n Lachenalia calcicola (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia callista G.D.Duncan & T.J.Edwards, endemic\n Lachenalia campanulata Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia canaliculata G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia capensis W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia carnosa Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia cernua G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia comptonii W.F.Barker, endemic", "Lachenalia cernua G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia comptonii W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia concordiana Schltr. ex W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia congesta W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia contaminata Aiton, endemic\n Lachenalia convallariodora Stapf, accepted as Lachenalia fistulosa Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia convallarioides Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia convallarioides Baker var. robusta Baker, accepted as Lachenalia convallarioides Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia cooperi Baker, endemic", "Lachenalia cooperi Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Lachenalia dasybotrya Diels, endemic\n Lachenalia dehoopensis W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia doleritica G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia duncanii W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia elegans W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia elegans W.F.Barker var. flava W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia karoopoortensis G.D.Duncan, endemic", "Lachenalia elegans W.F.Barker var. membranacea W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia membranacea (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia elegans W.F.Barker var. suaveolens W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia suaveolens (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. ensifolia, endemic\n Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. maughanii (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic", "Lachenalia esterhuyseniae W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia juncifolia Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia fistulosa Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia flava Andrews, endemic\n Lachenalia fragrans Andrews, accepted as Lachenalia nervosa Ker Gawl. indigenous\n Lachenalia fragrans Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia fragrans Lodd. accepted asLachenalia contaminata Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia framesii W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia giessii W.F.Barker, indigenous", "Lachenalia framesii W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia giessii W.F.Barker, indigenous\n Lachenalia gillettii W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, endemic\n Lachenalia glauca (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia glaucina Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. glaucina (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Lachenalia glaucina Jacq. var. parviflora W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. parviflora (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, indigenous", "Lachenalia glaucophylla W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia graminifolia Sol. ex Baker, accepted as Dipcadi hyacinthoides Baker\t\n Lachenalia haarlemensis Fourc. endemic\n Lachenalia hirta (Thunb.) Thunb. endemic\n Lachenalia hirta (Thunb.) Thunb. var. exserta W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia hirta (Thunb.) Thunb. endemic\n Lachenalia hyacinthina Hort. accepted as Lachenalia contaminata Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia hyacinthoides Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia contaminata Aiton, indigenous", "Lachenalia hyacinthoides Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia contaminata Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia inconspicua G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia isopetala Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia judithiae G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia juncifolia Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia juncifolia Baker var. campanulata W.F.Barker accepted as Lachenalia magentea G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia karooica W.F.Barker ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia karoopoortensis G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia klinghardtiana Dinter, indigenous", "Lachenalia karoopoortensis G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia klinghardtiana Dinter, indigenous\n Lachenalia kliprandensis W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia krugeri G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia lactosa G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia lanceaefolia Jacq. accepted as Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop, indigenous\n Lachenalia lanceaefolia Sims var. maculata Tratt. accepted as Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop, indigenous\n Lachenalia latifolia Tratt. accepted as Lachenalia nervosa Ker Gawl. indigenous", "Lachenalia latifolia Tratt. accepted as Lachenalia nervosa Ker Gawl. indigenous\n Lachenalia latimerae W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia leipoldtii G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia leomontana W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia lilacina Baker, accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. glaucina (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Lachenalia liliiflora Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia linguiformis Lam. accepted as Lachenalia bulbifera (Cirillo) Engl. indigenous\n Lachenalia longibracteata E.Phillips, endemic", "Lachenalia longibracteata E.Phillips, endemic\n Lachenalia longituba (A.M.van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Lachenalia lucida Ker Gawl. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia lutea G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia luteola Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia luteola Jacq. var. pallida Tratt. accepted as Lachenalia luteola Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia lutzeyeri G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia macgregoriorum W.F.Barker, endemic", "Lachenalia lutzeyeri G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia macgregoriorum W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia macrophylla Lem. accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia maculata Tratt. accepted as Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop, indigenous\n Lachenalia magentea G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia margaretiae W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia marginata W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia marginata W.F.Barker subsp. marginata, endemic", "Lachenalia marginata W.F.Barker subsp. marginata, endemic\n Lachenalia marginata W.F.Barker subsp. neglecta Schltr. ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia marlothii W.F.Barker ex G.D. endemic\n Lachenalia martiniae W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia martleyi G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia massonii Baker, accepted as Lachenalia trichophylla Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia mathewsii W.F.Barker, endemic", "Lachenalia mathewsii W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia maughanii (W.F.Barker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. maughanii (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia maximiliani Schltr. ex W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia mediana Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia mediana Jacq. subsp. mediana, endemic\n Lachenalia mediana Jacq. subsp. rogersii (Baker) G.D.Duncan, endemic", "Lachenalia mediana Jacq. subsp. rogersii (Baker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia mediana Jacq. var. rogersii (Baker) W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia mediana Jacq. subsp. rogersii (Baker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia membranacea (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia minima W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia moniliformis W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia montana Schltr. ex W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia muirii W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia sessiliflora Andrews, endemic", "Lachenalia muirii W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia sessiliflora Andrews, endemic\n Lachenalia multifolia W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia mutabilis Lodd. ex Sweet, endemic\n Lachenalia namaquensis Schltr. ex W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia nardousbergensis G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia neilii W.F.Barker ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia nervosa Ker Gawl. endemic\n Lachenalia nordenstamii W.F.Barker, indigenous\n Lachenalia obscura Schltr. ex G.D.Duncan, endemic", "Lachenalia nordenstamii W.F.Barker, indigenous\n Lachenalia obscura Schltr. ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia odoratissima Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton, endemic\n Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. glaucina (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. orchioides, endemic\n Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. parviflora (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic", "Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. parviflora (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton var. glaucina (Jacq.) W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. glaucina (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia orthopetala Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia ovatifolia L.Guthrie, accepted as Lachenalia carnosa Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia pallida Aiton, endemic", "Lachenalia pallida Aiton, endemic\n Lachenalia pallida Lindl. accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. glaucina (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Lachenalia pallida Lindl. var. coerulescens Lindl. accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton subsp. glaucina (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Lachenalia patentissima G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia patula Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia paucifolia (W.F.Barker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Lachenalia peersii Marloth ex W.F.Barker, endemic", "Lachenalia peersii Marloth ex W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia pendula Aiton, accepted as Lachenalia bulbifera (Cirillo) Engl. endemic\n Lachenalia perryae G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia petiolata Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pusilla Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia physocaulos W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia polyphylla Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia polypodantha Schltr. ex W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia polypodantha Schltr. ex W.F.Barker subsp. eburnea G.D.Duncan, endemic", "Lachenalia polypodantha Schltr. ex W.F.Barker subsp. eburnea G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia polypodantha Schltr. ex W.F.Barker subsp. polypodantha, endemic\n Lachenalia punctata Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia purpurea Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia purpureo-caerulea Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia pusilla Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia pustulata F.Dietr. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia pustulata Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, endemic", "Lachenalia pustulata Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, endemic\n Lachenalia pustulata Jacq. var. densiflora Tratt. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia pygmaea (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia pyramidalis Dehnh. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia quadricolor Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia quadricolor Jacq. var. lutea Sims, accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, indigenous", "Lachenalia quadricolor Jacq. var. lutea Sims, accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia racemosa Ker Gawl. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia reclinata F.Dietr. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia reflexa Thunb. endemic\n Lachenalia rhodantha Baker, accepted as Lachenalia campanulata Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia roodeae E.Phillips, accepted as Lachenalia splendida Diels, indigenous\n Lachenalia rosea Andrews, endemic", "Lachenalia rosea Andrews, endemic\n Lachenalia rubida Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia punctata Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia rubida Jacq. var. punctata (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia punctata Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia rubida Jacq. var. tigrina (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia punctata Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia salteri W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia sanguinolenta Willd. ex Kunth, accepted as Lachenalia rosea Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia sargeantii W.F.Barker, endemic", "Lachenalia sargeantii W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia schelpei W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia schlechteri Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia sessiliflora Andrews, endemic\n Lachenalia speciosa F.Dietr. accepted as Dipcadi glaucum (Burch. ex Ker Gawl.) Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia splendida Diels, endemic\n Lachenalia stayneri W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia suaveolens (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia subspicata Fourc. accepted as Lachenalia bowkeri Baker, indigenous", "Lachenalia subspicata Fourc. accepted as Lachenalia bowkeri Baker, indigenous\n Lachenalia succulenta Masson ex Baker, accepted as Lachenalia patula Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia summerfieldii G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia thomasiae W.F.Barker ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia thunbergii G.D.Duncan & T.J.Edwards, endemic\n Lachenalia tigrina Jacq.Lachenalia punctata Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia trichophylla Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia tricolor Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. indigenous", "Lachenalia tricolor Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. indigenous\n Lachenalia tricolor Thunb. accepted as Lachenalia aloides (L.f.) Engl. indigenous\n Lachenalia tricolor Thunb. var. aurea (Lindl.) Baker accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia tricolor Thunb. var. aurea (Lindl.) Hook.f. accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia tricolor Thunb. var. luteola (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia luteola Jacq. indigenous", "Lachenalia tricolor Thunb. var. luteola Ker Gawl. accepted as Lachenalia flava Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia tricolor Thunb. var. quadricolor (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia quadricolor Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia undulata Masson ex Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia unicolor Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, endemic\n Lachenalia unicolor Jacq. var. fragrans (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous", "Lachenalia unicolor Jacq. var. purpurea (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia unifolia Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia unifolia Jacq. var. pappei Baker, accepted as Lachenalia rosea Andrews, indigenous\n Lachenalia unifolia Jacq. var. rogersii Baker, accepted as Lachenalia mediana Jacq. subsp. rogersii (Baker) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Lachenalia unifolia Jacq. var. schlechteri (Baker) W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia schlechteri Baker, endemic", "Lachenalia unifolia Jacq. var. wrightii Baker, accepted as Lachenalia wrightii Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia ustulata Banks ex Schult. & Schult.f. accepted as Lachenalia orthopetala Jacq. indigenous\n Lachenalia valeriae G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia vanzyliae (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan & T.J.Edwards, endemic\n Lachenalia variegata W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia ventricosa Schltr. ex W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia versicolor Baker var. fragrans (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous", "Lachenalia versicolor Baker var. purpurea (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia versicolor Baker var. unicolor (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia pallida Aiton, indigenous\n Lachenalia verticillata W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia violacea Jacq. endemic\n Lachenalia violacea Jacq. var. glauca W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia glauca (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia viridiflora W.F.Barker, endemic", "Lachenalia viridiflora W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia viridis (L.) Aiton, accepted as Dipcadi viride (L.) Moench, indigenous\n Lachenalia whitehillensis W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia wrightii Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia xerophila Schltr. ex G.D.Duncan, endemic\n Lachenalia youngii Baker, endemic\n Lachenalia zebrina W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia zebrina W.F.Barker forma densiflora W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia zebrina W.F.Barker, endemic\n Lachenalia zeyheri Baker, endemic", "Ledebouria \nGenus Ledebouria:\n Ledebouria apertiflora (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria asperifolia (Van der Merwe) S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria atrobrunnea S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria atropurpurea (N.E.Br.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria burkei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ledebouria burkei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. burkei, indigenous\n Ledebouria burkei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. stolonissima (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Dob, endemic", "Ledebouria comptonii (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria concoor (Baker) Jessop, endemic\n Ledebouria confusa S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria cooperi (Hook.f.) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria coriacea S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria cremnophila S.Venter & Van Jaarsv., endemic\n Ledebouria crispa S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria davidsoniae (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria dolomiticola S.Venter, endemic", "Ledebouria dolomiticola S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria ensifolia (Eckl.) S.Venter & T.J.Edwards, indigenous\n Ledebouria floribunda (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria galpinii (Baker) S.Venter & T.J.Edwards, endemic\n Ledebouria glauca S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria graminifolia (Baker) Jessop, accepted as Ledebouria leptophylla (Baker) S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria humifusa (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria hypoxidioides (Schonland) Jessop, endemic", "Ledebouria hypoxidioides (Schonland) Jessop, endemic\n Ledebouria inquinata (C.A.Sm.) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria lachenalioides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria lepida (N.E.Br.) S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria leptophylla (Baker) S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria linioseta (Hankey & Lebatha) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria luteola Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria macowanii (Baker) S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria marginata (Baker) Jessop, indigenous", "Ledebouria macowanii (Baker) S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria marginata (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria maxima (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria megaphylla (Hankey ex J.M.H.Shaw) Van Jaarsv. & Eggli, indigenous\n Ledebouria minima (Baker) S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria minor (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria mokobulanensis Hankey & T.J.Edwards, endemic\n Ledebouria monophylla S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria ovalifolia (Schrad.) Jessop, endemic", "Ledebouria monophylla S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria ovalifolia (Schrad.) Jessop, endemic\n Ledebouria ovatifolia (Baker) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria ovatifolia (Baker) Jessop subsp. ovatifolia\t, endemic\n Ledebouria ovatifolia (Baker) Jessop subsp. scabrida N.R.Crouch & T.J.Edwards, endemic\n Ledebouria papillata S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria pardalota S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria parvifolia S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria petiolata J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Ledebouria parvifolia S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria petiolata J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ledebouria pilosa (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria pustulata S.Venter, endemic\n Ledebouria remifolia S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria rupestris (Van der Merwe) S.Venter, indigenous\n Ledebouria sandersonii (Baker) S.Venter & T.J.Edwards, indigenous\n Ledebouria socialis (Baker) Jessop, endemic", "Ledebouria socialis (Baker) Jessop, endemic\n Ledebouria transvaalensis (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria undulata (Jacq.) Jessop, indigenous\n Ledebouria venteri Van Jaarsv. & A.E.van Wyk, endemic\n Ledebouria viscosa Jessop, endemic\n Ledebouria woodii (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ledebouria zebrina (Baker) S.Venter, indigenous", "Lindneria \nGenus Lindneria:\n Lindneria clavata (Mast.) Speta, accepted as Pseudogaltonia clavata (Mast.) E.Phillips\n\nLitanthus \nGenus Litanthus:\n Litanthus pusillus Harv, accepted as Drimia uniflora J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Massonia \nGenus Massonia:\n Massonia amoena Mart.-Azorin, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, indigenous\n Massonia angustifolia L.f. endemic\n Massonia bifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Massonia bokkeveldiana Poelln, accepted as Massonia tenella Sol. ex Baker, indigenous\n Massonia calvata Baker, indigenous\n Massonia citrina M.Pinter, Deutsch, U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Massonia corymbosa (L.) Ker Gawl, accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Massonia dentata Mart.-Azorin, V.R.Clark, M.Pinter, M.B.Crespo & Wetschnig, indigenous\n Massonia depressa Houtt. endemic\n Massonia echinata L.f. endemic\n Massonia ensifolia (Thunb.) Ker Gawl, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Massonia grandiflora Lindl, accepted as Massonia depressa Houtt.\n Massonia hirsuta Link & Otto, accepted as Massonia echinata L.f.\n Massonia jasminiflora Burch. ex Baker, indigenous", "Massonia jasminiflora Burch. ex Baker, indigenous\n Massonia lanceolata Thunb, accepted as Massonia angustifolia L.f. indigenous\n Massonia latebrosa Masson ex Baker, endemic\n Massonia luteovirens (Mart.-Azorin, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, indigenous\n Massonia odorata Hook.f, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Massonia pseudoechinata Mart.-Azorin, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, endemic\n Massonia pustulata Jacq. endemic\n Massonia pygmaea Kunth, indigenous", "Massonia pustulata Jacq. endemic\n Massonia pygmaea Kunth, indigenous\n Massonia pygmaea Kunth subsp. kamiesbergensis U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Massonia pygmaea Kunth subsp. pygmaea, endemic\n Massonia roggeveldensis Mart.-Azorin, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, endemic\n Massonia sempervirens U.Mull.-Doblies, G.Milkuhn & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Massonia sessiliflora (Dinter) Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, indigenous", "Massonia sessiliflora (Dinter) Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, indigenous\n Massonia sessiliflora (Dinter) U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Massonia sessiliflora (Dinter) Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, indigenous\n Massonia setulosa Baker, indigenous\n Massonia tenella Sol. ex Baker, endemic\n Massonia undulata Thunb, accepted as Lachenalia pusilla Jacq. indigenous", "Massonia undulata Thunb, accepted as Lachenalia pusilla Jacq. indigenous\n Massonia uniflora Sol. ex Baker, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Massonia violacea Andrews, accepted as Lachenalia pygmaea (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Massonia wittebergensis U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Merwilla \nGenus Merwilla:\n Merwilla dracomontana (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) Speta, endemic\n Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.) Speta, indigenous\n Muscari orchioides (L.) Mill. accepted as Lachenalia orchioides (L.) Aiton, indigenous\n Neobakeria angustifolia (L.f.) Schltr. accepted as Massonia angustifolia L.f. indigenous\n Neobakeria comata (Burch. ex Baker) Schltr. accepted as Daubenya comata (Burch. ex Baker) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe", "Neobakeria heterandra Isaac, accepted as Massonia pygmaea Kunth subsp. pygmaea\n Neobakeria namaquensis Schltr. accepted as Daubenya namaquensis (Schltr.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Neopatersonia falcata G.J.Lewis, accepted as Ornithogalum falcatum (G.J.Lewis) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Neopatersonia namaquensis G.J.Lewis, accepted as Ornithogalum filicaule J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Neopatersonia uitenhagensis Schonland, accepted as Ornithogalum neopatersonia J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Nicipe \nGenus Nicipe:\n Nicipe lithopsoides (Van Jaarsv.) Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, A.P.Dold, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, accepted as Ornithogalum juncifolium Jacq. endemic\n Nicipe rosulata Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, A.P.Dold, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, accepted as Ornithogalum rosulatum (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, A.P.Dold, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, endemic", "Ornithogalum \nGenus Ornithogalum:\n Ornithogalum abyssinicum (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum acutum J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca acuminata Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum adseptentrionesvergentulu U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum aetfatense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum albanense J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca longifolia Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum anguinum F.M.Leight. ex Oberm. endemic", "Ornithogalum anguinum F.M.Leight. ex Oberm. endemic\n Ornithogalum apertum (I.Verd.) Oberm. accepted as Albuca concordiana Baker\n Ornithogalum aristatum J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca caudata Jacq. indigenous\n Ornithogalum auratum J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca aurea Jacq. endemic\n Ornithogalum autumnulum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca autumnula (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Ornithogalum bakerianum (Bolus) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi bakerianum Bolus, indigenous\n Ornithogalum battenianum (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca batteniana Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, endemic\n Ornithogalum baurii (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca baurii Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum baurii Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum bicornutum F.M.Leight. endemic", "Ornithogalum baurii Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum bicornutum F.M.Leight. endemic\n Ornithogalum bifoliatum (R.A.Dyer) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca bifoliata R.A.Dyer, endemic\n Ornithogalum britteniae F.M.Leight. ex Oberm. endemic\n Ornithogalum brucebayeri U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca obtusa J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum campanulatum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum candicans (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Ornithogalum candicans (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum candidum Oberm. accepted as Albuca candida (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum capillare J.M.Wood & M.S.Evans, indigenous\n Ornithogalum ceresianum F.M.Leight. indigenous\n Ornithogalum ciliiferum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum circinatum J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca spiralis L.f. endemic", "Ornithogalum circinatum J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca spiralis L.f. endemic\n Ornithogalum clanwilliamae-gloria J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca clanwilliamaegloria U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum clavatum (Mast.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Pseudogaltonia clavata (Mast.) E.Phillips, indigenous\n Ornithogalum concordianum (Baker) U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca concordiana Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum conicum Jacq. indigenous", "Ornithogalum conicum Jacq. indigenous\n Ornithogalum conicum Jacq. subsp. conicum, accepted as Ornithogalum conicum Jacq. indigenous\n Ornithogalum conicum Jacq. subsp. strictum (L.Bolus) Oberm. accepted as Ornithogalum strictum L.Bolus, endemic\n Ornithogalum constrictum F.M.Leight. endemic\n Ornithogalum cooperi (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca cooperi Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum corticatum Mart.-Azorin, endemic", "Ornithogalum corticatum Mart.-Azorin, endemic\n Ornithogalum costatulum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca costatula (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum craibii (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, endemic\n Ornithogalum cremnophilum (Van Jaarsv. & A.E.van Wyk) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca cremnophila Van Jaarsv. & A.E.van Wyk, endemic", "Ornithogalum crinifolium (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca crinifolia Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum crispifolium F.M.Leight. accepted as Ornithogalum graminifolium Thunb.\n Ornithogalum crispum (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi crispum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum crudenii (Archibald) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca crudenii Archibald, endemic\n Ornithogalum dalyae (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca dalyae Baker, endemic", "Ornithogalum dalyae (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca dalyae Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum decipiens (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca decipiens U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum decusmontium G.Will. endemic\n Ornithogalum deltoideum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum diluculum Oberm. accepted as Albuca dilucula (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum dipcadioides Baker, accepted as Dipcadi gracillimum Baker, indigenous", "Ornithogalum dipcadioides Baker, accepted as Dipcadi gracillimum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum diphyllum Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum dividens J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca paradoxa Dinter, indigenous\n Ornithogalum dolichopharynx U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum drakensbergense J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca rupestris Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum dregeanum Kunth, endemic\n Ornithogalum dubium Houtt. endemic", "Ornithogalum dregeanum Kunth, endemic\n Ornithogalum dubium Houtt. endemic\n Ornithogalum durandianum (Schinz) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi marlothii Engl. indigenous\n Ornithogalum echinospermum (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca echinosperma U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum esterhuyseniae Oberm. endemic\n Ornithogalum etesiogaripense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca deserticola J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. deserticola", "Ornithogalum etesiogaripense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies subsp. longipilosum U.Mull.-Doblies &, accepted as Albuca deserticola J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. longipilosa (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.\n Ornithogalum exuviatum (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca exuviata Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum falcatum (G.J.Lewis) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Ornithogalum falcatum (G.J.Lewis) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum fastigiatum (Dryand.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca fastigiata Dryand. var. fastigiata, endemic\n Ornithogalum filicaule J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum fimbrifolium J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca ciliaris U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum fimbrimarginatum F.M.Leight. accepted as Ornithogalum dubium Houtt. endemic", "Ornithogalum fimbrimarginatum F.M.Leight. accepted as Ornithogalum dubium Houtt. endemic\n Ornithogalum flaccidum (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca flaccida Jacq. endemic\n Ornithogalum flexuosum (Thunb.) U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Ornithogalum foetidum (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca foetida U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum fragrans (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca fragrans Jacq. endemic", "Ornithogalum fragrans (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca fragrans Jacq. endemic\n Ornithogalum galpinii Baker, accepted as Ornithogalum tenuifolium F.Delaroche subsp. tenuifolium\n Ornithogalum geniculatum Oberm. indigenous\n Ornithogalum gethylloides U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca gethylloides (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum gifbergense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous", "Ornithogalum gifbergense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Ornithogalum gildenhuysii Van Jaarsv. accepted as Albuca gildenhuysii (Van Jaarsv.) Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Ornithogalum glanduliferum J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca glandulosa Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum glandulosum Oberm. accepted as Albuca glandulifera J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum glaucescens J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca glauca Baker, indigenous", "Ornithogalum glaucescens J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca glauca Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum glaucifolium U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca glaucifolia (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum goswinii (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca goswinii U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum graminifolium Thunb. indigenous\n Ornithogalum gregorianum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Ornithogalum gregorianum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum hallii (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca hallii U.Mull.-Doblies, indigenous\n Ornithogalum hallii Oberm. endemic\n Ornithogalum hesperanthum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum hesquaspoortense (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca hesquaspoortensis U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum hispidulum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Ornithogalum hispidulum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum hispidum Hornem. indigenous\n Ornithogalum hispidum Hornem. subsp. bergii (Schltdl.) Oberm. endemic\n Ornithogalum hispidum Hornem. subsp. hispidum, indigenous\n Ornithogalum humile (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca humilis Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum hyacinthiflorum Bergius ex Schltdl. accepted as Dipcadi brevifolium (Thunb.) Fourc. indigenous", "Ornithogalum imbricatum (F.M.Leight.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca juncifolia Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum inclusum F.M.Leight. endemic\n Ornithogalum juncifolium Jacq. indigenous\n Ornithogalum juncifolium Jacq. var. emmsii Van Jaarsv. & A.E.van Wyk, endemic\n Ornithogalum juncifolium Jacq. var. juncifolium, indigenous\n Ornithogalum karachabpoortense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca karachabpoortensis (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Ornithogalum kirstenii J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca kirstenii (J.C.Manning & Goldblatt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum knersvlaktense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca knersvlaktensis (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum lanatum J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca villosa U.Mull.-Doblies subsp. villosa, endemic\n Ornithogalum leeupoortense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Ornithogalum leeupoortense U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum leucanthum (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca leucantha U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum lithopsoides Van Jaarsv. accepted as Ornithogalum juncifolium Jacq. endemic\n Ornithogalum longibracteatum Jacq. accepted as Albuca bracteata (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum longicollum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Ornithogalum longicollum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum longifolium (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca longifolia Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum longifolium (Ker Gawl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi longifolium (Ker Gawl.) Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum longipes (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca longipes Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum macowanii (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca macowanii Baker, endemic", "Ornithogalum maculatum Jacq. endemic\n Ornithogalum magnum (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi magnum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum marlothii F.M.Leight. accepted as Ornithogalum hispidum Hornem. subsp. hispidum\n Ornithogalum mater-familias U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum maximum (Burm.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca canadensis (L.) F.M.Leight. indigenous\n Ornithogalum merxmuelleri Roessler, accepted as Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm.", "Ornithogalum merxmuelleri Roessler, accepted as Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm.\n Ornithogalum monarchos U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca monarchos (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum monophyllum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum monophyllum Baker subsp. eckardtianum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum monophyllum Baker subsp. monophyllum, indigenous", "Ornithogalum monophyllum Baker subsp. monophyllum, indigenous\n Ornithogalum monticola J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca collina Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum moylei J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca rogersii Schonland, endemic\n Ornithogalum multifolium Baker, accepted as Ornithogalum rupestre L.f. endemic\n Ornithogalum namaquanulum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum namaquense (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca namaquensis Baker, indigenous", "Ornithogalum nannodes F.M.Leight. indigenous\n Ornithogalum nathoanum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca nathoana (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum naviculum W.F.Barker, endemic\n Ornithogalum nelsonii (N.E.Br.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca nelsonii N.E.Br. endemic\n Ornithogalum neopatersonia J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum niveum Aiton, endemic", "Ornithogalum neopatersonia J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum niveum Aiton, endemic\n Ornithogalum oostachyum Baker, accepted as Ornithogalum paludosum Baker\n Ornithogalum oreogenes Schltr. ex Poelln. endemic\n Ornithogalum ornithogaloides (Kunth) Oberm. accepted as Ornithogalum flexuosum (Thunb.) U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies\n Ornithogalum osmynellum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca osmynella (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Ornithogalum ovatum Thunb. accepted as Albuca ovata (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum ovatum Thunb. subsp. oliverorum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca ovata (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum paludosum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum papillatum (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi papillatum Oberm. indigenous", "Ornithogalum papyraceum (J.C.Manning & Goldblatt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca papyracea J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum paucifolium U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca paucifolia (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. paucifolia", "Ornithogalum paucifolium U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies subsp. karooparkense U.Mull.-Doblies & D. accepted as Albuca paucifolia (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. karooparkensis, endemic\n Ornithogalum pearsonii F.M.Leight. accepted as Albuca pearsonii (F.M.Leight.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum pendens Van Jaarsv. endemic", "Ornithogalum pendens Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Ornithogalum pendulinum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca pendulina (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum pentheri Zahlbr. accepted as Albuca pentheri (Zahlbr.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum perdurans A.P.Dold & S.A.Hammer, endemic\n Ornithogalum perparvum Poelln. endemic\n Ornithogalum petraeum Fourc. endemic\n Ornithogalum pilosum L.f. endemic", "Ornithogalum petraeum Fourc. endemic\n Ornithogalum pilosum L.f. endemic\n Ornithogalum pilosum L.f. subsp. pullatum (F.M.Leight.) Oberm. accepted as Ornithogalum pullatum F.M.Leight.\n Ornithogalum planifolium J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi platyphyllum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum polyodontulum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca polyodontula (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Ornithogalum polyphyllum Jacq. accepted as Albuca consanguinea (Kunth) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum prasinum Ker Gawl. accepted as Albuca prasina (Ker Gawl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum prasinum Lindl. indigenous\n Ornithogalum princeps (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum pruinosum F.M.Leight. indigenous", "Ornithogalum pruinosum F.M.Leight. indigenous\n Ornithogalum psammophorum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca psammophora (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm. indigenous\n Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm. subsp. chris-bayeri U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm. \n Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm. subsp. puberulum, accepted as Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm.", "Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm. subsp. puberulum, accepted as Ornithogalum puberulum Oberm.\n Ornithogalum pulchrum Schinz, accepted as Albuca pulchra (Schinz) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum pullatum F.M.Leight. endemic\n Ornithogalum rautanenii Schinz, accepted as Albuca rautanenii (Schinz) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum readii (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi readii (Baker) Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum regale (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Ornithogalum regale (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum richtersveldensis Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Ornithogalum rigidifolium (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi rigidifolium Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum robertsonianum (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca robertsoniana U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum rogersii Baker, endemic", "Ornithogalum rogersii Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum rossouwii U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ornithogalum maculatum Jacq. endemic\n Ornithogalum rosulatum (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, A.P.Dold, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, endemic\n Ornithogalum rotatum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum rubescens F.M.Leight. endemic\n Ornithogalum rupestre L.f. endemic", "Ornithogalum rubescens F.M.Leight. endemic\n Ornithogalum rupestre L.f. endemic\n Ornithogalum sabulosum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca sabulosa (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum sardienii Van Jaarsv. endemic\n Ornithogalum saundersiae Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum saxatilis J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca massonii Baker, endemic", "Ornithogalum saxatilis J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca massonii Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum scabrocostatum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca scabrocostata (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum schlechteri (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca schlechteri Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum schlechterianum Schinz, endemic", "Ornithogalum schlechterianum Schinz, endemic\n Ornithogalum schoenlandii (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca schoenlandii Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum secundum Jacq. accepted as Albuca secunda (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum seineri (Engl. & K.Krause) Oberm. accepted as Albuca seineri (Engl. & K.Krause) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum semipedale (Baker) U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca semipedalis Baker, endemic", "Ornithogalum sephtonii Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, endemic\n Ornithogalum setosum (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca setosa Jacq. indigenous\n Ornithogalum shawii (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca shawii Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum simile J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca affinis Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum stapfii Schinz, accepted as Albuca stapfii (Schinz) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum strictum L.Bolus, indigenous", "Ornithogalum strictum L.Bolus, indigenous\n Ornithogalum strigulosum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca strigulosa (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum stuetzelianum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca stuetzeliana (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum suaveolens Jacq. accepted as Albuca suaveolens (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Ornithogalum subcoriaceum L.Bolus, accepted as Ornithogalum dubium Houtt. indigenous\n Ornithogalum subglandulosum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca subglandulosa (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum synadelphicum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum synanthifolium F.M.Leight. indigenous\n Ornithogalum tanquanum (Mart.-Azorin & M.B.Crespo) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum tenuifolium F.Delaroche, indigenous", "Ornithogalum tenuifolium F.Delaroche, indigenous\n Ornithogalum tenuifolium F.Delaroche subsp. aridum Oberm. accepted as Albuca virens (Ker Gawl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. arida (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum tenuifolium F.Delaroche subsp. tenuifolium, indigenous\n Ornithogalum teretifolium J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca polyphylla Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum thermarum (Van Jaarsv.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca thermarum Van Jaarsv. endemic", "Ornithogalum thermophilum F.M.Leight. endemic\n Ornithogalum thunbergianulum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum thyrsoides Jacq. endemic\n Ornithogalum tortile J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca tortuosa Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum tortuosum Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum toxicarium C.Archer & R.H.Archer, accepted as Albuca toxicaria (C.Archer & R.H.Archer) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Ornithogalum trachyphyllum (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca trachyphylla U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum tubiforme (Oberm.) Oberm. accepted as Albuca tubiformis (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum uitenhagense (Schonland) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Ornithogalum neopatersonia J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum unifoliatum (G.D.Rowley) Oberm. accepted as Albuca unifoliata G.D.Rowley, endemic", "Ornithogalum unifoliatum (G.D.Rowley) Oberm. accepted as Albuca unifoliata G.D.Rowley, endemic\n Ornithogalum unifolium Retz. accepted as Albuca unifolia (Retz.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Ornithogalum unifolium Retz. var. vestitum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Albuca unifolia (Retz.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n Ornithogalum vaginatum (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Dipcadi vaginatum Baker, indigenous\n Ornithogalum vallis-gratiae Schltr. ex Poelln. endemic", "Ornithogalum vallis-gratiae Schltr. ex Poelln. endemic\n Ornithogalum verae U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum viridiflorum (I.Verd.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Ornithogalum viscosum (L.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca viscosa L.f. indigenous\n Ornithogalum weberlingiorum (U.Mull.-Doblies) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca weberlingiorum U.Mull.-Doblies, endemic", "Ornithogalum wilsonii J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca corymbosa Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum xanthochlorum Baker, endemic\n Ornithogalum xanthocodon (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, accepted as Albuca xanthocodon Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, endemic\n Ornithogalum zebrinellum U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, endemic\n Ornithogalum zebrinum (Baker) Oberm. accepted as Albuca zebrina Baker, endemic", "Periboea \nGenus Periboea:\n Periboea corymbosa (L.) Kunth, accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Periboea gawleri Kunth, accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Periboea oliveri U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Lachenalia paucifolia (W.F.Barker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Periboea paucifolia (W.F.Barker) U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Lachenalia paucifolia (W.F.Barker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Polyanthes \nGenus Polyanthes:\n Polyanthes pygmaea Jacq. accepted as Lachenalia pygmaea (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous", "Polyxena \nGenus Polyxena:\n Polyxena angustifolia (L.f.) Baker, accepted as Massonia angustifolia L.f. indigenous\n Polyxena bakeri T.Durand & Schinz, accepted as Massonia echinata L.f. indigenous\n Polyxena burchellii (Baker) Baker, accepted as Daubenya zeyheri (Kunth) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, indigenous\n Polyxena calcicola U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Lachenalia calcicola (U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies) G.D.Duncan, indigenous", "Polyxena comata (Burch. ex Baker) Baker, accepted as Daubenya comata (Burch. ex Baker) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, indigenous\n Polyxena corymbosa (L.) Jessop, accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Polyxena ensifolia (Thunb.) Schonland, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Polyxena haemanthoides Baker, accepted as Daubenya marginata (Willd. ex Kunth) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, indigenous", "Polyxena longituba A.M.van der Merwe, accepted as Lachenalia longituba (A.M.van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Polyxena marginata (Willd. ex Kunth) Baker, accepted as Daubenya marginata (Willd. ex Kunth) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, indigenous\n Polyxena maughanii W.F.Barker, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt subsp. maughanii (W.F.Barker) G.D.Duncan, indigenous", "Polyxena odorata (Hook.f.) Baker, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Polyxena odorata (Hook.f.) W.A.Nicholson, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Polyxena paucifolia (W.F.Barker) A.M.van der Merwe & J.C.Manning, accepted as Lachenalia paucifolia (W.F.Barker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Polyxena pusilla (Jacq.) Schltr. accepted as Lachenalia pusilla Jacq. indigenous", "Polyxena pusilla (Jacq.) Schltr. accepted as Lachenalia pusilla Jacq. indigenous\n Polyxena pygmaea (Jacq.) Kunth, accepted as Lachenalia pygmaea (Jacq.) G.D.Duncan, indigenous\n Polyxena rugulosa (Licht. ex Kunth) Baker, accepted as Daubenya marginata (Willd. ex Kunth) J.C.Manning & A.M.van der Merwe, indigenous\n Polyxena uniflora (Sol. ex Baker) Benth. & Hook. ex Durand & Schinz, accepted as Lachenalia ensifolia (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Pseudogaltonia \nGenus Pseudogaltonia:\n Pseudogaltonia clavata (Mast.) E.Phillips, indigenous\n Pseudogaltonia liliiflora J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic\n\nPseudoprospero \nGenus Pseudoprospero:\n Pseudoprospero firmifolium (Baker) Speta, endemic\n Pseudoprospero firmifolium (Baker) Speta subsp. firmifolium, endemic\n Pseudoprospero firmifolium (Baker) Speta subsp. natalensis J.C.Manning, endemic", "Resnova \nGenus Resnova:\n Resnova humifusa (Baker) U.Mull.-Doblies & D.Mull.-Doblies, accepted as Ledebouria humifusa (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Resnova lachenalioides (Baker) Van der Merwe, accepted as Ledebouria lachenalioides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Resnova maxima Van der Merwe, accepted as Ledebouria maxima (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Resnova megaphylla Hankey ex J.M.H.Shaw, accepted as Ledebouria megaphylla (Hankey ex J.M.H.Shaw) Van Jaarsv. & Eggli, indigenous", "Resnova minor Van der Merwe, accepted as Ledebouria minor (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Resnova pilosa Van der Merwe, accepted as Ledebouria pilosa (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Resnova transvaalensis Van der Merwe, accepted as Ledebouria transvaalensis (Van der Merwe) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Rhadamanthus \nGenus Rhadamanthus:\n Rhadamanthus albiflorus B.Nord. accepted as Drimia albiflora (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus arenicola B.Nord. accepted as Drimia arenicola (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus convallarioides (L.f.) Baker, accepted as Drimia convallarioides (L.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus cyanelloides Baker, accepted as Drimia cyanelloides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Rhadamanthus cyanelloides Baker, accepted as Drimia cyanelloides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus fasciatus B.Nord. accepted as Drimia fasciata (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus involutus J.C.Manning & Snijman, accepted as Drimia involuta (J.C.Manning & Snijman) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus karrooicus Oberm. accepted as Drimia karooica (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus montanus B.Nord. accepted as Drimia convallarioides (L.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Rhadamanthus montanus B.Nord. accepted as Drimia convallarioides (L.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus namibensis Oberm. accepted as Drimia namibensis (Oberm.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus platyphyllus B.Nord. accepted as Drimia platyphylla (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus secundus B.Nord. accepted as Drimia secunda (B.Nord.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Rhadamanthus urantherus R.A.Dyer, accepted as Drimia uranthera (R.A.Dyer) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Schizobasis \nGenus Schizobasis:\n Schizobasis intricata (Baker) Baker, accepted as Drimia intricata (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n\nSchizocarphus \nGenus Schizocarphus:\n Schizocarphus nervosus (Burch.) Van der Merwe, indigenous", "Scilla \nGenus Scilla:\n Scilla adlamii Baker, accepted as Ledebouria cooperi (Hook.f.) Jessop\n Scilla brachyphylla Roem. & J.H.Schult. accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Scilla brevifolia Ker Gawl. accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Scilla corymbosa (L.) Ker Gawl. accepted as Lachenalia corymbosa (L.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous", "Scilla dracomontana Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, accepted as Merwilla dracomontana (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) Speta\n Scilla ensifolia (Eckl.) Britten, accepted as Ledebouria ensifolia (Eckl.) S.Venter & T.J.Edwards\n Scilla firmifolia Baker, accepted as Pseudoprospero firmifolium (Baker) Speta subsp. firmifolium\n Scilla kraussii Baker, accepted as Merwilla kraussii (Baker) Speta\n Scilla natalensis Planch. accepted as Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.) Speta", "Scilla natalensis Planch. accepted as Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.) Speta\n Scilla nervosa (Burch.) Jessop, accepted as Schizocarphus nervosus (Burch.) Van der Merwe\n Scilla plumbea Lindl. accepted as Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.) Speta", "Spetaea \nGenus Spetaea:\n Spetaea lachenaliiflora Wetschnig & Pfosser, endemic\n\nStellarioides \nGenus Stellarioides:\n Stellarioides exigua Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, A.P.Dold, M.Pinter & Wetschnig, accepted as Albuca exigua (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo, A.P.Dold, M.Pinter & Wetschnig) J.C.Manning, endemic\n Stellarioides littoralis N.R.Crouch, D.Styles, A.J.Beaumont & Mart.-Azorin, accepted as Albuca littoralis (N.R.Crouch, D.Styles, A.J.Beaumont & Mart.-Azorin) J.C.Manning, endemic", "Tenicroa \nGenus Tenicroa:\n Tenicroa exuviata (Jacq.) Speta, accepted as Drimia exuviata (Jacq.) Jessop\n Tenicroa filifolia (Jacq.) Oberm. accepted as Drimia filifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Tenicroa fragrans (Jacq.) Raf. accepted as Drimia fragrans (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Tenicroa multifolia (G.J.Lewis) Oberm. accepted as Drimia multifolia (G.J.Lewis) Jessop\n Tenicroa nana Snijman, accepted as Drimia nana (Snijman) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Thuranthos \nGenus Thuranthos:\n Thuranthos basuticum (E.Phillips) Oberm. accepted as Drimia angustifolia Baker\n Thuranthos macranthum (Baker) C.H.Wright, accepted as Drimia macrantha (Baker) Baker\n Thuranthos nocturnale R.A.Dyer, accepted as Drimia macrantha (Baker) Baker\n\nTrimelopter \nGenus Trimelopter:\n Trimelopter craibii Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo & A.P.Dold, accepted as Albuca craibii (Mart.-Azorin, M.B.Crespo & A.P.Dold) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, endemic", "Urginea \nGenus Urginea:\n Urginea altissima (L.f.) Baker, accepted as Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl.\n Urginea calcarata (Baker) Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, accepted as Drimia calcarata (Baker) Stedje\n Urginea capitata (Hook.) Baker, accepted as Drimia depressa (Baker) Jessop\n Urginea ciliata (L.f.) Baker, accepted as Drimia ciliata (L.f.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Urginea delagoensis Baker, accepted as Drimia delagoensis (Baker) Jessop\n Urginea depressa Baker, accepted as Drimia depressa (Baker) Jessop", "Urginea depressa Baker, accepted as Drimia depressa (Baker) Jessop\n Urginea dregei Baker, accepted as Drimia dregei (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Urginea epigea R.A.Dyer, accepted as Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl.\n Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth, accepted as Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop\n Urginea kniphofioides Baker, accepted as Drimia kniphofioides (Baker) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Urginea lydenburgensis R.A.Dyer, accepted as Drimia delagoensis (Baker) Jessop", "Urginea lydenburgensis R.A.Dyer, accepted as Drimia delagoensis (Baker) Jessop\n Urginea macrocentra Baker, accepted as Drimia macrocentra (Baker) Jessop\n Urginea marginata (Thunb.) Baker, accepted as Drimia marginata (Thunb.) Jessop\n Urginea minor A.V.Duthie, accepted as Drimia minor (A.V.Duthie) Jessop\n Urginea modesta Baker, accepted as Drimia calcarata (Baker) Stedje\n Urginea multisetosa Baker, accepted as Drimia multisetosa (Baker) Jessop", "Urginea multisetosa Baker, accepted as Drimia multisetosa (Baker) Jessop\n Urginea physodes (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Drimia physodes (Jacq.) Jessop\n Urginea pusilla (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Drimia physodes (Jacq.) Jessop\n Urginea rigidifolia Baker, accepted as Drimia sclerophylla J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Urginea rubella Baker, accepted as Drimia calcarata (Baker) Stedje\n Urginea sanguinea Schinz, accepted as Drimia sanguinea (Schinz) Jessop", "Urginea sanguinea Schinz, accepted as Drimia sanguinea (Schinz) Jessop\n Urginea saniensis Hilliard & B.L.Burtt, accepted as Drimia saniensis (Hilliard & B.L.Burtt) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt\n Urginea tenella Baker, accepted as Drimia calcarata (Baker) Stedje\n Urginea virens Schltr. accepted as Drimia virens (Schltr.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt", "Veltheimia \nGenus Veltheimia\n Veltheimia bracteata Harv. ex Baker, endemic\n Veltheimia capensis (L.) DC. endemic\n\nWhiteheadia \nGenus Whiteheadia:\n Whiteheadia bifolia (Jacq.) Baker, accepted as Massonia bifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n Whiteheadia latifolia Harv. accepted as Massonia bifolia (Jacq.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt, indigenous\n\nReferences\n\nSouth African plant biodiversity lists\nScilloideae" ]

[ "This list of notable breast cancer patients includes people who made significant contributions to their respective fields and who were diagnosed with breast cancer at some point in their lives, as confirmed by public information.\n\nAccording to the United States National Cancer Institute, an estimated 252,710 new cases and 40,610 deaths (women only; no estimates for male victims due to size of sampling pool) would occur in the United States in 2017.", "Alive\nBarbara Allen (born 1961), American politician, Kansas state senator.\nAnastacia (born 1968), American singer and former dancer (\"I'm Outta Love\", \"Left Outside Alone\", \"Paid My Dues\").\nChristina Applegate (born 1971), Primetime Emmy Award-winning American actress and dancer (Married... with Children, Friends, Samantha Who?, Dead to Me).\nDame Eileen Atkins (born 1934), English stage, film and television actress (Cranford, Vanity Fair, The Crown).", "Brigitte Bardot (born 1934), French animal rights activist and former actress.\nMarie-Christine Barrault (born 1944), French actress.\nKathy Bates (born 1948), Academy Award-winning American actress (Misery, Titanic, Primary Colors, American Horror Story). Also surviving ovarian cancer and lymphedema.\nPat Battle (born 1959), American journalist.\nMeredith Baxter (born 1947), American actress and producer.\nAllyce Beasley (born 1951), American actress.", "Allyce Beasley (born 1951), American actress.\nJen Beattie (born 1991), Scottish professional footballer (Arsenal).\nSarah Beeny (born 1972), English broadcaster and entrepreneur.\nVanessa Bell Calloway (born 1957), American actress.\nJoan Bennett Kennedy (born 1936), former wife of U.S. Senator Edward M. Kennedy.\nJami Bernard (born 1956), American author; New York Daily News film critic.", "Jami Bernard (born 1956), American author; New York Daily News film critic.\nJudy Blume (born 1938), American writer diagnosed with invasive ductal carcinoma in August 2012; long-term cervical cancer survivor.\nRaelene Boyle (born 1951), Australian athlete. (also surviving ovarian cancer)\nJulia Bradbury (born 1970), Irish-born English television presenter and journalist.\nRhona Brankin (born 1950), Scottish politician and Member of the Scottish Parliament.", "Rhona Brankin (born 1950), Scottish politician and Member of the Scottish Parliament.\nNancy Brinker (born 1946), American founder of the Susan G. Komen for the Cure organization.\nMalandra Burrows (born 1965), English actress and singer (Emmerdale).\nAnna Calder-Marshall (born 1947), English actress.\nCalypso Rose (born 1940), Tobagonian calypso musician.\nEdna Campbell (born 1968), American professional basketball player.\nSarah Cawood (born 1972), English broadcaster and presenter.", "Sarah Cawood (born 1972), English broadcaster and presenter.\nRobin Carnahan (born 1961), American politician, former Missouri Secretary of State.\nAgnes Chan (born 1955), Hong Kong-born Japanese singer, television personality, university professor, essayist and novelist.\nBeth Nielsen Chapman (born 1958), American singer-songwriter.\nLois Chiles (born 1947), American actress and fashion model.\nMary Jo Codey (born 1955), former First Lady of New Jersey.", "Mary Jo Codey (born 1955), former First Lady of New Jersey.\nCheryl Crane (born 1943), American writer, real estate broker and model.\nBeverley Craven (born 1963), British singer-songwriter (\"Promise Me\").\nPeter Criss (born 1945), American rock musician and drummer (Kiss).\nSheryl Crow (born 1962), American singer, songwriter and musician.\nPat Danner (born 1934), American politician.\nVictoria Derbyshire (born 1968), British journalist, newsreader and broadcaster.", "Victoria Derbyshire (born 1968), British journalist, newsreader and broadcaster.\nAnne Diamond (born 1954), English journalist, broadcaster and television presenter (GB News, Good Morning Britain, Loose Women).\nJanice Dickinson (born 1955), American television personality, model, businesswoman and writer.\n Dee Doherty (born 1986), Irish YouTuber.\nShannen Doherty (born 1971), American actress, director and producer.\nAnita Doth (born 1971), Dutch singer-songwriter.", "Anita Doth (born 1971), Dutch singer-songwriter.\nAmy Dowden (born 1990), Welsh professional ballroom and Latin American dancer (Strictly Come Dancing).\nSusan Duncan (born 1951), Australian author, journalist and editor.\nSally Dynevor (born 1963), English actress (Coronation Street).\nBrenda Edwards (born 1969), English singer, actress and television presenter (The X Factor, Loose Women).\nJill Eikenberry (born 1947), American film, stage and television actress.", "Jill Eikenberry (born 1947), American film, stage and television actress.\nVictoria Ekanoye (born 1981), English actress (Coronation Street).\nLinda Ellerbee (born 1944), American journalist, newsreader and author.\nMelissa Etheridge (born 1961), American singer-songwriter and lesbian rights activist.\nLinda Evangelista (born 1965), Canadian supermodel.\nMarianne Faithfull (born 1946), English singer and actress (\"As Tears Go By\").\nEdie Falco (born 1963), American film, stage and television actress.", "Edie Falco (born 1963), American film, stage and television actress.\nRita Fan (born 1945), Hong Kong politician.\nDeanna Favre (born 1968), American author and wife of American football quarterback Brett Favre.\nNayana Ferguson (born 1973), African-American businesswoman and co-founder of Anteel Tequila.\nCatrin Finch (born 1980), Welsh harpist, arranger, composer and former Royal Harpist.\nCarly Fiorina (born 1954), American business executive.", "Carly Fiorina (born 1954), American business executive.\nCaitlin Flanagan (born 1961), American magazine writer, editor and author.\nPeggy Fleming (born 1948), American Olympic champion figure skater.\nJane Fonda (born 1937), American actress, activist and former fitness guru.\nJennie Formby (born 1960), British trade unionist and politician.\nMaria Friedman (born 1960), British actress and singer (EastEnders).\nLiza Goddard (born 1950), English actress.", "Liza Goddard (born 1950), English actress.\nKim Gordon (born 1953), American musician, vocalist, visual artist, record producer, video director, fashion designer and actress.\nErnie Green (born 1938), American former professional football player (Cleveland Browns).\nJennifer Griffin (born 1969), American journalist.\nNamrata Singh Gujral (born 1976), Indian-American actress. Treated for breast cancer and Burkitt's lymphoma; pending remission from both cancers.", "Dorothy Hamill (born 1956), American Olympic champion figure skater.\nJane Hamsher (born 1959), American film producer, author and liberal blogger.\nDame Sheila Hancock (born 1933), English stage, film and television actress.\nSamantha Harris (born 1973), American television personality, presenter and model.\nMarica Hase (born 1981), Japanese pornographic actress and AV idol.\nTeresa Heinz (born 1938), Portuguese-American businesswoman, philanthropist and wife of American politician John Kerry.", "Heidi Heitkamp (born 1955), American lawyer and politician; United States Senator from North Dakota (elected 2012).\nGrace Helbig (born 1985), American comedian, actress and internet personality.\nKelly Hoppen (born 1959), South African-born British interior designer and author.\nLaura Ingraham (born 1963), American radio presenter and pundit.\nKate Jackson (born 1948), American actress and producer.\nAnn Jillian (born 1950), American film, television and musical theatre actress.", "Ann Jillian (born 1950), American film, television and musical theatre actress.\nBetsey Johnson (born 1942), American fashion designer.\nMelanie Johnson (born 1955), British Labour politician, former Member of Parliament.\nSusan Kadis (born 1953), Canadian politician in the House of Commons of Canada.\nKoh Chieng Mun (born 1960), Singaporean actress. \nHoda Kotb (born 1964), American television newsreader, journalist and correspondent.\nSandra Lee (born 1966), American television chef and author.", "Sandra Lee (born 1966), American television chef and author.\nJulia Louis-Dreyfus (born 1961), American actress and comedian.\nGeralyn Lucas (born 1967), American journalist, television producer and writer.\nLorna Luft (born 1952), American actress and singer.\nJoan Lunden (born 1950), American television journalist and newsreader.\nLauren Mahon (born 1985), British cancer activist and podcast presenter (You, Me and the Big C).\nMarisa Acocella Marchetto (born 1962), American writer, cartoonist and memoirist.", "Marisa Acocella Marchetto (born 1962), American writer, cartoonist and memoirist.\nDebbie McGee (born 1958), English television, radio and stage performer.\nCarol McGiffin (born 1960), English radio and television presenter (Loose Women).\nJudy Eason McIntyre (born 1945), American politician.\nAmanda Mealing (born 1967), English actress, director and producer (Casualty, Holby City).\nTucker L. Melancon (born 1946), American judge.\nWendy Mesley (born 1957), Canadian reporter.", "Tucker L. Melancon (born 1946), American judge.\nWendy Mesley (born 1957), Canadian reporter.\nHayley Mills (born 1946), English actress.\nKylie Minogue (born 1968), Australian singer and actress (Neighbours, \"Spinning Around\", \"Can't Get You Out of My Head\", \"Get Outta My Way\").\nAndrea Mitchell (born 1946), American television journalist, newsreader, reporter and commentator.\nHala Moddelmog (born 1956), American president and CEO of Susan G. Komen for the Cure.", "Hala Moddelmog (born 1956), American president and CEO of Susan G. Komen for the Cure.\nDame Jenni Murray (born 1950), English journalist and broadcaster.\nSue Myrick (born 1941), American politician.\nJanet Napolitano (born 1957), American politician.\nMartina Navratilova (born 1956), Czech-American former professional tennis player.\nCynthia Nixon (born 1966), American stage, film and television actress (Sex and the City, Ratched, Killing Reagan).", "Linda Nolan (born 1959), Irish singer, actress and former member of the 1970s pop band The Nolans.\nTig Notaro (born 1971), American comedian and podcast presenter; diagnosed and treated with double mastectomy in 2012.\nKim Novak (born 1933), American film and television actress.\nSandra Day O'Connor (born 1930), American retired attorney and first female Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.\nPatrícia Pillar (born 1964), Brazilian television, stage and film actress.", "Patrícia Pillar (born 1964), Brazilian television, stage and film actress.\nGiuliana Rancic (born 1974), Italian-American television personality and infotainer.\nJudy Rankin (born 1945), American professional golfer.\nBetsy Rawls (1928–2023), American professional golfer.\nJodi Rell (born 1946), American politician, Governor of Connecticut.\n Gina Riley (born 1961), Australian actress and singer (Kath & Kim).\nAmy Robach (born 1973), American television news correspondent.", "Amy Robach (born 1973), American television news correspondent.\nRobin Roberts (born 1960), American basketball player, television broadcaster and LGBT rights activist.\nKrysta Rodriguez (born 1984), American actress and singer (The Addams Family, Smash).\nBetty Rollin (born 1936), American author and retired television correspondent.", "Betty Rollin (born 1936), American author and retired television correspondent.\nAnn Romney (born 1949), American philanthropist, author and wife of American U.S. senator Mitt Romney; she was diagnosed with mammary ductal carcinoma in situ and had a lumpectomy.\nRichard Roundtree (1942–2023), American actor and former model.\nDeidre Sanders (born 1945), English columnist and agony aunt (This Morning).", "Deidre Sanders (born 1945), English columnist and agony aunt (This Morning).\nSarah, Duchess of York (born 1959), English author, television personality, and member of the British royal family as the former wife of Prince Andrew, Duke of York.\nJennifer Saunders (born 1958), English comedian, screenwriter and actress (Absolutely Fabulous, French and Saunders, Shrek 2).\nDebbie Wasserman Schultz (born 1966), American politician.\nDebra Shipley (born 1957), British politician.", "Debra Shipley (born 1957), British politician.\nCarly Simon (born 1943), American singer-songwriter and memoirist.\nJaclyn Smith (born 1945), American actress and businesswoman.\nDame Maggie Smith (born 1934), English stage, film and television actress (Harry Potter, Downton Abbey, Sister Act).\nKoo Stark (born 1956), American pornographic actress and photographer.\nGloria Steinem (born 1934), American feminist activist.\nMindy Sterling (born 1953), American film, television and voice actress.", "Mindy Sterling (born 1953), American film, television and voice actress.\nAnne Swarbrick (born c. 1952), Canadian politician and activist.\nRuth Ann Swenson (born 1959), American operatic soprano.\nStephanie Swift (born 1972), American pornographic actress and 2006 AVN Hall of Fame inductee.\nWanda Sykes (born 1964), American writer, actress, television presenter and stand-up comedian.\nJoni Eareckson Tada (born 1949), American singer, radio personality and advocate for the disabled.", "Joni Eareckson Tada (born 1949), American singer, radio personality and advocate for the disabled.\nGwen Taylor (born 1939), English actress (Heartbeat, Coronation Street, Barbara, Duty Free, EastEnders).\nSam Taylor-Johnson (born 1967), English filmmaker, director and photographer.\nMaura Tierney (born 1965), American film and television actress.\nJools Topp (born 1958), New Zealand folk singer, one of the Topp Twins.\nDawn Upshaw (born 1960), American opera singer.", "Dawn Upshaw (born 1960), American opera singer.\nAnn Veneman (born 1949), American politician and former Head of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.\nJoyce Wadler (born 1948), American journalist and memoirist (also surviving ovarian cancer).\nLiza Wang (born 1947), Hong Kong television personality, actress, singer and diva.\nSian Williams (born 1964), Welsh journalist and current affairs presenter.\nRita Wilson (born 1956), American actress, singer and producer.", "Rita Wilson (born 1956), American actress, singer and producer.\nSamantha Womack (born 1972), English actress, singer, model and director (EastEnders, Mount Pleasant, Eurovision Song Contest 1991).", "Died from breast cancer\nJosephine Abady (1949–2002; aged 52), American theatre director and producer.\nAnna Abrikosova, Mother Catherine of Siena, O.P. (1882–1936; aged 54), prominent figure in the Catholic Church in Russia.\nKathy Acker (1947–1997; aged 50), American author.\nJudith Adams (1943–2012; aged 68), New Zealand-born Australian politician, midwife, nurse and farmer.\nIngela Agardh (1948–2008; aged 59), Swedish journalist and television personality.", "Ingela Agardh (1948–2008; aged 59), Swedish journalist and television personality.\nKathy Ahern (1949–1996; aged 47), American professional golfer.\nShammi Akhtar (1957–2018; aged 60), Bangladeshi playback singer.\nClaudia Alexander (1959–2015; aged 56), Canadian-born American geophysicist and planetary scientist.\nMargery Allingham (1904–1966; aged 62), English novelist and mystery writer.\nCecilia Alvear (1939–2017; aged 77), Ecuadorian-born American journalist.", "Cecilia Alvear (1939–2017; aged 77), Ecuadorian-born American journalist.\nTun Endon Mahmood Ambak (1940–2005; aged 64), wife of the 5th Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. Her twin sister, Noraini, also died from breast cancer in 2003.\nGenerosa Ammon (1956–2003; aged 47), American cause célèbre.\nChrissy Amphlett (1959–2013; aged 53), Australian musician and actress. She died from breast cancer and multiple sclerosis.", "Luana Anders (1938–1996; aged 58), American film and television actress.\nElda Emma Anderson (1899–1961; aged 61), American physicist and health researcher. She died from breast cancer and leukemia.\nV.C. Andrews (1923–1986; aged 63), American novelist and horror fiction writer.\nMary Anning (1799–1847; aged 47), English paleontologist and fossil collector.\nSólveig Anspach (1960–2015; aged 54), Icelandic-born French film director and screenwriter.", "Sólveig Anspach (1960–2015; aged 54), Icelandic-born French film director and screenwriter.\nMary Astell (1666–1731; aged 64), English philosopher and feminist writer.\nAïda Ba (1983–2022; aged 39), French rugby union player.\nFay Baker (1917–1987; aged 70), American actress and novelist.\nJeanne Bal (1928–1996; aged 67), American actress and model.\nRim Banna (1966–2018; aged 51), Palestinian singer, composer and activist.\nHarriet Barber (1968–2014; aged 46), English figurative painter.", "Harriet Barber (1968–2014; aged 46), English figurative painter.\nJudi Bari (1949–1997; aged 47), American environmentalist and labor leader.\nLisa A. Barnett (1958–2006; aged 47), American science fiction writer and editor. She died from breast cancer and a brain tumour.\nAlexandra Bastedo (1946–2014; aged 67), British model and actress.\nJeanne Bates (1918–2007; aged 89), American film, radio and television actress.\nSally Belfrage (1936–1994; aged 57), American-born British author and journalist.", "Sally Belfrage (1936–1994; aged 57), American-born British author and journalist.\nRajae Belmlih (1962–2007; aged 45), Moroccan-Emirati singer.\nValérie Benguigui (1961–2013; aged 47), French actress and theater director.\nCaroline Benn (1926–2000; aged 74), American-born British educationalist and writer.\nIngrid Bergman (1915–1982; aged 67), Academy Award-winning Swedish film and stage actress.\nDame Patricia Bergquist (1933–2009; aged 76), New Zealand zoologist and taxonomist.", "Dame Patricia Bergquist (1933–2009; aged 76), New Zealand zoologist and taxonomist.\nSonja, Countess Bernadotte af Wisborg (1944–2008; aged 64), second wife of Count Lennart Bernadotte.\nJuliet Berto (1947–1990; aged 42), French actress, director and screenwriter.\nBetty Berzon (1928–2006; aged 78), American psychotherapist and lesbian activist.\nBibi Besch (1942–1996; aged 54), Austrian-American actress.\nAudrey Best (1960–2011; aged 50), Montreal-based French lawyer and second wife of Lucien Bouchard.", "Audrey Best (1960–2011; aged 50), Montreal-based French lawyer and second wife of Lucien Bouchard.\nRose Bird (1936–1999; aged 63), first female Chief Justice of California.\nRachel Bissex (1956–2005; aged 48), American folk singer-songwriter.\nHelen Blackwood, Baroness Dufferin and Claneboye (1807–1867; aged 60), British songwriter, composer, poet and author. \nPatricia Blair (1933–2013; aged 80), American film and television actress.", "Patricia Blair (1933–2013; aged 80), American film and television actress.\nRachael Bland (1978–2018; aged 40), Welsh journalist and podcast presenter (You, Me and the Big C).\nYelena Bondarchuk (1962–2009; aged 47), Soviet and Russian actress.\nAlison Booker (1963–2010; aged 47), English radio broadcaster.\nBimba Bosé (1975–2017; aged 41), Italian-born Spanish model, designer, singer and actress.\nYvonne Brill (1924–2013; aged 88), Canadian-American aerospace engineer.", "Yvonne Brill (1924–2013; aged 88), Canadian-American aerospace engineer.\nCoral Browne (1913–1991; aged 77), Australian-born American actress.\nCoosje van Bruggen (1942–2009; aged 66), Dutch-American sculptor, art historian and critic.\nHeidi Brühl (1942–1991; aged 49), German actress.\nMichelle Brunner (1953–2011; aged 57), British bridge player, writer and teacher.\nChristine Buckley (1946/1947–2014; aged 66–67), Irish activist and campaigner.", "Christine Buckley (1946/1947–2014; aged 66–67), Irish activist and campaigner.\nMary-Ellis Bunim (1946–2004; aged 57), American film and television producer.\nAnna Bunina (1774–1829; aged 55), Russian poet and writer.\nHelen Callaghan (1923–1992; aged 69), Canadian-born left-handed center fielder who played in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League for five seasons in the 1940s.\nBlanche Calloway (1902–1978; aged 76), American jazz singer, composer and bandleader.", "Blanche Calloway (1902–1978; aged 76), American jazz singer, composer and bandleader.\nAnita Carey (1948–2023; aged 75), English actress (Coronation Street, Doctors).\nPhyliss Carr (1939–2006; aged 66), American singer (The Quin-Tones).\nRachel Carson (1907–1964; aged 56), American environmental activist and author of Silent Spring.\nYvonne Carter (1959–2009; aged 50), British general practitioner and academician.\nRose Chan (1925–1987; aged 62), Chinese-born Malaysian exotic dancer.", "Rose Chan (1925–1987; aged 62), Chinese-born Malaysian exotic dancer.\nDebra Chasnoff (1957–2017; aged 60), American documentary filmmaker (Deadly Deception: General Electric, Nuclear Weapons and Our Environment).\nDorothy Cheney (1950–2018; aged 58), American scientist.\nSusan Chilcott (1963–2003; aged 40), English soprano.\nA. V. Christie (1963–2016; aged 53), American poet.\nDoris Coley (1941–2000; aged 58), American singer (The Shirelles).", "Doris Coley (1941–2000; aged 58), American singer (The Shirelles).\nJackie Collins (1937–2015; aged 77), British-American romance novelist and actress.\nCarol Connor (1950–2004: aged 54), American Judge\nJoan Riddell Cook (1922–1995; aged 73), American journalist and labor activist and founder of J.A.W.S. (Journalism and Women Symposium).\nSara Coward (1948–2017; aged 69), English actress and writer.\nYvonne Craig (1937–2015; aged 78), American actress and dancer.", "Yvonne Craig (1937–2015; aged 78), American actress and dancer.\nNorma Crane (1928–1973; aged 44), American stage, film and television actress.\nLinda Creed (1948–1986; aged 37), American songwriter and lyricist.\nCandy Csencsits (1955–1989; aged 33), American athlete and bodybuilder.\nCharlotte Cushman (1816–1876; aged 59), American stage actress.\nVirgilia D'Andrea (1888–1933; aged 45), Italian political activist and poet.\nMaggie Daley (1943–2011; aged 68), First Lady of Chicago.", "Maggie Daley (1943–2011; aged 68), First Lady of Chicago.\nFaye Dancer (1925–2002; aged 77), American baseball player.\nTamara Danz (1952–1996; aged 43), German lyricist and singer.\nJulia Darling (1956–2005; aged 48), English novelist, poet and dramatist.\nDella Davidson (1952–2012; aged 60), American modern dancer, choreographer and dance professor.\nJanet Davies (1927–1986; aged 59), English actress (Dad's Army).\nBette Davis (1908–1989; aged 81), American Academy Award-winning actress.", "Bette Davis (1908–1989; aged 81), American Academy Award-winning actress.\nJo Ann Davis (1950–2007; aged 57), American politician.\nPriscilla Davis (1942–2001; aged 59), American socialite.\nMartina Davis-Correia (1967–2011; aged 44), American civil rights and anti-capital punishment activist.\nLinda Day (1938–2009; aged 71), American television director.\nSandra Deal (1942–2022; aged 80), American education advocate and First Lady of Georgia (2011–2019).", "Shelagh Delaney (1938–2011; aged 72), English dramatist and screenwriter.\nWilley Glover Denis (1879–1929; aged 49), American biochemist and physiologist.\nThérèse DePrez (1965–2017; aged 52), American production designer.\nLhasa de Sela (1972–2010; aged 37), Mexican-American-Canadian singer-songwriter.\nAntoinette-Thérèse Des Houlières (1659–1718; aged 59), French poet. \nAntoinette du Ligier de la Garde Deshoulières (1638–1694; aged 56), French poet.", "Antoinette du Ligier de la Garde Deshoulières (1638–1694; aged 56), French poet.\nLydia de Vega (1964–2022; aged 57), Filipino Olympic athlete.\nHelen Dewar (1936–2006; aged 70), American journalist and news reporter.\nMarilou Diaz-Abaya (1955–2012; aged 57), Filipino award-winning film director.\nGail Dolgin (1945–2010; aged 65), American documentary filmmaker.\nAnna Donald (1966–2009; aged 42), Australian physician, epidemiologist, and medical researcher, journalist and blogger.", "Sister Dora (1832–1878; aged 46), English nun and nurse.\nSarah Dorsey (1829–1879; aged 50), American novelist and historian.\nRegina Dourado (1952–2012; aged 59), Brazilian film and television actress.\nSiobhan Dowd (1960–2007; aged 47), British children's writer and activist.\nShirley Graham Du Bois (1896–1977; aged 80), American author, playwright, composer, activist and wife of W.E.B. DuBois.\nPeggy Duff (1910–1981; aged 71), British political activist and organiser of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.", "Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon (1863–1935; aged 71), London-born Canadian fashion designer.\nCarmen Duncan (1942–2019; aged 76), Australian actress and activist.\nJoan Eardley (1921–1963; aged 42), Scottish artist.\nElizabeth Edwards (1949–2010; aged 61), American lawyer, author, health care activist and wife of U.S. Senator from North Carolina John Edwards.\nBarbara Ehrenreich (1941–2022; aged 81), American author, political activist and ethicist.", "Barbara Ehrenreich (1941–2022; aged 81), American author, political activist and ethicist.\nEva Ekvall (1983–2011; aged 28), Venezuelan television newsreader, author and former Miss Venezuela.\nJulie Ege (1943–2008; aged 64), Norwegian actress and model.\nLorraine Elliott (1943–2014; aged 70), Australian politician.\nBelinda Emmett (1974–2006; aged 32), Australian actress and singer.\nMiriam Engelberg (1958–2006; aged 48), San Francisco, California-based graphic writer and blogger.", "Miriam Engelberg (1958–2006; aged 48), San Francisco, California-based graphic writer and blogger.\n Andrea Evans (1957–2023; aged 66), American actress and producer (One Life to Live).\nMargaret Ewing (1945–2006; aged 60), Scottish politician, journalist and teacher.\nJudith Exner (1934–1999; aged 65), American author.\nOriana Fallaci (1929–2006; aged 77), Italian writer and journalist.\nSally Farmiloe (1948–2014; aged 66), South Africa-born British actress.", "Sally Farmiloe (1948–2014; aged 66), South Africa-born British actress.\nHeather Farr (1965–1993; aged 28), American LPGA Tour professional golfer.\nSandra Feldman (1939–2005; aged 65), former President of the American Federation of Teachers.\nKathleen Ferrier (1912–1953; aged 41), British contralto singer.\nKristina Fetters (1980–2014; aged 34), American convicted murderer.\nHarriet Fier (1950–2018; aged 67), American magazine editor.", "Harriet Fier (1950–2018; aged 67), American magazine editor.\nSaint Lucy Filippini (1672–1732; aged 69), Italian Catholic nun and educator.\nPegeen Fitzgerald (1904–1989; aged 84), American radio personality. \nLesley Fitz-Simons (1961–2013; aged 51), Scottish actress.\nKaci Kullmann Five (1951–2017; aged 65), Norwegian politician.\nJean B. Fletcher (1915–1965; aged 50), American architect.\nKaren Wynn Fonstad (1945–2005; aged 59), American cartographer and academic.", "Karen Wynn Fonstad (1945–2005; aged 59), American cartographer and academic.\nChar Fontane (1952–2007; aged 55), American actress and singer.\nLona Foote (1951–1993; aged 42), American photographer.\nMary Lou Forbes (1926–2009; aged 83), American journalist and commentator.\nSyvilla Fort (1917–1975; aged 58), American dancer, choreographer and dance teacher.\nLacey Fosburgh (1942–1993; aged 50), American journalist and author.\nKaren Fraction (1958–2007; aged 49), American actress, dancer and model.", "Karen Fraction (1958–2007; aged 49), American actress, dancer and model.\nKay Francis (1905–1968; aged 63), American film and stage actress.\nMargaret Frazer (1946–2013; aged 66), American historical novelist.\nMarti Friedlander (1928–2016; aged 88), British-New Zealand photographer.\nGeorgia Frontiere (1927–2008; aged 80), American businesswoman and entertainer.\nLoie Fuller (1862–1928; aged 65), French-based American dancer and choreographer.\nMargaret Furse (1911–1974; aged 63), British costumer.", "Margaret Furse (1911–1974; aged 63), British costumer.\nIrina Gabashvili (1960–2009; aged 48), Georgian-born Soviet gymnast.\nBea Gaddy (1933–2001; aged 68), American politician.\nHelen Gahagan Douglas (1900–1980; aged 79), American actress and politician.\nJane Garrett (1973–2022; aged 49), Australian politician.\nSophie Germain (1776–1831; aged 55), French mathematician.\nRebekah Gibbs (1973–2014; aged 41), English actress.\nMargaret Gibson (1948–2006; aged 57), Canadian novelist and short story writer.", "Margaret Gibson (1948–2006; aged 57), Canadian novelist and short story writer.\nLouan Gideon (1955–2014; aged 58), American actress and musician.\nMarie-Suzanne Giroust (1734–1772; aged 38), French painter. \nBarbara Gittings (1932–2007; aged 74), American LGBT rights activist.\nJacqueline Gold (1960–2023; aged 62), English businesswoman and Chief Executive Officer of Ann Summers.\nKathi Kamen Goldmark (1948–2012; aged 63), American author, columnist, publishing consultant and music producer.", "Arlene Gottfried (1950–2017; aged 66), American photographer. \nKate Greenaway (1846–1901; aged 55), English Victorian illustrator and artist. \nVanessa Greene (1954–2017; aged 63), British-American television producer and screenwriter. \nLady Augusta Gregory (1852–1932; aged 80), Irish nationalist writer and landowner.\nNanci Griffith (1953–2021; aged 68), American singer-songwriter and guitarist.\nLinda Griffiths (1953–2014; aged 57), Canadian actress and playwright.", "Linda Griffiths (1953–2014; aged 57), Canadian actress and playwright. \nAnne Grommerch (1970–2016; aged 45), French politician. \nAlvaleta Guess (1955–1996; aged 40), American actress and singer. \nSunny Hale (1968–2017; aged 48), American polo player. \nAlaina Reed Hall (1946–2009; aged 63), American actress. \nBeverly Hall (1946–2015; aged 68), American educator. \nPia Hallström (1961–2016; aged 55), Swedish politician, MP for Värmland (2010–2016).", "Pia Hallström (1961–2016; aged 55), Swedish politician, MP for Värmland (2010–2016). \nFlorence Halop (1923–1986; aged 63), American comedian and actress. Died from breast and lung cancer.\nFannie Lou Hamer (1917–1977; aged 59), American civil rights and anti-segregation activist.\nKipp Hamilton (1934–1981; aged 45), American actress.\nVirginia Hamilton (1936–2002; aged 67), American novelist and children's book author.\nShelley Hamlin (1949–2018; aged 69), American professional golfer.", "Shelley Hamlin (1949–2018; aged 69), American professional golfer.\nEmma Hannigan (1972–2018; aged 45), Irish author and blogger.\nSarah Harding (1981–2021; aged 39), English singer, model and actress (Girls Aloud, Popstars: The Rivals, Coronation Street).\nPatricia Roberts Harris (1924–1985; aged 60), American politician, diplomat and first African-American U.S. Cabinet Secretary.\nCathy Harvin (1953–2010; aged 56), American politician.\nSara Henderson (1936–2005; aged 68), Australian author and pastoralist.", "Sara Henderson (1936–2005; aged 68), Australian author and pastoralist.\nÁngela Hernández (1990–2022; aged 31), Colombian politician, lawyer and journalist.\nDorothy Hewett (1923–2002; aged 79), Australian writer, poet and playwright.\nRegine Hildebrandt (1941–2001; aged 60), German biologist and politician.\nJacqueline Hill (1929–1993; aged 63), British actress (Doctor Who).\nSylvia Hitchcock (1946–2015; aged 69), American model, beauty queen and Miss USA and Miss Universe 1967.", "Klara Pölzl Hitler (1860–1907; aged 47), Austrian mother of Adolf Hitler.\nNina Hoekman (1964–2014; aged 49), Ukrainian-born Dutch draughts player and coach.\nAnita Hoffman (1942–1998; aged 56), American writer, Yippie activist and prankster.\nJudy Holliday (1921–1965; aged 43), American actress, singer and comedian.\nShirley Horn (1934–2005; aged 71), American jazz singer. She had also been battling diabetes and arthritis.", "Mary Sue Hubbard (1931–2002; aged 71), American businesswoman, religious figure and third wife of L. Ron Hubbard, founder of Dianetics.\nFaith Hubley (1924–2001; aged 77), American artist and animator.\nKarina Huff (1961–2016; aged 55), British actress, showgirl and television personality (The House of Clocks, Time for Loving, Voices from Beyond).\nDiana Hyland (1936–1977; aged 41), American stage, film and television actress.\nTrina Schart Hyman (1939–2004; aged 65), American children's book illustrator.", "Trina Schart Hyman (1939–2004; aged 65), American children's book illustrator.\nJill Ireland (1936–1990; aged 54), English actress and singer.\nMolly Ivins (1944–2007; aged 62), American journalist, author and newspaper columnist.\nTiffany Jackson (1985–2022; aged 37), American basketball player.\nAlice James (1848–1892; aged 43), American diarist.\nRita Henley Jensen (1947–2017; aged 70), American journalist and founder of Women's eNews.", "Rita Henley Jensen (1947–2017; aged 70), American journalist and founder of Women's eNews.\nJocelyne Jocya (1942–2003; aged 61), French singer-songwriter and children's rights advocate.\nE. Pauline Johnson (1861–1913; aged 51), Canadian poet and orator.\nPuma Jones (1953–1990; aged 36), American singer (Black Uhuru).\nVivien Jones (1951–2010; aged 59), British award-winning professional lacrosse player and physical education teacher.", "June Jordan (1936–2002; aged 62), American academic, educator, poet, essayist and author.\nHelen Kane (1904–1966; aged 62), American actress and singer.\nTzeni Karezi (1934–1992; aged 58), Greek actress.\nKaori Kawamura (1971–2009; aged 38), Soviet-born Japanese pop singer.\nChristine Kay (1964–2019; aged 54), American journalist and editor.\nNikhat Kazmi (1958/1959–2012; aged 53), Indian writer and film critic.\nHelen Keane (1923–1996; aged 73), American music producer and manager.", "Helen Keane (1923–1996; aged 73), American music producer and manager.\nCaron Keating (1962–2004; aged 41), Northern Irish television presenter.\nJune Keithley (1947–2013; aged 66), Filipino actress, journalist and activist.\nDorothea Kent (1916–1990; aged 74), American film actress.\nMargaret Kilgallen (1967–2001; aged 33), American artist.\nAngela King (1938–2007; aged 68), Jamaican diplomat.", "Angela King (1938–2007; aged 68), Jamaican diplomat.\nKat Kinkade (1930–2008; aged 77), a founder of the Twin Oaks experimental utopian community near Charlottesville, Virginia.\nAnne Kirkbride (1954–2015; aged 60), English actress (Coronation Street).\nJudy Lee Klemesrud (1939–1985; aged 46), American journalist (The New York Times).\nMao Kobayashi (1982–2017; aged 34), Japanese actress and television presenter.\nSusan G. Komen (1943–1980; aged 36), American breast cancer activist.", "Susan G. Komen (1943–1980; aged 36), American breast cancer activist.\nSylva Koscina (1933–1994; aged 61), Yugoslav-born Italian actress.\nLynne Kosky (1958–2014; aged 56), Australian politician.\nKris Kovick (1951–2001; aged 50), American writer, cartoonist and LGBT rights activist.\nGabriela Kownacka (1952–2010; aged 58), Polish film and television actress.\nIrene Kral (1932–1978; aged 46), American jazz singer.\nRose Kushner (1929–1990; aged 60), American journalist and advocate for breast cancer patients.", "Rose Kushner (1929–1990; aged 60), American journalist and advocate for breast cancer patients.\nJewel Lafontant (1922–1997; aged 75), American politician and activist.\nJoy Langan (1943–2009; aged 66), Canadian politician and writer.\nJoi Lansing (1929–1972; aged 43), American actress and model.\nJennifer Lash (1938–1993; aged 55); English novelist and painter.\nPeg Lautenschlager (1955–2018; aged 62), American attorney, politician and activist.\nFrances Lear (1923–1996; aged 73), Lear magazine publisher.", "Frances Lear (1923–1996; aged 73), Lear magazine publisher.\nViolette Leduc (1907–1972; aged 65), French novelist and memoirist.\nAnna Maria Lenngren (1754–1817; aged 62), Swedish feminist writer and poet.\nÉlisabeth Leseur (1866–1914; aged 47), French mystic and spiritual diarist.\nAndrea Levy (1956–2019; aged 62), English novelist (Small Island, The Long Song)\nLorraine Hunt Lieberson (1954–2006; aged 52), American mezzo-soprano. Her younger sister, Alexis, also died from breast cancer in 2000.", "Sacheen Littlefeather (1946–2022; aged 75), American model who attained notoriety when she delivered Marlon Brando's Oscar rejection speech in 1973.\nLaura Liu (1966–2016; aged 49), American judge.\nMarilyn Lloyd (1929–2018; aged 89), American politician and businesswoman.\nMegan Lloyd George (1902–1966; aged 64), Welsh politician and daughter of Prime Minister David Lloyd George.\nSondra Locke (1944–2018; aged 74), American actress and director. She died from cardiac arrest related to breast and bone cancers.", "Barbara Loden (1932–1980; aged 48), American actress, model and theatre director.\nVictoria Longley (1960–2010; aged 49), Australian actress.\nAudre Lorde (1934–1992; aged 58), American writer and activist.\nJuliette Gordon Low (1860–1927; aged 67), American founder of Girl Scouts of the USA.\nCynthia Lufkin (1962–2013; aged 51), American philanthropist, cancer research advocate and co-chairman of The Breast Cancer Research Foundation.", "Catherine Mackin (1939–1982; aged 43), American television journalist and news correspondent.\nGlenda MacQueen (1965–2020; aged 55), Canadian medical researcher and medical college professor at the University of Calgary.\nSarah Maguire (1957–2017; aged 60), English poet, broadcaster and translator.\nRuth Maleczech (1939–2013; aged 74), American avant-garde stage actress. She died from breast cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.", "Zoleka Mandela (1980–2023; aged 43), South African writer; she was treated for breast cancer in 2011, which returned in 2016.\nLinda Kay Manns (1965–2008; aged 43), American model and businesswoman.\nAgnes Mary Mansour (1931–2004; aged 73), American biochemist and former Catholic nun.\nMaja Maranow (1961–2016; aged 54), German actress.\nVera Maretskaya (1906–1978; aged 72), Soviet and Russian actress and gourmand.\nMichele Marsh (1954–2017; aged 63), American television journalist and news anchor.", "Michele Marsh (1954–2017; aged 63), American television journalist and news anchor.\nMarie-Azélie Guérin Martin (1831–1877; aged 45), French laywoman and mother of St Thérèse de Lisieux.\nShirley Ardell Mason (1923–1998; aged 75), American artist and art teacher.\nHelene Mayer (1910–1953; aged 42), German world champion Olympic fencer. \nLinda McCartney (1941–1998; aged 56), American singer, animal rights activist and first wife of Sir Paul McCartney.", "Helen McCrory (1968–2021; aged 52), English actress (Peaky Blinders, Harry Potter, Skyfall, The Queen, Doctor Who).\nHattie McDaniel (1893–1952; aged 57), Academy Award-winning American actress and 1st African-American to win an Academy Award.\nWilliam McGhee (1930–2007; aged 76), American actor. He also suffered from colon and prostate cancer throughout his life.\nOlga A. Méndez (1925–2009; aged 82), American politician.\nDame Helen Metcalf (1946–2003; aged 57), British educator, academic and politician.", "Dame Helen Metcalf (1946–2003; aged 57), British educator, academic and politician.\nSylvia Millecam (1956–2001; aged 45), Dutch actress and comedian.\nMaryam Mirzakhani (1977–2017; aged 40), Iranian mathematician and academic.\nYūko Mizutani (1964–2016; aged 51), Japanese actress, voice artist, narrator and singer.\nMary Ann Mobley (1937–2014; aged 77), American actress, television personality and Miss America (1959).\nKathryn Morrison (1942–2013; aged 71), American politician.", "Kathryn Morrison (1942–2013; aged 71), American politician.\nKaren Montgomery (1949–2015; aged 66), American actress and film producer.\nCharlotte Moorman (1933–1991; aged 57), American cellist and performance artist.\nClaire Morissette (1950–2007; aged 57), Quebec-based Canadian activist and cycling advocate.\nJean Muir (1928–1995; aged 66), English fashion designer.\nKaren Muir (1952–2013; aged 60), South African competitive swimmer.\nJoan Patricia Murphy (1936/1937–2016; aged 79), American politician.", "Joan Patricia Murphy (1936/1937–2016; aged 79), American politician.\nSue Napier (1948–2010; aged 62), Australian politician and first female Leader of the Tasmanian Opposition Party.\nMelissa Nathan (1968–2006; aged 37), British novelist and journalist.\nPhyllis Nelson (1950–1998; aged 47), American singer (\"Move Closer\").\nDame Olivia Newton-John (1948–2022; aged 73), British-Australian actress, singer and activist (Grease, \"Physical\").", "John W. Nick (1933–1991; aged 58), American male breast cancer patient and activist in whose name The John W. Nick Foundation was established.\nJerri Nielsen (1952–2009; aged 57), American physician who famously biopsied and treated herself for breast cancer in Antarctica.\nMarni Nixon (1930–2016; aged 86), American ghost singer, soprano, voice artist and actress.\nBernie Nolan (1960–2013; aged 52), Irish singer, actress and television personality (The Nolans).", "Bernie Nolan (1960–2013; aged 52), Irish singer, actress and television personality (The Nolans).\nMeyera Oberndorf (1941–2015; aged 74), American politician and 23rd Mayor of Virginia Beach, Virginia (1988–2008).\nEileen O'Connell (1947–2000; aged 53), Nova Scotian politician.\nAi Ogawa (1947–2010; aged 62), National Book Award-winning American poet, writer and educator.\nSiobhán O'Hanlon (1963–2006; aged 43), Northern Irish Sinn Féin official and former PIRA member.", "Siobhán O'Hanlon (1963–2006; aged 43), Northern Irish Sinn Féin official and former PIRA member.\nGayle Olinekova (1953–2003; aged 50), Canadian marathon runner and bodybuilder.\nJenny Olsson (1979–2012; aged 32), Swedish cross-country skier.\nSusan Ople (1962–2023; aged 61), Filipina politician and Overseas Filipino Workers' (OFW) rights advocate.\nKatherine O'Regan (1946–2018; aged 71), New Zealand politician and government minister.", "Katherine O'Regan (1946–2018; aged 71), New Zealand politician and government minister.\nLouise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, Duchess of Orléans (1753–1821; aged 68), French noblewoman.\nDeborah Orr (1962–2019; aged 57), Scottish journalist and author (The Guardian, The Independent).\nVikki Orvice (1962–2019; aged 56), British sports journalist.\nElizabeth Owens (1928–2005; aged 77), German-born American stage actress.\nGrace Paley (1922–2007; aged 84), American poet, writer and political activist.", "Grace Paley (1922–2007; aged 84), American poet, writer and political activist.\nPolixeni Papapetrou (1960–2018; aged 57), Australian photographer.\nSarah Parkinson (1962–2003; aged 41), British actress, writer and television and radio producer.\nLily Parr (1905–1978; aged 73), English professional women's football player.\nTatjana Patitz (1966–2023; aged 56), German supermodel and actress.\nEdith Pechey (1845–1908; aged 63), one of the first British female medical doctors and women's rights activist.", "Ellen Pence (1948–2012; aged 63), American sociologist and social activist against domestic violence.\nSusan Peretz (1940–2004; aged 64), American film and television actress.\nNancy M. Petry (1968–2018; aged 49), American psychologist.\nRuth Picardie (1964–1997; aged 33), English journalist and editor.\nHeather Pick (1970–2008; aged 38), American television news reporter and activist for breast cancer and juvenile diabetes awareness.", "Kelly Preston (1962–2020; aged 57), American actress, model and wife of actor John Travolta.\nKay Purcell (1963–2020; aged 57), English actress (Emmerdale, Waterloo Road, Tracy Beaker Returns). She died from breast and liver cancer as a result of metastasis.\nMona-Lisa Pursiainen (1951–2000; aged 49), Finnish female athlete and sprinter.\nBarbara Pym (1913–1980; aged 66), English novelist (Excellent Women, A Glass of Blessings).", "Barbara Pym (1913–1980; aged 66), English novelist (Excellent Women, A Glass of Blessings).\nDina Rabinovitch (1962–2007; aged 44), American-born British writer and journalist.\nIrma Rangel (1931–2003; aged 71), American politician. She died from inflammatory breast cancer.\nRaylene Rankin (1960–2012; aged 52), Canadian singer (The Rankin Family).\nElayne Rapping (1938–2016; aged 77), American critic, author and analyst of popular culture.", "Elayne Rapping (1938–2016; aged 77), American critic, author and analyst of popular culture.\nLynn Redgrave (1943–2010; aged 67), Golden Globe Award-winning English stage, film and television actress.\nSandra Reemer (1950–2017; aged 66), Indo-Dutch singer and television presenter.\nWendy Richard (1943–2009; aged 65), English actress (EastEnders, Are You Being Served?).\nMinnie Riperton (1947–1979; aged 31), American singer-songwriter and mother of actress Maya Rudolph.", "Cokie Roberts (1943–2019; aged 75), American journalist, author and television personality.\nToby Robins (1931–1986; aged 55), Canadian actress, television personality and journalist.\nRod Roddy (1937–2003; aged 66), American radio and television announcer. He also suffered from colon cancer throughout his life.\nAnn Marie Rogers (1952–2009; aged 57), British campaigner who won a landmark legal battle against the British NHS to allow people with cancer access to the drug Herceptin.", "Lorena Rojas (1971–2015; aged 44), Mexican actress and singer-songwriter.\nRoxie Roker (1929–1995; aged 66), American actress and mother of singer-songwriter Lenny Kravitz.\nKate Ross (1956–1998; aged 41), American lawyer and mystery writer.\nCarolyn Rovee-Collier (1942–2014; aged 72), American psychologist, academic and educator.\nRosalind Russell (1907–1976; aged 69), American actress, comedienne, screenwriter and singer (His Girl Friday).", "Caroline St John-Brooks (1947–2003; aged 56), Anglo-Irish journalist and academic.\nSandra Sakata (1940–1997; aged 57), American fashion designer and retailer.\nMay Sarton (1912–1995; aged 83), Belgian-American poet, novelist and memoirist.\nScreechy Peach (1959–2007; aged 47), American singer-songwriter.\nEve Kosofsky Sedgwick (1950–2009; aged 58), American academic scholar in gender studies and queer theory.\nIrene Mayer Selznick (1907–1990; aged 83), American socialite and theatrical producer.", "Irene Mayer Selznick (1907–1990; aged 83), American socialite and theatrical producer.\nElizabeth Seymour, Duchess of Somerset (1667–1722; aged 55), Mistress of the Robes to Anne, Queen of Great Britain.\nDame Daphne Sheldrick (1934–2018; aged 83), Kenyan-British author, conservationist and expert in animal husbandry.\nSusan Sheridan (1947–2015; aged 68), English actress and voice artist.\nCarol Shields (1935–2003; aged 68), American-born Canadian novelist and short story writer.", "Carol Shields (1935–2003; aged 68), American-born Canadian novelist and short story writer.\nYumiko Shige (1965–2018; aged 53), Japanese sailor.\nRochelle Lee Shoretz (1972–2015; aged 42), American civil servant and founder of Sharsheret.\nMarjorie Shostak (1945–1996; aged 51), American anthropologist.\nAnnarita Sidoti (1969–2015; aged 45), Italian race walker.\nHollis Sigler (1948–2001; aged 53), American artist and educator.", "Hollis Sigler (1948–2001; aged 53), American artist and educator.\nRicky Silberman (1937–2007; aged 69), American conservative activist who co-founded the Independent Women's Forum.\nMorag Siller (1969–2016; aged 46), Scottish actress, voice artist and radio personality.\nAnya Krugovoy Silver (1968–2018; aged 49), American poet.\nTara Simmons (1984–2019; aged 34), Australian musician.\nLucy Simon (1940–2022; aged 82), American singer and composer.", "Lucy Simon (1940–2022; aged 82), American singer and composer.\nSusan Raab Simonson (1969–2006; aged 37), American stage actress and theatre producer.\nNaomi Sims (1948–2009; aged 61), American model, businesswoman and author.\nIngrid Sischy (1952–2015; aged 63), South African-born American magazine editor and critic.\nAbigail Adams Smith (1765–1813; aged 48), daughter of Abigail and John Adams, 2nd President of the United States.\nKatarzyna Sobczyk (1945–2010; aged 65), Polish singer.", "Katarzyna Sobczyk (1945–2010; aged 65), Polish singer.\nSoraya (1969–2006; aged 37), Colombian-American singer-songwriter, guitarist, arranger and record producer.\nJo Spence (1934–1992; aged 58), British photographer and cultural worker.\nWendie Jo Sperber (1958–2005; aged 47), American actress (Back to the Future, I Wanna Hold Your Hand, Bachelor Party).\nDusty Springfield (1939–1999; aged 59), English singer (\"You Don't Have to Say You Love Me\", \"Son of a Preacher Man\")", "Srividya (1953–2006; aged 53), Indian actress.\nDeborah Lynn Steinberg (1961–2017; aged 55), American-British academic, author, educator and sociologist.\nHeather Stilwell (1944–2010; aged 66), Canadian politician who strongly opposed homosexuality, abortion and sex education.\nAthena Starwoman (1945–2004; aged 59), Australian astrologer, columnist for Vogue and Woman's Day, and television commentator.\nKaye Stevens (1932–2011; aged 79), American singer and actress (Days of Our Lives).", "Kaye Stevens (1932–2011; aged 79), American singer and actress (Days of Our Lives).\nNettie Stevens (1861–1912; aged 50), American geneticist who discovered sex chromosomes.\nPat Stevens (1945–2010; aged 64), American actress.\nLynne Stewart (1939–2017; aged 77), American lawyer and activist. She died from complications from breast cancer and a series of strokes.\nRose Pastor Stokes (1879–1933; aged 53), American writer, feminist and socialist.", "Rose Pastor Stokes (1879–1933; aged 53), American writer, feminist and socialist.\nMarie Stopes (1880–1958; aged 78), Scottish author, palaeobotanist and birth control advocate.\nSusan Strasberg (1938–1999; aged 60), American actress (The Diary of Anne Frank).\nMarcia Strassman (1948–2014; aged 66), American actress and singer.\nBarbara Strauch (1951–2015; aged 63), American author, reporter and newspaper editor.\nRell Kapolioka'ehukai Sunn (1950–1998; aged 47), American world surfing champion.", "Rell Kapolioka'ehukai Sunn (1950–1998; aged 47), American world surfing champion.\nJacqueline Susann (1918–1974; aged 56), American novelist and actress.\nDeborah Sussman (1931–2014; aged 83), American graphic designer and artist.\nMyfanwy Talog (1944–1995; aged 50), Welsh actress.\nYoshiko Tanaka (1956–2011; aged 55), Japanese actress and singer.\nJennie Faulding Taylor (1843–1904; aged 60), British Protestant missionary to China.\nMelanie Tem (1949–2015; aged 65), American horror and dark fantasy author.", "Melanie Tem (1949–2015; aged 65), American horror and dark fantasy author.\nEmpress Theodora (c. 500–548; aged 48), Empress of the Byzantine Empire and wife of Emperor Justinian I.\nBetty Thompson (1934–1994; aged 60), Canadian television personality and presenter.\nPenny Thomson (1950–2007; aged 56), Scottish stage and television director.\nJane Tomlinson (1964–2007; aged 43), English athlete and fundraiser for cancer charities.\nCarol Tomlinson-Keasey (1942–2009; aged 66), American psychologist and educator.", "Carol Tomlinson-Keasey (1942–2009; aged 66), American psychologist and educator.\nMargaret Tor-Thompson (1962–2007; aged 44), Liberian political activist and biblical scholar.\nReina Torres de Araúz (1932–1982; aged 49), Panamanian anthropologist, ethnographer and professor.\nMarietta Peabody Tree (1917–1991; aged 74), American socialite and political reporter.\nLouise Troy (1933–1994; aged 60), American stage and television actress.\nTatiana Troyanos (1938–1993; aged 54), American mezzo-soprano.", "Tatiana Troyanos (1938–1993; aged 54), American mezzo-soprano.\nHarriet Van Horne (1920–1998; aged 77), American newspaper columnist and television critic.\nDanitra Vance (1954–1994; aged 40), American actress and comedian.\nVivian Vance (1909–1979; aged 70), American actress and singer. She died from breast and bone cancer as a result of metastasis. \nAmelyn Veloso (1974–2017; aged 43), Filipino journalist and broadcaster.", "Amelyn Veloso (1974–2017; aged 43), Filipino journalist and broadcaster.\nVictoria, Princess Royal (1840–1901; aged 60), German Empress and Queen of Prussia by her marriage to Frederick III; eldest daughter of Queen Victoria and mother of Kaiser Wilhelm.\nElvie Villasanta (1928–2013; aged 85), Filipina actress and comedian.\nJanice E. Voss (1956–2012; aged 55), American engineer and NASA astronaut.\nMargaret Walker (1915–1998; aged 83), American poet, writer and academic.", "Margaret Walker (1915–1998; aged 83), American poet, writer and academic.\nTricia Walker (1964–2018; aged 53), British author.\nAmalie von Wallmoden, Countess of Yarmouth (1704–1765; aged 61), Principal Mistress of King George II of Great Britain.\nPat Ward (1957–2012; aged 55), American politician and Iowa State Senator (2004–2012).\nGeraldine Warrick-Crisman (1930–2007; aged 76), American television executive and former assistant New Jersey state treasurer.", "Angela Webber (1955–2007; aged 52), Australian writer and comedian.\nMary Ann Coady Weinand (1959–2007; aged 47), American psychiatrist.\nAndrea West (1952–2010; aged 57), Australian teacher and politician.\nAnne Wexler (1930–2009; aged 79), American lobbyist and political advisor.\nAnne Wiazemsky (1947–2017; aged 70), French actress and novelist. \nDorothy Wilde (1895–1941; aged 45), Anglo-Irish socialite and niece of Oscar Wilde.\nRebecca Wilson (1961–2016; aged 54), Australian sports journalist.", "Rebecca Wilson (1961–2016; aged 54), Australian sports journalist.\nThelma Wood (1901–1970; aged 69), American sculptor.\nGretchen Wyler (1932–2007; aged 75), American actress, singer and dancer.\nChen Xiaoxu (1965–2007; aged 41), Chinese actress and Buddhist nun.\nKim Yale (1953–1997; aged 43), American writer and editor for comic books.\nYao Beina (1981–2015; aged 33), Chinese singer-songwriter.\nKay Yow (1942–2009; aged 66), American basketball coach.", "Kay Yow (1942–2009; aged 66), American basketball coach.\nLaura Ziskin (1950–2011; aged 61), American film and television producer.\nJudith D. Zuk (1951–2007; aged 55), American conservationist, horticulturist and environmentalist.", "Death attributed to other causes", "Bella Abzug (1920–1998; aged 77), American lawyer, politician and women's movement leader", ". She had been battling breast cancer for a number of years before developing heart disease, which claimed her life; however, it was never publicly disclosed if the cancer had become advanced or metastasized, or what stage it was; called for grassroots action to stop the environmental pollution fuelling the cancer epidemic; refused to call herself a breast cancer survivor, saying, \"I'm a breast cancer fighter, and that's what we all must be if we are going to change things\".", "Kaye Ballard (1925–2019; aged 93), American actress, comedian and singer. She died from kidney cancer.\nFrances Bavier (1902–1989; aged 86), American stage and television actress. She died from congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis, with supporting factors being breast cancer, arthritis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.", "Erma Bombeck (1927–1996; aged 69), American columnist and author. She had breast cancer and was later diagnosed with adult polycystic kidney disease and died during a kidney transplant.\nEileen Brennan (1932–2013; aged 80), American actress. She survived breast cancer but was later diagnosed with bladder cancer.\nEdward Brooke (1919–2015; aged 95), American politician who represented Massachusetts in the United States Senate (1967–1979). He died from natural causes.", "Frances Burney (1752–1840; aged 88), English novelist, diarist and playwright. She survived breast cancer.\nJulia Child (1912–2004; aged 91), American cooking teacher, author, television personality and World War II intelligence agent. She survived breast cancer and died from natural causes.\nLili Chookasian (1921–2012; aged 90), Armenian-American contralto. She survived breast cancer twice during her lifetime. She died from natural causes 50 years later.", "Melanie Clark Pullen (1975–2022; aged 46), Irish actress, film producer and writer (EastEnders). She was diagnosed with breast cancer in January 2019, however was given the all-clear in early 2020. She later died from a brain tumour, however it is unclear whether the cancer that claimed her life was the one with which she was originally diagnosed.\nFlick Colby (1946–2011; aged 65), American dancer, choreographer and founder member of Pan's People. She died from bronchopneumonia.", "Nellie Connally (1919–2006; aged 87), First Lady of Texas as the wife of the 39th Governor of Texas John Connally (1963–1969). She survived breast cancer and died from natural causes.\nLinda Cook (1948–2012; aged 63), American actress. She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1992, and later died from undisclosed causes.\nRuby Dee (1922–2014; aged 91), American stage, film and television actress. She survived breast cancer and later died from natural causes.", "Delia Derbyshire (1937–2001; aged 64), English pianist and composer of electronic music. She died from kidney failure while recovering from surgery.\nDiana Douglas (1923–2015; aged 92), American actress, first wife of actor Kirk Douglas and mother of Michael and Joel Douglas. She survived breast cancer, but later died from an unspecified cancer.", "Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (1900–2002; aged 101), British Queen Consort of King George VI and mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She survived both breast and colon cancer, roughly two decades apart, although both were kept secret during her lifetime. The cancer incidences did not become public knowledge until an official biography was published in 2009, seven years after her death from natural causes.", "Betty Ford (1918–2011; aged 93), First Lady of the United States as the wife of 38th President Gerald Ford (1974–1977). She survived breast cancer and later died from a stroke.\nWenche Foss (1917–2011; aged 93), Norwegian actress. She survived breast cancer.\nFrance Gall (1947–2018; aged 70), French yé-yé singer and winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 1965. She died from an infection complicated by cancer of an undisclosed nature.", "Greta Garbo (1905–1990; aged 84), Swedish-American actress. She apparently survived breast cancer following a double mastectomy. Her causes of death per one of her biographies were stomach and kidney failure and pneumonia.\nPaulette Goddard (1910–1990; aged 79), American actress. She apparently survived breast cancer, but later died at her villa in Porto Ronco, Switzerland from heart failure under respiratory support due to emphysema.", "Rosalie Gower (1931–2013; aged 82), Canadian nurse, civil servant and city councillor. She survived breast cancer, but later died from a stroke.\nRuth Handler (1916–2002; aged 85), American businesswoman and creator of Barbie and Nearly Me prosthetics. She survived breast cancer in the 1970s, but later died following colon cancer surgery.\nJulie Harris (1925–2013; aged 87), Emmy and Tony Award-winning American actress. She survived breast cancer, but later died from heart failure following several strokes.", "Alma Reville, Lady Hitchcock (1899–1982; aged 82), English-American film director, editor, screenwriter and wife of Sir Alfred Hitchcock. She survived breast cancer and later died from natural causes.\nConnie Johnson (1977–2017; aged 40), Australian philanthropist. She suffered from bone cancer at age 11, uterine cancer at age 22, and finally breast cancer at age 33. She died from liver cancer at age 40.", "Jennifer Jones (1919–2009; aged 90), Academy Award-winning American film actress. She survived breast cancer and later died from natural causes.\nCarolyn Kaelin (1961–2015; aged 54), American physician, surgeon and breast cancer researcher. She survived breast cancer that was first diagnosed in 2003, and later died from a glioblastoma multiforme brain tumor.", "Vera Katz (1933–2017; aged 84), American politician, first female Speaker of the Oregon House of Representatives, and 45th Mayor of Portland, Oregon. She was later diagnosed with adenosarcoma, and died from leukemia.\nJean Keene (1923–2009; aged 85), American activist and rodeo trick rider. She underwent a mastectomy in 1994 and was labelled as a \"breast cancer survivor\". She later died from undisclosed causes.", "Kathy Keeton (1939–1997; aged 58), South African-born American Penthouse magazine publisher and wife of fellow publisher Bob Guccione. She died from complications during surgery on an intestinal obstruction after having first treated herself with hydrazine sulfate, reportedly reducing the size and number of tumors.\nEvelyn Lauder (1936–2011; aged 75), Austrian-American businesswoman, socialite, philanthropist and breast cancer awareness activist. She died from ovarian cancer.", "Nikolai Leskov (1831–1895; aged 64), Russian writer. He was diagnosed with male breast cancer as well as angina pectoris, asthma and other ailments, so it is impossible to know what role the cancer played as the deciding cause of death.\nShari Lewis (1933–1998; aged 65), American ventriloquist, puppeteer, entertainer and singer. She survived breast cancer, but later died from uterine cancer.", "Myrna Loy (1905–1993; aged 88), American film, stage and television actress. She had a double mastectomy, but died during surgery for undisclosed causes. \nArlene Martel (1936–2014; aged 78), American actress and dancer. Her primary cause of death was given as complications from coronary artery bypass surgery but she had also been battling breast cancer over the last five years of her life.", "Jan Maxwell (1956–2018; aged 61), Drama Desk Award-winning American actress and singer. She died from meningitis complicated by breast cancer.\nRue McClanahan (1934–2010; aged 76), Emmy Award-winning American actress (The Golden Girls, Mama's Family, Maude). She survived breast cancer, but later died from a stroke.", "Susannah McCorkle (1946–2001; aged 55), American jazz singer. She survived breast cancer but suffered for many years from clinical depression and committed suicide by jumping off the balcony of her apartment in Manhattan.\nJane McGrath (1966–2008; aged 42), Australian cancer support campaigner and wife of cricket champion Glenn McGrath. She was originally diagnosed with breast cancer, and later bone cancer (declared in remission). She later died from complications during brain tumor surgery.", "Soong Mei-ling (1898–2003; aged 105), Chinese political figure, painter and First Lady of the Republic of China as the wife of Generalissimo and President Chiang Kai-shek. She died from natural causes in New York City.\nCharlotte Mitchell (1926–2012; aged 85), English actress and poet. She died from pneumonia, after previously suffering from breast cancer and myeloma.", "Anna Moffo (1932–2006; aged 73), Italian-American singer and operatic soprano. She died from a stroke after battling with complications from breast cancer for a decade.\nShelley Morrison (1936–2019; aged 83), American film and television actress. She also had lung cancer.\nKitten Natividad (1948–2022; aged 74), Mexican pornographic actress and model. She reportedly died from kidney failure.", "Alla Nazimova (1879–1945; aged 66), Russian-born American stage and film actress. She survived breast cancer but died due to a coronary thrombosis.\nJocelyn Newman (1937–2018; aged 80), Australian barrister, solicitor, Senator for Tasmania and government minister. She survived both breast and uterine cancer, but later died from Alzheimer's disease.\nPhyllis Newman (1933–2019; aged 86), American actress and singer. She died from a lung disorder.", "Phyllis Newman (1933–2019; aged 86), American actress and singer. She died from a lung disorder.\nAnna Belle Clement O'Brien (1923–2009; aged 86), Tennessee politician who worked for legislation to benefit breast cancer patients following her own diagnosis in the 1980s. She later died from a fall.\nMinnie Pearl (1912–1996; aged 83), American Grand Ole Opry star, country comic, singer and philanthropist. She died from complications from a stroke.", "Claire Rayner (1931–2010; aged 79), English nurse, journalist and activist. She also suffered from Graves' disease. She never recovered from emergency intestinal surgery she received in May 2010, and died in hospital on October 11, 2010, aged 79.\nNancy Reagan (1921–2016; aged 94), First Lady of the United States as the wife of 40th President Ronald Reagan (1981–1989). She died from congestive heart failure.", "Rita Reys (1924–2013; aged 88), Dutch jazz singer who received the title of \"Europe's First Lady of Jazz\" at the 1960 French Jazz Festival of Juan-les-Pins. She died from a stroke.\nFiona Richardson (1966–2017; aged 50), Australian politician and officeholder. She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 2013 and went into remission and returned to Parliament. In 2017, she announced she had several tumours. It was unclear if the breast cancer recurred or if it was a different cancer.", "Happy Rockefeller (1926–2015; aged 88), American philanthropist, socialite and second wife of the 41st Vice President of the United States Nelson Rockefeller. She died following a short illness.\nDame Rosemary Rue (1928–2004; aged 76), British physician, civil servant and one-time regional general manager and medical officer of the Oxford Regional Health Authority. She died from bowel cancer.", "Jean Simmons (1929–2010; aged 80), British-American actress. She was treated successfully for breast cancer, but later died from lung cancer.", "Susan Sontag (1933–2004; aged 71), American author, philosopher and political activist. She was initially diagnosed with advanced or metastatic breast cancer, but she later died from leukemia traceable to the doses of radiotherapy and chemotherapy she had received decades earlier for her breast cancer. She was also diagnosed with a rare form of uterine cancer shortly before her death, which did not appear to contribute to her death.", "Gloria Stuart (1910–2010; aged 100), American actress, visual artist and activist (Titanic). She was successfully treated for breast cancer.\nHenny van Andel-Schipper (1890–2005; aged 115), Dutch supercentenarian who was the \"World's Oldest Person\" from May 29, 2004 until her death on August 30, 2005. She was successfully treated for breast cancer at the age of 100, 15 years before her death. She later died from an unrelated stomach cancer.", "Joan Sydney (1936–2022; aged 86), English-born Australian actress (Neighbours). She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 2015, alongside Alzheimer's disease, which eventually led to her death in 2022.", "Shirley Temple (1928–2014; aged 85), Academy Award-winning child actress, diplomat and former United States Ambassador to Ghana and Czechoslovakia. She is believed to have been the first well-known public figure to publicly announce her breast cancer diagnosis in 1973. She later died from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.", "Linda Tripp (1949–2020; aged 70), American former federal government employee who played a significant role in the impeachment proceedings against then 42nd President Bill Clinton following the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal in 1998. She later died from pancreatic cancer.\nLaura Valenzuela (1931–2023; aged 92), Spanish television presenter, actress and model (Televisión Española, Eurovision Song Contest 1969). After successfully being treated for breast cancer, she later died from Alzheimer's disease.", "Barbara Vucanovich (1921–2013; aged 91), American politician (R-NV), the first woman to represent Nevada in the United States House of Representatives (1983–1997). She later died from natural causes.", "Marcia Wallace (1942–2013; aged 70), American comedian and voice actress (The Bob Newhart Show, The Simpsons). She died from complications from pneumonia, according to her son, Michael Hawley, who stated his mother was cancer-free at the time of her death", ". Her long-time friend Cathryn Michon told Deadline Hollywood that Wallace \"passed at 9pm last night due to complications from breast cancer of which she was a long and proud survivor and advocate for women and healing\", according to The Mirror (UK); it is unclear which is more accurate.", "Linda Waterfall (1950–2019; aged 69), American singer-songwriter. Survived breast cancer but died from an undisclosed long illness.", "Mary Wickes (1910–1995; aged 85), American actress. She suffered from numerous ailments in the last years of her life, including kidney failure, massive gastrointestinal bleeding, severe hypotension and ischemic cardiomyopathy, with contributing causes listed as anemia and breast cancer. She was hospitalized due to respiratory problems at UCLA Medical Center, where she reportedly broke her hip after a fall, prompting surgery. She died from complications following that surgery.", "Mickey Wright (1935–2020; aged 85), American LPGA Tour professional golfer. She died from a heart attack.", "See also\nList of people with breast cancer\n\nReferences\n\nBreast cancer\n \n \nBreast cancer" ]

[ "Laurence Kerr Olivier, Baron Olivier, (; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989) was an English actor and director who, along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud, was one of a trio of male actors who dominated the British stage of the mid-20th century. He also worked in films throughout his career, playing more than fifty cinema roles. Late in his career he had considerable success in television roles.", "His family had no theatrical connections, but Olivier's father, a clergyman, decided that his son should become an actor. After attending a drama school in London, Olivier learned his craft in a succession of acting jobs during the late 1920s. In 1930 he had his first important West End success in Noël Coward's Private Lives, and he appeared in his first film", ". In 1935 he played in a celebrated production of Romeo and Juliet alongside Gielgud and Peggy Ashcroft, and by the end of the decade he was an established star. In the 1940s, together with Richardson and John Burrell, Olivier was the co-director of the Old Vic, building it into a highly respected company. There his most celebrated roles included Shakespeare's Richard III and Sophocles's Oedipus", ". There his most celebrated roles included Shakespeare's Richard III and Sophocles's Oedipus. In the 1950s Olivier was an independent actor-manager, but his stage career was in the doldrums until he joined the avant-garde English Stage Company in 1957 to play the title role in The Entertainer, a part he later played on film. From 1963 to 1973 he was the founding director of Britain's National Theatre, running a resident company that fostered many future stars", ". His own parts there included the title role in Othello (1965) and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice (1970).", "Among Olivier's films are Wuthering Heights (1939), Rebecca (1940), and a trilogy of Shakespeare films as actor/director: Henry V (1944), Hamlet (1948), and Richard III (1955). His later films included Spartacus (1960), The Shoes of the Fisherman (1968), Sleuth (1972), Marathon Man (1976), and The Boys from Brazil (1978)", ". His television appearances included an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence (1960), \"Long Day's Journey into Night\" (1973), Love Among the Ruins (1975), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1976), Brideshead Revisited (1981) and King Lear (1983).", "Olivier's honours included a knighthood (1947), a life peerage (1970), and the Order of Merit (1981). For his on-screen work he received two Academy Awards, two British Academy Film Awards, five Emmy Awards, and three Golden Globe Awards. The National Theatre's largest auditorium is named in his honour, and he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, given annually by the Society of London Theatre", ". He was married three times, to the actresses Jill Esmond from 1930 to 1940, Vivien Leigh from 1940 to 1960, and Joan Plowright from 1961 until his death.", "Life and career\n\n1907–1924: Early life and education", "Olivier was born in Dorking, Surrey, the youngest of the three children of Agnes Louise (née Crookenden) and Reverend Gerard Kerr Olivier. He had two older siblings: Sybille and Gerard Dacres \"Dickie\". His great-great-grandfather was of French Huguenot descent, and Olivier came from a long line of Protestant clergymen. Gerard Olivier had begun a career as a schoolmaster, but in his thirties he discovered a strong religious vocation and was ordained as a priest of the Church of England", ". He belonged to the high church, ritualist wing of Anglicanism and was known as \"Father Olivier\". Some Anglican congregations did not like this style, and the only church posts he was offered were temporary, usually deputising for regular incumbents in their absence. This meant a nomadic existence, and for Laurence's first few years, he never lived in one place long enough to make friends.", "In 1912, when Olivier was five, his father secured a permanent appointment as assistant rector at St Saviour's, Pimlico. He held the post for six years, and a stable family life was at last possible. Olivier was devoted to his mother, but not to his father, whom he found a cold and remote parent, though he learned a great deal of the art of performing from him. As a young man Gerard Olivier had considered a stage career and was a dramatic and effective preacher", ". Olivier wrote that his father knew \"when to drop the voice, when to bellow about the perils of hellfire, when to slip in a gag, when suddenly to wax sentimental ... The quick changes of mood and manner absorbed me, and I have never forgotten them.\"", "In 1916, after attending a series of preparatory schools, Olivier passed the singing examination for admission to the choir school of All Saints, Margaret Street, in central London. His elder brother was already a pupil and Olivier gradually settled in, though he felt himself to be something of an outsider. The church's style of worship was (and remains) Anglo-Catholic, with emphasis on ritual, vestments and incense", ". The theatricality of the services appealed to Olivier, and the vicar encouraged the students to develop a taste for secular as well as religious drama. In a school production of Julius Caesar in 1917, the ten-year-old Olivier's performance as Brutus impressed an audience that included Lady Tree, the young Sybil Thorndike, and Ellen Terry, who wrote in her diary, \"The small boy who played Brutus is already a great actor", ".\" He later won praise in other schoolboy productions, as Maria in Twelfth Night (1918) and Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew (1922).", "From All Saints, Olivier went on to St Edward's School, Oxford, from 1921 to 1924. He made little mark until his final year, when he played Puck in the school's production of A Midsummer Night's Dream; his performance was a tour de force that won him popularity among his fellow pupils. In January 1924, his brother left England to work in India as a rubber planter. Olivier missed him greatly and asked his father how soon he could follow", ". Olivier missed him greatly and asked his father how soon he could follow. He recalled in his memoirs that his father replied, \"Don't be such a fool, you're not going to India, you're going on the stage.\"", "1924–1929: Early acting career", "In 1924 Gerard Olivier, a habitually frugal man, told his son that he must gain not only admission to the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art, but also a scholarship with a bursary to cover his tuition fees and living expenses. Olivier's sister had been a student there and was a favourite of Elsie Fogerty, the founder and principal of the school. Olivier later speculated that it was on the strength of this connection that Fogerty agreed to award him the bursary.", "One of Olivier's contemporaries at the school was Peggy Ashcroft, who observed he was \"rather uncouth in that his sleeves were too short and his hair stood on end but he was intensely lively and great fun\". By his own admission he was not a very conscientious student, but Fogerty liked him and later said that he and Ashcroft stood out among her many pupils.", "After leaving the Central School in 1925, Olivier worked for small theatrical companies; his first stage appearance was in a sketch called The Unfailing Instinct at the Brighton Hippodrome in August 1925. Later that year, he was taken on by Sybil Thorndike (the daughter of a friend of Olivier's father) and her husband Lewis Casson as a bit-part player, understudy, and assistant stage manager for their London company", ". Olivier modelled his performing style on that of Gerald du Maurier, of whom he said, \"He seemed to mutter on stage but had such perfect technique. When I started I was so busy doing a du Maurier that no one ever heard a word I said. The Shakespearean actors one saw were terrible hams like Frank Benson.\" Olivier's concern with speaking naturally and avoiding what he called \"singing\" Shakespeare's verse was the cause of much frustration in his early career, as critics regularly decried his delivery.", "In 1926, on Thorndike's recommendation, Olivier joined the Birmingham Repertory Company. His biographer Michael Billington describes the Birmingham company as \"Olivier's university\", where in his second year he was given the chance to play a wide range of important roles, including Tony Lumpkin in She Stoops to Conquer, the title role in Uncle Vanya, and Parolles in All's Well That Ends Well", ". Billington adds that the engagement led to \"a lifelong friendship with his fellow actor Ralph Richardson that was to have a decisive effect on the British theatre.\"", "While playing the juvenile lead in Bird in Hand at the Royalty Theatre in June 1928, Olivier began a relationship with Jill Esmond, the daughter of the actors Henry V. Esmond and Eva Moore. Olivier later recounted that he thought \"she would most certainly do excellent well for a wife ... I wasn't likely to do any better at my age and with my undistinguished track-record, so I promptly fell in love with her.\"", "In 1928 Olivier created the role of Stanhope in R. C. Sherriff's Journey's End, in which he scored a great success at its single Sunday night premiere. He was offered the part in the West End production the following year, but turned it down in favour of the more glamorous role of Beau Geste in a stage adaptation of P. C. Wren's 1929 novel of the same name. Journey's End became a long-running success; Beau Geste failed. The Manchester Guardian commented, \"Mr", ". The Manchester Guardian commented, \"Mr. Laurence Olivier did his best as Beau, but he deserves and will get better parts. Mr. Olivier is going to make a big name for himself\". For the rest of 1929 Olivier appeared in seven plays, all of which were short-lived. Billington ascribes this failure rate to poor choices by Olivier rather than mere bad luck.", "1930–1935: Rising star", "In 1930, with his impending marriage in mind, Olivier earned some extra money with small roles in two films. In April he travelled to Berlin to film the English-language version of The Temporary Widow, a crime comedy with Lilian Harvey, and in May he spent four nights working on another comedy, Too Many Crooks. During work on the latter film, for which he was paid £60, he met Laurence Evans, who became his personal manager", ". Olivier did not enjoy working in film, which he dismissed as \"this anaemic little medium which could not stand great acting\", but financially it was much more rewarding than his theatre work.", "Olivier and Esmond married on 25 July 1930 at All Saints, Margaret Street, although within weeks both realised they had erred. Olivier later recorded that the marriage was \"a pretty crass mistake. I insisted on getting married from a pathetic mixture of religious and animal promptings. ... She had admitted to me that she was in love elsewhere and could never love me as completely as I would wish\"", ". Olivier later recounted that following the wedding he did not keep a diary for ten years and never followed religious practices again, although he considered those facts to be \"mere coincidence\", unconnected to the nuptials.", "In 1930 Noël Coward cast Olivier as Victor Prynne in his new play Private Lives, which opened at the new Phoenix Theatre in London in September. Coward and Gertrude Lawrence played the lead roles, Elyot Chase and Amanda Prynne. Victor is a secondary character, along with Sybil Chase; the author called them \"extra puppets, lightly wooden ninepins, only to be repeatedly knocked down and stood up again\"", ". To make them credible spouses for Amanda and Elyot, Coward was determined that two outstandingly attractive performers should play the parts. Olivier played Victor in the West End and then on Broadway; Adrianne Allen was Sybil in London, but could not go to New York, where the part was taken by Esmond. In addition to giving the 23-year-old Olivier his first successful West End role, Coward became something of a mentor. In the late 1960s Olivier told Sheridan Morley:", "In 1931 RKO Pictures offered Olivier a two-film contract at $1,000 a week; he discussed the possibility with Coward, who, irked, told Olivier \"You've no artistic integrity, that's your trouble; this is how you cheapen yourself.\" He accepted and moved to Hollywood, despite some misgivings", ".\" He accepted and moved to Hollywood, despite some misgivings. His first film was the drama Friends and Lovers, in a supporting role, before RKO loaned him to Fox Studios for his first film lead, a British journalist in a Russia under martial law in The Yellow Ticket, alongside Elissa Landi and Lionel Barrymore", ". The cultural historian Jeffrey Richards describes Olivier's look as an attempt by Fox Studios to produce a likeness of Ronald Colman, and Colman's moustache, voice and manner are \"perfectly reproduced\". Olivier returned to RKO to complete his contract with the 1932 drama Westward Passage, which was a commercial failure", ". Olivier's initial foray into American films had not provided the breakthrough he hoped for; disillusioned with Hollywood, he returned to London, where he appeared in two British films, Perfect Understanding with Gloria Swanson and No Funny Business—in which Esmond also appeared. He was tempted back to Hollywood in 1933 to appear opposite Greta Garbo in Queen Christina, but was replaced after two weeks of filming because of a lack of chemistry between the two.", "Olivier's stage roles in 1934 included Bothwell in Gordon Daviot's Queen of Scots, which was only a moderate success for him and for the play, but led to an important engagement for the same management (Bronson Albery) shortly afterwards. In the interim he had a great success playing a thinly disguised version of the American actor John Barrymore in George S. Kaufman and Edna Ferber's Theatre Royal", ". Kaufman and Edna Ferber's Theatre Royal. His success was vitiated by his breaking an ankle two months into the run, in one of the athletic, acrobatic stunts with which he liked to enliven his performances.", "In 1935, under Albery's management, John Gielgud staged Romeo and Juliet at the New Theatre, co-starring with Peggy Ashcroft, Edith Evans and Olivier. Gielgud had seen Olivier in Queen of Scots, spotted his potential, and gave him a major step up in his career. For the first weeks of the run Gielgud played Mercutio and Olivier played Romeo, after which they exchanged roles. The production broke all box-office records for the play, running for 189 performances", ". The production broke all box-office records for the play, running for 189 performances. Olivier was enraged at the notices after the first night, which praised the virility of his performance but fiercely criticised his speaking of Shakespeare's verse, contrasting it with his co-star's mastery of the poetry. The friendship between the two men was prickly, on Olivier's side, for the rest of his life.", "1936–1938: Old Vic and Vivien Leigh", "In May 1936 Olivier and Richardson jointly directed and starred in a new piece by J. B. Priestley, Bees on the Boatdeck. Both actors won excellent notices, but the play, an allegory of Britain's decay, did not attract the public and closed after four weeks. Later in the same year Olivier accepted an invitation to join the Old Vic company. The theatre, in an unfashionable location south of the Thames, had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912", ". Her drama company specialised in the plays of Shakespeare, and many leading actors had taken very large cuts in their pay to develop their Shakespearean techniques there. Gielgud had been in the company from 1929 to 1931 and Richardson from 1930 to 1932. Among the actors whom Olivier joined in late 1936 were Edith Evans, Ruth Gordon, Alec Guinness and Michael Redgrave", ". In January 1937 Olivier took the title role in an uncut version of Hamlet in which once again his delivery of the verse was unfavourably compared with that of Gielgud, who had played the role on the same stage seven years previously to enormous acclaim. The Observers Ivor Brown praised Olivier's \"magnetism and muscularity\" but missed \"the kind of pathos so richly established by Mr Gielgud\". The reviewer in The Times found the performance \"full of vitality\", but at times \"too light ..", ". The reviewer in The Times found the performance \"full of vitality\", but at times \"too light ... the character slips from Mr Olivier's grasp\".", "After Hamlet, the company presented Twelfth Night in what the director, Tyrone Guthrie, summed up as \"a baddish, immature production of mine, with Olivier outrageously amusing as Sir Toby and a very young Alec Guinness outrageous and more amusing as Sir Andrew\". Henry V was the next play, presented in May to mark the Coronation of George VI", ". Henry V was the next play, presented in May to mark the Coronation of George VI. A pacifist, as he then was, Olivier was as reluctant to play the warrior king as Guthrie was to direct the piece, but the production was a success and Baylis had to extend the run from four to eight weeks.", "Following Olivier's success in Shakespearean stage productions, he made his first foray into Shakespeare on film in 1936, as Orlando in As You Like It, directed by Paul Czinner, \"a charming if lightweight production\", according to Michael Brooke of the British Film Institute's (BFI's) Screenonline. The following year Olivier appeared alongside Vivien Leigh in the historical drama Fire Over England", ". He had first met Leigh briefly at the Savoy Grill and then again when she visited him during the run of Romeo and Juliet, probably early in 1936, and the two had begun an affair sometime that year. Of the relationship, Olivier later said that \"I couldn't help myself with Vivien. No man could. I hated myself for cheating on Jill, but then I had cheated before, but this was something different. This wasn't just out of lust. This was love that I really didn't ask for but was drawn into", ". This wasn't just out of lust. This was love that I really didn't ask for but was drawn into.\" While his relationship with Leigh continued he conducted an affair with the actress Ann Todd, and possibly had a brief affair with the actor Henry Ainley, according to the biographer Michael Munn.", "In June 1937 the Old Vic company took up an invitation to perform Hamlet in the courtyard of the castle at Elsinore, where Shakespeare located the play. Olivier secured the casting of Leigh to replace Cherry Cottrell as Ophelia", ". Olivier secured the casting of Leigh to replace Cherry Cottrell as Ophelia. Because of torrential rain the performance had to be moved from the castle courtyard to the ballroom of a local hotel, but the tradition of playing Hamlet at Elsinore was established, and Olivier was followed by, among others, Gielgud (1939), Redgrave (1950), Richard Burton (1954), Christopher Plummer (1964), Derek Jacobi (1979), Kenneth Branagh (1988) and Jude Law (2009)", ". Back in London, the company staged Macbeth, with Olivier in the title role. The stylised production by Michel Saint-Denis was not well liked, but Olivier had some good notices among the bad. On returning from Denmark, Olivier and Leigh told their respective spouses about the affair and that their marriages were over; Esmond moved out of the marital house and in with her mother", ". After Olivier and Leigh made a tour of Europe in mid-1937 they returned to separate film projects—A Yank at Oxford for her and The Divorce of Lady X for him—and moved into a property together in Iver, Buckinghamshire.", "Olivier returned to the Old Vic for a second season in 1938. For Othello he played Iago, with Richardson in the title role. Guthrie wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago's villainy is driven by a suppressed love for Othello. Olivier was willing to co-operate, but Richardson was not; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier's Iago, and Richardson's Othello seemed underpowered", ". After that comparative failure, the company had a success with Coriolanus starring Olivier in the title role. The notices were laudatory, mentioning him alongside great predecessors such as Edmund Kean, William Macready and Henry Irving. The actor Robert Speaight described it as \"Olivier's first incontestably great performance\". This was Olivier's last appearance on a London stage for six years.", "1938–1944: Hollywood and war years", "In 1938 Olivier joined Richardson to film the spy thriller Q Planes, released the following year. Frank Nugent, the critic for The New York Times, thought Olivier was \"not quite so good\" as Richardson, but was \"quite acceptable\". In late 1938, lured by a salary of $50,000, the actor travelled to Hollywood to take the part of Heathcliff in the 1939 film Wuthering Heights, alongside Merle Oberon and David Niven", ". In less than a month Leigh had joined him, explaining that her trip was \"partially because Larry's there and partially because I intend to get the part of Scarlett O'Hara\"—the role in Gone with the Wind in which she was eventually cast. Olivier did not enjoy making Wuthering Heights, and his approach to film acting, combined with a dislike for Oberon, led to tensions on set", ". The director, William Wyler, was a hard taskmaster, and Olivier learned to remove what Billington described as \"the carapace of theatricality\" to which he was prone, replacing it with \"a palpable reality\". The resulting film was a commercial and critical success that earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor and created his screen reputation", ". Caroline Lejeune, writing for The Observer, considered that \"Olivier's dark, moody face, abrupt style, and a certain fine arrogance towards the world in his playing are just right\" in the role, while the reviewer for The Times wrote that Olivier \"is a good embodiment of Heathcliff ... impressive enough on a more human plane, speaking his lines with real distinction, and always both romantic and alive.\"", "After returning to London briefly in mid-1939, the couple returned to America, Leigh to film the final takes for Gone with the Wind, and Olivier to prepare for filming of Alfred Hitchcock's Rebecca—although the couple had hoped to appear in it together. Instead, Joan Fontaine was selected for the role of Mrs de Winter, as the producer David O. Selznick thought that not only was she more suitable for the role, but that it was best to keep Olivier and Leigh apart until their divorces came through", ". Olivier followed Rebecca with Pride and Prejudice, in the role of Mr. Darcy. To his disappointment Elizabeth Bennet was played by Greer Garson rather than Leigh. He received good reviews for both films and showed a more confident screen presence than he had in his early work. In January 1940 Olivier and Esmond were granted their divorce. In February, following another request from Leigh, her husband also applied for their marriage to be terminated.", "On stage, Olivier and Leigh starred in Romeo and Juliet on Broadway. It was an extravagant production, but a commercial failure. In The New York Times Brooks Atkinson praised the scenery but not the acting: \"Although Miss Leigh and Mr Olivier are handsome young people they hardly act their parts at all.\" The couple had invested almost all their savings in the project, and its failure was a grave financial blow. They were married in August 1940, at the San Ysidro Ranch in Santa Barbara.", "The war in Europe had been under way for a year and was going badly for Britain. After his wedding Olivier wanted to help the war effort. He telephoned Duff Cooper, the Minister of Information under Winston Churchill, hoping to get a position in Cooper's department. Cooper advised him to remain where he was and speak to the film director Alexander Korda, who was based in the US at Churchill's behest, with connections to British Intelligence", ". Korda—with Churchill's support and involvement—directed That Hamilton Woman, with Olivier as Horatio Nelson and Leigh in the title role. Korda saw that the relationship between the couple was strained. Olivier was tiring of Leigh's suffocating adulation, and she was drinking to excess. The film, in which the threat of Napoleon paralleled that of Hitler, was seen by critics as \"bad history but good British propaganda\", according to the BFI.", "Olivier's life was under threat from the Nazis and pro-German sympathisers. The studio owners were concerned enough that Samuel Goldwyn and Cecil B. DeMille both provided support and security to ensure his safety. On the completion of filming, Olivier and Leigh returned to Britain. He had spent the previous year learning to fly and had completed nearly 250 hours by the time he left America", ". He intended to join the Royal Air Force but instead made another propaganda film, 49th Parallel, narrated short pieces for the Ministry of Information, and joined the Fleet Air Arm because Richardson was already in the service. Richardson had gained a reputation for crashing aircraft, which Olivier rapidly eclipsed. Olivier and Leigh settled in a cottage just outside RNAS Worthy Down, where he was stationed with a training squadron; Noël Coward visited the couple and thought Olivier looked unhappy", ". Olivier spent much of his time taking part in broadcasts and making speeches to build morale, and in 1942 he was invited to make another propaganda film, The Demi-Paradise, in which he played a Soviet engineer who helps improve British-Russian relationships.", "In 1943, at the behest of the Ministry of Information, Olivier began working on Henry V. Originally he had no intention of taking the directorial duties, but ended up directing and producing, in addition to taking the title role. He was assisted by an Italian internee, Filippo Del Giudice, who had been released to produce propaganda for the Allied cause. The decision was made to film the battle scenes in neutral Ireland, where it was easier to find the 650 extras", ". John Betjeman, the press attaché at the British embassy in Dublin, played a key liaison role with the Irish government in making suitable arrangements. The film was released in November 1944. Brooke, writing for the BFI, considers that it \"came too late in the Second World War to be a call to arms as such, but formed a powerful reminder of what Britain was defending", ".\" The music for the film was written by William Walton, \"a score that ranks with the best in film music\", according to the music critic Michael Kennedy. Walton also provided the music for Olivier's next two Shakespearean adaptations, Hamlet (1948) and Richard III (1955). Henry V was warmly received by critics. The reviewer for The Manchester Guardian wrote that the film combined \"new art hand-in-hand with old genius, and both superbly of one mind\", in a film that worked \"triumphantly\"", ". The critic for The Times considered that Olivier \"plays Henry on a high, heroic note and never is there danger of a crack\", in a film described as \"a triumph of film craft\". There were Oscar nominations for the film, including Best Picture and Best Actor, but it won none and Olivier was instead presented with a \"Special Award\". He was unimpressed, and later commented that \"this was my first absolute fob-off, and I regarded it as such.\"", "1944–1948: Co-directing the Old Vic", "Throughout the war Tyrone Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going, even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near-ruin. A small troupe toured the provinces, with Sybil Thorndike at its head. By 1944, with the tide of the war turning, Guthrie felt it time to re-establish the company in a London base and invited Richardson to head it. Richardson made it a condition of accepting that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate", ". Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues, but the former declined, saying, \"It would be a disaster, you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me.\" It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell. The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier; the Sea Lords consented, with, as Olivier put it, \"a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful.\"", "The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company. Thorndike was joined by, among others, Harcourt Williams, Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton. It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays: Peer Gynt, Arms and the Man, Richard III and Uncle Vanya. Olivier's roles were the Button Moulder, Sergius, Richard and Astrov; Richardson played Peer, Bluntschli, Richmond and Vanya", ". The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences; Uncle Vanya had a mixed reception, although The Times thought Olivier's Astrov \"a most distinguished portrait\" and Richardson's Vanya \"the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos\". In Richard III, according to Billington, Olivier's triumph was absolute: \"so much so that it became his most frequently imitated performance and one whose supremacy went unchallenged until Antony Sher played the role forty years later\"", ". In 1945 the company toured Germany, where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen; they also appeared at the Comédie-Française theatre in Paris, the first foreign company to be given that honour. The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly \"made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo-Saxon world.\"", "The second season, in 1945, featured two double bills. The first consisted of Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2. Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second. He received good notices, but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff. In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated, in the title roles of Oedipus Rex and The Critic", ". In the two one-act plays his switch from searing tragedy and horror in the first half to farcical comedy in the second impressed most critics and audience members, though a minority felt that the transformation from Sophocles's bloodily blinded hero to Sheridan's vain and ludicrous Mr Puff \"smacked of a quick-change turn in a music hall\". After the London season the company played both the double bills and Uncle Vanya in a six-week run on Broadway.", "The third, and final, London season under the triumvirate was in 1946–47. Olivier played King Lear, and Richardson took the title role in Cyrano de Bergerac. Olivier would have preferred the roles to be reversed, but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear. Olivier's Lear received good but not outstanding reviews. In his scenes of decline and madness towards the end of the play some critics found him less moving than his finest predecessors in the role", ". The influential critic James Agate suggested that Olivier used his dazzling stage technique to disguise a lack of feeling, a charge that the actor strongly rejected, but which was often made throughout his later career. During the run of Cyrano, Richardson was knighted, to Olivier's undisguised envy. The younger man received the accolade six months later, by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered", ". The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors, Lord Esher. He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it. He was encouraged by Guthrie, who, having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier, had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame.", "In January 1947 Olivier began working on his second film as a director, Hamlet (1948), in which he also took the lead role. The original play was heavily cut to focus on the relationships, rather than the political intrigue. The film became a critical and commercial success in Britain and abroad, although Lejeune, in The Observer, considered it \"less effective than [Olivier's] stage work. ..", ". ... He speaks the lines nobly, and with the caress of one who loves them, but he nullifies his own thesis by never, for a moment, leaving the impression of a man who cannot make up his own mind; here, you feel rather, is an actor-producer-director who, in every circumstance, knows exactly what he wants, and gets it\". Campbell Dixon, the critic for The Daily Telegraph thought the film \"brilliant ... one of the masterpieces of the stage has been made into one of the greatest of films", "... one of the masterpieces of the stage has been made into one of the greatest of films.\" Hamlet became the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, while Olivier won the Award for Best Actor.", "In 1948 Olivier led the Old Vic company on a six-month tour of Australia and New Zealand. He played Richard III, Sir Peter Teazle in Sheridan's The School for Scandal and Antrobus in Thornton Wilder's The Skin of Our Teeth, appearing alongside Leigh in the latter two plays. While Olivier was on the Australian tour and Richardson was in Hollywood, Esher terminated the contracts of the three directors, who were said to have \"resigned\"", ". Melvyn Bragg in a 1984 study of Olivier, and John Miller in the authorised biography of Richardson, both comment that Esher's action put back the establishment of a National Theatre for at least a decade. Looking back in 1971, Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1948 \"was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country\"", ". The Times said that the triumvirate's years were the greatest in the Old Vic's history; as The Guardian put it, \"the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit\".", "1948–1951: Post-war work", "By the end of the Australian tour, both Leigh and Olivier were exhausted and ill, and he told a journalist, \"You may not know it, but you are talking to a couple of walking corpses.\" Later he would comment that he \"lost Vivien\" in Australia, a reference to Leigh's affair with the Australian actor Peter Finch, whom the couple met during the tour. Shortly afterwards Finch moved to London, where Olivier auditioned him and put him under a long-term contract with Laurence Olivier Productions", ". Finch and Leigh's affair continued on and off for several years.", "Although it was common knowledge that the Old Vic triumvirate had been dismissed, they refused to be drawn on the matter in public, and Olivier even arranged to play a final London season with the company in 1949, as Richard III, Sir Peter Teazle, and Chorus in his own production of Anouilh's Antigone with Leigh in the title role. After that, he was free to embark on a new career as an actor-manager", ". After that, he was free to embark on a new career as an actor-manager. In partnership with Binkie Beaumont he staged the English premiere of Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire, with Leigh in the central role of Blanche DuBois. The play was condemned by most critics, but the production was a considerable commercial success, and led to Leigh's casting as Blanche in the 1951 film version", ". Gielgud, who was a devoted friend of Leigh's, doubted whether Olivier was wise to let her play the demanding role of the mentally unstable heroine: \"[Blanche] was so very like her, in a way. It must have been a most dreadful strain to do it night after night. She would be shaking and white and quite distraught at the end of it.\"", "The production company set up by Olivier took a lease on the St James's Theatre. In January 1950 he produced, directed and starred in Christopher Fry's verse play Venus Observed. The production was popular, despite poor reviews, but the expensive production did little to help the finances of Laurence Olivier Productions", ". After a series of box-office failures, the company balanced its books in 1951 with productions of Shaw's Caesar and Cleopatra and Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra which the Oliviers played in London and then took to Broadway. Olivier was thought by some critics to be under par in both his roles, and some suspected him of playing deliberately below his usual strength so that Leigh might appear his equal. Olivier dismissed the suggestion, regarding it as an insult to his integrity as an actor", ". Olivier dismissed the suggestion, regarding it as an insult to his integrity as an actor. In the view of the critic and biographer W. A. Darlington, he was simply miscast both as Caesar and Antony, finding the former boring and the latter weak. Darlington comments, \"Olivier, in his middle forties when he should have been displaying his powers at their very peak, seemed to have lost interest in his own acting\"", ". Over the next four years Olivier spent much of his time working as a producer, presenting plays rather than directing or acting in them. His presentations at the St James's included seasons by Ruggero Ruggeri's company giving two Pirandello plays in Italian, followed by a visit from the Comédie-Française playing works by Molière, Racine, Marivaux and Musset in French. Darlington considers a 1951 production of Othello starring Orson Welles as the pick of Olivier's productions at the theatre.", "1951–1954: Independent work", "While Leigh made Streetcar in 1951, Olivier joined her in Hollywood to film Carrie, based on the controversial novel Sister Carrie; although the film was plagued by troubles, Olivier received warm reviews and a BAFTA nomination", ". Olivier began to notice a change in Leigh's behaviour, and he later recounted that \"I would find Vivien sitting on the corner of the bed, wringing her hands and sobbing, in a state of grave distress; I would naturally try desperately to give her some comfort, but for some time she would be inconsolable.\" After a holiday with Coward in Jamaica, she seemed to have recovered, but Olivier later recorded, \"I am sure that ..", "... [the doctors] must have taken some pains to tell me what was wrong with my wife; that her disease was called manic depression and what that meant—a possibly permanent cyclical to-and-fro between the depths of depression and wild, uncontrollable mania", ". He also recounted the years of problems he had experienced because of Leigh's illness, writing, \"throughout her possession by that uncannily evil monster, manic depression, with its deadly ever-tightening spirals, she retained her own individual canniness—an ability to disguise her true mental condition from almost all except me, for whom she could hardly be expected to take the trouble.\"", "In January 1953 Leigh travelled to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to film Elephant Walk with Peter Finch. Shortly after filming started she suffered a breakdown, and returned to Britain where, between periods of incoherence, she told Olivier that she was in love with Finch, and had been having an affair with him; she gradually recovered over a period of several months. As a result of the breakdown, many of the Oliviers' friends learned of her problems", ". As a result of the breakdown, many of the Oliviers' friends learned of her problems. Niven said she had been \"quite, quite mad\", and in his diary, Coward expressed the view that \"things had been bad and getting worse since 1948 or thereabouts.\"", "For the Coronation season of 1953, Olivier and Leigh starred in the West End in Terence Rattigan's Ruritanian comedy, The Sleeping Prince. It ran for eight months but was widely regarded as a minor contribution to the season, in which other productions included Gielgud in Venice Preserv'd, Coward in The Apple Cart and Ashcroft and Redgrave in Antony and Cleopatra.", "Olivier directed his third Shakespeare film in September 1954, Richard III (1955), which he co-produced with Korda. The presence of four theatrical knights in the one film—Olivier was joined by Cedric Hardwicke, Gielgud and Richardson—led an American reviewer to dub it \"An-All-Sir-Cast\"", ". The critic for The Manchester Guardian described the film as a \"bold and successful achievement\", but it was not a box-office success, which accounted for Olivier's subsequent failure to raise the funds for a planned film of Macbeth. He won a BAFTA award for the role and was nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award, which Yul Brynner won.", "1955–1956: Last productions with Leigh\nIn 1955 Olivier and Leigh were invited to play leading roles in three plays at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford. They began with Twelfth Night, directed by Gielgud, with Olivier as Malvolio and Leigh as Viola. Rehearsals were difficult, with Olivier determined to play his conception of the role despite the director's view that it was vulgar. Gielgud later commented:", "The next production was Macbeth. Reviewers were lukewarm about the direction by Glen Byam Shaw and the designs by Roger Furse, but Olivier's performance in the title role attracted superlatives. To J. C. Trewin, Olivier's was \"the finest Macbeth of our day\"; to Darlington it was \"the best Macbeth of our time\". Leigh's Lady Macbeth received mixed but generally polite notices, although to the end of his life Olivier believed it to have been the best Lady Macbeth he ever saw.", "In their third production of the 1955 Stratford season, Olivier played the title role in Titus Andronicus, with Leigh as Lavinia. Her notices in the part were damning, but the production by Peter Brook and Olivier's performance as Titus received the greatest ovation in Stratford history from the first-night audience, and the critics hailed the production as a landmark in post-war British theatre", ". Olivier and Brook revived the production for a continental tour in June 1957; its final performance, which closed the old Stoll Theatre in London, was the last time Leigh and Olivier acted together.", "Leigh became pregnant in 1956 and withdrew from the production of Coward's comedy South Sea Bubble. The day after her final performance in the play she miscarried and entered a period of depression that lasted for months. In the same year Olivier directed and co-starred with Marilyn Monroe in a film version of The Sleeping Prince, retitled The Prince and the Showgirl. Although the filming was challenging because of Monroe's behaviour, the film was appreciated by the critics.", "1957–1963: Royal Court and Chichester\nDuring the production of The Prince and the Showgirl, Olivier, Monroe and her husband, the American playwright Arthur Miller, went to see the English Stage Company's production of John Osborne's Look Back in Anger at the Royal Court. Olivier had seen the play earlier in the run and disliked it, but Miller was convinced that Osborne had talent, and Olivier reconsidered. He was ready for a change of direction; in 1981 he wrote:", "Osborne was already at work on a new play, The Entertainer, an allegory of Britain's post-colonial decline, centred on a seedy variety comedian, Archie Rice. Having read the first act—all that was completed by then—Olivier asked to be cast in the part. He had for years maintained that he might easily have been a third-rate comedian called \"Larry Oliver\", and would sometimes play the character at parties", ". Behind Archie's brazen façade there is a deep desolation, and Olivier caught both aspects, switching, in the words of the biographer Anthony Holden, \"from a gleefully tacky comic routine to moments of the most wrenching pathos\". Tony Richardson's production for the English Stage Company transferred from the Royal Court to the Palace Theatre in September 1957; after that it toured and returned to the Palace. The role of Archie's daughter Jean was taken by three actresses during the various runs", ". The role of Archie's daughter Jean was taken by three actresses during the various runs. The second of them was Joan Plowright, with whom Olivier began a relationship that endured for the rest of his life. Olivier said that playing Archie \"made me feel like a modern actor again\". In finding an avant-garde play that suited him, he was, as Osborne remarked, far ahead of Gielgud and Ralph Richardson, who did not successfully follow his lead for more than a decade", ". Their first substantial successes in works by any of Osborne's generation were Alan Bennett's Forty Years On (Gielgud in 1968) and David Storey's Home (Richardson and Gielgud in 1970).", "Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his supporting role in 1959's The Devil's Disciple. The same year, after a gap of two decades, Olivier returned to the role of Coriolanus, in a Stratford production directed by the 28-year-old Peter Hall. Olivier's performance received strong praise from the critics for its fierce athleticism combined with an emotional vulnerability. In 1960 he made his second appearance for the Royal Court company in Ionesco's absurdist play Rhinoceros", ". The production was chiefly remarkable for the star's quarrels with the director, Orson Welles, who according to the biographer Francis Beckett suffered the \"appalling treatment\" that Olivier had inflicted on Gielgud at Stratford five years earlier. Olivier again ignored his director and undermined his authority. In 1960 and 1961 Olivier appeared in Anouilh's Becket on Broadway, first in the title role, with Anthony Quinn as the king, and later exchanging roles with his co-star.", "Two films featuring Olivier were released in 1960. The first—filmed in 1959—was Spartacus, in which he portrayed the Roman general, Marcus Licinius Crassus. His second was The Entertainer, shot while he was appearing in Coriolanus; the film was well received by the critics, but not as warmly as the stage show had been. The reviewer for The Guardian thought the performances were good, and wrote that Olivier \"on the screen as on the stage, achieves the tour de force of bringing Archie Rice ... to life\"", "... to life\". For his performance, Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. He also made an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence in 1960, winning an Emmy Award.", "The Oliviers' marriage was disintegrating during the late 1950s. While directing Charlton Heston in the 1960 play The Tumbler, Olivier divulged that \"Vivien is several thousand miles away, trembling on the edge of a cliff, even when she's sitting quietly in her own drawing room\", at a time when she was threatening suicide. In May 1960 divorce proceedings started; Leigh reported the fact to the press and informed reporters of Olivier's relationship with Plowright", ". The decree nisi was issued in December 1960, which enabled him to marry Plowright in March 1961. A son, Richard, was born in December 1961; two daughters followed, Tamsin Agnes Margaret—born in January 1963—and actress Julie-Kate, born in July 1966.", "In 1961 Olivier accepted the directorship of a new theatrical venture, the Chichester Festival. For the opening season in 1962 he directed two neglected 17th-century English plays, John Fletcher's 1638 comedy The Chances and John Ford's 1633 tragedy The Broken Heart, followed by Uncle Vanya. The company he recruited was forty strong and included Thorndike, Casson, Redgrave, Athene Seyler, John Neville and Plowright", ". The first two plays were politely received; the Chekhov production attracted rapturous notices. The Times commented, \"It is doubtful if the Moscow Arts Theatre itself could improve on this production.\" The second Chichester season the following year consisted of a revival of Uncle Vanya and two new productions—Shaw's Saint Joan and John Arden's The Workhouse Donkey", ". In 1963 Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his leading role as a schoolteacher accused of sexually molesting a student in the film Term of Trial.", "National Theatre", "1963–1968", "At around the time the Chichester Festival opened, plans for the creation of the National Theatre were coming to fruition. The British government agreed to release funds for a new building on the South Bank of the Thames. Lord Chandos was appointed chairman of the National Theatre Board in 1962, and in August Olivier accepted its invitation to be the company's first director", ". As his assistants, he recruited the directors John Dexter and William Gaskill, with Kenneth Tynan as literary adviser or \"dramaturge\". Pending the construction of the new theatre, the company was based at the Old Vic. With the agreement of both organisations, Olivier remained in overall charge of the Chichester Festival during the first three seasons of the National; he used the festivals of 1964 and 1965 to give preliminary runs to plays he hoped to stage at the Old Vic.", "The opening production of the National Theatre was Hamlet in October 1963, starring Peter O'Toole and directed by Olivier. O'Toole was a guest star, one of occasional exceptions to Olivier's policy of casting productions from a regular company. Among those who made a mark during Olivier's directorship were Michael Gambon, Maggie Smith, Alan Bates, Derek Jacobi and Anthony Hopkins. It was widely remarked that Olivier seemed reluctant to recruit his peers to perform with his company", ". Evans, Gielgud and Paul Scofield guested only briefly, and Ashcroft and Richardson never appeared at the National during Olivier's time. Robert Stephens, a member of the company, observed, \"Olivier's one great fault was a paranoid jealousy of anyone who he thought was a rival\".", "In his decade in charge of the National, Olivier acted in thirteen plays and directed eight. Several of the roles he played were minor characters, including a crazed butler in Feydeau's A Flea in Her Ear and a pompous solicitor in Maugham's Home and Beauty; the vulgar soldier Captain Brazen in Farquhar's 1706 comedy The Recruiting Officer was a larger role but not the leading one.", "Apart from his Astrov in the Uncle Vanya, familiar from Chichester, his first leading role for the National was Othello, directed by Dexter in 1964. The production was a box-office success and was revived regularly over the next five seasons. His performance divided opinion. Most of the reviewers and theatrical colleagues praised it highly; Franco Zeffirelli called it \"an anthology of everything that has been discovered about acting in the past three centuries", ".\" Dissenting voices included The Sunday Telegraph, which called it \"the kind of bad acting of which only a great actor is capable ... near the frontiers of self-parody\"; the director Jonathan Miller thought it \"a condescending view of an Afro Caribbean person\". The burden of playing this demanding part at the same time as managing the new company and planning for the move to the new theatre took its toll on Olivier", ". To add to his load, he felt obliged to take over as Solness in The Master Builder when the ailing Redgrave withdrew from the role in November 1964. For the first time Olivier began to suffer from stage fright, which plagued him for several years. The National Theatre production of Othello was released as a film in 1965, which earned four Academy Award nominations, including another for Best Actor for Olivier.", "During the following year Olivier concentrated on management, directing one production (The Crucible), taking the comic role of the foppish Tattle in Congreve's Love for Love, and making one film, Bunny Lake is Missing, in which he and Coward were on the same bill for the first time since Private Lives. In 1966, his one play as director was Juno and the Paycock. The Times commented that the production \"restores one's faith in the work as a masterpiece\"", ". The Times commented that the production \"restores one's faith in the work as a masterpiece\". In the same year Olivier portrayed the Mahdi, opposite Heston as General Gordon, in the film Khartoum.", "In 1967 Olivier was caught in the middle of a confrontation between Chandos and Tynan over the latter's proposal to stage Rolf Hochhuth's Soldiers. As the play speculatively depicted Churchill as complicit in the assassination of the Polish prime minister Władysław Sikorski, Chandos regarded it as indefensible. At his urging the board unanimously vetoed the production", ". At his urging the board unanimously vetoed the production. Tynan considered resigning over this interference with the management's artistic freedom, but Olivier himself stayed firmly in place, and Tynan also remained. At about this time Olivier began a long struggle against a succession of illnesses. He was treated for prostate cancer and, during rehearsals for his production of Chekhov's Three Sisters he was hospitalised with pneumonia", ". He recovered enough to take the heavy role of Edgar in Strindberg's The Dance of Death, the finest of all his performances other than in Shakespeare, in Gielgud's view.", "1968–1974", "Olivier had intended to step down from the directorship of the National Theatre at the end of his first five-year contract, having, he hoped, led the company into its new building. By 1968 because of bureaucratic delays construction work had not even begun, and he agreed to serve for a second five-year term. His next major role, and his last appearance in a Shakespeare play, was as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice, his first appearance in the work", ". He had intended Guinness or Scofield to play Shylock, but stepped in when neither was available. The production by Jonathan Miller, and Olivier's performance, attracted a wide range of responses. Two different critics reviewed it for The Guardian: one wrote \"this is not a role which stretches him, or for which he will be particularly remembered\"; the other commented that the performance \"ranks as one of his greatest achievements, involving his whole range\".", "In 1969 Olivier appeared in two war films, portraying military leaders. He played Field Marshal French in the First World War film Oh! What a Lovely War, for which he won another BAFTA award, followed by Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding in Battle of Britain. In June 1970 he became the first actor to be created a peer for services to the theatre", ". In June 1970 he became the first actor to be created a peer for services to the theatre. Although he initially declined the honour, Harold Wilson, the incumbent prime minister, wrote to him, then invited him and Plowright to dinner, and persuaded him to accept.", "After this Olivier played three more stage roles: James Tyrone in Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Night (1971–72), Antonio in Eduardo de Filippo's Saturday, Sunday, Monday and John Tagg in Trevor Griffiths's The Party (both 1973–74). Among the roles he hoped to play, but could not because of ill-health, was Nathan Detroit in the musical Guys and Dolls. In 1972 he took leave of absence from the National to star opposite Michael Caine in Joseph L", ". In 1972 he took leave of absence from the National to star opposite Michael Caine in Joseph L. Mankiewicz's film of Anthony Shaffer's Sleuth, which The Illustrated London News considered to be \"Olivier at his twinkling, eye-rolling best\"; both he and Caine were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, losing to Marlon Brando in The Godfather.", "The last two stage plays Olivier directed were Jean Giradoux's Amphitryon (1971) and Priestley's Eden End (1974). By the time of Eden End, he was no longer director of the National Theatre; Peter Hall took over on 1 November 1973. The succession was tactlessly handled by the board, and Olivier felt that he had been eased out—although he had declared his intention to go—and that he had not been properly consulted about the choice of successor", ". The largest of the three theatres within the National's new building was named in his honour, but his only appearance on the stage of the Olivier Theatre was at its official opening by the Queen in October 1976, when he made a speech of welcome, which Hall privately described as the most successful part of the evening.", "1975–1989: Later years and death", "Olivier spent the last 15 years of his life securing his finances and dealing with deteriorating health, which included thrombosis and dermatomyositis, a degenerative muscle disorder. Professionally, and to provide financial security, he made a series of advertisements for Polaroid cameras in 1972, although he stipulated that they must never be shown in Britain; he also took a number of cameo film roles, which were in \"often undistinguished films\", according to Billington", ". Olivier's move from leading parts to supporting and cameo roles came about because his poor health meant he could not get the necessary long insurance for larger parts, with only short engagements in films available.", "Olivier's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital, and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength. When strong enough, he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger, who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film Marathon Man", ". Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes, in a role that the critic David Robinson, writing for The Times, thought was \"strongly played\", adding that Olivier was \"always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both\". Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and won the Golden Globe of the same category.", "In the mid-1970s Olivier became increasingly involved in television work, a medium of which he was initially dismissive. In 1973 he provided the narration for a 26-episode documentary, The World at War, which chronicled the events of the Second World War, and won a second Emmy Award for Long Day's Journey into Night (1973). In 1975 he won another Emmy for Love Among the Ruins. The following year he appeared in adaptations of Tennessee Williams's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Harold Pinter's The Collection", ". Olivier portrayed the Pharisee Nicodemus in Franco Zeffirelli's 1977 miniseries Jesus of Nazareth. In 1978 he appeared in the film The Boys from Brazil, playing the role of Ezra Lieberman, an ageing Nazi hunter; he received his eleventh Academy Award nomination. Although he did not win the Oscar, he was presented with an Honorary Award for his lifetime achievement.", "Olivier continued working in film into the 1980s, with roles in The Jazz Singer (1980), Inchon (1981), The Bounty (1984) and Wild Geese II (1985). He continued to work in television; in 1981 he appeared as Lord Marchmain in Brideshead Revisited, winning another Emmy, and the following year he received his tenth and last BAFTA nomination in the television adaptation of John Mortimer's stage play A Voyage Round My Father", ". In 1983 he played his last Shakespearean role as Lear in King Lear, for Granada Television, earning his fifth Emmy. He thought the role of Lear much less demanding than other tragic Shakespearean heroes: \"No, Lear is easy. He's like all of us, really: he's just a stupid old fart.\" When the production was first shown on American television, the critic Steve Vineberg wrote:", "The same year he also appeared in a cameo alongside Gielgud and Richardson in Wagner, with Burton in the title role; his final screen appearance was as an elderly wheelchair-using soldier in Derek Jarman's 1989 film War Requiem.", "After being ill for the last 22 years of his life, Olivier died of renal failure on 11 July 1989 aged 82 at his home in the village of Ashurst, near Steyning, West Sussex. His cremation was held three days later; a memorial service was held in Westminster Abbey in October that year, where his ashes were later buried in Poets' Corner.\n\nHonours", "Olivier was appointed Knight Bachelor in the 1947 Birthday Honours for services to the stage and to films. A life peerage as Baron Olivier, of Brighton in the County of Sussex, followed in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to the theatre. Olivier was later appointed to the Order of Merit in 1981. He also received honours from foreign governments", ". He also received honours from foreign governments. In 1949 he was made Commander of the Danish Order of the Dannebrog; France appointed him , Legion of Honour, in 1953; the Italian government created him , Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, in 1953; and in 1971 he was granted the Order of Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath.", "Awards and memorials\nFrom academic and other institutions, Olivier received honorary doctorates from Tufts University in Massachusetts (1946), Oxford (1957) and Edinburgh (1964). He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize in 1966, the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities in 1968; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976.", "For his work in films, Olivier received four Academy Awards: an honorary award for Henry V (1947), a Best Actor award and one as producer for Hamlet (1948), and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction. He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations, five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations, and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations", ". He was nominated once for a Tony Award (for best actor, as Archie Rice) but did not win.", "In February 1960, for his contribution to the film industry, Olivier was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame, with a star at 6319 Hollywood Boulevard; he is included in the American Theater Hall of Fame. In 1977 Olivier was awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship.", "In addition to the naming of the National Theatre's largest auditorium in Olivier's honour, he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of London Theatre. In 1991 Gielgud unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey. In 2007, the centenary of Olivier's birth, a life-sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank, outside the National Theatre; the same year the BFI held a retrospective season of his film work.", "Technique and reputation", "Olivier's acting technique was minutely crafted, and he was known for changing his appearance considerably from role to role. By his own admission, he was addicted to extravagant make-up, and unlike Richardson and Gielgud, he excelled at different voices and accents. His own description of his technique was \"working from the outside in\"; he said, \"I can never act as myself, I have to have a pillow up my jumper, a false nose or a moustache or wig... I cannot come on looking like me and be someone else", "... I cannot come on looking like me and be someone else.\" Rattigan described how at rehearsals Olivier \"built his performance slowly and with immense application from a mass of tiny details\". This attention to detail had its critics: Agate remarked, \"When I look at a watch it is to see the time and not to admire the mechanism. I want an actor to tell me Lear's time of day and Olivier doesn't. He bids me watch the wheels go round.\"", "Tynan remarked to Olivier, \"you aren't really a contemplative or philosophical actor\"; Olivier was known for the strenuous physicality of his performances in some roles. He told Tynan this was because he was influenced as a young man by Douglas Fairbanks, Ramon Navarro and John Barrymore in films, and Barrymore on stage as Hamlet: \"tremendously athletic. I admired that greatly, all of us did. ... One thought of oneself, idiotically, skinny as I was, as a sort of Tarzan", ". ... One thought of oneself, idiotically, skinny as I was, as a sort of Tarzan.\" According to Morley, Gielgud was widely considered \"the best actor in the world from the neck up and Olivier from the neck down.\" Olivier described the contrast thus: \"I've always thought that we were the reverses of the same coin... the top half John, all spirituality, all beauty, all abstract things; and myself as all earth, blood, humanity.\"", "Olivier, a classically trained actor, was known to have been distrustful of method acting. In his memoir, On Acting, he exhorts actors to \"have Stanislavski with you in your study or in your limousine... but don't bring him onto the film set.\" During production of The Prince and the Showgirl, he quarrelled with Marilyn Monroe, who was trained under Lee Strasberg's method, over her acting process", ". Similarly, an anecdote casts him as offering Dustin Hoffman, enduring physical travails while playing in Marathon Man, a curt suggestion: \"why don't you just try acting?\" Hoffman disputes the details of this account, which he claims was distorted by a journalist: he had been up all night at the Studio 54 nightclub for personal rather than professional reasons and Olivier, who understood this, was joking.", "Together with Richardson and Gielgud, Olivier was internationally recognised as one of the \"great trinity of theatrical knights\" who dominated the British stage during the middle and later decades of the 20th century. In an obituary tribute in The Times, Bernard Levin wrote, \"What we have lost with Laurence Olivier is glory. He reflected it in his greatest roles; indeed he walked clad in it—you could practically see it glowing around him like a nimbus...", ".... no one will ever play the roles he played as he played them; no one will replace the splendour that he gave his native land with his genius.\" Billington commented:", "After Olivier's death, Gielgud reflected, \"He followed in the theatrical tradition of Kean and Irving. He respected tradition in the theatre, but he also took great delight in breaking tradition, which is what made him so unique. He was gifted, brilliant, and one of the great controversial figures of our time in theatre, which is a virtue and not a vice at all.\"", "Olivier said in 1963 that he believed he was born to be an actor, but his colleague Peter Ustinov disagreed; he commented that although Olivier's great contemporaries were clearly predestined for the stage, \"Larry could have been a notable ambassador, a considerable minister, a redoubtable cleric. At his worst, he would have acted the parts more ably than they are usually lived.\" The director David Ayliff agreed that acting did not come instinctively to Olivier as it did to his great rivals", ". He observed, \"Ralph was a natural actor, he couldn't stop being a perfect actor; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination.\" The American actor William Redfield had a similar view:", "In comparing Olivier and the other leading actors of his generation, Ustinov wrote, \"It is of course vain to talk of who is and who is not the greatest actor. There is simply no such thing as a greatest actor, or painter or composer\". Nonetheless, some colleagues, particularly film actors such as Spencer Tracy, Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, came to regard Olivier as the finest of his peers", ". Peter Hall, though acknowledging Olivier as the head of the theatrical profession, thought Richardson the greater actor. Olivier's claim to theatrical greatness lay not only in his acting, but as, in Hall's words, \"the supreme man of the theatre of our time\", pioneering Britain's National Theatre. As Bragg identified, \"no one doubts that the National is perhaps his most enduring monument\".", "Stage roles and filmography\n\nSee also\nLaurence Olivier Awards\nList of British Academy Award nominees and winners\nList of actors with Academy Award nominations\nList of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories\nList of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories\n\nNotes and references\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n Laurence Olivier: 10 essential films at the British Film Institute\n Laurence Olivier Archive at the British Library", "1907 births\n1989 deaths\nLaurence\n20th-century English male actors\n20th-century theatre managers\nAcademy Honorary Award recipients\nActor-managers\nActors awarded British peerages\nActors awarded knighthoods\nAlumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama\nArtistic directors\nBAFTA fellows\nBest Actor Academy Award winners\nBest British Actor BAFTA Award winners\nBest Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners\nBest Supporting Actor BAFTA Award winners\nBest Supporting Actor Golden Globe (film) winners", "Best Supporting Actor BAFTA Award winners\nBest Supporting Actor Golden Globe (film) winners\nBurials at Westminster Abbey\nCecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners\nDavid di Donatello winners\nDirectors of Golden Lion winners\nDeaths from kidney failure\nEnglish Anglo-Catholics\nEnglish male film actors\nEnglish film directors\nEnglish male Shakespearean actors\nEnglish male stage actors\nEnglish male television actors\nEnglish theatre directors\nEnglish people of French descent", "English male television actors\nEnglish theatre directors\nEnglish people of French descent\nFleet Air Arm personnel of World War II\nKnights Bachelor\nLife peers\nMale actors from Surrey\nMembers of the Order of Merit\nOfficers of the Legion of Honour\nOutstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners\nOutstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners\nPeople educated at St Edward's School, Oxford\nPeople from Dorking", "People educated at St Edward's School, Oxford\nPeople from Dorking\nRoyal Navy officers of World War II\nLife peers created by Elizabeth II" ]

[ "Human habitation of Cyprus dates back to the Paleolithic era. Cyprus's geographic position has caused Cyprus to be influenced by differing Eastern Mediterranean civilisations over the millennia.", "Periods of Cyprus's history from 1050 BC have been named according to styles of pottery found as follows:\n Cypro-Geometric I: 1050-950 BC\n Cypro-Geometric II: 950-850 BC\n Cypro-Geometric III: 850-700 BC\n Cypro-Archaic I: 700-600 BC\n Cypro-Archaic II: 600-475 BC\n Cypro-Classical I: 475-400 BC\n Cypro-Classical II: 400-323 BC\n\nPrehistoric Cyprus", "Cyprus was settled by humans in the Paleolithic period (known as the Stone Age) who coexisted with various dwarf animal species, such as dwarf elephants (Elephas cypriotes) and pygmy hippos (Hippopotamus minor) well into the Holocene. There are claims of an association of this fauna with artifacts of Epipalaeolithic foragers at Aetokremnos near Limassol on the southern coast of Cyprus. The first undisputed settlement occurred in the 9th (or perhaps 10th) millennium BC from the Levant", ". The first settlers were agriculturalists of the so-called PPNB (pre-pottery Neolithic B) era, but did not yet produce pottery (aceramic Neolithic).", "The dog, sheep, goats and possibly cattle and pigs were introduced, as well as numerous wild animals such as foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) that were previously unknown on the island. The PPNB settlers built round houses with floors made of terrazzo of burned lime (e.g. Kastros, Shillourokambos) and cultivated einkorn and emmer. Pigs, sheep, goats and cattle were kept but remained, for the most part, behaviourally wild", ". Pigs, sheep, goats and cattle were kept but remained, for the most part, behaviourally wild. Evidence of cattle such as that attested at Shillourokambos is rare, and when they apparently died out in the course of the 8th millennium BC they were not re-introduced until the ceramic Neolithic.", "In the 6th millennium BC, the aceramic Khirokitia culture was characterised by roundhouses, stone vessels and an economy based on sheep, goats and pigs. Cattle were unknown, and Persian fallow deer were hunted. This was followed by the ceramic Sotira phase. The Eneolithic era is characterised by stone figurines with spread arms.", "Water wells discovered by archaeologists in western Cyprus are believed to be among the oldest in the world, dated at 9,000 to 10,500 years old, putting them in the Stone Age. They are said to show the sophistication of early settlers, and their heightened appreciation for the environment.", "In 2004, the remains of an 8-month-old cat were discovered buried with its human owner at a Neolithic archeological site in Cyprus. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old, predating Egyptian civilization and pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly.\n\nBronze Age", "Bronze Age \n\nIn the Bronze Age the first cities, such as Enkomi, were built. Systematic copper mining began, and this resource was widely traded. Mycenaean Greeks were undoubtedly inhabiting Cyprus from the late stage of the Bronze Age, while the island's Greek name is already attested from the 15th century BC in the Linear B script.", "The Cypriot syllabic script was first used in early phases of the late Bronze Age (LCIB) and continued in use for ca. 500 years into the LC IIIB, maybe up to the second half of the eleventh century BC. However, there is no existing evidence suggesting the survival of pre-Greek languages beyond the Bronze Age. It is plausible that later Eastern immigrants adopted the script, similar to how the Mycenaeans adopted the Minoan script", ". The language that has been discovered is likely to have arrived at a later time. It is conjectured by some linguists to be related to Hurrian.", "The LCIIC (1300–1200 BC) was a time of local prosperity. Cities such as Enkomi were rebuilt on a rectangular grid plan, where the town gates correspond to the grid axes and numerous grand buildings front the street system or newly founded.", "Great official buildings constructed from ashlar masonry point to increased social hierarchisation and control. Some of these buildings contain facilities for processing and storing olive oil, such as Maroni-Vournes and Building X at Kalavassos-Ayios Dhimitrios. A sanctuary with a horned altar constructed from ashlar masonry has been found at Myrtou-Pigadhes, other temples have been located at Enkomi, Kition and Kouklia (Palaepaphos)", ". Both the regular layout of the cities and the new masonry techniques find their closest parallels in Syria, especially in Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra).", "Rectangular corbelled tombs point to close contacts with Syria and Palestine as well.", "The practice of writing spread and tablets in the Cypriot syllabic script have been found at Ras Shamra, then the city of Ugarit. Ugaritic texts from Ras Shamra and Enkomi mention Ya, the Assyrian name of Cyprus, that thus seems to have been in use already in the late Bronze Age.", "Copper ingots shaped like oxhides have been recovered from shipwrecks such as at Uluburun, Iria and Cape Gelidonya, which attest to the widespread metal trade. Weights in the shape of animals found in Enkomi and Kalavassos follow the Syro-Palestinian, Mesopotamian, Hittite and Aegean standards and thus attest to the wide-ranging trade as well.", "Late Bronze Age Cyprus was a part of the Hittite Empire, but was a client state and as such was not invaded, but rather merely part of the empire by association and governed by the ruling kings of Ugarit. As such Cyprus was essentially \"left alone with little intervention in Cypriot affairs\". However, during the reign of Tudhaliya I, the island was briefly invaded by the Hittites for either reasons of securing the copper resource or as a way of preventing piracy", ". Shortly afterwards the island was reconquered by his son Arnuwanda I around 1200 BC.", "Although Achaean Greeks were living in Cyprus from the 14th century,\nmost of them inhabited the island after the Trojan war. Achaeans were colonizing Cyprus from 1210 to 1000 BC.\nDorian Greeks arrived around 1100 BC and, unlike the pattern on the Greek mainland, the evidence suggests that they settled on Cyprus peacefully.", "Another wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place in the following century (LCIIIB, 1100–1050), indicated, among other things, by a new type of graves (long dromoi) and Mycenaean influences in pottery decoration.\n\nAlashiya\n\nAlashiya, the Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean state that was the major source of copper in the region, was likely situated in Cyprus or includes parts of Cyprus.", "Correspondences between the King of Alashiya and Egyptian administration could be found in the Amarna letters, while the Ugaritic texts contains exchanges between the King of Alashiya and the King of Ugarit.\n\nPottery", "In the later phase of the late Bronze Age (LCIIIA, 1200–1100 BC) great amounts of 'Mycenaean' IIIC:1b pottery were produced locally. New architectural features include cyclopean walls, found on the Greek mainland, as well and a certain type of rectangular stepped capitals, endemic on Cyprus. Chamber tombs are given up in favour of shaft graves. Large amounts of IIIC:1b pottery are found in Palestine during this period as well", ". Large amounts of IIIC:1b pottery are found in Palestine during this period as well. While this was formerly interpreted as evidence of an invasion ('Sea Peoples'), this is seen more and more as an indigenous development, triggered by increasing trade relations with Cyprus and Crete. Evidence of early trade with Crete is found in archaeological recovery on Cyprus of pottery from Cydonia, a powerful urban center of ancient Crete.", "Cypriot city kingdoms", "Most authors claim that the Cypriot city kingdoms, first described in written sources in the 8th century BC were already founded in the 11th century BC. Other scholars see a slow process of increasing social complexity between the 12th and the 8th centuries, based on a network of chiefdoms. In the 8th century (geometric period) the number of settlements increases sharply and monumental tombs, like the 'Royal' tombs of Salamis appear for the first time", ". This could be a better indication for the appearance of the Cypriot kingdoms.", "Early Iron Age \nThe early Iron Age on Cyprus follows the Submycenaean period (1125–1050 BC) of the Late Bronze Age. It is divided into the Geometric (1050–700) and Archaic (700–525) periods.", "Foundations myths documented by classical authors connect the foundation of numerous Cypriot towns with immigrant Greek heroes in the wake of the Trojan war. For example, Teucer, brother of Aias was supposed to have founded Salamis, and the Arcadian Agapenor of Tegea to have replaced the native ruler Kinyras and to have founded Paphos. Some scholars see this a memory of a Greek colonisation already in the 11th century", ". Some scholars see this a memory of a Greek colonisation already in the 11th century. In the 11th century tomb 49 from Palaepaphos-Skales three bronze obeloi with inscriptions in Cypriot syllabic script have been found, one of which bears the name of Opheltas. This is first indication of the use of Greek language on the island.", "Cremation as a burial rite is seen as a Greek introduction as well. The first cremation burial in bronze vessels has been found at Kourion-Kaloriziki, tomb 40, dated to the first half of the 11th century (LCIIIB). The shaft grave contained two bronze rod tripod stands, the remains of a shield and a golden sceptre as well. Formerly seen as the Royal grave of first Argive founders of Kourion, it is now interpreted as the tomb of a native Cypriot or a Phoenician prince", ". The cloisonné enamelling of the sceptre head with the two falcons surmounting it has no parallels in the Aegean, but shows a strong Egyptian influence.", "Phoenicians", "Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence at Kition which was under Tyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC. Some Phoenician merchants who were believed to come from Tyre colonized the area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians", ". After c. 850 BC the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians.\" The oldest cemetery of Salamis has produced children's burials in Canaanite jars, indication of Phoenician presence already in the LCIIIB 11th century. Similar jar burials have been found in cemeteries in Kourion-Kaloriziki and Palaepaphos-Skales near Kouklia", ". In Skales, many Levantine imports and Cypriot imitations of Levantine forms have been found and point to a Phoenician expansion even before the end of the 11th century.", "Ancient Cyprus", "The first written source shows Cyprus under Assyrian rule. A stela found 1845 in Kition commemorates the victory of king Sargon II (721–705 BC) in 709 over the seven kings in the land of Ia', in the district of Iadnana or Atnana. The former is supposedly the Assyrian name of the island, while some authors take the latter to mean Greece (the Islands of the Danaoi). There are other inscriptions referring to Ia' in Sargon's palace at Khorsabad", ". There are other inscriptions referring to Ia' in Sargon's palace at Khorsabad. The ten kingdoms listed by an inscription of Esarhaddon in 673/2 BC have been identified as Salamis, Kition, Amathus, Kourion, Paphos and Soli on the coast and Tamassos, Ledra, Idalium and Chytri in the interior.", "Cyprus gained independence for some time around 669 but was conquered by Egypt under Amasis (570–526/525). The island was conquered by the Persians around 545 BC. A Persian palace has been excavated in the territory of Marion on the North coast near Soli. The inhabitants took part in the Ionian rising. At the beginning of the 4th century BC, Euagoras I, King of Salamis, took control of the whole island and tried to gain independence from Persia", ". Another uprising took place in 350 but was crushed by Artaxerxes in 344.", "During the siege of Tyre, the Cypriot Kings went over to Alexander the Great. In 321 four Cypriot kings sided with Ptolemy I and defended the island against Antigonos. Ptolemy lost Cyprus to Demetrios Poliorketes between 306 and 295 BC, but after that it remained under Ptolemaic rule till 58 BC. It was ruled by a governor from Egypt and sometimes formed a minor Ptolemaic kingdom during the power-struggles of the 2nd and 1st centuries", ". Strong commercial relationships with Athens and Alexandria, two of the most important commercial centres of antiquity, developed.", "Full Hellenisation only took place under Ptolemaic rule. Phoenician traits disappeared, together with the old Cypriot syllabic script. A number of cities were founded during this time, e.g. Arsinoe that was founded between old and new Paphos by Ptolemy II.", "Cyprus became a Roman province in 58 BC, according to Strabo because the Roman politician, Publius Clodius Pulcher, held a grudge against the king of Cyprus, Ptolemy, and sent Marcus Cato to conquer the island after he had become tribune. Mark Antony gave the island to Cleopatra VII of Egypt and her sister Arsinoe IV, but it became a Roman province again after his defeat at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) in 30 BC. From 22 BC it was a senatorial province", ". From 22 BC it was a senatorial province. The island suffered great losses during the Jewish uprising of 115/116 AD.", "After the reforms of Diocletian it was placed under the control of the Consularis Oriens and governed by a proconsul. Several earthquakes led to the destruction of Salamis at the beginning of the 4th century, at the same time drought and famine hit the island.\n\nMedieval Cyprus", "Medieval Cyprus\n\nAfter the division of the Roman Empire into an eastern half and a western half, Cyprus came under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire. At that time, its bishop, while still subject to the Christian Church, was made autocephalous by the First Council of Ephesus in 431.", "The Arab Muslims invaded Cyprus in force in the 650s, but in 688, the Byzantine emperor Justinian II and the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān reached an unprecedented agreement. For the next 300 years, Cyprus was ruled jointly by both the Arabs and the Byzantines as a condominium, despite the nearly constant warfare between the two parties on the mainland. The Byzantines recovered control over the island for short periods thereafter, but the status quo was always restored.", "This period lasted until the year 965, when Niketas Chalkoutzes conquered the island for a resurgent Byzantium. In 1185, the last Byzantine governor of Cyprus, Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus from a minor line of the Imperial house, rose in rebellion, and attempted to seize the throne. His attempted coup was unsuccessful, but Comnenus was able to retain control of the island. Byzantine actions against Comnenus failed because he enjoyed the support of William II of Sicily", ". Byzantine actions against Comnenus failed because he enjoyed the support of William II of Sicily. The Byzantine emperor had an agreement with the sultan of Egypt to close Cypriot harbours to the Crusaders.", "The Third Crusade", "During the Third Crusade, the island of Cyprus became a target of the Crusaders in the late 12th century. Richard the Lionheart landed in Limassol on 1 June 1191 in search of his sister and his bride Berengaria, whose ship had become separated from the fleet in a storm. Richard's army landed when Isaac refused to return the hostages (Richard's sister, his bride, and several shipwrecked soldiers), and forced Isaac to flee from Limassol", ". He eventually surrendered, conceding control of the island to the King of England. Richard married Berengaria in Limassol on 12 May 1192; she was crowned as Queen of England by John Fitzluke, Bishop of Évreux. The Crusader fleet continued to St. Jean d'Acre on 5 June of the same year.", "The army of Richard the Lionheart continued to occupy Cyprus and raised taxes. He sold the island to the Knights Templar. Soon after that, the French army under the House of Lusignan occupied the island, establishing the Kingdom of Cyprus in 1192. They declared Latin as the official language, later replacing it with French; much later, Greek was recognized as a second official language", ". In 1196, dioceses of the Latin Church were established on the island, and the Greek Orthodox Cypriot Church experienced a series of religious persecutions perpetrated by the Latin Catholics. Maronites settled on Cyprus during the Crusades and still maintain some villages in the North.", "Kingdom of Cyprus", "Amalric I of Cyprus (Aimery de Lusignan) received the royal crown and title from Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. A small minority Roman Catholic population of the island was mainly confined to some coastal cities, such as Famagusta, as well as inland Nicosia, the traditional capital. Roman Catholics kept the reins of power and control, while the Greek inhabitants lived in the countryside; this was much the same as the arrangement in the Kingdom of Jerusalem", ". The independent Eastern Orthodox Church of Cyprus, with its own archbishop and subject to no patriarch, was allowed to remain on the island, but the Latin Church largely displaced it in stature and holding property.", "After the death of Amalric of Lusignan, the Kingdom continually passed to a series of young boys who grew up as king. The Ibelin family, which had held much power in Jerusalem prior its downfall, acted as regents during these early years. In 1229 one of the Ibelin regents was forced out of power by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, who brought the struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines to the island.", "Frederick's supporters were defeated in this struggle by 1233, although it lasted longer in the Kingdom of Jerusalem and in the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick's Hohenstaufen descendants continued to rule as kings of Jerusalem until 1268 when Hugh III of Cyprus (d.1284) of the Lusignan family claimed the title and its territory of Acre for himself upon the death of Conrad III of Jerusalem, thus uniting the two kingdoms", ". The territory in Palestine was finally lost while Henry II was king in 1291, but the kings of Cyprus continued to claim the title.", "Like Jerusalem, Cyprus had a Haute Cour (High Court), although it was less powerful than it had been in Jerusalem. The island was richer and more feudal than Jerusalem, so the king had more personal wealth and could afford to ignore the Haute Cour. The most important vassal family was the multi-branch House of Ibelin. However, the king was often in conflict with the Italian merchants, especially because Cyprus had become the centre of European trade with Africa and Asia after the fall of Acre in 1291.", "The kingdom eventually came to be dominated more and more in the 14th century by the Genoese merchants. Cyprus therefore sided with the Avignon Papacy in the Western Schism, in the hope that the French would be able to drive out the Italians. The Mameluks then made the kingdom a tributary state in 1426; the remaining monarchs gradually lost almost all independence, until 1489 when the last Queen, Catherine Cornaro, was forced to sell the island to Venice", ". Ottomans started raiding Cyprus immediately afterwards, and captured it in 1571.", "This is the historical setting to Shakespeare's Othello, the play's title character being the commander of the Venetian garrison defending Cyprus against the Ottomans.\n\nOttoman Cyprus", "Cyprus 1571", "In 1571, Cyprus became an Eyalet, a province, of the Ottoman Empire until 1878. In 1571, the Turks entered the country in order of the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573), also known as the Fourth Ottoman - Venetian War, or the War of Cyprus. Following the Ottoman Empire's invasion of Cyprus with 350-400 ships and 60,000-100,000 soldiers to take control of the island, Turks and Cypriots coexisted harmoniously on the island", ". Cyprus was rich in salt, sugar, cotton, grains, and other import and export goods at that time, in addition it was also a transfer country for the Syria-Venice trade. As a result, Cyprus served as the eastern Mediterranean's main emporium for Venice's maritime trade.", "After the Venetians lost control and the Ottomans gained control over Cyprus, Venice continued to use Cyprus for trading. Merchants that were imprisoned during the war were released and had their goods and ships returned to them. The trade continued and was only interrupted during wars. There were also Venetian consuls present in Cyprus to stabilize trade and protect the traders. The government of Cyprus used to borrow money from Venician merchants in the early 16th century", ". The government of Cyprus used to borrow money from Venician merchants in the early 16th century. Until the end of Ottoman rule on Cyprus, the trade continued with being held during the times of war.", "Religion and culture under Ottoman leadership", "The Ottoman Empire was predominantly Muslim. Therefore, there was a cultural and religious clash when it conquered Cyprus. As Cyprus became a territory of the Ottoman Empire, more Muslims came to Cyprus mixing in with the Orthodox Christian Greek population of the island. That's why the Millet System was introduced in Cyprus, it allowed authorities to rule over their religious minorities to keep peace in the Country. The Ottoman Empire still tried to spread the Muslim culture in Cyprus", ". The Ottoman Empire still tried to spread the Muslim culture in Cyprus. That especially concerned women as by Islam they had to cover their heads and most women at the time obeyed that rule.", "Change of Administration of Cyprus\nSince 1670, the Ottomans have shifted their governance of Cyprus and its significance multiple times. From a sanjak (sub-province) to a Grand Vizer's fief, to an eyalet, back to a fief, and finally back to a sanjak.", "Cyprus 1878 (Russo-Turkish War)\nDuring the Russo-Turkish War in the Mediterranean Cyprus prepared for the invasion which occurred and left the population with financial issues for the decades to come. Russians have been spreading propaganda in the Mediterranean which called upon Orthodox Greek Christians to fight against the Ottoman Empire. Cyprus was trying to balance between supporting the Ottoman Empire with grain but on the other hand they tried not to oppose Russia.", "The Russo-Turkish War ended the Ottoman control of Cyprus in 1878. Cyprus then came under the control of the British Empire with its conditions set out in the Cyprus Convention between the United Kingdom and Ottoman Empire. However, the sovereignty of the island continued to be maintained by the Ottoman Empire until Great Britain annexed the island unilaterally in 1914, after it declared war against the Ottomans during the First World War", ". Following World War I, under the provisions of the Lausanne Treaty, Turkey relinquished all claims and rights on Cyprus.", "Under British rule, the island began to enjoy a period of increased freedom of speech, something which allowed further development of the Greek Cypriots' ideas of enosis (unification with Greece).\n\nModern Cyprus\n\nIn 1878, as the result of the Cyprus Convention, the United Kingdom took over the government of Cyprus as a protectorate from the Ottoman Empire. In 1914, at the beginning of World War I, the Ottomans declared war on Britain, leading to the British annexation of Cyprus.", "The island's population welcomed the arrival of the British in 1878, as it meant the end of the long Turkish occupation, on one hand, but also because (bearing in mind the example of the Ionian islands) it was believed to be a necessary transitional stage for the final purpose, which was the return of Cyprus to Greece. In the 1920s, the political leaders of the Cypriot Greeks decided to adopt a change of tactics in their pursuit for enosis—the union of Cyprus with Greece", ". Instead of the uncompromising course for \"union and only union\", it was decided that, under the circumstances, some civil liberties could be negotiated and won in favor of the Cypriot people. In 1921, the Political Organization of Cyprus was formed to serve that purpose, but was dissolved later that decade.", "Greek Cypriot representatives were repeatedly sent to England over the years to formally set the request to the colonial metropolis, but to no avail whatsoever. The participation of Greek Cypriots in the national struggles of the Greeks (such as in the wars at the end of the 19th century and in the Balkan wars of 1912-13) was an expression of their belief in the common origin of Greeks and Cypriots, in a common fate and a common path", ". The participation of Greek Cypriot volunteers in the First World War was an expression of the belief that there would be a \"Cypriot share\" in the \"distribution of profits\" after the victory (something that also happened later, during the Second World War). Besides, the Greek Prime Minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, had negotiated the handing over of Cyprus to Greece, in the years leading to the First World War", ". However, during the \"distribution of profits\" at the Paris conference after the First World War, there was no \"Cypriot share\" despite the Greek Cypriot leadership's presence and efforts. After the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), by which Turkey renounced all its rights over Cyprus, some new hopes were born because a very serious obstacle to the return of Cyprus to Greece was removed", ". However, in 1925, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, and with the removal of this obstacle, England proceeded not to cede Cyprus to Greece but to annex it by declaring the island a Crown Colony. It had then become absolutely clear to the Greek Cypriots, from English officials (such as the Colonial Secretary Leo Amery) that unification was out of the question, and that this subject was definitively closed, rebutting the hopes and expectations of the Greek Cypriots for achieving their ideal.", "The National Organization of Cyprus (EOK; not to be confused with EOKA), that was founded in 1930 by church circles and whose members were chosen by the Archbishop, played a role in strengthening the demand of enosis. Its purpose was the pursuit of this goal and the rejection of the Autonomy proposed by the English. In 1931, the even more hardline National Radical Union of the Center (ΕRΕΚ) was founded whose members were secret", ". The repetitive rebuttal of the Greek Cypriots' hopes, along with other political events at the time, triggered the great uprising of October 1931, known as the October riots. Cyprus thus entered a period of autocratic rule known as Palmerokratia (\"Palmerocracy\"), named after governor Richmond Palmer, which started shortly before the revolt and would last until the beginning of World War II.", "In January 1950, the Orthodox Church of Cyprus organized the Union Referendum (referendum about Enosis), in which Greek Cypriots, which constituted around 80% of the population at the time, were called to vote, and ended in strong favor for the movement", ". However, their shout fell on deaf ears since the international community showed no desire to support their request Between 1955 and 1959 Greek Cypriots formed the EOKA organisation, led by George Grivas, and began the liberation struggle with ultimate goal being enosis. However the EOKA campaign did not result in union with Greece but rather in an independent republic, the Republic of Cyprus, in 1960.", "The 1960 constitution put in place a form of power-sharing, or consociational government, in which concessions were made to the Turkish Cypriots minority, including as a requirement that the vice-president of Cyprus and at least 30% of members of parliament be Turkish Cypriots. Archbishop Makarios III would be the President and Dr. Fazıl Küçük would become vice president", ". Archbishop Makarios III would be the President and Dr. Fazıl Küçük would become vice president. One of the articles in the constitution was the creation of separate local municipalities so that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could manage their own municipalities in large towns.", "Internal conflicts turned into full-fledged armed fighting between the two communities on the island which prompted the United Nations to send peacekeeping forces in 1964; these forces are still in place today. In 1974, Greek nationalists performed a military coup with the support of the military junta in Greece. Unable to secure multilateral support against the coup, Turkey invaded the northern portion of the island. Turkish forces remained after a cease-fire, resulting in the partition of the island", ". Turkish forces remained after a cease-fire, resulting in the partition of the island. The intercommunal violence, the coup, and the subsequent invasion led to the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Cypriots.", "The de facto state of Northern Cyprus was proclaimed in 1975 under the name of the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus. The name was changed to its present form, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, on 15 November 1983. Recognised only by Turkey, Northern Cyprus is considered by the international community to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.", "In 2002 UN Secretary General Kofi Annan started a new round of negotiations for the unification of the island. In 2004 after long negotiations between both sides a plan for unification of the island emerged. The resulting plan was supported by United Nations, European Union and the United States. The nationalists on both sides campaigned for the rejection of the plan, the result being that Turkish Cypriots accepted the plan while Greek Cypriots rejected it overwhelmingly.", "After Cyprus became a member of the European Union in 2004, it adopted the euro as its currency on January 1, 2008, replacing the previously used Cypriot pound; Northern Cyprus continued to use the Turkish lira.", "The political environment is dominated by the communist AKEL, the liberal conservative Democratic Rally, the centrist Democratic Party and the social-democratic EDEK.", "In 2008, Dimitris Christofias became the country's first Communist head of state. Due to his involvement in the 2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis, Christofias did not run for re-election in 2013. The Presidential election in 2013 resulted in Democratic Rally candidate Nicos Anastasiades winning 57.48% of the vote. As a result, Anastasiades was sworn in on 28 February 2013. Anastasiades was re-elected with 56% of the vote in the 2018 presidential election", ". Anastasiades was re-elected with 56% of the vote in the 2018 presidential election. On 28 February 2023, Nikos Christodoulides, the winner of the 2023 presidential election run-off, was sworn in as the eighth president of the Republic of Cyprus.", "See also\n\nKingdom of Cyprus\nTimeline of Cypriot history\n\nGeneral:\nHistory of Europe\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "History, general\n Kinross, Lord. \"The Problem of Cyprus.\" History Today\" (Nov 1954) 4#11 pp 725-733\n Mallinson, William. Cyprus: A modern history (IB Tauris, 2005).\n Wallace, Paul W., & Andreas G. Orphanides (eds.), \"Sources for the History of Cyprus\", vols I - XV, (Albany, NY, Greece and Cyprus Research Center, University at Albany (SUNY) 1990-2007)\n C. D. Cobham, Excerpta Cypria: materials for a history of Cyprus (Cambridge 1908). Nice Collection of written sources.", "D. Hunt, Footprints in Cyprus (London, Trigraph 1990).", "Prehistory\n Vassos Karageorghis, Cyprus (1969). Includes bibliography.\n Andreas G. Orphanides, \"Late Bronze Age Socio-Economic and Political Organization, and the Hellenization of Cyprus\", Athens Journal of History, volume 3, number 1, 2017, pp. 7–20\n Veronica Tatton-Brown, Cyprus BC: 7000 years of history (London, British Museum 1979).\n Stuart Swiny, Earliest Prehistory of Cyprus (American School of Oriental Research 2001)", "Stuart Swiny, Earliest Prehistory of Cyprus (American School of Oriental Research 2001) \n J. M. Webb/D. Frankel, \"Characterising the Philia facies. Material culture, chronology and the origins of the Bronze Age in Cyprus\" in American Journal of archaeology 103, 1999, 3-43.\n S. Gitin/A. Mazar/E. Stern (eds.), Mediterranean peoples in transition, thirteenth to early 10th century BC (Jerusalem, Israel exploration Society 1998). Late Bronze Age and transition to the Iron Age.", "J. D. Muhly, \"The role of the Sea People in Cyprus during the LCIII period. In: Vassos Karageorghis and J. D. Muhly (eds.), Cyprus at the close of the Bronze Age (Nicosia 1984), 39-55. End of Bronze Age \n Winbladh, M.-L., The Bearded Goddess, Androgynes, goddesses and monsters in ancient Cyprus. Armida Edition, Cypern 2012\n Winbladh, M.-L., The Origins of The Cypriots. With Scientific Data of Archaeology and Genetics, Galeri Kultur Publishing, Lefkosa 2020", "Winbladh, M-L., 'Adventuring with Cyprus. A Chronicle of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition 1927 – 1931' in The Northern Face of Cyprus. New Studies in Cypriot Archaeology and Art History, eds. Hazar Kaba & Summerer, Latife, Istanbul 2016\n Winbladh, M-L.,Adventures of an archaeologist. Memoirs of a museum curator, AKAKIA Publications, London", "Classical Period\n Paul W Wallace & Andreas G. Orphanides (eds.), \"Sources for the History of Cyprus: Greek and Latin Texts to the Third Century A.D.\", vol. I, (Nicosia, The Institute of Cypriot Studies, University at Albany (SUNY) & Cyprus College 1990)\n Herodotus, \"The Histories\"\n Isocrates, \"Nicocles\"\n Diodorus Siculus, \"Bibliothiki\" (Library)\n Arrian, \"The Campaigns of Alexander the Great\"\n T. Bekker-Nielsen, The Roads of Ancient Cyprus. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum 2004.", "Medieval Age\n Angel Nicolaou-Konnari, Chris Schabel (eds.): Cyprus: Society and Culture, 1191–1374; Leiden : Brill, 2005. - XVI, 403 S., \n Peter W. Edbury: The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374 (Cambridge, 1991).", "British era 1878-1960\n Georghallides, George S. A political and administrative history of Cyprus, 1918-1926: with a survey of the foundations of British rule (Cyprus Research Centre, 1979).\n Hakki, Murat Metin. The Cyprus issue: a documentary history, 1878-2007 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2007).\n Heraclidou, Antigone. \"Politics of education and language in Cyprus and Malta during the inter-war years.\" Journal of Mediterranean Studies 23.1 (2014): 75-88. excerpt", "Katsourides, Yiannos, and Antigone Heraclidou. \"Nationalism and Decolonisation in the Mediterranean: Cyprus and Malta Compared, 1918–1964.\" Journal of Mediterranean Studies 23.1 (2014): 1-7.", "Medlicott, W. N. “The Gladstone Government and the Cyprus Convention, 1880-85.” Journal of Modern History 13#2 (1940), pp. 186–208. online.\n Persianis, Panayiotis. \"The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus (1878-1960): An intriguing example of an elusive 'adapted education' policy.\" Comparative Education 32.1 (1996): 45-68.\n Phylaktis, Kate. \"Banking in a British colony: Cyprus 1878–1959.\" Business History 30.4 (1988): 416-431 online.", "Rosenbaum, Naomi. \"Success in foreign policy: The British in Cyprus, 1878-1960.\" Canadian Journal of Political Science (1970): 605-627 online.\n C. Spyridiakis, The education policy of the English government in Cyprus (1878–1954).\n Varnava, Andrekos. British imperialism in Cyprus, 1878–1915: the inconsequential possession (Manchester UP, 2017)\n Yiangou, Anastasia. \"The Political Impact of World War II on Cyprus and Malta.\" Journal of Mediterranean Studies 23.1 (2014): 101-112. online", "Since 1960\n Bishku, Michael B. \"The Middle Eastern Relations of Cyprus and Malta: From Independence to Nonalignment to the European Union.\" Mediterranean Quarterly 26.2 (2015): 42-62. excerpt\n\nExternal links\n\n\"Cyprus, as I Saw it in 1879\" by Samuel W. Baker.\nCyprus - an island divided - Interactive guide from The Guardian''\n\n \nHistory of the Mediterranean\nHistory of West Asia\n\ntr:Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti#Tarih" ]

[ "Operation Catechism was a British air raid of World War II that destroyed the German battleship Tirpitz. It was conducted on 12 November 1944 by 29 Royal Air Force heavy bombers that attacked the battleship at its anchorage near the Norwegian city of Tromsø. The ship capsized after being hit by at least two bombs and damaged by the explosions of others, killing between 940 and 1,204 members of the crew; the British suffered no casualties.", "The attack ended a long-running series of air and naval operations against Tirpitz that sought to eliminate the threat she posed to Allied shipping. The battleship had been moved to the Tromsø area in October 1944 after being crippled on 15 September during Operation Paravane. This attack had been carried out by the RAF's elite Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons, who unsuccessfully attempted to strike Tirpitz again at Tromsø on 29 October during Operation Obviate.", "Operation Catechism re-used the plans for Operation Obviate, and was conducted by the same squadrons. The aircraft departed from bases in northern Scotland and, due to clear weather conditions, the Commonwealth airmen were able to accurately target and bomb the battleship. The bombers were unmolested by a unit of German fighter aircraft that failed to take off from nearby Tromsø in time. One bomber was significantly damaged by anti-aircraft artillery.", "Tirpitz capsized within minutes of being hit. Rescuers picked up hundreds of her crew from the water, but few of those trapped within the hull were saved. Several German military personnel were convicted of dereliction of duty following the attack. The battleship's destruction was celebrated in Allied countries and Norway, and is commemorated by several memorials and displays in museums.\n\nBackground", "From early 1942, Tirpitz posed a significant threat to the Allied convoys transporting supplies through the Norwegian Sea to the Soviet Union. Stationed in fjords on the Norwegian coast, the battleship was capable of overwhelming the close-escort forces assigned to the Arctic convoys or breaking out into the North Atlantic", ". To counter this threat, the Allies needed to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet, and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union.", "Tirpitz was repeatedly attacked by British forces over several years. Royal Air Force (RAF) heavy bombers made four unsuccessful raids on the battleship between January and April 1942 while she was stationed at Fættenfjord. From March 1943, Tirpitz was based at Kaafjord in the far north of Norway. During Operation Source on 22 September, she was severely damaged by explosives placed on her hull by Royal Navy personnel who had used midget submarines to penetrate Kaafjord", ". On 3 April 1944, aircraft flying from Royal Navy aircraft carriers attacked Tirpitz during Operation Tungsten and inflicted further damage. A series of subsequent aircraft carrier attacks were unsuccessful, including Operation Mascot on 17 July and Operation Goodwood which was conducted between 22 and 29 August 1944.", "After the failure of Operation Goodwood, it was decided that further carrier attacks against Tirpitz would be fruitless due to the inadequacies of the Royal Navy's aircraft and their armament. Accordingly, responsibility for sinking Tirpitz was transferred to the RAF's Bomber Command. On 15 September 1944, the elite Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked the battleship at Kaafjord during what was designated Operation Paravane", ". This operation employed Avro Lancaster heavy bombers armed with Tallboy heavy bombs and \"Johnnie Walker\" mines. The Tallboy bomb weighed and had been developed to destroy heavily armoured targets. When dropped from a high altitude, the bomb could penetrate a battleship's deck armour before exploding within the vessel. Tirpitz was struck by a single Tallboy during the attack that caused extensive damage to her bow and rendered her unfit for combat.", "As Tirpitz could not be repaired and Soviet forces were advancing towards Kaafjord, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, the commander of the Kriegsmarine (the German Navy), ordered that she be transferred to near the northern Norwegian city of Tromsø and used as an immobile battery to defend the area from attack. Dönitz hoped that this would also convince the Allies that Tirpitz continued to pose a threat", ". Dönitz hoped that this would also convince the Allies that Tirpitz continued to pose a threat. An anchorage was selected just off the coast of the island of Håkøya where it was believed the water was shallow enough to prevent the battleship from sinking if another attack was successful. Tirpitz arrived there on 16 October. The depth of water at the mooring was found to be greater than anticipated, leaving the battleship vulnerable to capsizing", ". Because of the space needed by Tirpitzs torpedo nets, it was not possible to move her closer to shore.", "RAF and Royal Navy reconnaissance aircraft located Tirpitz at Tromsø on 18 October. As the Allied intelligence services had not been able to confirm that the battleship had been crippled, it was considered necessary to conduct further air raids against her. Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked Tirpitz on 29 October in what was designated Operation Obviate", ". Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked Tirpitz on 29 October in what was designated Operation Obviate. As the Tromsø area was within range of RAF bases in northern Scotland if the Lancasters were modified, this attack was somewhat simpler to conduct than Operation Paravane. To extend their range, the Lancasters were fitted with extra fuel tanks and more powerful engines, and their forward and mid-upper gun turrets and pilot's armour plate were removed", ". The reduction in armament left the Lancasters very vulnerable to German fighter aircraft, and they would have to fly without escort as no British fighters had the range needed to reach Tromsø.", "During Operation Obviate, the bombers flew north over the Norwegian Sea, and met up over Torneträsk lake in Northern Sweden. This violated Sweden's neutrality, but allowed the bombers to approach Tromsø from the south-east. The Allies believed the Germans would not expect an attack from this direction. Despite clear weather for most of the flight, Tirpitz was covered by cloud shortly before the Lancasters reached the point where they were to release their Tallboy bombs", ". This made it impossible to accurately target the battleship, and the 33 aircraft which bombed achieved no hits. Tirpitz was slightly damaged by a near miss. One of the Lancasters made a forced landing in Sweden after being damaged by anti-aircraft gunfire, and the remainder returned to base.", "Preparations", "British", "Bomber Command remained determined to sink Tirpitz as soon as possible, and preparations for another attack began shortly after Operation Obviate. A report issued by the Royal Navy's Naval Intelligence Division on 3 November judged that it remained necessary to attack Tirpitz in northern Norway. The report argued that the battleship could potentially be repaired and made fully operational if she was left unmolested and able to reach a major port", ". As it would be difficult to target the battleship during the period of near perpetual darkness in the northern winter, further attacks needed to be made within the 23 days before this commenced. No. 5 Group RAF directed on 3 November that the next attack on Tirpitz was to take place on 5 November, and would re-use the plans developed for Operation Obviate. The raid was designated Operation Catechism.", "Two de Havilland Mosquito meteorological aircraft were stationed at RAF Sumburgh from 4 November, from where they conducted daily sorties to monitor weather conditions in the Tromsø area. On the same day, twenty No. 9 Squadron and nineteen No. 617 Squadron Lancasters were dispatched to airfields in northern Scotland in preparation for the operation. A gale warning was issued that night and the raid was cancelled as a result on the morning of 5 November", ". Both squadrons returned to their home bases during the day. The two squadrons deployed again to Scotland on 7 November, but soon returned to their home bases when the attack was cancelled.", "On 10 November, the Lancaster crews were briefed for another attack on Tirpitz. Both squadrons moved to northern Scotland on 11 November when meteorological reports indicated that there would be clear weather over Tromsø for up to two days. The aircraft were split between RAF Kinloss, RAF Lossiemouth and RAF Milltown.\n\nGerman", "Tirpitzs defences were improved after Operation Obviate. Additional anti-aircraft guns were emplaced in the Tromsø area and torpedo nets were laid around the battleship. These augmented the protection offered by the anti-aircraft ships Nymphe and Thetis and several anti-aircraft batteries on the shore. Dredging operations to reduce the water level below the battleship's hull began on 1 November. By 12 November these were half complete", ". By 12 November these were half complete. The smoke generators that had previously protected Tirpitz at Kaafjord were still being installed at the time of Operation Catechism and were not yet operational. In their place, seven fishing boats fitted with smoke generators were positioned near the battleship; these were not capable of generating a smokescreen that could completely cover Tirpitz.", "The battleship's crew continued regular training exercises, and remained concerned about further air attacks. On 4 November Tirpitzs commanding officer Captain Wolf Junge departed. He was replaced by the executive officer, Captain Robert Weber. Weber believed that within three weeks the days would be short enough to prevent further air attacks. On 12 November around 1,700 men were on board Tirpitz.", "A force of 38 fighters was transferred to Bardufoss after Operation Obviate to bolster the Tromsø region's air defences. These aircraft formed part of Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5), and were under the temporary command of Major Heinrich Ehrler. The unit had been evacuated from Kirkenes in the far northeastern region of Norway as Soviet forces advanced towards the town, and was disorganised at the time of Operation Catechism", ". Most of the pilots at Bardufoss were inexperienced and ill-trained, and the unit had not been properly briefed on Tirpitzs presence in the area. Ehrler arrived at Bardufoss on 9 November en route to Alta, and decided to remain there until the morning of 12 November to oversee an emergency training programme for the fighter pilots.", "Attack\n\nDeparture", "The decision to launch Operation Catechism was made in the early hours of 12 November. A weather forecast issued on the afternoon of 11 November predicted that clouds might be encountered over northern Norway. One of the Mosquito meteorological aircraft flew over the area that evening, and its crew reported encountering patches of cloud when they returned to Scotland shortly after midnight on the night of 11–12 November. Nevertheless, the commander of No", ". Nevertheless, the commander of No. 5 Group, Air Commodore Ralph Cochrane, decided to attempt another attack in the hope that the bombers would encounter clear weather over Tromsø. The plan for this operation remained the same as that used in Operation Obviate, with the attack force to use identical routes.", "A total of 32 Lancasters were dispatched. No. 617 Squadron contributed eighteen bombers, and No. 9 Squadron thirteen. As with Operations Paravane and Obviate, they were joined by a Lancaster fitted out as a film aircraft from No. 463 Squadron RAAF. The role of this aircraft was to collect material for use in propaganda films. Seven No", ". The role of this aircraft was to collect material for use in propaganda films. Seven No. 9 Squadron Lancasters, including that of its commanding officer Wing Commander James Bazin, were unable to participate, as they could not be cleared in time of the snow and ice that had formed on them overnight. The No. 617 Squadron aircraft took off between 2:59 and 3:25 am BST, and the No. 9 Squadron aircraft between 3:00 and 3:35 am BST. The aircraft flown by No", ". 9 Squadron aircraft between 3:00 and 3:35 am BST. The aircraft flown by No. 9 Squadron's deputy commander, Squadron Leader Bill Williams, was among those able to take off and he assumed command of the unit.", "The Lancasters flew individually over the Norwegian Sea. As had been the case during Operation Obviate, they crossed the Norwegian coast between the towns of Mosjøen and Namsos where a gap in German radar coverage had been located. Several of the bombers flew too far to the north, and came within range of German radar stations. The attack force rendezvoused over Torneträsk lake. After making two orbits, No", ". The attack force rendezvoused over Torneträsk lake. After making two orbits, No. 617 Squadron's commanding officer, Wing Commander \"Willie\" Tait, fired a flare gun from his aircraft to signal the force to proceed to Tromsø. Two No. 9 Squadron Lancasters failed to reach Torneträsk lake in time, and returned to base without attacking.", "Approach", "The attack force proceeded north-west towards Tromsø, and climbed to to clear the mountains along the border of Sweden and Norway. They were guided by radio homing signals transmitted by a Norwegian Milorg agent stationed near the border between the two countries. By the time they reached the Tromsø area, both of the squadrons had formed up into loose formations. No. 617 Squadron led the attack, followed by No. 9 Squadron", ". No. 617 Squadron led the attack, followed by No. 9 Squadron. The Lancasters were grouped into \"gaggles\" of four to six aircraft that flew at altitudes of between and . The No. 463 Squadron film aircraft approached Tromsø at , and dropped to to evade anti-aircraft fire at the start of the attack.", "The German forces in the Tromsø area failed to adequately respond to multiple warnings of the approaching British bombers. Between 7:39 am and 8:50 am BST several observation posts in the area reported sighting Lancasters. As the first aircraft to be spotted were flying east, it was thought that they might be headed to the Soviet Union. Tirpitz was not notified of the reports until 8:15 am BST and few reports were passed on to the JG 5 detachment at Bardufoss", ". Tirpitzs air raid siren was sounded at 8:51 am, and Weber informed the ship's crew seven minutes later that an attack was possible.", "At around 9:15 am BST, Tirpitz contacted Bardufoss to request that fighters be dispatched to provide air cover. This was too late for any of the fighters to reach Tromsø before the bombers arrived. The local Luftwaffe command ordered the fighters to be scrambled at 9:18 am. Due to various delays, the aircraft did not begin taking off from Bardufoss until approximately 9:32 am. Ehrler took off first, but the others were delayed from doing so for several minutes while an aircraft landed on the runway", ". Ehrler proceeded to the Tromsø area by himself, but was unable to locate the British bombers before they attacked. It is not clear where the other fighters were sent. One post-attack report stated they were sent to the border with Sweden, another that they proceeded to Kaafjord and two pilots claimed to have reached Tromsø after Tirpitz was destroyed.", "Weather conditions over Tromsø continued to be clear when the attack force arrived in the area. Tait spotted Tirpitz from away, and later recalled that she was \"lying squat and black among her torpedo nets like a spider in her web, silhouetted against the glittering blue and green waters of the fjord\".", "Destruction of Tirpitz\nTirpitz fired the first shots of the battle at 9:38 am BST when she opened fire on the bombers with her calibre main guns from a range of , firing timed-fuze fragmentation shells designed for barrage antiaircraft fire. Other anti-aircraft guns also fired on the Lancasters as they approached, but did not disrupt them. No smokescreen was present as they flew north-west towards their bombing positions.", "The attack commenced at 9:41 am BST. Tait's aircraft was the first to drop its Tallboy, which hit Tirpitz. No. 617 Squadron completed its attack at 9:44 am BST with all aircraft bombing. No. 9 Squadron aircraft began dropping their Tallboys at 9:45 am BST. By this time the battleship was on fire and covered in smoke. The last bomb was released at 9:49 am BST.", "Tirpitz was rapidly destroyed. She was struck by two Tallboys that penetrated her armoured deck. One hit to the port of \"Bruno\" turret in the forward section of the ship but did not explode. The other was dropped by Tait's aircraft, struck the port side amidships near the tracks for the aircraft catapult, and exploded over the port boiler room. This explosion caused severe damage that resulted in extensive flooding, fires throughout the ship and a list of 15 to 20 degrees to port", ". Several other bombs detonated in the water near Tirpitz, which caused further damage to her hull and additional flooding. These explosions also created large craters below the ship, and blew away much of the gravel that had been dumped beneath her. Another Tallboy probably hit Tirpitz. The historian John Sweetman states that this bomb ricocheted off the side of the ship. William H. Garzke and Robert O", ". William H. Garzke and Robert O. Dulin have written that it is likely to have penetrated the armoured deck near \"Caesar\" turret in the stern of the ship and started a fire near a powder or shell magazine. Almost all the hits and near misses were on the port side of Tirpitz, which destabilised her and led the list to rapidly increase. Many sailors manning Tirpitzs anti-aircraft guns were killed or wounded by the bombs, resulting in a significant reduction in the volume of fire directed at the Lancasters.", "After the first bomb struck his ship, Weber ordered the crew to evacuate the armoured citadel and attempt to counter the flooding. Despite the list, Weber expected that Tirpitz would not sink as the water beneath her hull was too shallow. Counter flooding proved impossible as the controls for the necessary systems had been abandoned, and the volume of water that was entering the ship was well beyond their ability to fight had they been operational", ". Weber ordered that the lower decks be evacuated at 9:45 am, by which time the list had reached between 30 and 40 degrees. At 9:50 am the magazine for \"Caesar\" turret exploded, causing extensive damage. Tirpitzs list rapidly increased, and she was soon lying on her side. Weber then gave the order to abandon ship. The battleship continued to heel over, and capsized at 9:52 am. Almost 1,000 of her crew had either been killed by this time, or were trapped inside the hull.", "The crews of several Lancasters observed Tirpitz capsize. The No. 463 Squadron film aircraft made a final pass over the battleship at an altitude of just to capture footage of the event. Just after 11:00 am BST a photo reconnaissance Mosquito overflew the Tromsø region, and photographed the wreck. The Secret Intelligence Service agent Egil Lindberg also sent radio reports from Tromsø confirming that Tirpitz had been destroyed.\n\nAftermath\n\nRescue efforts", "The German forces in the Tromsø area endeavoured to rescue the surviving members of Tirpitzs crew. Within two hours, 596 had swum to shore or been rescued from the water. Others were trapped in air pockets within the wreck. These men were doomed unless they were able to move to what was once the bottom of the ship, and be rescued before their air supply ran out. Shortly after Tirpitz capsized, parties of sailors climbed onto the hull and painted marks on locations where they heard signs of life", ". Acetylene torches were needed to cut into the thick hull, and none were initially available. Local Norwegian civilians who owned torches hid them, and only one could be found. A total of 87 men were rescued from within the hull in the 24 hours after the attack. Cutting continued for two further days, and was finally abandoned when it was assessed that the oxygen supply inside the wreck would have been exhausted; no survivors were recovered during this period", ". Estimates of the total number of sailors and officers killed vary, with the most common figures lying between 940 and 1,204. Weber and all of his senior officers were among the dead.", "Many Norwegian civilians in Tromsø were pleased that Tirpitz had been destroyed, not least as it meant the end of an order requiring that they billet members of her crew. Several civilians who showed pleasure at the event in public were arrested by the Gestapo. Other Norwegians were saddened by the way that the battleship's crew had died.", "Work began on stripping Tirpitzs wreck soon after rescue efforts ended, and continued until the late 1950s. Before the end of the war, German personnel removed the ship's bronze propellers and some other components so they could be melted down. The wreck was sold to a Norwegian scrap dealing company in 1948, and was broken up in situ. Salvage work concluded in 1957, by which time most remnants of the battleship had been removed", ". Salvage work concluded in 1957, by which time most remnants of the battleship had been removed. The human remains which were recovered from the wreck by scrappers were initially buried alongside unwanted parts of Tirpitz, but this ceased following complaints by a local church minister. The remains of hundreds of others were recovered and buried in Norwegian cemeteries.", "Return to base", "One of the No. 9 Squadron Lancasters was badly damaged by anti-aircraft gunfire, and its pilot decided to attempt a crash-landing in Sweden. The crew were able to make radio contact with Swedish military forces manning a small airfield at Naisjärv, who prepared it for the bomber. When one of the Lancaster's engines cut out while attempting to land, the pilot made a belly landing in a field near a village. None of the crew were injured, and all were interned by the Swedish Government", ". None of the crew were injured, and all were interned by the Swedish Government. They were subsequently repatriated to the UK.", "The other Lancasters' return flights were complicated by adverse winds. Due to shortages of fuel, many had to divert to alternate airfields but all landed safely during the afternoon of 12 November. Two Lancasters landed at RAF Banff, one of which still carried its Tallboy which had hung up. After taxiing to a halt, and moments after the crew left the aircraft, the Tallboy released itself and clattered to the concrete", ". The film aircraft flew directly to its home station, RAF Waddington, where its pilot was debriefed by Air Commodore Cochrane. The bomber squadrons returned to their home bases over the next two days.", "In the days after the attack, the airmen received congratulations from King George VI, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the War Cabinet and many others. They were also all granted a 48-hour period of leave. Churchill was congratulated by his fellow Allied leaders Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. The Air Ministry issued a communique announcing Tirpitzs destruction on 13 November, leading to celebratory stories in many British newspapers the next day", ". The story was also prominently reported in many other countries. Tait and Williams travelled to London on 14 November for a press conference. The two airmen also gave interviews; Tait described the raid in a BBC broadcast and Williams spoke with American CBS correspondent Edward R. Murrow. The success of Operation Catechism led to celebrations in Allied countries. Tirpitz was seen as a symbol of the Nazi regime, and her destruction provided further evidence that the war was coming to an end", ". Tait was privately sceptical of the value of the operation though, and later noted in his private papers that it \"had not contributed much to the Allied victory\" as the crippled battleship had not posed a threat.", "Many of the aircrew involved in Operation Catechism were decorated in recognition of their part in the attack. Cochrane recommended Tait for the Victoria Cross. While the recommendation was endorsed by Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris, the head of Bomber Command, the medal was not awarded. Instead, Tait was awarded a third bar to his Distinguished Service Order (DSO)", ". Instead, Tait was awarded a third bar to his Distinguished Service Order (DSO). The citation recognised his \"conspicuous bravery and extreme devotion to duty in the face of the enemy, constantly exemplified over a long period of operational flying\" and role in leading three attacks on Tirpitz. Two other pilots received the DSO and six airmen were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross.", "Tirpitzs destruction freed up Allied resources for other theatres. More than half the Home Fleet was deployed elsewhere, including many ships sent to the Pacific to fight Japanese forces.\n\nAssessments", "German", "The loss of Tirpitz was a disaster for the German military units in northern Norway. In addition to the heavy loss of life, the destruction of the battleship left the Kriegsmarine without any of the capital ships needed to threaten Allied convoy routes. Ehrler and several personnel assigned to observer posts, anti-aircraft guns and ships were court martialled and imprisoned. Ehrler was convicted in relation to leaving his unit's operations room under the command of a non-commissioned officer on 12 November", ". He was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, but was released after a month and demoted. He was killed in combat on 4 April 1945. Many commentators and members of JG 5 believe that Ehrler was treated as a scapegoat. Dönitz also ordered that an inquiry be held into why the battleship capsized. The inquiry concluded that \"the actual depth of the prepared berth did not conform with the requirements and directions of the commander-in-chief\".", "It is unclear why the fighters at Bardufoss failed to protect the battleship. Much of the relevant documentation did not survive the war, and accounts from survivors are at times contradictory. Sweetman judged that the failure ultimately resulted from the order to intercept the bombers being issued too late, and a lack of clear plans to coordinate the defence", ". He attributed the former to delays in recognising that the bombers were headed for Tirpitz, as well as inefficient chains of communication that slowed the speed with which this information could be acted on. For instance, it was not possible for German naval personnel to pass information directly to their Luftwaffe equivalents, as messages had to be sent through single-service channels and could only be transmitted between services at relatively senior levels", ". The historian Daniel Knowles reached a similar conclusion, labelling Tirpitzs defences \"chaotic\" due to the poor communications between the battleship and Bardufoss.", "British\n\nThe British military undertook several analyses of the attack. In December 1944, No. 5 Group's headquarters investigated the accuracy of the bombing. This analysis found that No. 617 Squadron had been much more accurate than No. 9 Squadron, possibly due to the latter squadron's bombardiers inputting an inaccurate wind speed into their bombsights. The superior Stabilized Automatic Bomb Sight fitted to No. 617 Squadron's aircraft may have also contributed to the difference.", "On 21–22 May 1945, after the end of the war in Europe, an RAF team travelled to Norway to investigate the causes of Tirpitzs sinking. During the trip they inspected the wreck of the battleship and interviewed key German officers. In their report, the team noted that the damage inflicted on Tirpitz during Operations Source and Paravane had never been fully repaired. The team concluded that the battleship had been directly hit by two Tallboys", ". The team concluded that the battleship had been directly hit by two Tallboys. A team from the Royal Navy's Directorate of Naval Construction also inspected the wreck between 4 September and 14 October 1945, and interviewed witnesses to the attack. This team judged that a lack of watertight integrity resulting from flaws in Tirpitzs design, as well as the watertight doors that divided compartments being left open as the crew evacuated, led the battleship to rapidly capsize", ". Sweetman noted that \"there was, thus, no single cause of Tirpitzs ultimate loss\", as it resulted from the combination of two direct hits, the damage caused by five near misses and problems with the battleship's design.", "Historiography", "Historians hold differing views over whether the final attacks on Tirpitz were necessary. Angus Konstam has written that the battleship posed no threat to Allied shipping from April 1944 due to the damage inflicted in Operations Source and Tungsten. He argued that the subsequent attacks were motivated by Churchill and other members of the War Cabinet having an \"obsession\" with destroying Tirpitz, and that Operations Obviate and Catechism were mainly undertaken for propaganda purposes", ". Patrick Bishop has observed that \"the zeal of the pursuit, whipped on by Churchill, seems excessive now, but wartime created its own dynamic\", and that Operation Catechism contributed little towards ending the war. Similarly, Niklas Zetterling and Michael Tamelander have judged that although \"the British were not fully aware that the Germans had written off Tirpitz as an offensive weapon in autumn 1944, their final efforts appear almost overzealous\"", ". The official history of British intelligence in World War II states that Dönitz's use of the battleship to tie down Allied resources was successful, and \"in her last days she briefly excelled\" in this role.", "Other historians believe that the attacks were justified. Sweetman has written that while the Allied intelligence services erred in believing that Tirpitz could be repaired and returned to service following Operation Paravane, the British leadership acted correctly on the information available to them by ordering further attacks", ". John Ellis reached a similar conclusion, and also argued that Operations Obviate and Catechism were justified as they contributed to sustaining the Fortitude North deception campaign that had led the Germans to maintain powerful ground forces in Norway in the mistaken belief that the Allies were planning amphibious landings there. The retired United States Navy Rear Admiral William H", ". The retired United States Navy Rear Admiral William H. Langenberg judged that \"because of her strategic importance, all the Allied attempts to disable or sink Tirpitz were justified\".", "There is consensus that the engagement was well executed by the Allied forces while the German forces failed. Konstam noted that Operations Paravane, Obviate and Catechism were \"well-planned and conducted\" and \"provided a neat ending to what had been a long and often tortuous aerial campaign\"", ". Sweetman wrote that while the Royal Navy's aircraft and bombs could have destroyed Tirpitz \"with luck\", the combination of the highly-capable Lancaster bomber and the powerful Tallboy bomb was better suited to this task as it removed \"any element of luck, provided accuracy could be obtained\". Bishop stated that while Tirpitzs crew \"did their duty and defended their ship to the last\", the Luftwaffe failed", ". Jan Forsgren observed that the lack of attention given to the battleship's defence by the German high command was \"quite remarkable\" in light of the previous British attacks.", "Commemoration", "Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons have had a long-running rivalry over which unit deserves credit for destroying Tirpitz. This rivalry began immediately after Operation Catechism. In 1950 the Norwegian Government presented the RAF with part of a bulkhead removed from the wreck which Tirpitzs crew had painted with a representation of the battleship. This was initially displayed at RAF Binbrook, from which both Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons had operated during periods of World War II, but was soon stolen by No", ". 9 and 617 Squadrons had operated during periods of World War II, but was soon stolen by No. 9 Squadron personnel who installed it at the unit's headquarters. Over the next 50 years the squadrons conducted elaborate operations to steal the trophy from one another. It was handed over to the Royal Air Force Museum in 2002, and is currently on display at Royal Air Force Museum London.", "Tirpitz is commemorated by several monuments. The main memorial is a small granite slab in memory of the ship and the sailors killed on board her, at the Ehrenfriedhof cemetery in Wilhelmshaven, Germany. Tirpitz survivors held a ceremony at the cemetery's chapel on 12 November each year until at least 2014. The Tirpitz Museum at Kaafjord houses items and photographs associated with the battleship", ". The Tirpitz Museum at Kaafjord houses items and photographs associated with the battleship. Other items removed from the wreck are on display at a museum in Tromsø as well as other museums around the world. Some of the battleship's armour plates were sold to the Norwegian Public Roads Administration, which still uses them to cover excavations on roads in the Oslo region", ". The remnants of the battleship that remain in the water off Håkøya have been registered as a protected area, and are treated as a war grave.", "References\n\nCitations\n\nWorks consulted\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nBattle of the Atlantic\nWorld War II aerial operations and battles of the Western European Theatre\nNaval aviation operations and battles\nAerial operations and battles of World War II involving Germany\nAerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom\n1944 in Norway\nNovember 1944 events\nMilitary operations directly affecting Sweden during World War II" ]

[ "Diomedes Díaz Maestre (26 May 1957 – 22 December 2013) was a Colombian vallenato singer, songwriter, and composer. His nickname, \"El Cacique de la Junta\" (\"The Chieftain of La Junta\"), was given to him by another vallenato singer, Rafael Orozco Maestre, in honor to Díaz's birthplace.", "Diomedes Díaz is the biggest record seller in the history of vallenato, exceeding 10 million throughout his career, due to this, he was awarded with gold, platinum and diamond records, unique in Colombia until 2008. In 2010 he won the Latin Grammy in the \"Cumbia / Vallenato category\". Loved and idolized by many, Diomedes' followers adopted the nickname \"diomedistas\", while Diomedes called them his \"fanaticada\".", "His personal life was marked by family instability, controversial friendships, ups and downs with the consumption of alcohol and drugs, accidents, financial and legal problems, especially the death under strange circumstances of Doris Adriana Niño.\n\nBiography", "Biography\n\nFirst Years \nDiomedes Díaz was born and raised on a farm called \"Carrizal\" on the outskirts of La Junta Township that belongs to the Municipality of San Juan del Cesar, La Guajira. His father, Rafael María Díaz, and his mother, Elvira Maestre, were poor. His childhood was spent helping his parents and eight brothers with farm duties, while he was musically influenced by his locally renowned uncle, Martín Elías.", "First compositions \nAccording to the journalist Alberto Salcedo Ramos, when Diomedes was a child, he acted as a scarecrow to protect the cornfields from birds and, to avoid getting bored, he sang and exchanged songs as a barter with indigenous people from the neighboring farm in exchange for coffee.", "Diomedes' first love, a young woman named Helida, was the one who inspired him to compose his first songs. Diomedes was also trying to dabble in singing, but by way of derision, he obtained the nickname \"El chivato\" (the little goat) for his voice during puberty. He also learned to play the guacharaca and sing verses. Eventually, his uncle decided to help him train his voice and compose songs; Diomedes mastered his vocal training and was invited to perform at parties", ". From Carrizal, he was taken to Villanueva to study in elementary school at the \"Liceo Colombia\". During his stay in Villanueva, a childhood friend accidentally stoned him in the right eye while trying to get mangoes from a tree, he lost sight in the affected eye.", "Diomedes worked as a gardener to help with his livelihood, and then, dropped out of his studies to be a messenger for the Radio Guatapurí station with Manuel Pineda Bastidas being the manager, who gave him a bicycle to run errands for him, but Diomedes never learned to use it. He alternated his job with his studies at the \"Colegio Nacional Loperena\", night shift, where he finished the penultimate grade.", "Diomedes' intention of working at Radio Guatapurí was, once inside, to make friends with the announcers and Disc jockeys so that they could play the album that contained his song \"La negra\", which had recently been recorded by Luciano Poveda and Jorge Quiroz. Diomedes stayed on Radio Guatapurí for eight months, but due to delaying running errands because of not knowing how to ride the bicycle, he was dismissed.", "From his friendship with Rafael Orozco, came the recording of the song \"Cariñito de mi vida\", which consolidated Diomedes as a composer and Orozco as a singer along with the accordionist Emilio Oviedo. Through a greeting in the song \"Cariñito de mi vida\", Rafael Orozco coined and immortalized Diomedes the nickname \"El Cacique de La Junta\".", "Diomedes continued exercising several trades, but always trying to interact with vallenato artists, even working as a prop, picking up wires and adjusting the sound of the microphones of \"Los Hermanos López group\". On the advice of his uncle Martín, Diomedes began to dabble in singing. The accordionist of \"Los Hermanos López\", Elberto López also allowed Diomedes to sing the last songs of their live performances", ". In 1975, Jorge Oñate and Colacho Mendoza recorded the song \"Razón Sentimental\" for him on the album \"Los dos amigos\".", "Participation in \"Festival de la Leyenda Vallenata\" (1975) \nIn 1975, Diomedes participated in the contest \"King of unreleased song\" of the vallenato legend festival occupying third place with his song \"Hijo agradecido\". The concourse was won by Julio Oñate Martínez with the theme \"La Profecía\". This festival took place between April 26 to 30.", "According to his friend Jaime Hinojosa Daza, Diomedes was going through financial difficulties and sold a bundle of lemons in the Valledupar market to buy a cassette and with a borrowed recorder he composed the song. The cassette was presented to the organizers of the contest, then he left to Carrizal because he did not have money to stay in Valledupar, so he heard the results of the competition through Radio Guatapurí, so he knew that they gave him third place", ". The next morning he went to Valledupar to claim the award. His then-girlfriend \"la Negra\" Sarmiento kept the trophy they gave him as a prize, which she still keeps.", "the same year, Jorge Oñate and Colacho Mendoza recorded Diomedes' composition called \"Razón profunda\" on the album \"Únicos\".\n\nIn the \"Rey Vallenato Professional Accordion\" category, the accordion player Nafer Durán was the winner, who contacted Diomedes, through the then artistic director of Codiscos Emilio Oviedo, to make a recording together.", "Nafer Durán (1975) \nOne month after the Vallenato Festival, Diomedes and Náfer Durán with his accordion recorded in Medellín the LP \"Herencia vallenata\" under the Codiscos label, album that included the song of Diomedes' authorship \"El Chanchullito\", composed to his sentimental partner Patricia Acosta.", "Náfer included three songs made by him, \"Pobre negro\" \"Teresita\" and \"La invitación\". Although this musical production did not have too much success, it served to make Diomedes known has a singer. In those years, the vallenato music market was domained by Jorge Oñate, Los Hermanos López and Los hermanos Zuleta.", "Elberto \"El Debe\" López (1976-1977) \nThen with \"El Debe\" López, they recorded the LP's \"Tres canciones\" in 1976, and \"De frente\" in 1977. Diomedes initially traveled from Valledupar to Bogota, where the producer Gabriel Muñoz of CBS (now Sony Music) made him a six minutes audition with the theme \"Cristina Isabel\", and when he noticed Diomedes' talent, decided to contract him.\n\nFor the album \"Tres canciones\" Diomedes included two of his songs, \"Celos con rabia\" and \"Tres canciones\".", "Regarding the LP \"De frente\", Díaz included two songs composed by him, \"La pollita\" and \"Mi profecía\".", "In 1977, Diomedes hired Dagoberto Suárez as his manager, who would remain in the group until 1985. This same year, Juan Piña and accordion player Juancho Rois recorded the album \"El fuete\", in which they included Diomedes' song \"La morriña\". Jorge Oñate and \"Colacho\" Mendoza also recorded compositions from him; the song \"Noble corazón\" on the album \"SIlencio\" and the song \"Mañana primaveral\" on the LP titled \"En la cumbre\".", "Juancho Rois (1978) \nDiomedes Díaz would achieve recognition in 1978 with the album \"La locura\", which he recorded with accordion player Juancho Rois, also native from the municipality of San Juan del Cesar.\n\nDiomedes recorded two songs from his authorship; \"El alma en un acordeón\" and \"La carta\"; they also included a song written by his uncle Martín Maestre entitled \"Me mata el dolor\".", "According to El Heraldo, this album with Juancho Rois was one of the successes of his musical career. Despite the success they achieved with this album, Juancho Rois was bothered by Diomedes' personality and there were personal differences within the group, so Rois decided to leave.", "\"Colacho\" Mendoza (1978-1984)", "Diomedes would consolidate his regional success with accordion players such as Nicolás \"Colacho\" Mendoza, and then towards the interior of Colombia in the early 1980s, especially due to the deployment that his record label gave them, CBS which included commercials on the national chain. By this time, in Bogota had already consolidated Binomio de Oro, made up of his friend Rafael Orozco and the accordion player Israel Romero, so there started a competition in the market with them", ". The union of Diomedes with \"Colacho\" occurred after a proposal from Diomedes, in which the manager Dagoberto Suárez intervened, who contacted the musician during a party in the south of La Guajira.", "The first album by Diomedes and \"Colacho\" was \"Dos grandes\" which was released in 1978. Diomedes included a song of his authorship entitled \"Despedida de soltero\". The song \"El gavilán mayor\" was recorded by Diomedes to honor his friend Raúl Gómez Castrillón, alias \"Gavilán Mayor\", who was one of the first marijuana traffickers or \"marimberos\" that the North Coast of Colombia had.", "The following year, in 1979, Diomedes and \"Colacho\" recorded the album \"Los Profesionales\", which included the song \"El limoncito\" by Martín Maestre; Diomedes included two songs of his authorship, \"El profesional\" and \"El 9 de abril\". This same year, Diomedes and Colacho made their first appearances on \"El Show de Jimmy\" on Do Re Creativa TV, returning to the program in 1980.", "The third musical production with \"Colacho\" was published in 1980 and titled \"Para mi fanaticada\". Diomedes included his songs \"Para mi fanaticada\" and \"Mi casa risueña\". According to El Heraldo, this album with Colacho Mendoza was among the successes of Diomedes' musical career.\n\nDuring the same year, Diomedes and \"Colacho\" recorded the LP, \"Tu serenata\" with two songs made by him, \"Tu serenata\" and \"Penas de un hogar\".", "The album \"Con mucho estilo\" was recorded in 1981 with a song by Diomedes dedicated to his father Rafael María Díaz entitled \"A mi papá\" and another called \"Bonita\" inspired in his wife Patricia Acosta.\n\nIn 1982, Diomedes and \"Colacho\" recorded the album \"Todo es para ti\", in which Diomedes incorporated two songs of his own, \"Te quiero mucho\" and \"Una de mis canciones\".", "The following year they recorded the album \"Cantando\" and Diomedes recorded two songs made by him entitled \"Cantando\" and \"Te necesito\", while \"Colacho\" included the song \"Alma enamorada\" of his authorship.", "Diomedes' last musical production with \"Colacho\" was \"El mundo\" in 1984, Diomedes included three songs of his own; \"Mi muchacho\" inspired in Rafael Santos Díaz, \"Señora tristeza\" and \"La Rasquiñita\". Diomedes sent a greeting on the theme \"El mundo\" to Ricardo Palmera, before he later became the head of the FARC and assumed the alias of \"Simón Trinidad \".", "Gonzalo \"Cocha\" Molina (1985-1987) \nAfter six years of being a musical couple with Colacho Mendoza, in 1985 Diomedes formed a musical group with the accordion player Gonzalo Arturo \"El Cocha\" Molina. Their first record production together was titled \"Vallenato\". Diomedes incorporated three of his songs; \"Dos claveles\", \"Camina\" and \"El gallo y el pollo\". This last song was composed by Diomedes in honor of \"Cocha Molina\".", "On August 30, 1985, Diomedes and \"El Cocha\" received a gold record from CBS Venezuela, for the millionaire sales achieved. The award was given to him during a presentation on \"Super Sábado Sensacional\", at the Venevisión studios.", "The following year, in 1986 Diomedes and \"El Cocha\" recorded the album \"Brindo con el alma\", Diomedes recorded three songs of his authorship; \"Ayudame a quererte\", \"Brindo con el alma\" and \"Sin tí\". In the las one, Diomedes sent a greeting to the drug trafficker Samuel Alarcón, a member of the Cartel de la Costa, also in the song \"Sin medir distancias\" he mentioned his friend, the drug trafficker Felipe Eljach.", "In 1987, the musical production \"Incontenibles\" was recorded, and Diomedes incorporated three themes of his authorship; \"Por no perderte\", \"La excusa\" and \"Tu cumpleaños\". In 2015, the song \"Tu cumpleaños\" became so popular in Colombia, according to data from the Spotify application, that it was heard more than the traditional Happy Birthday To You song and it became a classic song in birthday celebrations.", "Juancho Rois (1988-1994) \nIn 1988 Diomedes rejoined the accordionist Juancho Rois and they recorded the album \"Ganó el folclor\", Diomedes recorded two songs of his authorship; \"La batalla\" and \"Rayito de amor\". Diomedes appeared again in \"El show de Jimmy\" on Do Re Creativa TV and this time alongside Juancho. They would return to promote their albums on the show in a 1989 broadcast.", "\"El cóndor herido\" was recorded in 1989 by Diomedes and \"Juancho\", including three songs by Diomedes; \"El cóndor herido\" composed to his wife Patricia Acosta, \"El besito\" and \"Mi compadre\".\n\nIn 1990 Diomedes and Juancho recorded the album \"Canta conmigo\" with the song \"Lucero espiritual\" by Juancho Polo Valencia, Diomedes recorded three songs of his own entitled \"Noche de amor\", \"Las notas de Juancho\" and \"Adiós lunarcito\".", "The following year, in 1991, Diomedes and Juancho recorded the musical production entitled \"Mi vida musical\", Diomedes recorded two of his songs entitled \"Mi ahijado\" and \"Mi vada musical\".\n\nThe album \"El regreso del cóndor\" was recorded in 1992 by Diomedes and Juancho, this one included a song of his own entitled \"Yo soy el que te quiere\", while Diomedes recorded two of his songs called \"El regreso del cóndor\" y \"Mis mejores días\".", "In 1993 they released the album \"Título de amor\" with two songs by Diomedes; \"Mi primera cana\" and \"Título de amor\"; and Juancho included his song \"Dejala\". Diomedes and Juancho Rois received a gold record from their Sony Music label for having sold over 600,000 copies of the album Titulo de amor, making it the best-selling musical production by Diomedes and Juancho.", "At this time, Diomedes paid $45 million COP (In 1993, one dollar had an average value of 786.54 COP) to a dentist to have a diamond embedded in one of his posterior teeth. The diamond was 4.61 mm by 2.70 mm, 0.39 carats in weight, was imported from India to Colombia for and it cost 20 million pesos, a diamond that would become one of Diomedes' most distinctive characteristics. Diomedes had been mocked by announcers, seeing the singer without a tooth on the cover of the album \"Tres canciones\".", "This same year, Diomedes received an honorary degree from the 'Hugues Manuel Lacouture' school located in La Junta, nevertheless, he arrived late to the ceremony when there were no more attendees.", "In 1994, Diomedes and Juancho once again generated best-sellers with the album \"26 de mayo\", exceeding the figure of 150 thousand copies sold and 450 thousand ordered by music stores. Diomedes' own song were \"Buenas tardes\", \"26 de mayo\" and \"La doctora\". Juancho included his songs \"¿Por qué razón?\" and \"Yo soy Mundial\", which was recorded in a tropical rhythm in honor of the Colombian football team during the qualifying rounds for the World Cup in the United States that year.", "Diomedes and Juancho managed to fill Madison Square Garden in New York and filled stadiums in Colombia and Venezuela.\n\nThe union ended with the untimely death of Juancho Rois on 21 November 1994, in a plane crash in Venezuela while they were on tour, but Diomedes was not in the plane. There are two versions; one that affirms that Diomedes missed the flight and another that the singer did not want to go, because he was invited to a party where some drug traffickers had offered a lot of money to him.", "Iván Zuleta (1995-1998)", "After the death of Juancho Rois, Diomedes formed a musical partnership with the young accordionist Iván Zuleta, who was only 18 years old, but belonging to the dynasty of Emiliano Zuleta Baquero, composer Héctor Zuleta Díaz and Los Hermanos Zuleta. With great talent for singing verses and skilled in the accordion, in 1995 Iván Zuleta recorded with Diomedes the album \"Un canto celestial\" with which he paid tribute to the late Juancho Rois", ". This album included the songs \"Un canto celestial\", \"Gracias por quererla\" made by Diomedes and \"No comprendo\" by Juancho Rois.", "In 1996 they recorded \"Muchas gracias\" Juancho Rois included his song \"Aunque no quieran\", while Diomedes included two of his songs; \"Muchas gracias\" and \"Corazón callejero\".", "In 1997 Diomedes and Zuleta recorded \"Mi biografía\" with the theme \"Entre placer y penas\" by Diomedes. At this time Diomedes recorded the song \"Ron pa' to' el mundo\" with the salsa singer Joe Arroyo for the album Super Bailables del Año under the Sony Music label. In 1997 Diomedes interrupted his musical career due to the scandal that surrounded the death of Doris Adriana Niño, suffered Guillain-Barré disease and was a fugitive from justice.", "The album \"Volver a vivir\" was recorded in 1998 by Diomedes and Zuleta with the themes \"Volver a vivir\" and \"Puro amor\" by Diomedes; According to Iván Zuleta, he and Diomedes managed to sell two and a half million copies in their five musical productions, receiving a diamond disc, 35 platinum discs, and 10 platinum sextuple.", "Franco Argüelles (1999) \nIn 1999, being a fugitive from justice in the case of Doris Adriana Niño, his lawyers, headed by Evelio Daza, succeeded in getting court to temporally exonerate Diomedes from the security measure, alleging that the singer suffered from Guillain-Barré syndrome. Diomedes was held at his home in Valledupar, rather than a prison cell.", "At the end of 1999, Diomedes recorded at his home, the album \"Experiencias vividas\" with accordionist Franco Argüelles, with a song of his own entitled \"Experiencias vividas\" and Franco with his composition \"Lo que no hago yo\"", ". A greeting to Colonel Ciro Hernando Chitiva, Commander of the Police in Cesar caused controversy, due to the judicial problems that Diomedes faced and the effusiveness that the singer showed in a vallenato greeting in the song \"Cabeza de hacha\" in which he mentioned it \" My colonel Ciro Hernando Chitiva. National insignia! \".", "In mid-2000, Fiscalía General de la Nación (Prosecutor's office) determined that Diomedes had recovered from the illnesses related to Guillain-Barré syndrome, so he had to return to jail, but before being captured Diomedes escaped. He took refuge in three farms \"Las Nubes\" and \"La Virgen del Carmen\" that he owned and in another called \"El Limón\" owned by his former manager, the businessman and former councilman of Valledupar, Joaquín Guillén", ". At the time, there were doing strong presence the paramilitary groups under the United Self-Defence Forces of Colombia (AUC), for which it was stated that Diomedes was under the protection of the organization outside the law, also his fans were silent and did not report their sightings of the artist in the region.", "Cocha Molina (2002) \nIn 2002, Diomedes and \"El Cocha\" rejoined and recorded the album \"Gracias a Dios\", Diomedes recorded three songs of his own: \"Woman of the soul\", \"Gracias a Dios\" and \"Consuelo\".\n\nJuancho de la Espriella (2003) \nWhile in prison, in 2003 Diomedes recorded the album \"Pidiendo via\" together with accordion player Juancho De la Espriella, who took time apart from his partner Silvestre Dangond to carry out the record production with Diomedes.", "Diomedes recorded his voice in a room that they allowed to use inside the facilities of the Valledupar Penitentiary and Judicial Prison for three days and the recording of the album lasted between two and three months in some studios a few blocks from the jail and was at position of Juancho and the other members of Diomedes' musical group. In the album they included two songs by Diomedes entitled \"La mujer mía\" and \"A mitad del camino\".", "Franco Argüelles (2005) \nIn 2005, Diomedes and Franco Argüelles recorded the album \"De nuevo con mi gente\" recorded with two songs by Diomedes; the themes \"Siempre serás mi novia\" and \"El perdón\"; a song by Argüelles entitled \"El amor de las mujeres\".", "On 19 November 2005, the Government of Valle del Cauca and the Cali Mayor's Office vetoed Diomedes Díaz after the singer consumed cocaine while he were performing a presentation in the Cali bullring. For his part, Germán Ortegón, Diomedes Díaz's artistic entrepreneur, explained that the alleged bag of cocaine was nothing more than a stamp of the Virgen del Carmen that someone from the public passed to him. The incident was considered as a warning by the local administration to other interpreters", ". The incident was considered as a warning by the local administration to other interpreters. These kinds of scandals were frequent in the artist's life.", "On 22 February 2006, in Santa Marta, according to Johnny Bennedetti who hired Diomedes Díaz, the singer did not appear for a presentation, causing disturbances to the point of almost destroying the premises. According to the artist's representative, José Zequeda, the person responsible for the presentation did not make the payment on time as agreed.", "Iván Zuleta (2007) \nIn 2007 Diomedes returned to record with the accordionist Iván Zuleta, the album was called \"La voz\". Diomedes included two songs of his authorship called \"Las vainas de Diomedes\" and \"No se molesten\".", "The sudden separation between Diomedes and Zuleta occurred when Iván Zuleta decided to form a musical couple with the singer Iván Villazón, who separated of Saúl Lallemand, which generated the anger of Diomedes and the generation of several verses that caused \"Piques\" (Improvisation of vallenato verses) between both groups, but in the friendly sense of vallenato folklore. Diomedes joined accordionist Alvarito López", ". Diomedes joined accordionist Alvarito López. In presentations that the two groups made together, Diomedes called the new duo of Iván Villazón and Iván Zuleta \"Los tal-Ivanes \".", "Álvaro López (2009-2013)", "In 2009, Diomedes recorded the album \"Listo pa 'la foto\" with Alvarito López, which was the winner of the 2010 Latin Grammy Award. Diomedes and Alvarito defeated the other nominees; Omar Geles and Alex Manga with the album \"Prueba superada\"; Jorge Oñate and Cristian Camilo Peña with \"Te dedico mis triunfos\"; Poncho Zuleta and Cocha Molina with \"El nobel del amor\"; and Binomio de Oro of Israel Romero with \"Vuelve and pica ... el Pollo\"", "... el Pollo\". The album included the songs \"Señor maestro\" of the authorship of Diomedes Díaz. Also in 2009, Diomedes recorded an album with two CDs entitled \"Celebremos juntos\" with various singers and accordion players as a tribute to his musical life.", "In 2011, Diomedes and Alvarito recorded the musical production titled \"Con mucho gusto\", Diomedes included one of his songs, entitled \"Amor bogotano\". Díaz recorded several tracks in October 2012 for \"Fiesta Vallenata\", but the album was not released.", "Diomedes and Alvaro López recorded again in 2013, publishing the album \"La vida del artista\". This album, once again, only included one song from Diomedes, called \"El hermano Elías\". During this year went viral the video of the interview that the journalist Ernesto McCausland made with Diomedes in 1991 about death and the background related to the song of his authorship entitled \"Mi ahijado\". In the interview Diomedes spoke philosophically about life and death, and prophesied his burial", ". In the interview Diomedes spoke philosophically about life and death, and prophesied his burial. The video was uploaded to YouTube in 2008 by the journalist, and gradually became massively popular with Internet memes and other parodies in 2013.", "A month before dying, Diomedes finished the recording of the album \"Entre Díaz y canciones\" on November 28, 2013, with the collaboration of his sons Martín Elías and Rafael Santos Díaz, Alvarito López, Juancho De la Espriella, \"El Cocha\" Molina, Rolando Ochoa and Carlos Huertas Jr. This CD was released under the Sony Music label on May 26, 2015, and reached 20 thousand copies sold at launch.", "Personal life", "He was born on a farm called Carrizal in the town of La Junta in the municipality of San Juan del Cesar. In the early years of youth and adulthood, his personal life was marked by family instability, controversial friendships, ups and downs with the consumption of alcohol and drugs, accidents, financial and legal problems, especially the death under strange circumstances of Doris Adriana Niño, and health problems", ". He professed love for his closest children and narrated part of his life through his compositions.", "Of humble and peasant extraction, he grew up in poverty and managed to amass a great fortune. He was disinterested from the money he received from his record earnings, royalties from his compositions, the sale of vallenatos greetings on his records, gifts given to him by drug traffickers, wealthy fans, and profits he received from his farms and other investments.", "He was generous to his followers and strangers, however, due to food demands for his numerous children, problems and legal breaches, he spent much of his fortune on drugs, alcohol, women and lawyers. There were also people who took advantage of the closeness and trust with Diomedes to get large sums of money from him.", "Díaz was a fervent devotee of the Virgen Del Carmen something that he highlighted in his recordings and live performances, he also promised to make her a church, however he died before fulfilling that promise.\n\nFamily \nHis maternal grandparents were José Maestre and Eufemia Hinojosa.", "Family \nHis maternal grandparents were José Maestre and Eufemia Hinojosa.\n\nDiomedes was born on 26 May 1957, in the town of Carrizal, La Guajira, in the home of Rafael María Díaz and Elvira Maestre Hinojosa \"Mamá Vila\", from whose union ten children were born; five men and five women. His siblings were: Gloria María \"Golla\", Rafael Gregorio, Avelina del Carmen \"Chama\", Rosa Leonor \"Ocha\", Abel Antonio, Elizabeth \"Icha\", Elver Augusto, Juan Manuel and Elvira Luz.", "Diomedes Díaz had romantic relationships with several women, with twelve of whom he had 28 recognised children. The following are the women with whom Diomedes had recognized children:", "Death of Martín Maestre", "Diomedes was involved in the accident in which his uncle and mentor Martín Maestre died on 1 August 1979. Diomedes was driving a truck that collided with a pile of sand in the middle of the road, in the place where the roundabout would be built with the monument \"My piece of Accordion\", north of Valledupar. The group of people in the truck came from Patillal where they had been on a celebration", ". The group of people in the truck came from Patillal where they had been on a celebration. Martín lost his life when he was thrown out of the vehicle and hit the ground with his head violently, while Diomedes and other companions were injured.", "In honour of his uncle, Diomedes baptised one of his sons with his name; Martín Elías, who died in a car accident under the same circumstances as his uncle Martin Maestre, both at age 26.", "Guillain Barré syndrome \nIn April 1998, Diomedes suffered numbness in parts of his body while he was in Bogotá preparing the recording of a musical production. Diomedes was hospitalized and tests showed a positive result for cocaine, but that, this was not related to the diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome determined by physicians.", "Diomedes was treated by the cardiologist Rony López and the physiotherapists Carlina de Pantoja and Antonio Bolaño Mendoza, who applied physical and respiratory therapies, while the recovery process took place in Valledupar where the warm climate helped the treatment.", "Death\nDiomedes Díaz died in Valledupar on 22 December 2013, due to a cardiorespiratory arrest at 6:15 p.m. when he was resting in his bed. According to Diomedes' partner, Consuelo Martínez, Díaz was sleeping and Consuelo noticed that the artist was not moving, so she called an ambulance and was transferred to a clinic where it was confirmed that his death was due to \"natural causes\". He was buried in a massive funeral on December 25 at the \"Jardines del Ecce Homo\" cemetery in Valledupar.", "His last public appearance was on 20 December, two days before his death. Diomedes Díaz said goodbye to the year at the Trucupey nightclub in Barranquilla, where he went with his musical group. After his death, several legal disputes began over his inheritance.\n\nDoris Adriana Niño", "Homicide", "During the night of 14–15 May 1997, Díaz was having a party in his apartment in Bogotá, when a friend, Doris Adriana Niño, was murdered. According to the Constitutional Court of Colombia, some people at the party, including Niño, consumed drugs, but it is not clear if she was involuntarily forced to take drugs or did so voluntarily. The report says that Niño was raped, and had an argument with a pregnant woman at the party, Luz Consuelo Martínez", ". Niño died that night, and her body appeared on the outskirts of Bogotá, near the Village of San Onofre, municipality of Combita, (Boyacá Department).", "Legal proceedings\n\nDíaz was captured by order of the Attorney general's office on 3 October 1997, and was given house arrest after proving he was suffering from Guillain–Barré syndrome. On 11 August 2000, a judge ordered Díaz transferred to jail, considering that his illness had been considerably overcome. When authorities went to his house to complete the transfer, Díaz had escaped and found refuge with an illegal paramilitary group headed by Rodrigo Tovar.", "During the trial, Díaz was tried as an \"absent inmate\"; the judge concluded that Niño had a great amount of drugs the night she died, but the Attorney General's Office determined that her death had been caused by provoked asphyxiation. The Colombian Bureau of Legal Medicine determined that she had died from pressure put over her mouth and nose. On 20 August 2002, after a year and a half of evading house arrest, Díaz turned himself in to authorities in Valledupar, accompanied by two of his lawyers", ". On 21 August 2002, a Colombian Superior Tribunal reduced his jail term from 144 to 37 months; Niño's family protested that the sentence was too low. He had already spent a year in jail and had two years pending before his escape. According to the trial, Díaz did not commit unintentional homicide (homicidio preterintencional), in which the aggressor wants to induce damage but ends up causing death, as the previous judge had ruled", ". Instead, it was determined that he had committed involuntary manslaughter (homicidio culposo), which according to Colombian law, is less severe than unintentional homicide.", "Criticism of trial\nDoris Adriana Niño's family, especially her brother Rodrigo, criticized the lenient treatment given to Díaz by authorities as he expressed in statements after Díaz turned himself in:", "Scandals\n On 22 November 2005, the local government of Cali vetoed all performances by Díaz in the city after the singer allegedly used cocaine while performing onstage. Although video images proved the contrary, the Cali City Hall gave notice to all entertainment businesses that the government was not going to issue any permits for the use of public areas where Díaz would be scheduled to appear. The incident was considered a warning by the local administration to other performers.", "On 22 February 2006, Díaz was scheduled to sing in the city of Santa Marta. According to the businessman Johnny Bennedetti who hired Díaz, the singer did not show up for the event, causing a mob to almost completely destroy the venue, \"La Tremenda\". According to Díaz publicist José Sequeda, the people in charge of the event did not deliver on time the full payment as was established in the contract. He said that he had given Diaz part of the money as an initial payment", ". He said that he had given Diaz part of the money as an initial payment. As a result of the mob, 25 microphones, liquor and money were stolen and sound system equipment was damaged.", "Discography", "1976 Herencia Vallenata, featuring Nafer Durán.\n 1976 Tres Canciones, featuring Edelberto López.\n 1977 De Frente, featuring Edelberto López.\n 1978 La Locura, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1979 Dos Grandes, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1979 Los Profesionales, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1980 Tu Serenata, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1980 Para Mi Fanaticada, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1981 Con Mucho Estilo, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1982 Todo es para ti, featuring Colacho Mendoza.", "1982 Todo es para ti, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1983 Cantando, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1984 El Mundo, featuring Colacho Mendoza.\n 1985 Vallenato, featuring Cocha Molina.\n 1986 Brindo con el Alma, featuring Cocha Molina.\n 1987 Incontenibles, featuring Cocha Molina.\n 1988 Gano el Folclor, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1989 El Cóndor Herido, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1990 Canta Conmigo, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1991 Mi Vida Musical, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1992 El Regreso del Cóndor, featuring Juancho Rois.", "1991 Mi Vida Musical, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1992 El Regreso del Cóndor, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1993 Titulo de Amor, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1994 26 de Mayo, featuring Juancho Rois.\n 1995 Un Canto Celestial, featuring Iván Zuleta.\n 1996 Muchas Gracias, featuring Iván Zuleta.\n 1997 Mi Biografia, featuring Iván Zuleta.\n 1998 Volver a Vivir, featuring Iván Zuleta.\n 1999 Experiencias Vividas, featuring Franco Argüelles.\n 2002 Gracias a Dios, featuring Cocha Molina.", "2002 Gracias a Dios, featuring Cocha Molina.\n 2003 Pidiendo Vía, featuring Juan Mario de la Espriella.\n 2005 De Nuevo Con Mi Gente, featuring Franco Argüelles.\n 2007 La Voz, featuring accordion player Iván Zuleta.\n 2009 Celebremos Juntos\n 2009 Listo Pa' la foto\n 2011 Con Mucho Gusto, featuring Alvaro Lopéz\n 2013 La Vida del Artista, featuring Alvaro Lopéz (This was his last album; released a few days before his death).\n 2014 56 años, 56 éxitos, una historia (Posthumous solo project)", "2014 56 años, 56 éxitos, una historia (Posthumous solo project)\n 2015 Entre Díaz y canciones, featuring Martín Elías and Rafael Santos Díaz (Posthumous solo project, accompanied by their sons)", "Awards and nominations\n\nLatin Grammy Awards\nDiaz received a Latin Grammy Award and three nominations.\n\n|-\n| 2009 || Celebremos Juntos || Best Cumbia/Vallenato Album || \n|-\n| 2010 || Listo Pa' la foto || Best Cumbia/Vallenato Album || \n|-\n| 2012 || Con Mucho Gusto Caray || Best Cumbia/Vallenato Album || \n|-\n| 2014 || La Vida del Artista || Best Cumbia/Vallenato Album || \n|-\n\nSee also\nList of best-selling Latin music artists\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Discography of Diomedes Díaz", "References\n\nExternal links\n\n Discography of Diomedes Díaz\n \n\n1957 births\n2013 deaths\nLatin Grammy Award winners\nPeople from Valledupar\n20th-century Colombian male singers\nSony Music Colombia artists\nVallenato musicians\n21st-century Colombian male singers" ]

[ "The 2017 Michigan State Spartans football team represented Michigan State University in the 2017 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Spartans played their home games at the Spartan Stadium in East Lansing, Michigan, and competed in the East Division of the Big Ten Conference. They were led by 11th-year head coach Mark Dantonio. The Spartans finished the season 10–3, 7–2 in Big Ten play to finish in a tie for second place in the East Division", ". The Spartans received an invitation to the Holiday Bowl where they defeated Washington State.", "Offseason\n\n2017 NFL Draft\n\nUndrafted NFL free agents\n\nDismissals due to sexual assault incidents \nThe Spartans dismissed three players, Donnie Corley, Josh King, and Demetric Vance, after they were charged with third-degree criminal sexual conduct in relation to a sexual assault investigation. In a separate incident, Auston Robertson, was charged with third-degree sexual misconduct in April and dismissed from the team.\n\nRecruiting \nThe Spartans signed a total of 23 recruits.\n\nRoster \nPosition key", "Recruiting \nThe Spartans signed a total of 23 recruits.\n\nRoster \nPosition key\n\nCoaching staff\n\nSchedule and results \nMichigan State announced its 2017 football schedule on December 8, 2016.\n\nSource\n\nGame summaries\n\nBowling Green", "MSU opened the season at Spartan Stadium against Mid-American Conference opponent, Bowling Green looking to improve upon their poor performance in 2016. The Spartans started well, driving to the Falcon goalline before L. J. Scott fumbled the ball and Bowling Green returned it to their 31-yard line. The Falcons moved the ball down the field and took the lead shortly thereafter on a Jake Suder 36-yard field goal", ". After this ominous beginning, neither team managed any further points in the first quarter, but the Spartans took the lead for good less than four minutes into the second quarter on a Madre London seven-yard touchdown run. As time ran out in the first half, Brian Lewerke hit Felton Davis for a four-yard touchdown pass to give the Spartans a 14–3 lead at halftime", ". MSU's offense took control in the third period, scoring touchdowns on back-to-back possessions, both touchdown passes from Brian Lewerke, to give the Spartans a commanding 28–3 lead. Tyson Smith, playing in his first game since suffering a stroke in November 2016, intercepted a Falcon pass and returned it 38 yards for a touchdown and a 35–3 lead. LJ Scott would lose another fumble early in the fourth quarter, this time the Falcons returned it 46 yards for a touchdown to reduce the Spartan lead to 35–10", ". Neither team scored again as the Spartans moved to 1–0 on the season with a convincing win.", "Brian Lewerke played well, completing 22 of this 33 attempts and throwing three touchdowns. He also rushed for 70 yards on the day. L. J. Scott had a poor day, rushing 15 times and gaining only 39 yards and fumbling the ball twice with the Falcons recovering both. The Spartan defense limited the Falcons to three points and 212 total yards on the day.\n\nWestern Michigan", "In the second week of the season, the Spartans hosted another MAC opponent, the previous year's MAC champion, Western Michigan. The Michigan State defense would hold steady on the opening drive by the Broncos, with Josiah Scott recording his first career interception. The Spartan offense was able to drive into WMU territory following the interception, but was unable to score", ". Several possessions later, Brian Lewerke finally opened the scoring in the first quarter on a read option play, scoring on a 61-yard run, giving Michigan State a 7–0 lead. Michigan State would add another score late in the second quarter on a 15-yard pass from Lewerke to L. J. Scott. As a result, MSU led 14–0 at halftime", ". J. Scott. As a result, MSU led 14–0 at halftime. For the second week in a row, an opponent scored on a fumble recovery when true-freshman receiver Hunter Rison had the ball stripped by WMU cornerback Darius Phillips and returned it 67 yards for a touchdown, to pull the Broncos within 14–7. The Spartan offense immediately answered the score, taking less than three minutes on their following drive to score, which included a Darrell Stewart Jr. run of 41 yards to the WMU one-yard line", ". run of 41 yards to the WMU one-yard line. Lewerke would punch it in from one-yard out, restoring MSU's two touchdown lead, 21–7. The Spartans increased the lead in the fourth quarter when L. J. Scott broke a 44-yard run on fourth and one from the Spartan 45-yard line. Scott would eventually score on a two-yard touchdown run, giving MSU a 28–7 lead. However, Darius Phillips answered the Spartan touchdown on the ensuing kickoff with a 100-yard return for touchdown, making it 28–14", ". The Bronco offense would finally put a drive together late in the fourth quarter, driving all the way to the MSU 15-yard line before failing to convert on fourth and one. The Spartan offense would then run out the clock to secure the 28–14 victory. The win moved the Spartans to 2–0 on the season with a bye week to follow.", "The Michigan State defense played extremely well, tallying four sacks (they had 11 total sacks all of last year) and surrendering only 195 yards and, for the second week in a row, did not give up a touchdown. Brian Lewerke totaled 242 all purpose yards (161 yards passing, 81 yards rushing), with two rushing TDs and a passing TD. LJ Scott led all rushers with 86 yards rushing with a couple of TDs (one receiving and one rushing). Felton Davis led all receivers with four receptions and 69 yards", ". Felton Davis led all receivers with four receptions and 69 yards. Michigan State rushed for 296 yards, the most yards rushing the Spartans have had in a game since rushing for 330 yards against Indiana in 2014.", "Notre Dame", "Following a bye week, the Spartans welcomed rival Notre Dame to Spartan Stadium for their third consecutive home game. Notre Dame jumped up early on the Spartans, taking the opening drive 78 yards on seven plays as Notre Dame QB Brandon Wimbush ran for 16 yards to put the Irish up 7–0. On the next possession, things got even worse for the Spartans as Brian Lewerke's pass was intercepted by Julian Love and returned 59 yards for a touchdown", ". Trailing 14–0, the Spartans would answer, going 75 yards and scoring on a Darrell Stewart Jr. four-yard touchdown catch to cut the lead to 14–7. Neither team managed any more points in the first quarter, but Lewerke again committed a mistake early in the second quarter as he fumbled the ball at the MSU 24-yard line. Six plays later Wimbush hit Dexter Williams for an eight-yard touchdown to put the Irish up 21–7. Looking to avoid the rout, the Spartans took their next drive deep into Notre Dame territory", ". Looking to avoid the rout, the Spartans took their next drive deep into Notre Dame territory. L. J. Scott scored an apparent touchdown from 14 yards out, but he was stripped of the ball before he crossed the goalline and Notre Dame recovered the fumble. Instead of the lead being reduced to 21–14, Notre Dame moved down the field on five plays as Williams again scored for the Irish, putting the score at 28–7. MSU was unable to answer and trailed by 21 at the half.", "In the second half, MSU attempted to prevent the blowout, but only managed a field goal on their opening possession. The Irish put the game out of reach on their next possession, going 62 yards on eight plays to balloon the lead to 35–10. Notre Dame added a field goal with five minutes remaining in the game as the MSU offense continued to struggle. The Spartans did get another touchdown as Gerald Holmes caught a 25-yard pass from Brian Lewerke to cut the lead to 38–18 with the two point conversion", ". However, with just 1:36 remaining the game, it was too little too late and the Spartans fell 38–18. As a result of the win, the Irish received the Megaphone Trophy. The Spartans fell to 2–1 on the season.", "MSU outgained the Irish 496–355, but the three turnovers cost the Spartans. Lewerke completed 31 of 51 passes for 340 yards and the Spartans gained 151 yards on the ground. Despite the yardage discrepancy, it was a complete and utter blowout.\n\nIowa", "In their fourth consecutive home game to begin the season, the Spartans hosted the Hawkeyes in East Lansing in the teams' first matchup since the 2015 Big Ten Championship. MSU started off hot as Brian Lewerke hit his first five passes including a 22-yard catch by Felton Davis for a touchdown and an early 7–0 lead over Iowa. After exchanging punts on their next possessions, the Spartans again got hot through the air as Lewerke again hit Davis, this time from six yards out to move the MSU lead to 14–0", ". Iowa would answer as they went 72 yards on 10 plays before Akrum Wadley scored on a 9-yard run that cut the lead in half at 14–7. Michigan State managed a 38-yard field goal from Matt Coghlin with 43 seconds left in the half to push the halftime lead to 17–7.", "In the second half, both defenses controlled the game. However, Iowa, on the first possession of the half moved to the Spartan five-yard line before Iowa quarterback Nate Stanley fumbled the ball without being touched and MSU recovered at their own three yard line. The first scoring of the half came with a little over nine minutes left in the game as Iowa converted on a Miguel Recinos 43-yard field goal to narrow the lead to 17–10", ". After exchanging punts, the Spartans punted to Iowa with just over three minutes remaining in the game. The Spartan defense, however, limited the Hawkeyes to three plays before the clock ran out and the Spartans left with the victory 17–10.", "Iowa managed only 231 yards in the game while the Spartans put up 300 yard. The difference in the game were the turnovers as the Spartans, who entered the game with eight turnovers on the season, did not turn the ball over while the Hawkeyes lost two fumbles. The win moved MSU to 3–1 on the season and 1–0 in the Big Ten with a trip to Ann Arbor looming.\n\nMichigan", "Leaving Spartan Stadium for the first time on the season, the Spartans traveled to take on rival Michigan in a matchup for the Paul Bunyon Trophy. No. 7-ranked Michigan looked like the better team to start the game as they went 64 yards on 16 plays, but stalled on the MSU 11-yard line and settled for a 30-yard field goal to take an early 3–0 lead. The unranked Spartans were forced to punt on their first possession and, after a first down for Michigan, MSU took control of the game", ". Joe Bachie stripped Michigan's Ty Isaac and Chris Frey recovered the fumble at the Michigan 46-yard line. The Spartans drove straight down the field and Brian Lewerke scrambled in from 14 yards out to give the Spartans a 7–3 lead. The MSU defense forced Michigan to punt and the Spartan offense stalled at the Michigan 47. Following another punt by the Wolverines, the Spartans capped off an 83-yard drive with a Madre London 16-yard run to put the Spartans up 14–3", ". Another forced fumble by the Spartan defense ended a Michigan drive at the Spartan 29-yard line with just over a minute remaining in the half. The Spartans happily went to the locker room with a 14–3 lead.", "In the second half, the weather became a major factor. With the wind kicking up and a storm approaching, Michigan scored on their second possession after a short punt gave the Wolverines the ball as the Spartan 33. The one-yard touchdown run narrowed the MSU lead to 14–10. MSU's offense, facing a strong wind and a storm, went conservative for the remainder of the game. MSU's defense did not, intercepting Michigan quarterback John O'Korn on the next three possessions", ". MSU's defense did not, intercepting Michigan quarterback John O'Korn on the next three possessions. Though MSU did not convert any of the interceptions into points, each stopped a Wolverine drive at crucial junctures. The Spartan defense kept up its good play, forcing Michigan to punt on their next two possessions and the Spartans took over with 3:58 remaining in the game", ". A pair of MSU first downs, their first first downs of the half, appeared to seal the win for MSU, but penalties set the Wolverines up with the ball at their own 20 with 34 seconds to go. Another personal foul penalty on the Spartans following 15-yard gain gave Michigan the ball at midfield. Finally, as time expired, the Wolverines' Hail Mary-pass was deflected to the ground at the goal line to give the Spartans the win and the Paul Bunyon trophy.", "The win gave the Spartans their eighth win over Michigan in the last ten years, all under head coach Mark Dantonio. The Spartans rushed for 158 yards, but were limited to only 94 yards through the air. The MSU defense held the Wolverines to 300 yards. MSU also did not turn the ball over, while forcing five Wolverine turnovers.\n\nMinnesota", "Going on the road for the second straight week but leaving the state of Michigan for the first time on the season, the newly ranked Spartans traveled to Minnesota. The start of the game was delayed for approximately 45 minutes due to thunderstorms in the area. The weather made for a very sloppy start for both offenses, with Minnesota going three-and-out on their first drive. Michigan State took over, but a fumbled snap set the Spartans back and they had to punt as well", ". Michigan State took over, but a fumbled snap set the Spartans back and they had to punt as well. Disaster struck on the punt, as the snap was high and slipped through punter Jake Hartbarger's hands, with Minnesota recovering at the Spartan three yard line. The MSU defense stood tall and drove the Gophers back, leading to an Emmit Carpenter 25-yard field goal to open the scoring", ". Michigan State responded with a field goal drive of their own, with Matt Coghlin hitting from 42 yards out to even the score at 3–3. On the ensuing Gopher possession, a fumbled hand-off was recovered by Spartan defensive end Kenny Willekes at the Gopher eight yard line. Madre London scored the game's first touchdown two plays later from three yards out to make the score 10–3. After a Gopher punt, Brian Lewerke threw his first interception in three games and the Gophers took over at the MSU 34 yard-line", ". This led to a 47-yard field goal from Carpenter to make the score 10–6. Michigan State responded with a touchdown drive, with L. J. Scott scoring from 24 yards out to extend the lead to 17–6 at the half.", "Michigan State received the opening kickoff of the second half and drove down into the red zone, but were forced to settle for another field goal, with Coghlin hitting from 35 yards out to move the score to 20–6. The Gophers punted on their next possession and the Spartans put together another long drive. However, a false start penalty forced MSU to settle for another Coghlin field goal to increase the lead to 23–6. Following yet another fumble by L. J", ". Following yet another fumble by L. J. Scott, Minnesota recovered scored their first touchdown of the game on a 28-yard pass from Demry Croft to Tyler Johnson to cut the lead to 23–13. After a good kickoff return from Connor Heyward, MSU quickly responded to the Gopher touchdown with Scott scoring from six yards out, making it 30–13 Spartans. Minnesota was not done as Croft found Johnson again for a touchdown from 17 yards out to cut it to 30–20 with under eight minutes remaining in the game", ". The next Spartan drive led to a missed field goal from 45 yards out and Minnesota took over with under five minutes remaining in the game. Croft found Johnson in the end zone for the third time in the second half to reduce MSU's lead to three. However, Minnesota's onside kick was recovered by MSU as the Spartans pulled out a hard-fought 30–27 victory on the road at Minnesota.", "Scott ran for a career-high 194 yards on 25 carries with two touchdowns. London added 74 yards and a touchdown as the Spartans ran for 245 yards in the game while limiting the Gophers to 74 yards on the ground. The win moved the Spartans 5–1 overall and 3–0 in the Big Ten.\n\nIndiana", "Indiana \n\nThe Spartans returned home to face rival Indiana on Homecoming in East Lansing in a matchup for the Old Brass Spittoon. Michigan State had its seven-game winning streak in the series snapped last season as the Hoosiers defeated the Spartans in overtime. Prior to the game, it was announced that MSU running back L. J. Scott would play after being arrested for driving without a license during the week.", "Both offenses struggled throughout the first half. Following a Madre London fumble that was recovered at the MSU 15-yard line by the IU defense, Indiana notched their only points of the half on a Griffin Oakes 33-yard field goal with 1:14 remaining in the first quarter. The teams exchanged punts before Michigan State hit a Matt Coghlin 22-yard field goal, capping off a 10 play, 68-yard drive with 6:46 remaining in the first half. Punts ruled the remainder of the half as the score remained 3–3 at halftime.", "The defenses continued to assert themselves in the second half, as neither offense could sustain drives to begin the third quarter. Indiana finally put a lengthy drive together with just under 10 minutes left in the third quarter, driving all the way to the Michigan State 26-yard line before being forced to settle for a 44-yard field goal to give the Hoosiers a 6–3 lead", ". On the ensuing possession, MSU's offense also came alive on a nine-play, 40 yard drive, but the Spartans would turn the ball over on downs at the Indiana 35-yard line. Indiana took over and drove to the MSU two-yard line before being stymied again by the Spartan defense and being forced to settle for another field goal that gave Indiana a 9–3 lead with 12:29 remaining in the game. The teams exchanged punts as MSU quarterback Brian Lewerke repeatedly missed open receivers with inaccurate throws", ". Taking over at their own 45 with 9:07 remaining in the game, the Spartans moved the ball down the field converting on a fourth and three with a Lewerke pass to Hunter Rison for a first down. Two plays later, Felton Davis caught the go-ahead touchdown pass from Lewerke to give MSU a 10–9 lead. The Spartan defense again forced a three-and-out, handing the offense an opportunity to run out the clock with 4:39 remaining. On third down and eight, Lewerke again hit Hunter Rison for a first down", ". On third down and eight, Lewerke again hit Hunter Rison for a first down. Indiana, using their timeouts, forced the Spartans into another third and long situation. Lewerke again converted on a pass to Cody White for a gain of 34 yards. Indiana, in an effort to preserve their final timeout and to ensure that they got the ball back with enough time to score and tie the game, purposely allowed LJ Scott to score on from 18 yards out on the following play", ". The score gave Michigan State a 17–9 lead with 1:49 remaining. the MSU defense held stout, forcing Indian to turn the ball over on downs, allowing MSU to run out the clock for the win.", "Cody White led all receivers with seven receptions for 99 yards and L. J. Scott rushed for 87 yards and a touchdown. Joe Bachie recorded a career high 13 tackles, including a forced fumble. For the third time on the season, the defense did not allow an offensive touchdown. With the win, Michigan State reclaimed the Old Brass Spittoon and became bowl eligible. The win moved MSU to 6–1 on the season and 4–0 in the Big Ten.\n\nNorthwestern", "MSU's third road game on the season was a trip to face Northwestern. MSU started well, driving 92 yards on their opening possession as Brian Lewerke hit Cody White from six yards out to give MSU the 7–0 lead. Northwestern moved into MSU territory on their first possession, but Andrew Dowell forced a fumble which was recovered by his brother David Dowell to end the Wildcat threat", ". MSU's offense again moved deep into Northwestern territory looking to increase their lead, but Cody White fumbled at the NU 7-yard line to end the MSU drive. The teams exchanged punts into the second quarter before MSU again moved into NU territory. This time the Wildcat defense forced a field goal by Matt Coghlin which moved the Spartan lead to 10–0. Northwestern answered on their next drive, scoring from one yard out to narrow the lead to 10–7", ". Northwestern answered on their next drive, scoring from one yard out to narrow the lead to 10–7. Following a punt, NU took over with 1:49 remaining in the half and drove into MSU territory. The MSU defense finally stiffened and forced Northwestern to settle for a 35-yard field goal to tie the game at the half.", "In the third quarter, both offenses started well, but had drives stall as NU punted from MSU territory and the Spartans' Matt Coghlan hit the right upright on a 51-yard field goal attempt. The teams exchanged punts into the fourth quarter before Northwestern moved to the Spartan 12-yard line. On a halfback pass play, Justin Jackson hit Ben Skowronek to give the Wildcats a 17–10 lead with just over 10 minutes remaining in the game", ". MSU attempted to answer, moving into NU territory again, but Matt Coghlin again hit the right upright, this time from 32 yards out as the score remained 17–10. Following a Wildcats put, MSU, needing a touchdown to tie, took over at their own 12 with 3:14 left in the game. The offense moved down to the NU 30-yard line with 53 seconds remaining. On fourth down, Brian Lewerke scrambled for the first down to keep MSU alive", ". On fourth down, Brian Lewerke scrambled for the first down to keep MSU alive. Two plays later, Lewerke hit Felton Davis in the corner of the end zone to tie the game at 17 with 25 seconds remaining. The Wildcats simply knelt out the clock to force overtime.", "In the first overtime, NU took three plays to shred the MSU defense for a touchdown as Clayton Thorson found Cameron Green open for a 14-yard touchdown and an NU lead 24–17. MSU answered in their possession as Lewerke again hit Davis for a six-yard touchdown to force a second overtime. In the second overtime, MSU took the lead as Lewerke hit White for another touchdown from 11 yards out. MSU's defense could not hold the lead however, allowing an NU touchdown in four plays to tie the game again", ". In the third overtime, the MSU defense continued its struggles giving up a 22-yard touchdown pass on third down and allowing the two-point conversion as NU took a 39–31 lead. Following an incomplete pass, Lewerke fumbled on the second play of overtime, but was able to recover and scramble out of the pocket. However, a poor decision by Lewerke to thrown the ball over the middle of the field resulted in the ball being intercepted by the Wildcats and giving MSU its second loss on the season.", "Lewerke set an MSU single-game record, throwing for 445 yards in the loss. MSU's defense struggled for one of the first times in the season, allowing 432 yards to Northwestern's offense.\n\nPenn State", "Penn State \n\nComing off their first Big Ten loss, MSU welcomed rival and reigning Big Ten Champion Penn State to Spartan Stadium, marking the first time since 2013 the teams did not conclude the regular season playing each other. The Nittany Lions were also coming off their first Big Ten loss, having blown a lead against Ohio State the prior week.", "MSU forced a Penn State turnover on the opening possession of the game as Joe Bachie intercepted a Trace McSorley pass to give the ball to MSU for their first possession. MSU moved into Penn State territory, but stalled and were forced to punt. Starting at their own eight yard line, PSU moved quickly down the field and opened the scoring as McSorley connected on a 31-yard touchdown pass to DaeSean Hamilton to give the Nittany Lions a 7–0 lead", ". A personal foul penalty on the Lions on the ensuing kickoff gave MSU the ball at their own 48-yard line. Four plays later, Brian Lewerke found Darrell Stewart Jr. on a seven-yard touchdown pass to tie the game at seven. However, PSU answered, moving 75 yards on nine plays as McSorley hit Saeed Blacknall on fourth down to take a 14–7 lead. After each team exchanged punts, MSU moved into Penn State territory before a weather delay stopped play with 7:58 remaining in the second quarter", ". Due to lightning and storms in the area, the game was delayed for three hours and 23 minutes. The teams began play again around 3:30 EDT and MSU turned the ball over on downs. After a Penn State punt, the Spartans moved quickly down the field and Lewerke hit Felton Davis on a 33-yard touchdown pass to tie the game with 3:50 left in the half. Neither team could manage anything further as the half ended with the score tied at 14.", "To begin the second half, each team punted the ball before MSU moved 91 yards on a 10-play drive capped off by an L. J. Scott three-yard touchdown pass to give the Spartans a 21–14 lead. Penn State, looking to answer, stalled on their next drive at the MSU eight yard line and settled for a field goal to reduce the lead to 21–17. Following a Spartan punt, McSorley hit a wide-open DeAndre Thompkins on a 70-yard touchdown pass to take a 24–21 lead as the third quarter expired", ". The Spartans, again given good field position due to a PSU personal foul on the kickoff, answered on their next possession. The drive sputtered at the PSU 14, and Matt Coghlin kicked a 32-yard field goal to tie the game at 24. McSorley was intercepted on the next PSU possession, but the Spartans were forced to punt. Looking to take the lead, the Lions moved to the Spartan 31 yard line, but McSorley's pass fell incomplete on fourth down with 4:05 remaining in regulation", ". MSU moved methodically down the field and on third down from the Lion 27 yard line, Lewerke's pass to Cody White fell incomplete appearing to end the drive. However, PSU was called for roughing Lewerke on the play to give the Spartans a first down at the PSU 22. With time running out, MSU maneuvered to the Lion 16 yard line to set up Coghlin for the game-winning field goal as time expired, giving MSU the 27–24 win.", "Brian Lewerke threw for 400 yards for the second consecutive game, the first Spartan ever to do that and only the third Big Ten quarterback to accomplish that feat in the last 20 years. The game completed at 7:03 EDT, some seven hours and three minutes after the start. The win left MSU in the driver's seat in the Big Ten East with only loss and facing Ohio State, also with one loss, the next week.\n\nOhio State", "MSU traveled to Columbus to take on Ohio State with a chance to move into sole possession of first place in the Big Ten East division. However, Ohio State would have none of that, blowing out the Spartans 48–3, the worst lost by MSU under head coach Mark Dantonio. The Buckeyes scored touchdowns on five of their first six possessions to take a commanding 35–0 lead before halftime. OSU rushed for 335 yards against MSU's defense, the most allowed by a defense at MSU under Dantonio", ". Meanwhile, the Spartan offense struggled mightily as well, rushing for only 64 yards while amassing only 195 yards of total offense. A Matt Coghlin field goal as the first half expired marked the Spartans only points of the game. The Buckeyes would add a touchdown and two field goals in the second half to end any realistic shot the Spartans had at the Big Ten Championship. The loss left the Spartans at 7–3 on the season and 5–2 in Big Ten play with two games remaining.", "Maryland", "Following the worst loss under head coach Mark Dantonio, the Spartans returned home for Senior Day against Maryland. On a rainy day that often turned to snow, both offenses struggled. However, on MSU's first possession of the game, the Spartans moved 69 yards on 11 plays as L.J. Scott capped the drive with a two-yard touchdown run to give the Spartans the early 7–0 lead. MSU added to the lead early in the second quarter as Brian Lewerke scored on a 25-yard run to increase the lead to 14–0", ". MSU continued to dominate the game moving inside the Terrapin 10 yard line on their next possession, but a Gerald Holmes fumble was recovered by Maryland at their own one-yard line to end the drive. As MSU's defense dominated Maryland in the first half, the Spartans took a 14–0 lead at the half.", "Late in the third quarter, MSU added to the lead again on a Matt Coghlin field goal to move the lead to 17–0. Rain and snow continued to hamper both offenses as neither team could manage much offense. Maryland finally got on the board in the fourth quarter, scoring on a four-yard run by Lorenzo Harrison to reduce the lead to 17–7. A missed field goal on the next Maryland possession gave the Spartans the ball as they were able to run out the clock for a 17–7 win.", "The win moved the Spartans to 8–3 on the season and 6–2 in the Big Ten. However, a win by Ohio State that day eliminated MSU from the Big Ten Championship. MSU outgained Maryland 291–204 while MSU's offense rushed for 271 yards in the game with L. J. Scott accounting for 147 of the MSU rushing yards. Brian Lewerke struggled on the day, completing only two of 14 attempts for 20 yards.\n\nRutgers", "On the final day of the regular season, the Spartans travelled to New Jersey to take on Rutgers, the team against which MSU tallied its lone conference win from the prior year. MSU started fast scoring on their first possession as Brian Lewerke hit Connor Heyward from seven yards out for the early 7–0 lead. On the ensuing Rutgers possession, MSU forced a fumble on the first play which was recovered by Andrew Dowell at the Rutgers eight yard line", ". The Spartans were unable to get into the end zone, however, and settled for a Matt Coghlin 26-yard field goal. Following a Scarlet Knight punt, MSU again moved deep into Rutgers territory, but again could not punch the ball in and settled for another 26-yard field goal and a 13–0 lead. Rutgers answered on their next possession early in the second quarter on a 42-yard touchdown pass to pull within 13–7. The Spartans were able to add another Coghlin field goal to take a 16–7 lead at the half.", "Another field goal led off the third quarter for the Spartans as they took a 19–7 lead with five minutes remaining in the third. On MSU's next drive, the Spartans went 60 yards and 12 plays in six minutes and finally scored another touchdown early in the fourth quarter as Gerald Holmes ran in from two yards out to increase the lead to 26–7. Following a Spartan interception, Brian Lewerke scored from three yards out on the next Spartan possession to push the lead to 33–7", ". Another interception preceded another touchdown, this a Madre London three-yard run as the Spartans pushed the score to 40–7 and ran away with the win.", "The Spartan defense performed well, limiting Rutgers to 112 total yards, only five first downs, and forcing three turnovers. Meanwhile, MSU ran for 209 yards and threw for 222 in the rout. The win capped a turnaround season as the Spartans went from a 3–9 record in 2016 to 9–3 record with the win. The Spartans finished at 7–2 in the Big Ten in a tie for second place in the East division.\n\nHoliday Bowl", "Holiday Bowl \n\nMichigan State received an invitation to play Washington State in the 2017 Holiday Bowl. The appearance marked the Spartans first bowl appearance since playing in the College Football Playoffs during the 2015 season. Washington State was without its starting quarterback Luke Falk (injury) and its top two wide receivers (dismissed from team) for the game.", "Neither team's offense started the game well with only the Cougars managing a field goal in the first quarter. In the second quarter, the game turned around for the Spartans. MSU scored the first touchdown of the game following a 16-play, 81 yard, 9:24 second drive that was capped off by a Brian Lewerke touchdown pass to Cody White. The touchdown gave the Spartans the lead 7–3, a lead they would never relinquish", ". The touchdown gave the Spartans the lead 7–3, a lead they would never relinquish. Following a punt by WSU, the Spartans scored quickly on Lewerke's 49-yard touchdown pass to Felton Davis to increase the lead to 14–3. The Spartan defense again forced WSU to punt and MSU took over with 3:12 remaining in the half. The Spartans scored another touchdown, their third straight touchdown, on an L. J. Scott three-yard run to increase the lead to 21–3 at the half.", "MSU kept the great play up in the second half, scoring their fourth touchdown on their fourth straight possession as Lewerke hit White again for a 10-yard touchdown as the lead ballooned to 28–3. WSU fumbled the ball on the ensuing possession and MSU capitalized as Lewerke moved MSU to the one yard line. However, Lewerke was forced to leave the game after being hit in the head on a rush", ". However, Lewerke was forced to leave the game after being hit in the head on a rush. Senior quarterback Damian Terry replaced Lewerke and bowled his way in from six yards out to put the game out of reach at 35–3. WSU scored their first touchdown on their next possession, however, to draw within 25 at 35–10. Terry, still in the game for Lewerke was intercepted on the ensuing possession and WSU scored again narrowing the lead to 35–17 with 8:25 left in the game", ". Following a failed onside kick by the Cougars, Lewerke returned to the game to hand the ball off to L. J. Scott on four straight downs and Scott rushed for 46 yards, scoring from 28 yards out to push the lead to 42–17. A Spartan interception on the next WSU possession ensured the game would end with an MSU victory. Terry returned to the game on the final MSU possession, but the Spartans were forced to punt. The Cougars had one last gasp, but ran out of time as the Spartans cruised to the 42–17 victory.", "The Spartans dominated the Cougars in the game, out-gaining them 440–296. MSU out-rushed WSU 227–24 in the game and controlled the ball for nearly 37 minutes. The win was the largest bowl victory in MSU history.", "The win marked the 100th win at MSU for head coach Mark Dantonio, placing him second all-time in MSU history. The win was also the 10th on the season for the Spartans, their eighth 10-win season, sixth under Dantonio, in school history. Following the game, MSU running back L. J. Scott, who rushed the ball 18 times for 110 yards and two touchdowns, announced he would return to MSU for his senior season.\n\nRankings\n\nPlayers in the 2018 NFL Draft\n\nReferences", "Rankings\n\nPlayers in the 2018 NFL Draft\n\nReferences \n\nMichigan State\nMichigan State Spartans football seasons\nHoliday Bowl champion seasons\nMichigan State Spartans football" ]

[ "Jaws is an American natural horror film series that started with a 1975 film that expanded into three sequels, a theme park ride, and other tie-in merchandise, based on a 1974 novel. The main subject of the saga is a great white shark and its attacks on people in specific areas of the United States and The Bahamas. The Brody family is featured in all of the films as the primary antithesis to the shark", ". The Brody family is featured in all of the films as the primary antithesis to the shark. The original film was based on a novel written by Peter Benchley, which itself was inspired by the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916. Benchley adapted his novel, along with help from Carl Gottlieb and Howard Sackler, into the 1975 film Jaws, which was directed by Steven Spielberg. Although Gottlieb went on to pen two of the three sequels, neither Benchley nor Spielberg returned to the film series in any capacity.", "The first film was regarded as a watershed film in motion picture history; it became the father of the summer blockbuster movies and one of the first \"high-concept\" films. The film is also known for the introduction of John Williams' famous theme music, which was a simple alternating pattern of the E and F notes of a piano. Williams' musical score won an Academy Award. The film won two other Academy Awards, and was nominated for Best Picture.", "The success of Jaws led to three sequels, and the four films together have earned nearly $800 million worldwide in box office gross. The franchise has also seen the release of various soundtrack albums, additional novelizations based on the sequels, trading cards, inspired theme park rides at Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Japan, multiple video games, and a musical that premiered in 2004", ". Although the first film was popular with critics when it was originally released, critical and commercial reception went downhill with each sequel. This reception has spread to the merchandise, with video games seen as poor imitations of the original concept. Nevertheless, the original 1975 film has generally been regarded as one of the greatest films ever, and frequently appears in the top 100 of various American Film Institute rankings.", "However, Benchley later regretted he ever wrote the original book considering it encouraged a widespread public fear of sharks. As such, he spent most of his life promoting the cause of ocean conservation.", "Background", "Peter Benchley had been thinking for years \"about a story about a shark that attacks people and what would happen if it came in and wouldn't go away.\" Doubleday editor Tom Congdon was interested in Benchley's idea of a novel about a great white shark terrorizing a beach resort. After various revisions and rewrites, Benchley delivered his final draft in January 1973. The title was not decided until shortly before the book went to print", ". The title was not decided until shortly before the book went to print. Benchley says that he had spent months thinking of titles, many of which he calls \"pretentious\" such as The Stillness in the Water and Leviathan Rising. Benchley regarded other ideas, such as The Jaws of Death and The Jaws of Leviathan, as \"melodramatic, weird, or pretentious.\" According to Benchley, the novel still did not have a title until twenty minutes before production of the book.", "The Book of the Month Club made the novel an \"A book,\" qualifying it for its main selection, then the Reader's Digest also selected it. The publication date was moved back to allow a carefully orchestrated release. It was released first in hardcover in February 1974, then in the book clubs, followed by a national campaign for the paperback release. Bantam bought the paperback rights for $575,000.", "Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown, film producers at Universal Pictures, heard about the book at identical times at different locations. Brown heard about it in the fiction department of Cosmopolitan, a lifestyle magazine then edited by his wife, Helen Gurley Brown. A small card gave a detailed description of the plot concluding with the comment \"might make a good movie", ".\" The producers each read it overnight and agreed that it was \"the most exciting thing that they had ever read\" and that, although they were unsure how they would accomplish it, they had to produce the film. Brown says that had they read the book twice they would have never have made the film because of the difficulties in executing some of the sequences. However, he says that \"we just loved the book. We thought it would make a very good movie.\"", "Films\n\nJaws (1975)", "The original Jaws, directed by Steven Spielberg, is based on Peter Benchley's novel of the same name. It tells the story of Police Chief Martin Brody (portrayed by Roy Scheider) of Amity Island (a fictional summer resort town), in his quest to protect beachgoers from a great white shark by closing the beach. This is overruled by the town council, headed by the mayor Larry Vaughan (Murray Hamilton) that wants the beach to remain open in order to sustain the local tourist economy", ". After several attacks, the police chief enlists the help of marine biologist Matt Hooper (Richard Dreyfuss) and a professional shark hunter Quint (Robert Shaw). The three voyage out onto the ocean in Quint's boat – the Orca. The shark kills Quint, but Brody manages to destroy it by shooting at the highly pressurized air tank that he has wedged in its mouth", ". In the end, Brody and Hooper are seen swimming away from the sinking Orca, having both of them managed to survive the shark attack on the boat uninjured.", "Jaws 2 (1978)", "The first sequel, Jaws 2, depicts the same town four years after the events of the original film when another great white shark arrives on the shores of the fictional seaside resort of Amity Island. Directed by Jeannot Szwarc and starring Roy Scheider again as Police Chief Martin Brody, who, after a series of deaths and disappearances, suspects that the culprit is another shark. However, he has trouble convincing the town's selectmen", ". However, he has trouble convincing the town's selectmen. Once fired, he has to act alone to save a group of teenagers, including his two sons, who encounter the shark whilst out sailing. Brody then manages to kill the shark at Cable Junction upon pulling up one of the underwater cables.", "Steven Spielberg was asked to direct Jaws 2, but he said he would only make another Jaws film if it were a prequel focusing on the sinking of the USS Indianapolis.\n\nJaws 3-D (1983)", "The plot of Jaws 3-D moves away from Amity Island to SeaWorld in Florida, a water themed-park with underwater tunnels and lagoons. As the park prepares to open, it is infiltrated by a baby great white shark which attacks and kills water-skiers and park employees. Once the baby shark is captured, it becomes apparent that a much larger shark, the mother, is present", ". The characters of Martin's sons from the first two films are developed further in this film: Michael Brody (Dennis Quaid) is the chief engineer of the park and his younger brother, Sean (John Putch), arrives at the resort to visit him. The events of the earlier films are implied through Sean's dislike of the water because of \"something that happened when he was a kid.\" The events and character development from Jaws 3-D are independent from the rest of the series.", "Jaws: The Revenge (1987)", "The fourth film, Jaws: The Revenge, sees the storyline returning to Amity Island, but ignores all plot elements introduced in Jaws 3-D. No mention is made to Michael's girlfriend from the previous film, Kathryn Morgan (Bess Armstrong), or his career change from an engineer at SeaWorld to a marine biologist. In fact, one of the Universal Studios press releases for Jaws: The Revenge omits Jaws 3-D entirely by referring to Jaws: The Revenge as the \"third film of the remarkable Jaws trilogy", ".\" By the start of the film, Martin Brody had died of a heart attack, although his wife, Ellen Brody (Lorraine Gary), claims that he died through fear of the shark. Her youngest son, Sean (Mitchell Anderson), now working as a police deputy in Amity, is dispatched to clear a log from a buoy. As he does so, he is attacked and killed by a shark. Ellen becomes convinced that a shark is deliberately victimizing her family for the deaths of the first two sharks", ". Michael (Lance Guest) convinces her to spend some time with his family in The Bahamas. However, as his job involves a lot of time on and in the sea, Ellen fears that he will be the shark's next victim. When her granddaughter, Thea (Judith Barsi), narrowly avoids being attacked by a shark, Ellen takes a boat in order to kill her family's alleged stalker", ". Hoagie (Michael Caine), Michael, and his friend Jake (Mario Van Peebles) find Ellen and then proceed to electrocute the shark, driving it out of the water and impaling it on the prow of Ellen's boat.", "Cast and crew\n A dark gray cell indicates the character was not featured in the film.\n An indicates an appearance through previously recorded material.\n A indicates an actor or actress was uncredited for their role.\n\nPrincipal cast\n\nAdditional crew\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nJaws (1975)", "Zanuck and Brown had originally planned to hire John Sturges to direct the film, before considering Dick Richards. However, they grew irritated by Richards' vision of continually calling the shark \"the whale\"; Richards was subsequently dropped from the project. Zanuck and Brown then signed Spielberg in June 1973 to direct before the release of his first theatrical film, The Sugarland Express. Spielberg wanted to take the novel's basic concept, removing Benchley's many subplots", ". Spielberg wanted to take the novel's basic concept, removing Benchley's many subplots. Zanuck, Brown and Spielberg removed the novel's adulterous affair between Ellen Brody and Matt Hooper because it would compromise the camaraderie between the men when they went out on the Orca.", "Peter Benchley wrote three drafts of the screenplay before deciding to bow out of the project. Tony and Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Howard Sackler happened to be in Los Angeles when the filmmakers began looking for another writer and offered to do an uncredited rewrite, and since the producers and Spielberg were unhappy with Benchley's drafts, they quickly accepted his offer. Spielberg sent the script to Carl Gottlieb, asking for advice", ". Spielberg sent the script to Carl Gottlieb, asking for advice. Gottlieb rewrote most scenes during principal photography, and John Milius contributed dialogue polishes. Spielberg has claimed that he prepared his own draft. The authorship of Quint's monologue about the fate of the cruiser has caused substantial controversy as to who deserves the most credit for the speech. Spielberg described it as a collaboration among John Milius, Howard Sackler, and actor Robert Shaw", ". Spielberg described it as a collaboration among John Milius, Howard Sackler, and actor Robert Shaw. Gottlieb gives primary credit to Shaw, downplaying Milius' contribution.", "Three mechanical sharks were made for the production: a full version for underwater shots, one that moved from the camera left to right (with its hidden side completely exposing the internal machinery), and an opposite model with its right flank uncovered. Their construction was supervised by production designer Joe Alves and special effects artist Robert A. Mattey", ". Mattey. After the sharks were completed, they were shipped to the shooting location, but had not been tested in water and when placed in the ocean the full model sank to the ocean floor, forcing a team of divers to retrieve it. Location shooting occurred on the island of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, chosen because the ocean had a sandy bottom while out at sea. This helped the mechanical sharks to operate smoothly and still provide a realistic location", ". This helped the mechanical sharks to operate smoothly and still provide a realistic location. The film nonetheless had a notoriously troubled shoot and went considerably over budget. David Brown said that the budget \"was $4 million and the picture wound up costing $9 million\". Shooting at sea led to many delays: unwanted sailboats drifted into frame, cameras were soaked, and the Orca once began to sink with the actors on board", ". The mechanical shark frequently malfunctioned, due to the hydraulic innards being corroded by salt water. The three mechanical sharks were collectively nicknamed \"Bruce\" by the production team after Spielberg's lawyer. To some degree, the delays in the production proved serendipitous. The script was refined during production, and the unreliable mechanical sharks forced Spielberg to shoot most of the scenes with the shark only hinted at", ". For example, for much of the shark hunt, its location is represented by the floating yellow barrels. Spielberg also included multiple shots of just the dorsal fin due to its ease of filming. This forced restraint is widely thought to have increased the suspense of these scenes, giving it a Hitchcockian tone.", "The studio ordered a sequel early into the success of Jaws. The success of The Godfather Part II and other sequels meant that the producers were under pressure to deliver a bigger and better shark. They realized that someone else would produce the film if they didn't, and they preferred to be in charge of the project themselves. Spielberg declined to be involved in the sequel.", "Jaws 2 (1978)", "Like the first film, the production of Jaws 2 was troubled. The original director, John D. Hancock, proved to be unsuitable for an action film and was replaced by Jeannot Szwarc. Scheider, who only reprised his role to end a contractual issue with Universal, was also unhappy during production and had several heated exchanges with Szwarc. Martha's Vineyard was again used as the location for the town scenes", ". Martha's Vineyard was again used as the location for the town scenes. Although some residents guarded their privacy, many islanders welcomed the money that the company was bringing. The majority of filming was at Navarre Beach, Florida, because of the warm weather and the water's depth being appropriate for the shark platform. Like the first film, shooting on water proved challenging", ". Like the first film, shooting on water proved challenging. After spending hours anchoring the sailboats, the wind would change as they were ready to shoot, blowing the sails in the wrong direction. The corrosive effect of the saltwater damaged some equipment, including the metal parts in the sharks. As with the first film, footage of real sharks filmed by Australian divers Ron and Valerie Taylor was used for movement shots that could not be convincingly achieved using the mechanical sharks.", "The producers of the first two films originally pitched the second Jaws sequel as a spoof named Jaws 3, People 0. National Lampoon writers John Hughes and Todd Carroll were commissioned to write a script. The project was abandoned due to conflicts with Universal Studios.", "Jaws 3-D (1983)", "Alan Landsburg and Rupert Hitzig produced the third film. The second sequel capitalized upon the revived interest of 3-D film in the 1980s, amongst other horror films such as Friday the 13th Part III and Amityville 3-D that also made dual use of the number three. As it was Joe Alves' first film as director, having been the production designer for the first two films, he thought that 3-D would \"give him an edge\"", ". Cinema audiences could wear disposable cardboard polarized glasses to create the illusion that elements penetrate the screen. Richard Matheson worked on the story and script, although many of his contributions were unused: the writer is unhappy with the finished film. Carl Gottlieb, who had also revised the screenplays for the first two Jaws films, was credited for the script alongside Matheson.", "Jaws: The Revenge (1987)", "Joseph Sargent produced and directed the fourth film in the series. Jaws: The Revenge was filmed on location in New England and in the Caribbean, and completed on the Universal lot. Like the first two films of the series, Martha's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the opening scenes of the film. Principal photography moved to Nassau in The Bahamas, but the location did not offer the \"perfect world\" that the 38-day shoot required", ". The cast and crew encountered many problems with varying weather conditions.", "Reception\n\nBox office performance", "Jaws was the first film to use \"wide release\" as a distribution pattern. As such, it is an important film in the history of film distribution and marketing. Prior to the release of Jaws, films typically opened slowly, usually in a few theaters in major cities, which allowed for a series of \"premieres.\" As the success of a film increased, and word of mouth grew, distributors would forward the prints to additional cities across the country. The film became the first to use extensive television advertising", ". The film became the first to use extensive television advertising. Universal executive Sidney Sheinberg's rationale was that nationwide marketing costs would be amortized at a more favorable rate per print than if a slow, scaled release were carried out. Scheinberg's gamble paid off, with Jaws becoming a box office smash hit and the father of the summer blockbuster.", "When Jaws was released on June 20, 1975, it opened at 464 theaters. The release was subsequently expanded on July 25 to a total of 675 theaters, the largest simultaneous distribution of a film in motion picture history at the time. During the first weekend of wide release, Jaws grossed more than $7 million, and was the top grosser for the following five weeks. During its run in theaters, the film became the first to reach more than $100 million in U.S. box office receipts", ".S. box office receipts. Jaws eventually grossed more than $470 million worldwide ($ billion in 2010 dollars) and was the highest grossing box office film until Star Wars debuted two years later.", "Jaws 2 was the most expensive film that Universal had produced up until that point, costing the studio almost $30 million. According to David Brown, the film made 40% gross of the original. This was attractive to the studio because it reduced market risk. The film became the highest-grossing sequel in history, succeeded by the release of Rocky II in 1979. It opened in 640 theaters, making $9,866,023 in its opening weekend", ". It opened in 640 theaters, making $9,866,023 in its opening weekend. The final domestic gross for Jaws 2 was $102,922,376, making it the sixth highest domestic grossing film of 1978. Jaws 2 grossed $208 million worldwide.", "Jaws 3-D grossed $13,422,500 on its opening weekend, playing at 1,311 theaters at its widest release. It had achieved a total lifetime worldwide gross of $87,987,055. Despite being #1 at the box office, this illustrates the series' diminishing returns, since Jaws 3-D has earned nearly $100,000,000 less than the total lifetime gross of its predecessor and $300,000,000 less than the original film.", "The third sequel would attract an even lower income, with around two thirds of Jaws 3-D'''s total lifetime gross. Jaws: The Revenge received largely negative reviews from critics, and earned the lowest amount of money from the series. It is considered one of the worst movies ever made. Even though the film was still considered a commercial failure, it was able to cover costs (an estimated US$23 million) with a worldwide box office take of $51,881,013", ". The film, though, continued the series' diminishing returns. It only grossed $7,154,890 in its opening weekend, when it opened at 1,606 screens. This was around $5 million less than its predecessor. It had also achieved the lowest total lifetime gross of the series.Jaws, when compared to other top-grossing American horror franchises—Alien vs", ".Jaws, when compared to other top-grossing American horror franchises—Alien vs. Predator, Candyman, Child's Play, The Conjuring, The Exorcist, The Evil Dead, Final Destination, Friday the 13th, Godzilla, Halloween, Hannibal Lecter, Hellraiser, I Know What You Did Last Summer, A Nightmare on Elm Street, The Omen, Paranormal Activity, Psycho, The Purge, Saw, Scream, and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre—is one of the highest grossing horror film franchises in North America.", "Critical and public responseJaws is regarded as a watershed film in motion picture history, the father of the summer blockbuster movie and one of the first \"high concept\" films. Due to the film's success in advance screenings, studio executives decided to distribute it in a much wider release than ever before", ". The Omen followed suit in the summer of 1976 and then Star Wars one year later in 1977, cementing the notion for movie studios to distribute their big-release action and adventure pictures (commonly referred to as tentpole pictures) during the summer. Jaws is widely regarded as one of the greatest films of all time. Jaws was number 48 on American Film Institute's 100 Years... 100 Movies, a list of the greatest American films of all time, dropping down to number 56 on the 10 Year Anniversary list", ". It was ranked second on a similar list for thrillers, 100 Years... 100 Thrills.", "The sequels are not held in such high regard. The reception of Jaws 2 was mixed. While the performances of Scheider, Gary, and Hamilton, the soundtrack by John Williams, were praised. However, the teenagers, who are \"irritating and incessantly screaming... don't make for very sympathetic victims", "... don't make for very sympathetic victims.\" Many reviewers criticized Jaws 2 director Jeannot Szwarc for showing more of the shark than the first film had, reducing the Hitchcockian notion \"that the greatest suspense derives from the unseen and the unknown, and that the imagination is capable of conceiving far worse than the materialization of a mere mechanical monster.\" In retrospect, Jaws 2 had nonetheless been considered to be the best of the three Jaws sequels.", "Reception for Jaws 3-D was generally poor. Variety calls it \"tepid\" and suggests that Alves \"fails to linger long enough on the Great White.\" On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 11% based on reviews from 36 critics. The 3-D was criticized as being a gimmick to attract audiences to the aging series and for being ineffective", ". Derek Winnert says that \"with Richard Matheson's name on the script you'd expect a better yarn\" although he continues to say that the film \"is entirely watchable with a big pack of popcorn.\"Jaws: The Revenge attracted the poorest critical reception of the series and was nominated for Worst Picture in the 1987 Golden Raspberry Awards. It was rated by Entertainment Weekly as one of \"The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made.\" Roger Ebert said that it \"is not simply a bad movie, but also a stupid and incompetent one", ".\" Roger Ebert said that it \"is not simply a bad movie, but also a stupid and incompetent one.\" He lists several elements that he finds unbelievable including that Ellen is \"haunted by flashbacks to events where she was not present.\" Ebert also laments that Michael Caine could not attend the ceremony to collect his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor earned for Hannah and Her Sisters because of his shooting commitments on this film.", "In an era in which documentaries were attempting responsible, accurate reporting about the natural world, ecocriticism says that Hollywood continued to produce films that exploited the fear of animals. Scholar Greg Garrard cites David Ingram's suggestion that the Jaws series \"represents a backlash against conservationist ideas in which an 'evil, threatening nature is eventually mastered through male heroism, technology and the blood sacrifice of the wild animal", ".'\"Some attention is paid to Jaws from this perspective in Greg Garrard observes in Jaws: The Revenge that \"the marine biologist Mike Brody's environmentalist concerns are effectively ridiculed as his colleague is eaten by the enraged fish; he joins the hunt for it and the shark in turn hunts him down.\"", "Music\nSoundtracks", "John Williams composed and conducted the score for the first two films. The main \"shark\" theme, a simple alternating pattern of two notes, E and F, became a classic piece of suspense music, synonymous with approaching danger. Williams described the theme as having the \"effect of grinding away at you, just as a shark would do, instinctual, relentless, unstoppable.\" When the piece was first played for Spielberg, he was said to have laughed at Williams, thinking that it was a joke", ". Spielberg later said that without Williams' score the film would have been only half as successful, and Williams acknowledges that the score jumpstarted his career. Williams won an Academy Award for Original Music Score for his work on the first film.", "The shark theme is used in all three sequels, a continuity that Williams compares to \"the great tradition\" for repeating musical themes in Hollywood serials such as Roy Rogers and The Lone Ranger. Alan Parker composed and conducted the score for Jaws 3-D, while the final film was scored by Michael Small. The latter was particularly praised for his work, which many critics considered superior to the film.", "Other media", "Unofficial sequels and rip-offs", "Many films based on man-eating animals & monsters (usually aquatic) were released throughout the 1970s and the 1980s such as:Son of Blob (also known as Beware", "! The Blob),Grizzly, Mako: The Jaws of Death, Death Bed: The Bed That Eats, Day of the Animals, Claws, Orca (also known as Orca: The Killer Whale), Eaten Alive, The Pack, Snowbeast, Piranha II: The Spawning, Barracuda, Nightwing, Up from the Depths, Humanoids from the Deep (also known as Monster), Alligator, Blood Beach, Creature, the Italian-American Tentacles, the Mexican Tintorera (also known as Tintorera: Killer Shark), the French-Italian Killer Fish", ", the Mexican Tintorera (also known as Tintorera: Killer Shark), the French-Italian Killer Fish, the Italian Monster Shark (also known as Devil Fish)", ". The better of these are often considered to be Piranha, as a rip-off, Deep Blood and Great White (also known as The Last Shark), as an unofficial sequel. In 1995, there was also another sequel/rip-off film Cruel Jaws a.k.a. The Beast, which was marketed in some countries as Jaws 5: Cruel Jaws became infamous for illegally incorporated stock footage from the first three official Jaws films into its runtime", ". In 2021, a film titled Tubarão O Regresso (Jaws Returns) was released by Unknown World Pictures TV, directed by Portuguese director Rui Constantino.", "DocumentariesThe Shark Is Still Working, is a feature-length documentary film on the impact and legacy of the 1975 Steven Spielberg blockbuster film Jaws. It features interviews with a range of cast and crew from the film. It was narrated by the late Roy Scheider and dedicated to the late Peter Benchley.", "The documentary was produced by Jaws fans over a seven-year period, building on Laurent Bouzereau's 1995 documentary, The Making of Jaws, that has been included on some laserdisc and DVD releases. Throughout other documentaries over the years, such as Bouzereau's and the BBC's 1997 documentary In the Teeth of Jaws, actor Richard Dreyfuss has recounted tales about the troubled production of Jaws and the quote “The shark is NOT working” which Dreyfuss would hear constantly from members of the crew", ". Eventually, upon successful attempts to fix the malfunctioning sea monster, Dreyfuss would regularly hear the quote “The shark is working.\"The Shark Is Still Working won Best Documentary Feature at the 2010 DocMiami Film Festival. The documentary was released on home video as a special feature on the 2012 Blu-ray edition of Jaws.", "Some of the interviews were filmed in 4:3 Academy ratio, typical of TV documentaries of the time. As the production went on, 16:9 became the TV shape standard and so the documentary crops the top and bottom of the image to reshape it to 16:9. There is no anamorphic enhancement of the documentary on the Jaws Blu-ray.\n\n Toys and merchandise", "Universal \"devised and co-ordinated a highly innovative plan\" for the first film's distribution and exhibition. The studio and publisher Bantam designed a logo which would appear on both the paperback and on all film advertising. \"Both publisher and distributor recognized the mutual benefits that a joint promotion strategy would bring.\" Producers Zanuck and Brown toured six cities to promote the paperback and the film", ".\" Producers Zanuck and Brown toured six cities to promote the paperback and the film. Once the film was released, more merchandising was created, including shark-illustrated swimming towels and T-shirts, plastic shark fins for swimmers to wear, and shark-shaped inflatables for them to float on. The Ideal Toy Company produced a game where the player had to use a hook to fish out items from the shark's mouth before the jaws closed", ". Carl Gottlieb’s 1975 book, The Jaws Log, account of the film's production was also released.Jaws 2 inspired much more merchandising and sponsors than the first film. Products included sets of trading cards from Topps and Baker's bread, paper cups from Coca-Cola, beach towels, a souvenir program, shark tooth necklaces, coloring and activity books, and a model kit of Brody's truck", ". A novelization by Hank Searls, based on an earlier draft of the screenplay by Howard Sackler and Dorothy Tristan, was released, as well as Ray Loynd's The Jaws 2 Log, an account of the film's production. Searls also wrote the novelization of Jaws: The Revenge based on an earlier draft of the screenplay by Michael De Guzman.", "Video games and themed attractions", "There have been a number of video game releases based upon the franchise. The first, titled Jaws, was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1987. There was a separate computer adaptation of the original Jaws movie called Jaws: The Computer Game, released in 1989 by Screen 7 for the Amiga and other computers; another unrelated Jaws for the Commodore 64 and other computers was released by Box Office Software the same year", ". A Jaws level was included in the 2001 game Universal Studios Theme Parks Adventure by Kemco for the GameCube. Jaws Unleashed, developed by Appaloosa Interactive, was released in 2006 for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Microsoft Windows. An officially licensed iPhone game based on the original film was released by Bytemark Games and Universal Partnerships & Licensing in 2010, while in 2011 Universal licensed a follow-up game (in the form of an App) called Jaws Revenge. This game was made by Fuse Powered Inc", ". This game was made by Fuse Powered Inc. A game titled Jaws: Ultimate Predator was released on the Wii and Nintendo 3DS in 2011. A virtual pinball game from Zen Studios for Pinball FX 3 was released as well. A mobile game titled Jaws.io was released on February 14, 2019 for iPhone and Android devices and was published by Universal Studios Interactive Entertainment LLC.", "A themed attraction based on the series was opened at Universal Studios Florida in 1990, with a sister attraction opening with Universal Studios Japan in 2001. A similar themed experience featuring the shark from the film was made a permanent part of Universal Studios Hollywood's Studio Tour in 1976. The Florida attraction closed permanently in 2012 while the Japan attraction is still operational.", "Jaws 19Jaws 19 is a joke movie that is shown being advertised in the 1989 film Back to the Future Part II. Set in 2015, a movie theatre in Hill Valley features a huge holographic poster of Jaws 19, by \"Max Spielberg\" (the name of Steven Spielberg's real-life son) that \"swallows\" Marty McFly. In 2015, Universal made a poster and trailer for the fictional movie that came with the Back to the Future 30th Anniversary Box-Set.Jaws 19 Trailer YouTube", "On 16 September 2015 the fan film named Jaws 19'' was released in Russia.\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n \nHorror film franchises\nUniversal Pictures franchises\nAmerican film series\nFilm series introduced in 1975\nAction film franchises\nFilms based on works by Peter Benchley\n1970s English-language films\n1970s American films" ]

[ "The Pakistan People's Party (, ; PPP) is a centre-left, social-democratic political party in Pakistan. It is currently the second-largest party in the Senate. The party was founded in 1967 in Lahore, when a number of prominent left-wing politicians in the country joined hands against the military rule of president Muhammad Ayub Khan, under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. It is affiliated with the Socialist International", ". It is affiliated with the Socialist International. The PPP's platform was formerly socialist, and its stated priorities continue to include transforming Pakistan into a social-democratic state, promoting egalitarian values, establishing social justice, and maintaining a strong military. The party, alongside the Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz and the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, is one of the three largest political parties of Pakistan.", "Since its foundation in 1967, it has been a major centre-left force in the country and the party's leadership has been dominated by the members of the Bhutto family. Its centre of power lies in the southern province of Sindh. The People's Party has been voted into power on five separate occasions (1970, 1977, 1988, 1993 and 2008), while on four occasions (1990, 1997, 2002 and 2013) it emerged as the largest opposition party. There have been a total of four prime ministers from the PPP.", "The PPP dominated the politics of Pakistan during the 1970s, suffering a temporary decline during the military dictatorship of president Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. After the re-establishment of democracy in 1988 following Zia's death, a two-party system developed, consisting of the People's Party and the Islamic Democratic Alliance, later succeeded by the Nawaz League. The party served as the principal opposition to the Pervez Musharraf-led military government from 1999 to 2008.", "The party conceded defeat during the 2013 general election, losing swathes of support in the Punjab Province where most of its base was lost to the emerging PTI, although it retained its provincial government in Sindh. In the 2018 general election, for the first time in history, the party was able to neither form the government nor emerge as the largest party in opposition.\n\nHistory", "History\n\nFoundation \nThe Pakistan People's Party (PPP) was launched at its founding convention held in Lahore on 30 November and 1 December 1967. At the same meeting, former Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was elected as its chairman. Among the expressed goals of the party were the establishment of an \"egalitarian democracy\" and the \"application of socialistic ideas to realize economic and social justice\". A more immediate task was the struggle against the Presidency of Muhammad Ayub Khan.", "Left-wing beginnings", "In the 1960s, Ayub Khan's policies were seen by many to have nourished the capitalist class at the expense of ordinary people, evidenced by the drastic increase in income inequality and poverty. In April 1968, Dr. Mahbub ul Haq, the then Chief Economist of the Planning Commission reported that 22 families controlled 66% of the industries and owned an 87% share in the country's banking and insurance industries", ". Due to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the economy collapsed, and investment growth in Pakistan saw a 20% decline in following years. Although Pakistan was not able to win the war of 1965, victory was propagated by the military establishment. Under pressure from the Soviet Union, both India and Pakistan signed the Tashkent Declaration in Uzbekistan. The Tashkent Declaration shocked the people of Pakistan due to their expectation of a Pakistani victory", ". Ayub Khan fiercely defended the declaration and called it in the best interest of the people. This led to a confrontation between Ayub Khan and his Foreign Minister Zulifkar Ali Bhutto which led to the resignation of the latter and the eventual creation of the People's Party. Bhutto went on to accuse Ayub of \"losing the war on the negotiating table.\" Opposition parties decided to protest against the declaration, but the state responded by imposing bans upon public gatherings and arresting activists", ". The resignation of Bhutto further angered the public, who were growing ever more discontent with President Khan's government. On 5 February 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced his program of regional autonomy for East Bengal at a news conference.", "Bhutto's passionate stance against Ayub's regime was hailed by leftist groups, leading him to attempt to find a suitable position for himself in the National Awami Party (NAP). Unable to succeed in this, Bhutto decided to launch his own political party. On 30 November 1967, a convention was held in Lahore, where democratic socialists and left-wing intellectuals gathered to meet with Bhutto at the residence of Dr. Mubashir Hassan, and the Pakistan People's Party was formed", ". Mubashir Hassan, and the Pakistan People's Party was formed. The members of the newly formed party elected Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as its first chairman. Its manifesto, titled 'Islam is our Religion; Democracy is our Politics; Socialism is our Economy; Power Lies with the People' was written by Bengali communist J. A. Rahim, and published on 9 December 1967", ". A. Rahim, and published on 9 December 1967. The main objective of the party was to establish a more classless society, adopting a clear socialist programme of nationalisation and reducing economic inequality. The document declared that \"Only socialism, which creates equal opportunities for all, protects [people] from exploitation, removes the barriers of class distinction, and is capable of establishing economic and social justice", ". Socialism is the highest expression of democracy and its logical fulfillment\".", "According to Philip E. Jones, the People's Party had three main ideological camps: Marxists, Islamic socialists and the landed elite. In 1968, when Ayub Khan was celebrating his government's 'Decade of Development', demonstrations erupted all over the country. In the same year, spontaneous students' movements erupted throughout the country, largely due to unemployment and economic hardship which saw the beginning of the 1968 movement in Pakistan", ". In the same time, ideological differences emerged within the NAP, which led to a major split between the pro-Soviet and pro-China factions. The pro-Soviet faction, led by Wali Khan, proposed a parliamentary route to power, whereas the pro-China faction led by Moulana Bhashani advocated for a peasant revolution to overthrow Ayub Khan's regime", ". The vacuum on the left generated by the disunity of the National Awami Party was effectively filled by Bhutto's People's Party as a united front of opposition to Ayub Khan. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, being shrewder in sensing the mood of the mass movement, had embarked upon the 'need for socialism' and other radical slogans. This PPP programme connected with the masses' moods, aspirations and sentiments; the PPP became the largest party of the masses in the history of Pakistan, almost overnight", ". The first activists and cadres who gave the PPP a foothold and standing were from the different Maoist groups and other scattered left activists. These groups were disillusioned and frustrated by the traditional Stalinist leadership of the left.In 1968, a massive public-relations program was launched by the party, beginning in the Punjab. Bhutto's program directly targeted the country's poverty-stricken masses", ". Bhutto's program directly targeted the country's poverty-stricken masses. The left-wing oriented slogan 'Land to the Landless' proved to be popular amongst the peasants and labour-force, as the party promised not only to abolish the feudal system, but also to redistribute land. The working-classes quickly flocked to the party, believing it to be a party dedicated to the destruction of capitalism in the country", ". The young university students and teachers who often bore the brunt of Ayub Khan's dictatorial regime during his decade-long rule were promised a better future with better educational and career opportunities. Many other members of society who had felt stifled and repressed by the press-control and heavy censorship practised by the authoritarian Khan regime also joined the new party, whose manifesto also attracted the country's numerous minorities", ". The continuous contentions forced Ayub Khan to resign from the presidency in 1969, leading to the imposition of martial law by Army Commander General Yahya Khan, after he promised to hold elections within two years. During this time, the Peoples Party intensified its support in West Pakistan, organizing itself and gaining support from poor masses in West Pakistan.", "1970 general election and 1971 war", "Ayub Khan succumbed to political pressure on 26 March 1969 and handed power to the Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan. President Yahya Khan imposed martial law and the 1962 Constitution was abrogated. On 31 March 1970, President Yahya Khan announced a Legal Framework Order (LFO) which called for direct elections to a unicameral legislature. Many in the West feared the East wing's demand for provincial autonomy", ". Many in the West feared the East wing's demand for provincial autonomy. The purpose of the LFO was to secure the future constitution which would be written after the election in order for it to include safeguards such as preserving Pakistan's territorial integrity and Islamic ideology. In the background of recent political developments, the People's Party decided to hold its National Conference. This was to be held in Lahore from 4–6 April 1969 but due to the imposition of Martial law, it was called off", ". Later from 1–3 July 1970, the first conference was held in Hala Sharif, Sindh. At this historical conference which is known as the Hala Conference, there were two different opinions on participating in the upcoming general election. Some argued that the Party should not take part in elections but rather adopt methods of revolutionary insurrection to take power, whereas others emphasized the importance of partaking in parliamentary democracy", ". In the end, the decision to participate in the elections was taken. On 4 January 1970, Z.A. Bhutto officially launched his election campaign by addressing a public meeting at Nishtar Park, Karachi then conducted public meetings at Rawalpindi's Liaquat Bagh and NWFP. By the 1970s, the Pakistan Peoples Party had become the leading party of the Left in Pakistan, publishing its ideas in newspapers such as Nusrat, Fatah, and Mussawat", ". During the 1970 General Election, the People's Party dominated West Pakistani seats, defeating far-right and other right-of-centre forces in West-Pakistan, However, the story in East Pakistan was altogether different, where the Awami League had dominated and the People's Party had failed to win a single seat (likewise, the Awami League had also failed to make a breakthrough in West Pakistan)", ". The Awami League secured 160 seats out of the total 300 seats in the National Assembly, whereas the People's Party came second with 81 seats.", "The results gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Bhutto contested Rahman's mandate to form government in West Pakistan due to his party not having won a single seat there. Instead, Bhutto proposed the One Unit scheme, with two separate prime ministers for West and East Pakistan. This proposal was rejected by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, whose Six Point programme for a more federal Pakistan was also rejected by Bhutto", ". On 3 March 1971, the two leaders, along with President General Yahya Khan, met in Dacca to try and resolve the constitutional crisis. After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto, fearing a civil war, sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan to convey a message to Rahman, who agreed to meet Bhutto once again. The two leaders agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as prime minister and Bhutto as president", ". However, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision. After the launch of military action in East Pakistan (see Operations Searchlight and Barisal), the situation became unreconcilable .", "Bhutto and his supporters criticised Yayha Khan's handling of the situation which led to the arrests of Bhutto and members of the People's Party, alongside Mujibur Rahman in Adiala Jail. This was followed by Indian intervention in East Bengal, cementing the defeat of the Pakistan Armed Forces, and the independence of Bangladesh.\n\nPost-war politics", "As result of Pakistan's defeat by India in Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, General Yahya Khan was forced to resign. On 20 December, he was taken to the President House in Rawalpindi, where he took over two positions from Yahya Khan, one as president and the other as first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator. Thus, he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator of the dismembered Pakistan", ". Thus, he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator of the dismembered Pakistan. By the time Bhutto had assumed control of what remained of Pakistan, the nation was completely isolated, angered, and demoralized. After becoming president, Bhutto in his first statement to foreign media correspondents said: Let us forget the past. We have made terrible mistakes and Pakistan is in a mess—the worst crisis in our history", ". We have made terrible mistakes and Pakistan is in a mess—the worst crisis in our history. But we have been given a terrible bashing by the Western press and I ask you now to please get off our backs while we put our house in order.", "Bhutto era", "Bhutto vowed to build a new Pakistan. On 2 January 1972 Bhutto announced the nationalisation of all major industries, including iron and steel, heavy engineering, heavy electricals, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities. A new labour policy was announced increasing the power of trade unions. Although he came from a feudal background himself, Bhutto announced reforms limiting land ownership and a government take-over of more than a million acres to distribute to landless peasants", ". More than 2,000 civil servants were dismissed on charges of corruption. He successfully negotiated the return of 93,000 prisoners of war and settlement with India, whilst kicking off the country's nuclear programme in January 1972. The promulgation of the 1973 constitution put Pakistan on the road to parliamentary democracy. In the People's Party's first budget of 1972–3, health and education were nationalised, with a record 42.3 percent of the total budget being allocated for them.", "The National Assembly of Pakistan approved the new constitution on 10 April 1973 and it came into effect from 14 August 1973, the day Bhutto became Prime Minister of Pakistan. Bhutto initiated different reforms like expanding the school network to slums and small villages, creating basic health facilities, land reforms and housing schemes. However, the Party's measures fell through as a result of 1970s global economic recession, the 1973 oil crisis, and the failure of reforms resulted into rising inflation", ". The letter of credit of Pakistan was rejected by foreign banks and a massive outflow of capital was seen from the country. Dr Mubashar Hassan, then-finance minister wrote in a note to all ministers, special assistants, provincial chief ministers and governors: \"We have been in office for more than six months. Many decisions have been taken but a growing implementation gap is becoming visible. Once the implementation gap sets in, the decline begins", ". Once the implementation gap sets in, the decline begins. We came to abolish the abominable status quo but the status quo is very much present...\"Similarly, workers intensified their demands and during first months of 1972, whole country engulfed with periodic lockouts and encirclement of industries. Among them notable struggles were the emergence of a worker-led court under Abdur Rehman in Kot Lakhpat and the Karachi labour unrest of 1972.", "In the field of foreign policy, the People's Party built a good relationship with China, with Bhutto successfully negotiating an aid package worth $300 million for Pakistan and also writing off loans amounting to over $110 million. On 22 February 1974, Pakistan hosted all the leaders of the Islamic world in the summit of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in Lahore.", "Domestically, serious issues began to emerge within the party's ranks, when Bhutto decided to utilise the state to keep an eye on the activities of the Pakistan National Alliance. After he purged left-wing activists – such as Malik Meraj Khalid, a Marxist law minister – from his own party's ranks, Dr. Mubashir Hassan also resigned. In September 1974, under pressure from religious organizations, Bhutto passed a constitutional amendment declaring the Ahmadiyya community to be non-Muslim", ". In 1973, Bhutto ordered an Army operation in the Baluchistan province against the government of the National Awami Party.", "In the 1977 general election, the People's Party won a landslide majority. However, the PNA-led opposition started demonstrations against alleged rigging in the elections. The opposition labelled Bhutto as a 'Kafir' (i.e., unislamic) and an alcoholic, to which Bhutto responded, by saying, \"Yes, I drink alcohol, but I do not drink the blood of the people\", although, in 1974, he had banned alcohol", ". Bhutto offered to hold another set of elections in November 1977 and offered ministries to the PNA, but this failed, sparking further civil disobedience against the Peoples Party. Tensions mounted and despite an agreement reached between the opposition and PPP, martial law was imposed in the country by Chief of Army Staff Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. In April 1979, after a controversial trial found him guilty of murdering a political opponent, Bhutto was executed by hanging.", "In 1982, his daughter, Benazir Bhutto, was elected as the Peoples Party's co-chairperon alongside his wife, Nusrat Bhutto, who was elected in 1979. The People's Party headed the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy which was one of the largest non-violent democratic movements in the world against the military dictatorship of Zia-ul-Haq.", "After eleven years, the People's Party returned to power by winning the 1988 General Election, with Benazir Bhutto becoming the first female head of government in the Muslim world. In 1990, the Peoples party's government was dismissed due to economic recession, issues regarding to national security and nationalisation. Benazir and the Peoples Party lost the 1990 General Election serving in opposition for the first since its inception in 1967", ". It was found by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in 2012 that this election had been rigged in favour of the Pakistan Muslim League.", "The People's Party returned to power in the 1993 General Election, forming a coalition with JUI(F). However, over the next few years, the Party split into three main factional groups: the Bhuttoists, the Parliamentarians and the Sherpaoists, with Bhuttoism becoming the most influential and powerful in Sindh. Internal opposition and disapproval of Benazir Bhutto's policies by her brother Murtaza Bhutto created a rift in their relations", ". Murtaza Bhutto was assassinated in 1996, with many pointing the finger of blame at his sister.", "Its effect on the Peoples Party was disastrous, whose government was dismissed by the party's own elected President Farooq Leghari in September 1996. Since 1996 and Bhutto's assassination in 2007, the Peoples Party has suffered with major internal factional conflicts, between leftists and neoliberals over the Party's shift to Thatcherite economics.", "Recent history", "After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto on 27 December 2007, the 2008 parliamentary elections which were scheduled to be held in January were postponed until 18 February. The PPP won the considerable victory on among all political parties, gaining a momentum of general seats 121 from all provinces in the Parliament, whilst the centre-right, Pakistan Muslim League came second in place, managing to secure 91 seats from all over the country", ". In 2008, the co-chairman Asif Ali Zardari announced to end the fourth dictatorship when he quoted: \"Pakistan was on its way of ridding dictatorships forever\", and appealed to the Pakistan Muslim League (N) leader, former Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, to form a coalition controlling over half the seats in Pakistan's 342 seat parliament.", "On 9 March 2008 in a press conference held in Muree, Punjab, conservatives under Nawaz Sharif and socialists led by Asif Ali Zardari officially signed an agreement to form a coalition government. Titled the PPP-PML summit declaration, the joint declaration both parties agreed on the reinstatement of judges deposed during the emergency rule imposed on 3 November 2007 by General Pervez Musharraf within 30 days after the new federal government was formed", ". On 28 March, the peoples party appointed Yousaf Raza Gillani for the office of prime minister and formed coalition government with Pakistan Muslim League (Q) in Punjab, Awami National Party in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, JUI(F) in Balochistan and Muttahida Qaumi Movement in Sindh. While on other hand, the Peoples Party claimed the exclusive mandate in Gilgit-Baltistan and Kashmir. However, this treaty was later on was violated by PPP government, after which PML(N) withdrew from coalition and federal government.", "On 5 September 2008, the Peoples Party nominated its co-chairman and chairman of central executive committee, Asif Ali Zardari, for the upcoming presidential election. Zardari secured 481 votes out of 700 votes from the Electoral College of Pakistan, winning the Pakistan's presidential election on 5 September 2008", ". In April 2010, president Zardari voluntarily surrendered his political and presidential powers to prime minister Gillani and the parliament, and through 18th Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, Zardari transferred the authority of government and political appointments, and powers to exercise the authority of government to prime minister Gillani as part of country's road to parliamentary democracy", ". Even though growing unpopularity, it has managed to maintain a large vote bank in deeper Sindh and South Punjab. On national front, it is currently competing against Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf and Pakistan Muslim League (N). On 22 June 2012, the PPP nominated Raja Pervez Ashraf was elected as the new Pakistan PM.", "As of 2017, according to The Economist, the party \"has become irrelevant outside their home province of Sindh.\"\n\nOn 11 April 2022, the PPP formed a coalition government with the PML-N and other parties, electing Shehbaz Sharif as Prime Minister.\n\nElectoral history\n\nNational Assembly elections\n\nSenate of Pakistan Elections\n\nSindh Assembly elections\n\nPunjab Assembly elections\n\nKhyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly elections\n\nAzad Kashmir Legislative Assembly Elections\n\nGilgit-Baltistan Assembly Elections", "Notable leadership", "The first socialist and democratic convention attended by the leading 67 left-wing intellectuals who appointed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as the first and founding chair of the Pakistan Peoples Party. After his execution, the senior party leadership handed over the chairmanship of the party to his wife, Nusrat Bhutto, and held the position into the 1980s. In 1982, Nusrat Bhutto, ill with cancer, was given permission to leave Pakistan for medical treatment and remained abroad for several years", ". At that point her daughter, Benazir Bhutto, became acting head of the party while Nusrat technically remained its chairman and was referred to as such as late as September 1983. By January 1984, Benazir was being referred to as the party's chairman and subsequently secured the legal appointment by the senior leadership of Central Executive Committee at the convention held in 1984. She had been elected chairperson for life, which she remained until her assassination on 27 December 2007", ". Her nineteen-year-old son, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari and his father Asif Ali Zardari were appointed party co-chairmen after assassination of Benazir Bhutto on 30 December 2007.", "List of party's presidents\n\nList of party's prime ministers\n\nCurrent structure and composition", "The Central Executive Committee of the Pakistan Peoples Party of Pakistan serves as party's highest leadership, and apex governing authority, and is primarily responsible for promoting Peoples Party activities, promotion, media campaigning, welfare distribution, public policy and works. The CEC is the supreme parliamentary body in charge of setting out strategies and positions during and after elections", ". The CEC is currently chaired by Asif Ali Zardari, assisted by additional vice-chairmen, including all the major office bearers of the party. However, the CEC is focused on election campaigning and organizational strategy during the national parliamentary elections, overseeing the media works, ideological promotion, and the foreign policy. The public works, welfare distribution are partly managed at the municipal unit level up to the federal level, which supervise and give legal authority for such works.", "The PPP-Young Organization is a youth-led party organisation that attempts to mobilise the youth for Peoples Party candidates for the Youth Parliament. The group's Trotskyist-Marxist wing, \"The Struggle\", which is internationally affiliated with International Marxist Tendency (IMT) pursues an entryist strategy by working inside party's student wing, the Peoples Students, a student-outreach organization with the goal of training and engaging the new generation of the Pakistan Peoples Party", ". The Peoples Party also has an active military-street wing, the People's Committee, controversially affiliated with the Pakistan Peoples Party.", "Nationally, each province and territory has a provisional committee, made up of elected committee members as well as ex-officio committee members who elect its presidents. The local committees often coordinate campaign activities within their jurisdiction, oversee local conventions, and in some cases primaries or caucuses, and may have a role in nominating candidates for elected office under state law", ". All administration, campaign, and party policies required complete permission from the CEC's co-chairman and the vice-chairmen.", "Ideology \nIn its inception, the notable communists from the Communist Party and socialists of the defunct Socialist Party gathered to form the Peoples Party in 1967 by electing Zulfikar Ali Bhutto its first chairman. The Pakistan Peoples Party's leftist program remains far more successful and integrated in the civil society than Communist Party.", "Since then, the Peoples Party has been a leading proponent of democratic socialism with the mainstream agenda of social democracy, favouring semi-secular and semi-Islamic socialist principles. Historically, the Peoples Party favoured financially stable farmers, industrial labour unions and the middle-class", ". The Peoples Party rejected far-left politics and ultra-leftism, supporting unregulated business and finance, and laissez-faire capitalism, after which it was no longer widely viewed as a socialist or social-democratic party, as its economic policies swung dramatically to the right-wing, embracing economic neoliberalism and unfettered capitalism and privatisation of publicly owned institutions, favouring partial income taxes.", "Despite its democratic-socialist ideas, the Peoples Party never actually allied with the Soviet Union, with the Communist Party of Pakistan remaining one of its major rivals. The Peoples Party has been criticised by various socialists such as Fahad Rizwan who accused the Peoples Party of opportunism. Recently, the Peoples Party has adopted privatisation and small-scale nationalisation policies, with centrist economic and socially progressive agendas.", "Basic, enshrined principles of PPP include \"Islam [as] our Faith. Democracy is our Politics. Socialism is our Economy. All Power to the People\".", "Issues involving foreign policy", "Relations with the China, Russia, Iran and Turkey, are the central and the strongest proponents of the People's Party's foreign policy. Under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan built closer ties with Soviet Union, China, and Iran, but under Benazir Bhutto, the foreign policy was revised after taking shifts to centre-right policies", ". On the other hand, Benazir Bhutto adopted Nawaz Sharif's conservative privatisation policies in order to secure funding from the United States and the World Bank, but received a harsh opposition from within the party. Under former Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani, the People's Party pushed its foreign policy towards Russia as the party's relationship with the United States went cold in 2010", ". Earlier in the 1970s, the People's Party faced a \"secret\" cold war with the United States, but then suffered a US-backed coup in 1977. Throughout the 1980s, the party's credibility was damaged by the United States who \"keenly sabotaged\" any of its efforts and organizational establishment in the dense areas of country.", "Academia", "The Pakistan Peoples Party through Zulfikar Ali Bhutto proudly receives all credit for launching the atomic bomb project in 1972, public ceremonies are held on Youm-e-Takbir (lit. Day of Greatness) to commemorate the political services of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who established the program.", "In 1976, Murtaza Bhutto graduated from Harvard University, Bhutto graduated with his thesis entitled \"Modicum of Harmony\". His thesis dealt with the spread of nuclear weapons in general, and the implications of India's nuclear weapons on Pakistan in particular. Murtaza went on to Christ Church College Oxford, his father's alma mater, for a three-year course to read for an MLit degree", ". Bhutto submitted his master thesis, containing a vast argumentative work on Nuclear strategic studies, where he advocated for Pakistan's approach to develop its nuclear deterrence program to counter Indian nuclear program.", "Since its establishment, the People's Party has produced prolific scientists-turned technocrats, including Farhatullah Babar, Mubashir Hassan, and the senior academic scientists who played a role in building the atomic bomb. The People's Party member's notably provided their public support to Abdul Qadeer Khan who had been forced to attend the military debriefings by General Pervez Musharraf in 2004", ". In August 2012, after years of negligence, the peoples party made its effort to bestowed and award Munir Ahmad Khan the highest state honor, the Nishan-e-Imtiaz, as a gesture of political rehabilitation; the honor was publicly presented by President Asif Ali Zardari in a public ceremony.", "In 1995–1996, the People's Party under Benazir Bhutto's era opened computer literacy centres to provide the public with access to computers and technology. In 1990, they made Pakistan the first Muslim country to launch a satellite, Badr-I, they are also responsible for establishing, nurturing, and funding the missile's programs, such as Ghauri and Shaheen in the 1990s", ". As part of the science policy, they established the Pakistan Science Foundation in 1973 and helped establish the Pakistan Academy of Letters in 1976. In 1996, Benazir Bhutto established SZABIST at Karachi to become a leading institution of science and technology and appointed world-renowned academic Dr. Javaid Laghari as its first president, who later was also elected Senator from Sindh on a technocrat seat and eventually Chairman HEC leading a revolution of reforms in higher education in South Asia", "Challenges and controversies", "Lost left", "Since the 1990s, the People's Party has been under intense criticism even inside the party both from its own members and the other leftists in the country, notably due to the charges of large-scale corruptions. The leading leftist, Nadeem Paracha, has asserted that since 1977 the People's Party's manifesto has been transformed into a centre-right platform, whereas in 1977 parliamentary elections, the People's Party's manifesto did not mention the word \"socialism\"", ". During the 1973–75, the Peoples Party's radical ultra-left and communist wings led by Mirage Khalid and the Maoist wings under Khalid Syed were purged by the People's Party to ensure the political support of the powerful Sindh's feudal lords and Punjab's landed elite, with Paracha claiming the People's Party has \"lost the left\".", "Leading left-wing journalist Mehdi Hasan has remarked that the Peoples Party is \"not a secular party\", firstly citing its support of declaring Ahmadiyya community as non-Muslims through the second constitutional amendment, secondly for banning the use of liquor, and thirdly for the Peoples Party declaring Friday as a holiday to win the support of religious elements.", "Kashmir Cause \nThe chairman of PPP Bilawal Bhutto Zardari led a convention on 19 September 2014 in Multan, Punjab, where he reportedly quoted: \"the [PPP] would take back entire Kashmir for his country.\"\n\nBhutto emphasized on his last part of the speech: \"I will take back Kashmir, all of it, and I will not leave behind a single inch of it because like the other provinces, it belongs to Pakistan. He pledged to continue supporting Kashmiri freedom struggle morally and diplomatically...(.)\".", "Internal opposition and factionalism", "Since the 1990s, the factionalism has grew in the party when Murtaza Bhutto returned to Pakistan. Disagreeing with Benazir and Asif Ali Zardari's political philosophy brewing the party, Murtaza Bhutto split and formed the more powerful yet more leaning towards left wing faction, Bhuttoist in 1995. Confrontation with Benazir Bhutto in 1999 over the party guidance, Aftab Sherpao splits from the party and forming the Pakistan Peoples Party (Sherpaoist)—a more reformist with libertarian agenda.", "Factionalism continued in 2011 when PPP sacked Mahmood Qureshi over the Raymond Davis incident in Lahore. Qureshi later defected to PTI. Another leftist leader, Malik Ali Khan also resigned from the Peoples Party, saying that he \"did not agree with how President Zardari was leading the party particularly with regards to an alliance with centre-right PML (Q) and the foreign policy.\"", "In 2012, the PPP's powerful leader, Zulfiqar Mirza, quit from the party despite urgings amidst disagreement with Asif Zardari's leadership and policies with regards to dealings with the liberal MQM in Sindh. Reasoning with their isolation, the socialist politicians felt that the party had now moved away from the original ideas it was founded on by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1967. In 2014, Labour leader, Safdar Ali Abbasi, formed the Workers faction amid disagreement with party's fiscal policy.", "Defection in PPP: The Launch of Pakistan People's Party Parliamentarian-Patriots", "The Pakistan People's Party Parliamentarian-Patriots (PPPPP) was launched in Lahore in the year 2002 as a 'forward bloc' that broke away from the PPP to back the Pakistan Muslim League Quaid-e-Azam (PML-Q) transforming itself into Pakistan's newest party at that time. The leader of the rebel group was Makhdoom Faisal Saleh Hayat", ". The leader of the rebel group was Makhdoom Faisal Saleh Hayat. In January 2017, Former federal minister Syed Faisal Saleh Hayat joined the Pakistan Peoples Party on Monday, more than 14 years after being elected on the PPP ticket in 2002, bringing an end to the PPPPP.", "See also \n\n Bhuttoism and Sindh\n Roti Kapada Aur Makaan\n Radical left factions in the Pakistan Peoples Party\n Pakistan Peoples Party (Bhuttoist)\n Pakistan Peoples Party (Marxism)\n Pakistan Peoples Party (Parliamentarians)\n Pakistan Peoples Party (Workers)\n Political realism\n Socialism in Pakistan\n\nExplanatory notes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links", "Explanatory notes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\n Pakistan Peoples Party Pakistan based Web site\n Pakistan Peoples Party USA official site\n The Pakistan People's Party, Radio France Internationale (in English)\n A detailed Web site on the life of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto\n 2008 Election dossier, Radio France Internationale (in English)", "1967 establishments in Pakistan\nFull member parties of the Socialist International\nIslamic socialist political parties\nLiberal parties in Pakistan\nProgressivism in Pakistan\nCentre-left parties in Asia\nSocial democratic parties in Pakistan" ]

[ "The LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers are the athletic teams representing Louisiana State University (LSU), a state university located in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. LSU competes in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC).", "Nickname\nThe Louisiana State University official team nickname is the Fighting Tigers, Tigers or Lady Tigers. At one time, the \"Lady Tigers\" nickname was used only in sports that have teams for both men and women—specifically basketball, cross country, golf, swimming and diving, tennis, and track and field (indoor and outdoor); however, since 2017, only women's basketball, cross country, and track and field use the \"Lady Tigers\" moniker.\n\nSports sponsored", "Sports sponsored\n\nWith LSU primarily competing in the Southeastern Conference and the women's beach volleyball program competing in the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association, LSU sponsors teams in nine men's and twelve women's NCAA sanctioned sports.", "By winning the SEC championship in men's basketball for the 2008–2009 season, LSU became the first SEC school to win at least 10 SEC championships in each of the big three sports of football, men's basketball, and baseball. LSU was the first SEC school to win at least one national championship in each of the big three sports.\n\nBaseball", "Baseball\n\nThe LSU baseball team has won seven national championships since 1991. The team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Jay Johnson. They play home games at Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field.", "National Championships (7): 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2009, 2023\nCWS appearances (19): 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2023\nSEC Championships (17): 1939, 1943, 1946, 1961, 1975, 1986, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2017\nConference Tournament Championships (12): 1986, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2000, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2014, 2017", "Men's basketball\nThe LSU men's basketball team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Matt McMahon. They play home games at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center.\nNational Championships (1): 1935†\nFinal Four appearances (4): 1953, 1981, 1986, 2006\nSweet Sixteen appearances (10): 1953, 1954, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1986, 1987, 2000, 2006, 2019\nSEC Championships (11): 1935, 1953, 1954, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1991, 2000, 2006, 2009, 2019\n\nWomen's basketball", "Women's basketball\n\nThe LSU women's basketball team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Kim Mulkey. They play home games at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center.\n\nNational Championships (1): 2023\nAIAW/NCAA Final Four appearances (7): 1977, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2023\nNCAA Sweet Sixteen appearances (14): 1984, 1986, 1989, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2013, 2023\nSEC Championships (3): 2005, 2006, 2008\n\nWomen's beach volleyball", "Women's beach volleyball\n \n\nThe women's beach volleyball team participates in the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association (CCSA) and is coached by Russell Brock. They play home games at the LSU Beach Volleyball Stadium.\n\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (N/A): — sport is not sponsored by the SEC\n\nMen's cross country\n\nThe men's cross country team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home meets at Highland Road Park.", "National Championships - Men (0): none\nSEC Championships - Men (0): none\n\nWomen's cross country\n\nThe women's cross country team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home meets at Highland Road Park.\n\nNational Championships - Women (0): none\nSEC Championships - Women (0): none\n\nFootball", "The LSU Tigers football team competes in the Division I - Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) and the Western Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). They play in Tiger Stadium, which has a capacity of 102,321. LSU has won four national championships, including two in the last decade. The first national championship was following the regular season in 1958", ". The first national championship was following the regular season in 1958. LSU played Clemson in the 1959 Sugar Bowl on January 1, 1959, following the team being named national champions. LSU won their second national championship during the 2003 season by defeating the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2004 BCS National Championship Game. A controversy arose as the USC Trojans were awarded the Associated Press National Championship even though they did not play in the BCS Championship Game", ". LSU's win in the 2008 BCS National Championship Game (2007 season) was the Tigers third national championship. They became the first two-loss team to compete for and win the national championship, and the first team to win two Bowl Championship Series titles. During the 2019 season, LSU defeated the Clemson Tigers 42–25 in the 2020 College Football Playoff National Championship game in New Orleans for their fourth national title.", "The team is currently coached by Brian Kelly.\n\nNational championships (4): 1958, 2003, 2007, 2019\nConference championships (15)\nSIAA championships (2): 1896, 1908\nSoCon championships (1):1932\nSEC championships (11): 1935, 1936, 1958, 1961, 1970, 1986, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2019\nDivisional championships (6): 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2011, 2019\n\nMen's golf", "The men's golf team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Chuck Winstead. The University Club of Baton Rouge is the home venue for the team.\nNational Championships (5): 1940 (co-champion with Princeton), 1942 (co-champion with Stanford), 1947, 1955, 2015\nSEC Championships (16): 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1942, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1953, 1954, 1960, 1966, 1967, 1986, 1987, 2015\nIndividual national champions (3): Fred Haas (1937), Earl Stewart (1941), John Peterson (2011)", "Women's golf\nThe women's golf team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Garrett Runion. The University Club of Baton Rouge is the home venue for the team.\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (1): 1992\nIndividual national champions (1): Austin Ernst (2011)\n\nFormer coaches\nKaren Bahnsen\nBuddy Alexander\nMary Holmes\n\nWomen's gymnastics", "Former coaches\nKaren Bahnsen\nBuddy Alexander\nMary Holmes\n\nWomen's gymnastics\n\nThe women's gymnastics team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Jay Clark . The Pete Maravich Assembly Center is the home venue for the team.\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (1): 1981, 2017, 2018, 2019\n\nWomen's soccer", "Women's soccer\n\nThe soccer team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Sian Hudson. They play home games at the LSU Soccer Stadium.\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (0): none\n\nSoftball", "Softball\n\nThe softball team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Beth Torina. They play home games at Tiger Park.\nNational Championships (0): none\nWCWS appearances (5): 2001, 2004, 2012, 2015, 2016, 2017\nSEC Championships (5): 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004\n\nMen's swimming and diving", "Men's swimming and diving\n\nThe men's swimming and diving teams participate in the Southeastern Conference. The swim team is currently coached by Dave Geyer and the diving team is currently coached by Doug Shaffer. They host home swim meets at the LSU Natatorium.\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (1): 1988\n\nWomen's swimming and diving", "Women's swimming and diving\n\nThe women's swimming and diving teams participate in the Southeastern Conference. The swim team is currently coached by Dave Geyer and the diving team is currently coached by Doug Shaffer. They host home swim meets at the LSU Natatorium.\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (0): none", "Men's tennis\nThe men's tennis team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by co-head coaches Andy Brandi and Chris Brandi. They play home matches at the LSU Tennis Complex.\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (4): 1976, 1985, 1998, 1999\n\nFormer coaches\nJeff Brown\nJerry Simmons\nSteve Strome\nSteve Carter\nDub Robinson\nMike Donahue\nCharles Diel\nPaul Young", "Women's tennis\nThe women's tennis team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by co-head coaches Julia Sell and Michael Sell. They play home matches at the LSU Tennis Complex.\nNational Championships (0): none\nSEC Championships (0): none\n\nFormer coaches\nTony Minnis\nGeoff Macdonald\nPhillip Campbell\nBetty Sue Hagerman\nKaren McCarter Elliot\nPat Newman\n\nMen's indoor track and field", "Men's indoor track and field\n\nThe men's indoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Carl Maddox Field House.\nNational Championships (2): 2001, 2004\nSEC Championships (4): 1957, 1963, 1989, 1990\n\nWomen's indoor track and field", "Women's indoor track and field\n\nThe women's indoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Carl Maddox Field House.\nNational Championships (11): 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2004\nSEC Championships (11): 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2007, 2008, 2011\n\nMen's outdoor track and field", "Men's outdoor track and field\n\nThe men's outdoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Bernie Moore Track Stadium.\nNational Championships (5): 1933, 1989, 1990, 2002, 2021,\nSEC Championships (22): 1933, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1951, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1963, 1988, 1989, 1990\n\nWomen's outdoor track and field", "Women's outdoor track and field\n\nThe women's outdoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Bernie Moore Track Stadium.\nNational Championships (14): 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012 (vacated)\nSEC Championships (8): 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1996, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012\n\nWomen's volleyball", "Women's volleyball\n\nThe volleyball team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Fran Flory. They play home games at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center.\nNational Championships (0): none\nFinal Four appearances (2): 1990, 1991\nSEC Championships (4): 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991\n\nFormer varsity sports\n\nBoxing", "Former varsity sports\n\nBoxing\n\nLSU boxing started as a club sport in 1929 and enjoyed its first varsity season in 1930. The Tigers held matches at the Huey P. Long Field House and starting in 1937 at the John M. Parker Agricultural Coliseum.", "In LSU's first season, the team had a record of 5–2; they went 6–1 in the ensuing 1931 campaign. In 1934, LSU won its first Southeastern Conference title by beating rival Tulane. Late in the 1930s, LSU won additional SEC titles and finished with a second-place finish in the 1939 NCAA Tournament and a third-place finish in 1940 NCAA Tournament. Some Tiger stalwarts during this period were Heston Daniel, Al Michael, Snyder Parham and Dub Robinson", ". World War II interrupted the sport, but LSU returned to varsity boxing in 1948.", "The 1949 campaign, LSU's second season after the war, proved to be its best. Paced by individual national champions Wilbert \"Pee Wee\" Moss and Edsel \"Tad\" Thrash and coached by Jim Owen, the Tigers went undefeated in regular season play. They finished the year by beating South Carolina in front of 11,000 fans in Parker Coliseum, en route to its first and only national title", ". Boxing at LSU continued as a varsity sport during the early 1950s as LSU fans watched LSU greats Calvin Clary, Crowe Peele and Bobby Freeman. Late in the decade, a dwindling number of schools in the region that sponsored boxing as a varsity sport led to higher travel costs for the LSU team. Ultimately, LSU announced in 1956 it would no longer support boxing on the varsity level.", "LSU recorded an all-time dual meet record of 101–22–6, one national championship, 31 individual conference champions, 11 individual NCAA champions and 12 NCAA runners-up.\n\nMen's wrestling\nLSU fielded a varsity men's wrestling team from 1968 to 1985. It won seven Southeastern Conference titles. The team also had two eighth-place finishes in the NCAA Tournament in 1983 and 1984. The wrestling program was dropped as a result of Title IX compliance in 1985.", "From 1968 to 1978, LSU was coached by Dale Ketelsen. His teams won two Southeastern Conference wrestling tournament titles. He produced 15 individual conference champions and was also a member of the NCAA wrestling rules committee while at LSU. From 1979 to 1985, the team was coached by Larry Sciacchetano. His teams won five Southeastern Conference titles.", "Men's wrestlers\n Phil Bode was the 1971 and 1972 SEC champion.\n Jules Plaisance enrolled at LSU in 1969 and won three Southeastern Conference championships at 142, 150, & 158 lb. weight classes. He finished second once.\n John Tenta, who went on to fame in the World Wrestling Federation, was a heavyweight wrestler at LSU.\n\nNon-varsity sports\n\nMen's rugby", "Non-varsity sports\n\nMen's rugby\n\nFounded in 1970, LSU rugby has played its matches at the UREC Field Complex since 2006. LSU has a tradition of success since its founding, highlighted by its 22-game winning streak during the 1996–97 season. LSU won the national collegiate championship tournament in 1976.", "More recently, LSU rugby has been successful in conference play and in national competition. LSU plays in the Southeastern Conference against its traditional SEC rivals. In 2009, LSU defeated Colorado and Air Force to advance to the national quarterfinals before losing to San Diego State, and in 2010, LSU again defeated Colorado to qualify for the sweet 16 round of the national playoffs. LSU competed at the 2011 Collegiate Rugby Championship, finishing 9th in a tournament broadcast live on NBC", ". LSU finished first in the SEC West Division in 2012, with a 5–2 record.", "Men's soccer\nFounded in 1964, the LSU men's soccer team has competed in the Collegiate Soccer League of Louisiana (CSLL) since 2016. The team plays its home games at the UREC Field Complex.\n\nIn 1998, the team won its only national title, winning the NIRSA National Open Division. In 2012, the team earned its first-ever bid to the NIRSA National \"Closed\" Championship Division.", "Men's volleyball\nThe LSU men's volleyball team competes in the Southern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association. The competes with other teams throughout the region. The team competes for championship honors in the SIVA tournament.\n\nOther sports\n\nChampionships\n\nLSU has won 51 team national championships, placing them 19th all-time in total national championships. 45 of these were recognized by the NCAA, ranking them 9th overall.", "Men's (20)\nBaseball (7): 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2009, 2023\nBoxing (1): 1949\nGolf (5): 1940, 1942, 1947, 1955, 2015\nIndoor Track & Field (2): 2001, 2004\nOutdoor Track & Field (5): 1933, 1989, 1990, 2002, 2021\nWomen's (26)\nBasketball (1): 2023\nIndoor Track & Field (11): 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2004\nOutdoor Track & Field (14): 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012 (vacated)\n\nOther national team championships", "Other national team championships\n\n Men's\nFootball (4): 1958, 2003, 2007, 2019\nBasketball (1): 1935\nRugby (1): 1976", "Men's\nFootball (4): 1958, 2003, 2007, 2019\nBasketball (1): 1935\nRugby (1): 1976\n\nNACDA Directors' Cup\nThe National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) ranks athletic departments on an annual basis. Each institution is awarded points in a pre-determined number of sports for men and women. The overall champion is the institution which has a broad-based program, achieving success in many sports, both men's and women's. The winner in each division receives a crystal trophy.", "NACDA All-Sports Rankings\n\nSource:\n\nAthletic facilities\nThe following is a list of the athletic facilities for the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers. It includes LSU's outdoor stadiums, indoor arenas, and training and practice facilities.", "Tiger Stadium\nTiger Stadium is the home stadium of the LSU football team. The stadium is also known by its nickname, \"Death Valley\". It opened in 1924 with an original seating capacity of 12,000. Tiger Stadium currently has a seating capacity of 102,321, making it the sixth largest stadium in the NCAA and the ninth largest stadium in the world.", "Tiger Stadium also has some unique features. Unlike most football fields, where only the yard lines ending in \"0\" are marked, Tiger Stadium also marks the yard lines ending in \"5\"", ". It also has \"H\" style (or \"offset\") goal posts, as opposed to the more modern \"Y\" (\"slingshot\" or \"tuning fork\") style used by other schools today, although they are not the true \"H\" goal posts which were once ubiquitous on American football fields, since the posts are behind the uprights and connected to the uprights by curved bars. This \"H\" style allows the team to run through the goal post in the north end zone", ". This \"H\" style allows the team to run through the goal post in the north end zone. The crossbar from the goalposts which stood in the north end zone of Tiger Stadium from 1955 through 1984 is now mounted above the door which leads from LSU's locker room onto the playing field. The crossbar is painted with the word \"WIN!\", and superstition dictates every player entering the field touch the bar on his way out the door.", "Charles McClendon Practice Facility\nThe Charles McClendon Practice Facility is the name of the LSU Tigers football practice facility. The facility features the LSU Football Operations Center, the Tigers Indoor Practice Facility and four outdoor 100-yard football practice fields. In 2002, it was named after former LSU head coach and College Football Hall of Fame member, Charles McClendon.", "LSU Football Operations Center\nThe LSU Football Operations Center, built in 2006 and renovated in 2019, is an all-in-one facility that includes the Tigers locker room, players' lounge, weight room, training room, equipment room, video operations center and coaches offices. The operations center atrium holds team displays and graphics, trophy cases and memorabilia of LSU football. A nutrition center for student athletes is being added to the facility.", "LSU Indoor Practice Facility\nThe LSU Indoor Practice Facility, built in 1991, is a climate-controlled 82,500 square feet facility connected to the Football Operations Center and adjacent to LSU's four outdoor 100-yard football practice fields. The facility holds the 100-yd Anderson-Feazel LSU Indoor field.", "LSU Outdoor Practice Fields\nThe LSU Outdoor Practice Fields consist of four outdoor practice fields that are directly adjacent to the football operations center and indoor practice facility. Three of the fields are natural grass, while the fourth has a Momentum Field Turf by SportExe playing surface.", "Pete Maravich Assembly Center", "The Pete Maravich Assembly Center, opened in 1972, is the home arena to the Louisiana State University Tigers and Lady Tigers basketball teams, Tigers gymnastics team and Tigers indoor volleyball team. The stadium is also known by its nicknames, \"Deaf Dome\" and \"PMAC\". It has a current seating capacity of 13,215. It was originally known as the LSU Assembly Center, but was renamed in honor of LSU basketball legend Pete Maravich, shortly after his death in 1988", ". The auxiliary gym located underneath the north section of the arena is the practice facility for the volleyball team.", "The offices for the Tiger Athletic Foundation (TAF) are also located in the arena. TAF is a private, non-profit corporation dedicated to supporting Louisiana State University (LSU) and its athletics program. It is the primary source of private funding for LSU athletics.", "LSU Basketball Practice Facility", "The LSU basketball practice facility which is connected to the Maravich Center was completed in 2010. The facility features separate, full-size duplicate gymnasiums for the men's and women's basketball teams. They include a regulation NCAA court in length with two regulation high school courts in the opposition direction. The courts are exact replicas of the Maravich Center game court and have two portable goals and four retractable goals", ". The facility also houses team locker rooms, a team lounge, training rooms, a coach's locker room and coach's offices.", "The building also includes a two-story lobby and staircase that ascends to the second level where a club room is used for pre-game and post-game events and is connected to the Maravich Center concourse. The lobby includes team displays and graphics, trophy cases and memorabilia of LSU Basketball.", "Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field", "Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field is the home stadium of the LSU Tigers college baseball team and has a seating capacity of 10,326. The stadium section (and LSU's previous baseball stadium 200 yards to the north) were named for Simeon Alex Box, an LSU letterman (1942), Purple Heart and Distinguished Service Cross recipient, who was killed in North Africa during World War II. In 2013, the field was named in honor of former LSU head baseball coach and athletic director Skip Bertman", ". The first game in the new stadium was played February 20, 2009 versus Villanova.", "Bernie Moore Track Stadium\nBernie Moore Track Stadium is the outdoor stadium for the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers track & field teams. The facility, built in 1969, has a seating capacity of 5,680. In 1971, the facility was renamed after former LSU football coach, track & field coach and SEC Commissioner Bernie Moore. Moore coached the LSU Track and Field teams for 18 years (1930–47) and led the Tigers to their first NCAA National Championship in 1933. He was SEC Commissioner from 1948–1966.", "Located in Bernie Moore Track Stadium is the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers track and field teams' weight room. The weight room is a 2,000 square foot facility and features 10 multi-purpose power stations, 5 dumbbell stations, 4 power racks, 5 sets of competition plates, 10 competition Olympic bars, 2 multi-purpose racks and an assortment of selectorized machines.", "Carl Maddox Field House\nCarl Maddox Field House is the indoor stadium for the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers track & field teams. It was built in 1975, renovated in 2014 and has a seating capacity of 2,000. In 1998, the facility was renamed in honor of former LSU Athletic Director Carl Maddox.\n\nHighland Road Park\nHighland Road Park is the home course for the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers cross country teams.", "LSU Beach Volleyball Stadium", "Occupying and renovating the former W.T. \"Dub\" Robinson Stadium in 2019; LSU Beach Volleyball now plays in the heart of LSU's campus. The revitalization of the previous tennis facility, originally built in 1970, will give the Tigers every opportunity they need to continue growing to new heights. The new stadium features six competition courts with 24-inch deep sand. The courts are state-of-the-art in sand permeability subsurface drainage and sand quality with a smooth sand to concrete transition", ". They feature an underground irrigation and wetting system that will facilitate competition play during hot days, cooling the sand for comfortable play. Dating back to the program's first season in 2014, the Tiger's played their home matches at Mango's Beach Club in Baton Rouge.", "LSU Gymnastics Training Facility\nThe LSU Gymnastics Training Facility is the practice venue for the LSU Tigers women's gymnastics team. The new facility opened in 2016 and provides 38,000 square feet of training and team space.", "LSU Natatorium\nThe LSU Natatorium, opened in 1985, is the home arena for the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers swimming and diving teams. The stadium has a seating capacity of 2,200. The Natatorium features a 50-meter pool, which can be converted into two 25-meter or 25-yard pools with the use of bulkheads and includes a championship diving well with one- and three-meter springboards and five-, seven- and 10-meter platforms.", "LSU Soccer Stadium\nThe LSU Soccer Stadium is the home stadium for the LSU Tigers women's soccer team. The two-level stadium has a seating capacity of 2,197.\n\nLSU Tennis Complex\nThe LSU Tennis Complex, completed in 2016, serves as the home of the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers tennis teams. The facility provides six indoor tennis courts with a second floor grandstand covering 75,000 square feet and seating for 300. The complex includes 12 lighted outdoor courts with a grandstand that seats 1,400.", "Tiger Park\nTiger Park is the home stadium of the LSU Tigers softball team. The park, built in 2009, has an official seating capacity of 1,289. The stadium also features an outfield berm that can accommodate an additional 1,200 fans.", "University Club of Baton Rouge\nThe University Club of Baton Rouge is the home of the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers golf teams. The course is a 7,700 yard, Par 72 Championship-Caliber, 300-acre course originally designed in 1998 and later redesigned by former LSU All-American and PGA golfer David Toms and original designer Jim Lipe.", "Mary and Woody Bilyeu Golf Practice Facility\nThe Mary and Woody Bilyeu Golf Practice Facility functions as the golf-learning center for the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers golf teams. The clubhouse features a team meeting room, locker rooms and coaches offices.", "Martin J. Broussard Center for Athletic Training\nThe Martin J. Broussard Center for Athletic Training is the athletic training and rehabilitation center for LSU athletics. The two-story, 22,000 square foot facility, built in 1998, serves as the main athletic training facility for treatments and rehabilitations. The facility is located adjacent to Tiger Stadium and is staffed by full-time certified staff athletic trainers, certified graduate assistants and athletic training students.", "LSU Strength and Conditioning facility", "The LSU Strength and Conditioning facility or LSU North Stadium weight room, is a strength training and conditioning facility at Louisiana State University. Built in 1997, it is located adjacent to Tiger Stadium. Measuring 10,000-square feet with a flat surface, it has 28 multi-purpose power stations, 36 assorted selectorized machines and 10 dumbbell stations along with a plyometric specific area, medicine balls, hurdles, plyometric boxes and assorted speed and agility equipment", ". It also features 2 treadmills, 4 stationary bikes, 2 elliptical cross trainers, a stepper and stepmill.", "LSU Cox Communications Academic Center for Student-Athletes\n\nThe LSU Cox Communications Academic Center for Student-Athletes is located in the Gym/Armory building. The building opened in 1930 and was completely renovated and reopened in 2002 to house the Academic Center for Student-Athletes.", "The goal of the academic center is to offer a comprehensive framework tailored to improve the academic skill set of each student-athlete", ". The 54,000 square foot Academic Center for Student-Athletes is complete with an entry/atrium, 1,000-seat Bo Campbell auditorium, computer labs, instructional technology lab, resource library with tech center, study area, tutorial center, meeting rooms, classrooms, student learning center, Shaquille O'Neal life skills labs and offices, Eric Hill communications studio, career center and Academic Hall of Fame.", "Former athletic facilities\nAlex Box Stadium — Baseball (1938–2008)\nFirst LSU Diamond — Baseball (1929–1935)\nHuey P. Long Field House — Boxing (1932–1936) and Men's and women's swimming and diving (1932–1984)\nJohn M. Parker Agricultural Coliseum — Men's basketball (1937–1971) and Boxing (1937–1956)\nLSU Gym/Armory — Men's basketball (1930–1937) and Wrestling (1968–1971)\nSecond LSU Diamond — Baseball (1936–1937)\nState Field — Baseball (1908–1924), Men's basketball (1893–1924) and Football (1893–1924)", "State Field — Baseball (1908–1924), Men's basketball (1893–1924) and Football (1893–1924)\nOriginal Tiger Park — Softball (1997–2008)\nW.T. \"Dub\" Robinson Stadium — Men's and women's tennis (1976–2014)", "Non-varsity athletic facilities\nStudent Recreation CenterThe Student Recreation Center is an athletic facility on the campus of Louisiana State University that is used for badminton, basketball, indoor soccer, powerlifting, racquetball, sand volleyball, squash, swimming, table tennis, tennis and volleyball.\n\nIt is home to the LSU men's basketball club team, powerlifting team, tennis club team, men's volleyball and women's volleyball club teams.", "The facility includes two gyms (West Gym: six multi-purpose wood courts, East Gym: one multi-purpose wood court and one synthetic court), indoor climbing area, eight lane 25-yard indoor lap pool, eight lane 25-yard lighted outdoor lap pool, powerlifting room, nine racquetball courts, one squash court, an indoor track, nine lighted outdoor tennis courts, two sand volleyball courts and locker rooms.", "UREC Field ComplexThe UREC Field Complex (formerly LSU Sport & Adventure Complex) is an athletic facility on the campus of Louisiana State University that is used for flag football, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, softball and ultimate frisbee.\n\nIt is the home of the LSU men's and women's lacrosse teams, men's and women's rugby teams, men's soccer and women's soccer club teams and men's and women's ultimate frisbee club teams.", "The complex includes eight lighted multi-purpose grass fields and four lighted grass softball fields. The facility also includes locker rooms and spectator seating.\n\nPlanet Ice Skating and Hockey ArenaThe Planet Ice Skating and Hockey Arena is an ice hockey rink in Lafayette, Louisiana that is the home game and practice rink for the LSU men's ice hockey team.\n\nLSU traditions\n\nMike the Tiger", "LSU traditions\n\nMike the Tiger\n\nMike the Tiger is the official mascot of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana and serves as the graphic image of LSU athletics. Mike is the name of both the live and costumed mascots. Mike the Tiger lives in a habitat (situated between Tiger Stadium and the Pete Maravich Assembly Center) which includes among its amenities lush plantings, a waterfall, a flowing stream that empties into a wading pond, and rocky plateaus.", "School colors\nLSU's official colors are Royal Purple and Old Gold. There is some discrepancy in the origin of LSU's current official colors. It is believed that purple and gold were first worn by an LSU team in the spring of 1893 when the LSU baseball squad beat Tulane in the first intercollegiate contest played in any sport by Louisiana State University.", "In another story, before LSU's first ever football game, football coach/chemistry professor Dr. Charles E. Coates and some of his players purchased ribbon to adorn their gray jerseys as they prepared to play the first LSU football game versus Tulane. Stores were stocking ribbons in the colors of Mardi Gras—purple, gold and green—for the coming Carnival season. However, none of the green had arrived, so all of the purple and gold stock were purchased.", "LSU's original school colors were white and blue chosen by Superintendent/President David F. Boyd (1865–1880).\n\n\"Fight for LSU\"", "\"Fight for LSU\"\n\n\"Fight for LSU\" is the university's official fight song. The band plays \"Fight for LSU\" often, most notably when the team enters the field (while the band is in a tunnel formation at the end of its pregame performance), successfully kicks a field goal, scores an extra point, or completes a two-point conversion. Following a halftime performance, the band often exits the field while playing \"Fight for LSU.\"\n\nLouisiana State University Tiger Marching Band", "The Louisiana State University Tiger Marching Band (also called The Golden Band from Tigerland or simply the Tiger Band) is known by LSU fans and foes alike for the first four notes of its pregame salute sounded on Saturday nights in Tiger Stadium. This 325-member marching band performs at all LSU football home games, all bowl games, and select away games and represents the university at other functions as one of its most recognizable student and spirit organizations.", "On football game days, the band marches from the band hall to Tiger Stadium, stopping along the way at Victory Hill, located right outside the stadium. \"Thousands of fans lining North Stadium Drive listen for the cadence of drums announcing the band's departure from the Greek Theatre\" and await the impending arrival of the band. The band stops on the hill and begins to play the opening strains of the \"Pregame Salute", ". The band stops on the hill and begins to play the opening strains of the \"Pregame Salute.\" Then, while playing the introduction to \"Touchdown for LSU,\" the band begins to run in tempo through the streets and down the hill amidst the crowd of cheering fans. The band also marches from the stadium to the band hall upon the conclusion of the game, a practice not usually employed by other bands.", "One of the most celebrated traditions carried on by the band is its pregame performance at each home football game. The performance includes pieces from the band's expansive repertoire of school songs, including \"Pregame Salute\"/\"Touchdown for LSU\". The band begins the performance in the south end zone of the stadium and is called to attention by the drum major right before he marches out across the end zone in front of the band", ". Stopping at the goal line, the drum major wields his mace and uses his whistle to signal the band to take the field. The band marches out of the end zone to the beat of a single bass drum. The Golden Girls and color guard accompany the band on the field. The band stands at attention and then plays the opening chords of the salute (which are taken from the tune \"Tiger Rag\"), the band turns to face all four corners of the stadium. The crowd explodes in cheers", ". The crowd explodes in cheers. Once the band salutes each part of the stadium, the pace of the music and the marching picks up, the music transitions into Long's \"Touchdown for LSU,\" and the band sweeps the field. Toward the end of the song, the band breaks the fronts and spells out \"LSU.\"", "In the \"LSU\" formation, the band plays the \"LSU Alma Mater\" and the \"Star-Spangled Banner. The band then plays LSU's official fight song, \"Fight for LSU\" as it salutes both sides of the stadium. Upon switching formations, the band plays the second half of \"Tiger Rag,\" which culminates in the crowd chanting \"T-I-G-E-R-S, TIGERS!' in unison", ". This is followed the \"First Down Cheer,\" to which the crowd in unison responds to each of the three refrains with \"GEAUX! TIGERS!\" and to the final refrain with \"LSU!\" The band immediately breaks into an encore performance of \"Touchdown for LSU\" as it marches to the north end zone, and then breaks to form a tunnel through which the football team will enter the field.", "The band also performs on first, second, and third down when the Tigers are on offense. The \"First Down Cheer\" includes the \"Hold that Tiger\" musical phrase from \"Tiger Rag.\" The \"Third Down Cheer\" is based on the song \"Eye of the Tiger\" made famous by Survivor. The piece, \"Tiger Bandits\" was created to pay homage to the defensive unit from the 1958 national championship football team. Coach Paul Dietzel called the unit the \"Chinese Bandits", ". Coach Paul Dietzel called the unit the \"Chinese Bandits.\" The title of the song was eventually changed to \"Tiger Bandits\" (or just simply \"Bandits\"). The band plays the song when the LSU defense forces the opposing team to give up possession of the football. With arms extended out, LSU fans bow to pay homage to the defensive stop.", "Bengal Brass", "The Bengal Brass is a group of 60 members selected from the ranks of the band constitute the Bengal Brass Basketball Band, often simply referred to as Bengal Brass. This group of all-brass musicians (and percussionist on a trap set) is often split into two squads—purple and gold—and performs at LSU select home volleyball matches, many home gymnastics meets, all home men's basketball, and all home women's basketball games in the Pete Maravich Assembly Center", ". Bengal Brass also travels with the men's and women's basketball teams during postseason play.", "Golden Girls and Colorguard", "The LSU Golden Girls, a feature unit with the Tiger Band and the oldest and most established danceline on the LSU campus, was created in 1959 as the Ballet Corps by then director of bands Thomas Tyra. The Golden Girl moniker became official in 1965. Today, the line includes 14 to 18 dancers who audition each year to make the line and who are often members of private dance studios. The Golden Girls fall under the Department of Bands in the School of Music. Blair Buras Guillaume is the director of the team", ". Blair Buras Guillaume is the director of the team. Members must audition every year, and receive college credit for participation.", "The LSU Colorguard, a flag twirling unit not to be confused with a traditional military colorguard, was established in 1971. Twenty-four to twenty- eight female twirlers are selected from an audition process.\n\nLSU Cheerleaders", "The LSU Cheerleaders consist of both male and female cheerleaders that perform at LSU football and men's and women's basketball games. The cheerleaders lead the crowd in numerous cheers during game play and breaks. Prior to home football games the LSU cheerleaders ride atop Mike the Tiger's mobile unit, lead the crowd in cheers such as the \"Geaux Tigers\" cheer and lead the football team onto the field prior to the game and after halftime", ". The cheerleaders are located on both sidelines during football games and are located along the baseline for home basketball games. LSU's cheerleaders also compete against other universities cheerleading squads in competitions sanctioned by the Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA). The 1989 Tiger cheerleaders won the UCA National Championship.", "LSU Tiger Girls\nThe LSU Tiger Girls, were established as a danceline for the LSU men's and women's basketball teams. The all-female squad performs during all home games and other university and non-university sponsored functions. The Tiger Girls also compete against other universities dance teams in competitions sanctioned by the Universal Dance Association (UDA).", "LSU Bat Girls", "The LSU Bat Girls are a support squad that contributes to the LSU Baseball program. The Bat Girls consist of 30 individuals who work in teams of 10 at all home games, post-season games and various charity events. The squad serves as hostesses at Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field and their responsibilities include selling game day programs, recovering foul balls, retrieving bats and helmets, answering fans questions, assisting with game day promotions and giveaways and checking on umpires", ". They also assist the athletic department with many different aspects of the game such as attending coaches committee meetings.", "Rivalries\n\nFootball\nTraditional rivals for the LSU Tigers football team include long running rivalries with the Ole Miss Rebels and Tulane Green Wave. More current football rivalries include the Alabama Crimson Tide, Arkansas Razorbacks, Auburn Tigers, Florida Gators, Mississippi State Bulldogs and Texas A&M Aggies.\n\nLSU Athletic Hall of Fame", "The Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame recognizes members of the athletics program that have made a lasting impact on the university. To be eligible for the LSU Hall of Fame in the Athlete category, an individual must have earned a college degree and gained national distinction through superlative performance. Hall of Fame candidates must also have established a personal reputation for character and citizenship", ". To be eligible in the Coach/Administrator category, the individual must have made significant contributions to LSU Athletics and gained national distinction through exceptional accomplishments in his or her field of expertise while establishing an image that reflects favorably upon the university.", "The Jack and Priscilla Andonie Museum located on the campus of LSU in Baton Rouge, Louisiana is the physical location of the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame.\n\nTiger Athletic Foundation", "The Tiger Athletic Foundation or TAF is a private, non-profit corporation dedicated to supporting Louisiana State University (LSU) and its athletics program. It is the primary source of private funding for LSU athletics and contributions to TAF benefit every athlete and every team at LSU. TAF has become a critical element in the success of LSU Athletics by providing private funding for scholarships, academic rewards, new athletic facilities and facility upgrades", ". In addition to contributions to the athletic scholarship fund, TAF will continue to provide funding for academic programs and facilities that benefit all LSU students.", "Athletic directors\n\nBroadcast information\n\nThe LSU Sports Radio Network's flagship station for men's sports is WDGL-FM (\"The Eagle 98.1\") in Baton Rouge and the flagship station for women's sports is WBRP-FM (Talk 107.3) in Baton Rouge.\n\nCurrent\nAs of the 2017–18 season:", "Current\nAs of the 2017–18 season:\n\nFormer \"Voice of the Tigers\"\nJohn Ferguson – Play-by-play commentator (men's basketball, football) (1946–1958, 1961–1987)\nJ.C. Politz – Play-by-play commentator (men's basketball, football) (1959–1960)\nJim Hawthorne – Play-by-play commentator (baseball, men's basketball, football) (1979–2016)\n\nSee also\nBengal Punch\nList of NCAA Division I institutions\nList of NCAA schools with the most Division I national championships\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links" ]

[ "Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word football normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly called football include association football (known as soccer in North America, Ireland and Australia); gridiron football (specifically American football or Canadian football); Australian rules football; rugby union and rugby league; and Gaelic football", ". These various forms of football share, to varying degrees, common origins and are known as \"football codes\".", "There are a number of references to traditional, ancient, or prehistoric ball games played in many different parts of the world. Contemporary codes of football can be traced back to the codification of these games at English public schools during the 19th century. The expansion and cultural influence of the British Empire allowed these rules of football to spread to areas of British influence outside the directly controlled Empire", ". By the end of the 19th century, distinct regional codes were already developing: Gaelic football, for example, deliberately incorporated the rules of local traditional football games in order to maintain their heritage. In 1888, The Football League was founded in England, becoming the first of many professional football associations. During the 20th century, several of the various kinds of football grew to become some of the most popular team sports in the world.", "Common elements \n\nThe various codes of football share certain common elements and can be grouped into two main classes of football: carrying codes like American football, Canadian football, Australian football, rugby union and rugby league, where the ball is moved about the field while being held in the hands or thrown, and kicking codes such as association football and Gaelic football, where the ball is moved primarily with the feet, and where handling is strictly limited.", "Common rules among the sports include:\n Two teams usually have between 11 and 18 players; some variations that have fewer players (five or more per team) are also popular.\n A clearly defined area in which to play the game.\n Scoring goals or points by moving the ball to an opposing team's end of the field and either into a goal area, or over a line.\n Goals or points resulting from players putting the ball between two goalposts.\n The goal or line being defended by the opposing team.", "The goal or line being defended by the opposing team.\n Players using only their body to move the ball, i.e. no additional equipment such as bats or sticks.", "In all codes, common skills include passing, tackling, evasion of tackles, catching and kicking. In most codes, there are rules restricting the movement of players offside, and players scoring a goal must put the ball either under or over a crossbar between the goalposts.\n\nEtymology", "Etymology \n\nThere are conflicting explanations of the origin of the word \"football\". It is widely assumed that the word \"football\" (or the phrase \"foot ball\") refers to the action of the foot kicking a ball. There is an alternative explanation, which is that football originally referred to a variety of games in medieval Europe that were played on foot. There is no conclusive evidence for either explanation.\n\nEarly history\n\nAncient games\n\nAncient China", "The Chinese competitive game cuju (蹴鞠) resembles modern association football. It existed during the Han dynasty and possibly the Qin dynasty, in the second and third centuries BC, attested by descriptions in a military manual. The Japanese version of cuju is kemari (蹴鞠), and was developed during the Asuka period. This is known to have been played within the Japanese imperial court in Kyoto from about 600 AD", ". This is known to have been played within the Japanese imperial court in Kyoto from about 600 AD. In kemari, several people stand in a circle and kick a ball to each other, trying not to let the ball drop to the ground (much like keepie uppie).", "Ancient Greece and Rome", "The Ancient Greeks and Romans are known to have played many ball games, some of which involved the use of the feet. The Roman game harpastum is believed to have been adapted from a Greek team game known as \"ἐπίσκυρος\" (Episkyros) or \"φαινίνδα\" (phaininda), which is mentioned by a Greek playwright, Antiphanes (388–311 BC) and later referred to by the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria ( – ). These games appear to have resembled rugby football", ". These games appear to have resembled rugby football. The Roman politician Cicero (106–43 BC) describes the case of a man who was killed whilst having a shave when a ball was kicked into a barber's shop. Roman ball games already knew the air-filled ball, the follis. Episkyros is described as an early form of football by FIFA.", "Native Americans", "There are a number of references to traditional, ancient, or prehistoric ball games, played by indigenous peoples in many different parts of the world. For example, in 1586, men from a ship commanded by an English explorer named John Davis went ashore to play a form of football with Inuit in Greenland. There are later accounts of an Inuit game played on ice, called Aqsaqtuk", ". There are later accounts of an Inuit game played on ice, called Aqsaqtuk. Each match began with two teams facing each other in parallel lines, before attempting to kick the ball through each other team's line and then at a goal. In 1610, William Strachey, a colonist at Jamestown, Virginia recorded a game played by Native Americans, called Pahsaheman. Pasuckuakohowog, a game similar to modern-day association football played amongst Amerindians, was also reported as early as the 17th century.", "Games played in Mesoamerica with rubber balls by indigenous peoples are also well-documented as existing since before this time, but these had more similarities to basketball or volleyball, and no links have been found between such games and modern football sports", ". Northeastern American Indians, especially the Iroquois Confederation, played a game which made use of net racquets to throw and catch a small ball; however, although it is a ball-goal foot game, lacrosse (as its modern descendant is called) is likewise not usually classed as a form of \"football\".", "Oceania", "On the Australian continent several tribes of indigenous people played kicking and catching games with stuffed balls which have been generalised by historians as Marn Grook (Djab Wurrung for \"game ball\")", ". The earliest historical account is an anecdote from the 1878 book by Robert Brough-Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria, in which a man called Richard Thomas is quoted as saying, in about 1841 in Victoria, Australia, that he had witnessed Aboriginal people playing the game: \"Mr Thomas describes how the foremost player will drop kick a ball made from the skin of a possum and how other players leap into the air in order to catch it", ".\" Some historians have theorised that Marn Grook was one of the origins of Australian rules football.", "The Māori in New Zealand played a game called Ki-o-rahi consisting of teams of seven players play on a circular field divided into zones, and score points by touching the 'pou' (boundary markers) and hitting a central 'tupu' or target.\n\nThese games and others may well go far back into antiquity. However, the main sources of modern football codes appear to lie in western Europe, especially England.", "Turkic peoples \nMahmud al-Kashgari in his Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, described a game called \"tepuk\" among Turks in Central and East Asia. In the game, people try to attack each other's castle by kicking a ball made of sheep leather.\n\nMedieval and early modern Europe", "Medieval and early modern Europe \n\nThe Middle Ages saw a huge rise in popularity of annual Shrovetide football matches throughout Europe, particularly in England. An early reference to a ball game played in Britain comes from the 9th-century Historia Brittonum, attributed to Nennius, which describes \"a party of boys ... playing at ball\". References to a ball game played in northern France known as La Soule or Choule, in which the ball was propelled by hands, feet, and sticks, date from the 12th century.", "The early forms of football played in England, sometimes referred to as \"mob football\", would be played in towns or between neighbouring villages, involving an unlimited number of players on opposing teams who would clash en masse, struggling to move an item, such as inflated animal's bladder to particular geographical points, such as their opponents' church, with play taking place in the open space between neighbouring parishes", ". The game was played primarily during significant religious festivals, such as Shrovetide, Christmas, or Easter, and Shrovetide games have survived into the modern era in a number of English towns (see below).", "The first detailed description of what was almost certainly football in England was given by William FitzStephen in about 1174–1183. He described the activities of London youths during the annual festival of Shrove Tuesday:\n\nMost of the very early references to the game speak simply of \"ball play\" or \"playing at ball\". This reinforces the idea that the games played at the time did not necessarily involve a ball being kicked.", "An early reference to a ball game that was probably football comes from 1280 at Ulgham, Northumberland, England: \"Henry... while playing at ball.. ran against David\". Football was played in Ireland in 1308, with a documented reference to John McCrocan, a spectator at a \"football game\" at Newcastle, County Down being charged with accidentally stabbing a player named William Bernard", ". Another reference to a football game comes in 1321 at Shouldham, Norfolk, England: \"[d]uring the game at ball as he kicked the ball, a lay friend of his... ran against him and wounded himself\".", "In 1314, Nicholas de Farndone, Lord Mayor of the City of London issued a decree banning football in the French used by the English upper classes at the time. A translation reads: \"[f]orasmuch as there is great noise in the city caused by hustling over large foot balls [rageries de grosses pelotes de pee] in the fields of the public from which many evils might arise which God forbid: we command and forbid on behalf of the king, on pain of imprisonment, such game to be used in the city in the future", ".\" This is the earliest reference to football.", "In 1363, King Edward III of England issued a proclamation banning \"...handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting, or other such idle games\", showing that \"football\" – whatever its exact form in this case – was being differentiated from games involving other parts of the body, such as handball.", "A game known as \"football\" was played in Scotland as early as the 15th century: it was prohibited by the Football Act 1424 and although the law fell into disuse it was not repealed until 1906. There is evidence for schoolboys playing a \"football\" ball game in Aberdeen in 1633 (some references cite 1636) which is notable as an early allusion to what some have considered to be passing the ball", ". The word \"pass\" in the most recent translation is derived from \"huc percute\" (strike it here) and later \"repercute pilam\" (strike the ball again) in the original Latin. It is not certain that the ball was being struck between members of the same team. The original word translated as \"goal\" is \"metum\", literally meaning the \"pillar at each end of the circus course\" in a Roman chariot race", ". There is a reference to \"get hold of the ball before [another player] does\" (Praeripe illi pilam si possis agere) suggesting that handling of the ball was allowed. One sentence states in the original 1930 translation \"Throw yourself against him\" (Age, objice te illi).", "King Henry IV of England also presented one of the earliest documented uses of the English word \"football\", in 1409, when he issued a proclamation forbidding the levying of money for \"foteball\".", "There is also an account in Latin from the end of the 15th century of football being played at Caunton, Nottinghamshire. This is the first description of a \"kicking game\" and the first description of dribbling: \"[t]he game at which they had met for common recreation is called by some the foot-ball game. It is one in which young men, in country sport, propel a huge ball not by throwing it into the air but by striking it and rolling it along the ground, and that not with their hands but with their feet..", "... kicking in opposite directions.\" The chronicler gives the earliest reference to a football pitch, stating that: \"[t]he boundaries have been marked and the game had started.", "Other firsts in the medieval and early modern eras:", "\"A football\", in the sense of a ball rather than a game, was first mentioned in 1486. This reference is in Dame Juliana Berners' Book of St Albans. It states: \"a certain rounde instrument to play with ...it is an instrument for the foote and then it is calde in Latyn 'pila pedalis', a fotebal\".\n A pair of football boots were ordered by King Henry VIII of England in 1526.", "A pair of football boots were ordered by King Henry VIII of England in 1526.\n Women playing a form of football was first described in 1580 by Sir Philip Sidney in one of his poems: \"[a] tyme there is for all, my mother often sayes, when she, with skirts tuckt very hy, with girles at football playes\".", "The first references to goals are in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1584 and 1602 respectively, John Norden and Richard Carew referred to \"goals\" in Cornish hurling. Carew described how goals were made: \"they pitch two bushes in the ground, some eight or ten foote asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelue [twelve] score off, other twayne in like distance, which they terme their Goales\". He is also the first to describe goalkeepers and passing of the ball between players.", "The first direct reference to scoring a goal is in John Day's play The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (performed circa 1600; published 1659): \"I'll play a gole at camp-ball\" (an extremely violent variety of football, which was popular in East Anglia). Similarly in a poem in 1613, Michael Drayton refers to \"when the Ball to throw, and drive it to the Gole, in squadrons forth they goe\".", "Calcio Fiorentino", "In the 16th century, the city of Florence celebrated the period between Epiphany and Lent by playing a game which today is known as \"calcio storico\" (\"historic kickball\") in the Piazza Santa Croce. The young aristocrats of the city would dress up in fine silk costumes and embroil themselves in a violent form of football. For example, calcio players could punch, shoulder charge, and kick opponents. Blows below the belt were allowed. The game is said to have originated as a military training exercise", ". The game is said to have originated as a military training exercise. In 1580, Count Giovanni de' Bardi di Vernio wrote Discorso sopra 'l giuoco del Calcio Fiorentino. This is sometimes said to be the earliest code of rules for any football game. The game was not played after January 1739 (until it was revived in May 1930).", "Official disapproval and attempts to ban football \n\nThere have been many attempts to ban football, from the middle ages through to the modern day. The first such law was passed in England in 1314; it was followed by more than 30 in England alone between 1314 and 1667. Women were banned from playing at English and Scottish Football League grounds in 1921, a ban that was only lifted in the 1970s. Female footballers still face similar problems in some parts of the world.", "American football also faced pressures to ban the sport. The game played in the 19th century resembled mob football that developed in medieval Europe, including a version popular on university campuses known as old division football, and several municipalities banned its play in the mid-19th century. By the 20th century, the game had evolved to a more rugby style game. In 1905, there were calls to ban American football in the U.S", ". In 1905, there were calls to ban American football in the U.S. due to its violence; a meeting that year was hosted by American president Theodore Roosevelt led to sweeping rules changes that caused the sport to diverge significantly from its rugby roots to become more like the sport as it is played today.", "Establishment of modern codes\n\nEnglish public schools", "While football continued to be played in various forms throughout Britain, its public schools (equivalent to private schools in other countries) are widely credited with four key achievements in the creation of modern football codes. First of all, the evidence suggests that they were important in taking football away from its \"mob\" form and turning it into an organised team sport. Second, many early descriptions of football and references to it were recorded by people who had studied at these schools", ". Third, it was teachers, students, and former students from these schools who first codified football games, to enable matches to be played between schools. Finally, it was at English public schools that the division between \"kicking\" and \"running\" (or \"carrying\") games first became clear.", "The earliest evidence that games resembling football were being played at English public schools – mainly attended by boys from the upper, upper-middle and professional classes – comes from the Vulgaria by William Herman in 1519. Herman had been headmaster at Eton and Winchester colleges and his Latin textbook includes a translation exercise with the phrase \"We wyll playe with a ball full of wynde\".", "Richard Mulcaster, a student at Eton College in the early 16th century and later headmaster at other English schools, has been described as \"the greatest sixteenth Century advocate of football\". Among his contributions are the earliest evidence of organised team football. Mulcaster's writings refer to teams (\"sides\" and \"parties\"), positions (\"standings\"), a referee (\"judge over the parties\") and a coach \"(trayning maister)\"", ". Mulcaster's \"footeball\" had evolved from the disordered and violent forms of traditional football:", "In 1633, David Wedderburn, a teacher from Aberdeen, mentioned elements of modern football games in a short Latin textbook called Vocabula. Wedderburn refers to what has been translated into modern English as \"keeping goal\" and makes an allusion to passing the ball (\"strike it here\"). There is a reference to \"get hold of the ball\", suggesting that some handling was allowed. It is clear that the tackles allowed included the charging and holding of opposing players (\"drive that man back\").", "A more detailed description of football is given in Francis Willughby's Book of Games, written in about 1660. Willughby, who had studied at Bishop Vesey's Grammar School, Sutton Coldfield, is the first to describe goals and a distinct playing field: \"a close that has a gate at either end. The gates are called Goals.\" His book includes a diagram illustrating a football field", ". The gates are called Goals.\" His book includes a diagram illustrating a football field. He also mentions tactics (\"leaving some of their best players to guard the goal\"); scoring (\"they that can strike the ball through their opponents' goal first win\") and the way teams were selected (\"the players being equally divided according to their strength and nimbleness\"). He is the first to describe a \"law\" of football: \"they must not strike [an opponent's leg] higher than the ball\".", "English public schools were the first to codify football games. In particular, they devised the first offside rules, during the late 18th century. In the earliest manifestations of these rules, players were \"off their side\" if they simply stood between the ball and the goal which was their objective. Players were not allowed to pass the ball forward, either by foot or by hand. They could only dribble with their feet, or advance the ball in a scrum or similar formation", ". They could only dribble with their feet, or advance the ball in a scrum or similar formation. However, offside laws began to diverge and develop differently at each school, as is shown by the rules of football from Winchester, Rugby, Harrow and Cheltenham, during between 1810 and 1850. The first known codes – in the sense of a set of rules – were those of Eton in 1815 and Aldenham in 1825.)", "During the early 19th century, most working-class people in Britain had to work six days a week, often for over twelve hours a day. They had neither the time nor the inclination to engage in sport for recreation and, at the time, many children were part of the labour force. Feast day football played on the streets was in decline. Public school boys, who enjoyed some freedom from work, became the inventors of organised football games with formal codes of rules.", "Football was adopted by a number of public schools as a way of encouraging competitiveness and keeping youths fit. Each school drafted its own rules, which varied widely between different schools and were changed over time with each new intake of pupils. Two schools of thought developed regarding rules", ". Two schools of thought developed regarding rules. Some schools favoured a game in which the ball could be carried (as at Rugby, Marlborough and Cheltenham), while others preferred a game where kicking and dribbling the ball was promoted (as at Eton, Harrow, Westminster and Charterhouse). The division into these two camps was partly the result of circumstances in which the games were played", ". For example, Charterhouse and Westminster at the time had restricted playing areas; the boys were confined to playing their ball game within the school cloisters, making it difficult for them to adopt rough and tumble running games.", "William Webb Ellis, a pupil at Rugby School, is said to have \"with a fine disregard for the rules of football, as played in his time [emphasis added], first took the ball in his arms and ran with it, thus creating the distinctive feature of the rugby game.\" in 1823. This act is usually said to be the beginning of Rugby football, but there is little evidence that it occurred, and most sports historians believe the story to be apocryphal", ". The act of 'taking the ball in his arms' is often misinterpreted as 'picking the ball up' as it is widely believed that Webb Ellis' 'crime' was handling the ball, as in modern association football, however handling the ball at the time was often permitted and in some cases compulsory, the rule for which Webb Ellis showed disregard was running forward with it as the rules of his time only allowed a player to retreat backwards or kick forwards.", "The boom in rail transport in Britain during the 1840s meant that people were able to travel farther and with less inconvenience than they ever had before. Inter-school sporting competitions became possible. However, it was difficult for schools to play each other at football, as each school played by its own rules. The solution to this problem was usually that the match be divided into two-halves, one half played by the rules of the host \"home\" school, and the other half by the visiting \"away\" school.", "The modern rules of many football codes were formulated during the mid- or late- 19th century. This also applies to other sports such as lawn bowls, lawn tennis, etc. The major impetus for this was the patenting of the world's first lawnmower in 1830. This allowed for the preparation of modern ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc.", "Apart from Rugby football, the public school codes have barely been played beyond the confines of each school's playing fields. However, many of them are still played at the schools which created them (see Surviving UK school games below).", "Public schools' dominance of sports in the UK began to wane after the Factory Act of 1850, which significantly increased the recreation time available to working class children. Before 1850, many British children had to work six days a week, for more than twelve hours a day. From 1850, they could not work before 6 a.m. (7 a.m. in winter) or after 6 p.m. on weekdays (7 p.m. in winter); on Saturdays they had to cease work at 2 pm", ".m. on weekdays (7 p.m. in winter); on Saturdays they had to cease work at 2 pm. These changes meant that working class children had more time for games, including various forms of football.", "The earliest known matches between public schools are as follows:", "9 December 1834: Eton School v. Harrow School.\n 1840s: Old Rugbeians v. Old Salopians (played at Cambridge University).\n 1840s: Old Rugbeians v. Old Salopians (played at Cambridge University the following year).\n 1852: Harrow School v. Westminster School.\n 1857: Haileybury School v. Westminster School.\n 24 February 1858: Forest School v. Chigwell School.\n 1858: Westminster School v. Winchester College.\n 1859: Harrow School v. Westminster School.\n 19 November 1859: Radley College v. Old Wykehamists.", "1859: Harrow School v. Westminster School.\n 19 November 1859: Radley College v. Old Wykehamists.\n 1 December 1859: Old Marlburians v. Old Rugbeians (played at Christ Church, Oxford).\n 19 December 1859: Old Harrovians v. Old Wykehamists (played at Christ Church, Oxford).", "Firsts\n\nClubs \n\nSports clubs dedicated to playing football began in the 18th century, for example London's Gymnastic Society which was founded in the mid-18th century and ceased playing matches in 1796.\n\nThe first documented club to bear in the title a reference to being a 'football club' were called \"The Foot-Ball Club\" who were located in Edinburgh, Scotland, during the period 1824–41. The club forbade tripping but allowed pushing and holding and the picking up of the ball.", "In 1845, three boys at Rugby school were tasked with codifying the rules then being used at the school. These were the first set of written rules (or code) for any form of football. This further assisted the spread of the Rugby game.\n\nThe earliest known matches involving non-public school clubs or institutions are as follows:", "13 February 1856: Charterhouse School v. St Bartholemew's Hospital.\n 7 November 1856: Bedford Grammar School v. Bedford Town Gentlemen.\n 13 December 1856: Sunbury Military College v. Littleton Gentlemen.\n December 1857: Edinburgh University v. Edinburgh Academical Club.\n 24 November 1858: Westminster School v. Dingley Dell Club.\n 12 May 1859: Tavistock School v. Princetown School.\n 5 November 1859: Eton School v. Oxford University.\n 22 February 1860: Charterhouse School v. Dingley Dell Club.", "22 February 1860: Charterhouse School v. Dingley Dell Club.\n 21 July 1860: Melbourne v. Richmond.\n 17 December 1860: 58th Regiment v. Sheffield.\n 26 December 1860: Sheffield v. Hallam.", "Competitions", "One of the longest running football fixture is the Cordner-Eggleston Cup, contested between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College, Melbourne every year since 1858. It is believed by many to also be the first match of Australian rules football, although it was played under experimental rules in its first year. The first football trophy tournament was the Caledonian Challenge Cup, donated by the Royal Caledonian Society of Melbourne, played in 1861 under the Melbourne Rules", ". The oldest football league is a rugby football competition, the United Hospitals Challenge Cup (1874), while the oldest rugby trophy is the Yorkshire Cup, contested since 1878. The South Australian Football Association (30 April 1877) is the oldest surviving Australian rules football competition. The oldest surviving soccer trophy is the Youdan Cup (1867) and the oldest national football competition is the English FA Cup (1871)", ". The Football League (1888) is recognised as the longest running association football league. The first international football match took place between sides representing England and Scotland on 5 March 1870 at the Oval under the authority of the FA. The first rugby international took place in 1871.", "Modern balls", "In Europe, early footballs were made out of animal bladders, more specifically pig's bladders, which were inflated. Later leather coverings were introduced to allow the balls to keep their shape. However, in 1851, Richard Lindon and William Gilbert, both shoemakers from the town of Rugby (near the school), exhibited both round and oval-shaped balls at the Great Exhibition in London. Richard Lindon's wife is said to have died of lung disease caused by blowing up pig's bladders", ". Richard Lindon's wife is said to have died of lung disease caused by blowing up pig's bladders. Lindon also won medals for the invention of the \"Rubber inflatable Bladder\" and the \"Brass Hand Pump\".", "In 1855, the U.S. inventor Charles Goodyear – who had patented vulcanised rubber – exhibited a spherical football, with an exterior of vulcanised rubber panels, at the Paris Exhibition Universelle. The ball was to prove popular in early forms of football in the U.S.\n\nThe iconic ball with a regular pattern of hexagons and pentagons (see truncated icosahedron) did not become popular until the 1960s, and was first used in the World Cup in 1970.\n\nModern ball passing tactics", "Modern ball passing tactics \n\nThe earliest reference to a game of football involving players passing the ball and attempting to score past a goalkeeper was written in 1633 by David Wedderburn, a poet and teacher in Aberdeen, Scotland. Nevertheless, the original text does not state whether the allusion to passing as 'kick the ball back' ('repercute pilam') was in a forward or backward direction or between members of the same opposing teams (as was usual at this time).", "\"Scientific\" football is first recorded in 1839 from Lancashire and in the modern game in rugby football from 1862 and from Sheffield FC as early as 1865. The first side to play a passing combination game was the Royal Engineers AFC in 1869/70. By 1869 they were \"work[ing] well together\", \"backing up\" and benefiting from \"cooperation\". By 1870 the Engineers were passing the ball: \"Lieut", ". By 1870 the Engineers were passing the ball: \"Lieut. Creswell, who having brought the ball up the side then kicked it into the middle to another of his side, who kicked it through the posts the minute before time was called\". Passing was a regular feature of their style. By early 1872 the Engineers were the first football team renowned for \"play[ing] beautifully together\"", ". A double pass is first reported from Derby school against Nottingham Forest in March 1872, the first of which is irrefutably a short pass: \"Mr Absey dribbling the ball half the length of the field delivered it to Wallis, who kicking it cleverly in front of the goal, sent it to the captain who drove it at once between the Nottingham posts\". The first side to have perfected the modern formation was Cambridge University AFC; they also introduced the 2–3–5 \"pyramid\" formation.", "Rugby football", "Rugby football was thought to have been started about 1845 at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, England although forms of football in which the ball was carried and tossed date to medieval times. In Britain, by 1870, there were 49 clubs playing variations of the Rugby school game. There were also \"rugby\" clubs in Ireland, Australia, Canada and New Zealand", ". There were also \"rugby\" clubs in Ireland, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. However, there was no generally accepted set of rules for rugby until 1871, when 21 clubs from London came together to form the Rugby Football Union (RFU). The first official RFU rules were adopted in June 1871. These rules allowed passing the ball", ". The first official RFU rules were adopted in June 1871. These rules allowed passing the ball. They also included the try, where touching the ball over the line allowed an attempt at goal, though drop-goals from marks and general play, and penalty conversions were still the main form of contest. Regardless of any form of football, the first international match between the national team of England and Scotland took place at Raeburn Place on 27 March 1871.", "Rugby football split into Rugby union, Rugby league, American football, and Canadian football. Tom Wills played Rugby football in England before founding Australian rules football.\n\nCambridge rules", "Cambridge rules \n\nDuring the nineteenth century, several codifications of the rules of football were made at the University of Cambridge, in order to enable students from different public schools to play each other. The Cambridge Rules of 1863 influenced the decision of the Football Association to ban Rugby-style carrying of the ball in its own first set of laws.\n\nSheffield rules", "By the late 1850s, many football clubs had been formed throughout the English-speaking world, to play various codes of football. Sheffield Football Club, founded in 1857 in the English city of Sheffield by Nathaniel Creswick and William Prest, was later recognised as the world's oldest club playing association football.", "However, the club initially played its own code of football: the Sheffield rules. The code was largely independent of the public school rules, the most significant difference being the lack of an offside rule.", "The code was responsible for many innovations that later spread to association football. These included free kicks, corner kicks, handball, throw-ins and the crossbar. By the 1870s they became the dominant code in the north and midlands of England. At this time, a series of rule changes by both the London and Sheffield FAs gradually eroded the differences between the two games until the adoption of a common code in 1877.\n\nAustralian rules football", "Australian rules football \n\nThere is archival evidence of \"foot-ball\" games being played in various parts of Australia throughout the first half of the 19th century. The origins of an organised game of football known today as Australian rules football can be traced back to 1858 in Melbourne, the capital city of Victoria.", "In July 1858, Tom Wills, an Australian-born cricketer educated at Rugby School in England, wrote a letter to Bell's Life in Victoria & Sporting Chronicle, calling for a \"foot-ball club\" with a \"code of laws\" to keep cricketers fit during winter. This is considered by historians to be a defining moment in the creation of Australian rules football", ". Through publicity and personal contacts Wills was able to co-ordinate football matches in Melbourne that experimented with various rules, the first of which was played on 31 July 1858. One week later, Wills umpired a schoolboys match between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College. Following these matches, organised football in Melbourne rapidly increased in popularity.", "Wills and others involved in these early matches formed the Melbourne Football Club (the oldest surviving Australian football club) on 14 May 1859. Club members Wills, William Hammersley, J. B. Thompson and Thomas H. Smith met with the intention of forming a set of rules that would be widely adopted by other clubs. The committee debated rules used in English public school games; Wills pushed for various rugby football rules he learnt during his schooling", ". The first rules share similarities with these games, and were shaped to suit to Australian conditions. H. C. A. Harrison, a seminal figure in Australian football, recalled that his cousin Wills wanted \"a game of our own\". The code was distinctive in the prevalence of the mark, free kick, tackling, lack of an offside rule and that players were specifically penalised for throwing the ball.", "The Melbourne football rules were widely distributed and gradually adopted by the other Victorian clubs. The rules were updated several times during the 1860s to accommodate the rules of other influential Victorian football clubs. A significant redraft in 1866 by H. C. A. Harrison's committee accommodated the Geelong Football Club's rules, making the game then known as \"Victorian Rules\" increasingly distinct from other codes", ". It soon adopted cricket fields and an oval ball, used specialised goal and behind posts, and featured bouncing the ball while running and spectacular high marking. The game spread quickly to other Australian colonies. Outside its heartland in southern Australia, the code experienced a significant period of decline following World War I but has since grown throughout Australia and in other parts of the world, and the Australian Football League emerged as the dominant professional competition.", "The Football Association", "During the early 1860s, there were increasing attempts in England to unify and reconcile the various public school games. In 1862, J. C. Thring, who had been one of the driving forces behind the original Cambridge Rules, was a master at Uppingham School, and he issued his own rules of what he called \"The Simplest Game\" (these are also known as the Uppingham Rules)", ". In early October 1863, another new revised version of the Cambridge Rules was drawn up by a seven member committee representing former pupils from Harrow, Shrewsbury, Eton, Rugby, Marlborough and Westminster.", "At the Freemasons' Tavern, Great Queen Street, London on the evening of 26 October 1863, representatives of several football clubs in the London Metropolitan area met for the inaugural meeting of the Football Association (FA). The aim of the association was to establish a single unifying code and regulate the playing of the game among its members. Following the first meeting, the public schools were invited to join the association. All of them declined, except Charterhouse and Uppingham", ". All of them declined, except Charterhouse and Uppingham. In total, six meetings of the FA were held between October and December 1863. After the third meeting, a draft set of rules were published. However, at the beginning of the fourth meeting, attention was drawn to the recently published Cambridge Rules of 1863. The Cambridge rules differed from the draft FA rules in two significant areas; namely running with (carrying) the ball and hacking (kicking opposing players in the shins)", ". The two contentious FA rules were as follows:", "At the fifth meeting it was proposed that these two rules be removed. Most of the delegates supported this, but F. M. Campbell, the representative from Blackheath and the first FA treasurer, objected. He said: \"hacking is the true football\". However, the motion to ban running with the ball in hand and hacking was carried and Blackheath withdrew from the FA", ". After the final meeting on 8 December, the FA published the \"Laws of the Game\", the first comprehensive set of rules for the game later known as association football. The term \"soccer\", in use since the late 19th century, derives from an Oxford University abbreviation of \"association\".", "The first FA rules still contained elements that are no longer part of association football, but which are still recognisable in other games (such as Australian football and rugby football): for instance, a player could make a fair catch and claim a mark, which entitled him to a free kick; and if a player touched the ball behind the opponents' goal line, his side was entitled to a free kick at goal, from 15 yards (13.5 metres) in front of the goal line.\n\nNorth American football codes", "As was the case in Britain, by the early 19th century, North American schools and universities played their own local games, between sides made up of students. For example, students at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire played a game called Old division football, a variant of the association football codes, as early as the 1820s. They remained largely \"mob football\" style games, with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area, often by any means necessary", ". Rules were simple, violence and injury were common. The violence of these mob-style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them. Yale University, under pressure from the city of New Haven, banned the play of all forms of football in 1860, while Harvard University followed suit in 1861. In its place, two general types of football evolved: \"kicking\" games and \"running\" (or \"carrying\") games", ". A hybrid of the two, known as the \"Boston game\", was played by a group known as the Oneida Football Club. The club, considered by some historians as the first formal football club in the United States, was formed in 1862 by schoolboys who played the Boston game on Boston Common. The game began to return to American college campuses by the late 1860s. The universities of Yale, Princeton (then known as the College of New Jersey), Rutgers, and Brown all began playing \"kicking\" games during this time", ". In 1867, Princeton used rules based on those of the English Football Association.", "In Canada, the first documented football match was a practice game played on 9 November 1861, at University College, University of Toronto (approximately 400 yards west of Queen's Park). One of the participants in the game involving University of Toronto students was (Sir) William Mulock, later Chancellor of the school. In 1864, at Trinity College, Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland, Frederick A. Bethune, and Christopher Gwynn, one of the founders of Milton, Massachusetts, devised rules based on rugby football", ". A \"running game\", resembling rugby football, was then taken up by the Montreal Football Club in Canada in 1868.", "On 6 November 1869, Rutgers faced Princeton in a game that was played with a round ball and, like all early games, used improvised rules. It is usually regarded as the first game of American intercollegiate football.", "Modern North American football grew out of a match between McGill University of Montreal and Harvard University in 1874. During the game, the two teams alternated between the rugby-based rules used by McGill and the Boston Game rules used by Harvard. Within a few years, Harvard had both adopted McGill's rules and persuaded other U.S. university teams to do the same", ".S. university teams to do the same. On 23 November 1876, representatives from Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia met at the Massasoit Convention in Springfield, Massachusetts, agreeing to adopt most of the Rugby Football Union rules, with some variations.", "In 1880, Yale coach Walter Camp, who had become a fixture at the Massasoit House conventions where the rules were debated and changed, devised a number of major innovations. Camp's two most important rule changes that diverged the American game from rugby were replacing the scrummage with the line of scrimmage and the establishment of the down-and-distance rules. American football still however remained a violent sport where collisions often led to serious injuries and sometimes even death. This led U.S", ". This led U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt to hold a meeting with football representatives from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton on 9 October 1905, urging them to make drastic changes. One rule change introduced in 1906, devised to open up the game and reduce injury, was the introduction of the legal forward pass. Though it was underutilised for years, this proved to be one of the most important rule changes in the establishment of the modern game.", "Over the years, Canada absorbed some of the developments in American football in an effort to distinguish it from a more rugby-oriented game. In 1903, the Ontario Rugby Football Union adopted the Burnside rules, which implemented the line of scrimmage and down-and-distance system from American football, among others. Canadian football then implemented the legal forward pass in 1929", ". Canadian football then implemented the legal forward pass in 1929. American and Canadian football remain different codes, stemming from rule changes that the American side of the border adopted but the Canadian side has not.", "Gaelic football", "In the mid-19th century, various traditional football games, referred to collectively as caid, remained popular in Ireland, especially in County Kerry. One observer, Father W", ". One observer, Father W. Ferris, described two main forms of caid during this period: the \"field game\" in which the object was to put the ball through arch-like goals, formed from the boughs of two trees; and the epic \"cross-country game\" which took up most of the daylight hours of a Sunday on which it was played, and was won by one team taking the ball across a parish boundary. \"Wrestling\", \"holding\" opposing players, and carrying the ball were all allowed.", "By the 1870s, rugby and association football had started to become popular in Ireland. Trinity College Dublin was an early stronghold of rugby (see the Developments in the 1850s section above). The rules of the English FA were being distributed widely. Traditional forms of caid had begun to give way to a \"rough-and-tumble game\" which allowed tripping.", "There was no serious attempt to unify and codify Irish varieties of football, until the establishment of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) in 1884. The GAA sought to promote traditional Irish sports, such as hurling and to reject imported games like rugby and association football. The first Gaelic football rules were drawn up by Maurice Davin and published in the United Ireland magazine on 7 February 1887", ". Davin's rules showed the influence of games such as hurling and a desire to formalise a distinctly Irish code of football. The prime example of this differentiation was the lack of an offside rule (an attribute which, for many years, was shared only by other Irish games like hurling, and by Australian rules football).", "Schism in Rugby football \n\nThe International Rugby Football Board (IRFB) was founded in 1886, but rifts were beginning to emerge in the code. Professionalism had already begun to creep into the various codes of football.", "In England, by the 1890s, a long-standing Rugby Football Union ban on professional players was causing regional tensions within rugby football, as many players in northern England were working class and could not afford to take time off to train, travel, play and recover from injuries. This was not very different from what had occurred ten years earlier in soccer in Northern England but the authorities reacted very differently in the RFU, attempting to alienate the working class support in Northern England", ". In 1895, following a dispute about a player being paid broken time payments, which replaced wages lost as a result of playing rugby, representatives of the northern clubs met in Huddersfield to form the Northern Rugby Football Union (NRFU). The new body initially permitted only various types of player wage replacements. However, within two years, NRFU players could be paid, but they were required to have a job outside sport.", "The demands of a professional league dictated that rugby had to become a better \"spectator\" sport. Within a few years the NRFU rules had started to diverge from the RFU, most notably with the abolition of the line-out. This was followed by the replacement of the ruck with the \"play-the-ball ruck\", which allowed a two-player ruck contest between the tackler at marker and the player tackled. Mauls were stopped once the ball carrier was held, being replaced by a play-the ball-ruck", ". Mauls were stopped once the ball carrier was held, being replaced by a play-the ball-ruck. The separate Lancashire and Yorkshire competitions of the NRFU merged in 1901, forming the Northern Rugby League, the first time the name rugby league was used officially in England.", "Over time, the RFU form of rugby, played by clubs which remained members of national federations affiliated to the IRFB, became known as rugby union.\n\nGlobalisation of association football", "The need for a single body to oversee association football had become apparent by the beginning of the 20th century, with the increasing popularity of international fixtures. The English Football Association had chaired many discussions on setting up an international body, but was perceived as making no progress. It fell to associations from seven other European countries: France, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland, to form an international association", ". The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in Paris on 21 May 1904. Its first president was Robert Guérin. The French name and acronym has remained, even outside French-speaking countries.", "Further divergence of the two rugby codes", "Rugby league rules diverged significantly from rugby union in 1906, with the reduction of the team from 15 to 13 players. In 1907, a New Zealand professional rugby team toured Australia and Britain, receiving an enthusiastic response, and professional rugby leagues were launched in Australia the following year. However, the rules of professional games varied from one country to another, and negotiations between various national bodies were required to fix the exact rules for each international match", ". This situation endured until 1948, when at the instigation of the French league, the Rugby League International Federation (RLIF) was formed at a meeting in Bordeaux.", "During the second half of the 20th century, the rules changed further. In 1966, rugby league officials borrowed the American football concept of downs: a team was allowed to retain possession of the ball for four tackles (rugby union retains the original rule that a player who is tackled and brought to the ground must release the ball immediately). The maximum number of tackles was later increased to six (in 1971), and in rugby league this became known as the six tackle rule.", "With the advent of full-time professionals in the early 1990s, and the consequent speeding up of the game, the five-metre off-side distance between the two teams became 10 metres, and the replacement rule was superseded by various interchange rules, among other changes.", "The laws of rugby union also changed during the 20th century, although less significantly than those of rugby league. In particular, goals from marks were abolished, kicks directly into touch from outside the 22-metre line were penalised, new laws were put in place to determine who had possession following an inconclusive ruck or maul, and the lifting of players in line-outs was legalised.", "In 1995, rugby union became an \"open\" game, that is one which allowed professional players. Although the original dispute between the two codes has now disappeared – and despite the fact that officials from both forms of rugby football have sometimes mentioned the possibility of re-unification – the rules of both codes and their culture have diverged to such an extent that such an event is unlikely in the foreseeable future.\n\nUse of the word \"football\"", "The word football, when used in reference to a specific game can mean any one of those described above. Because of this, much controversy has occurred over the term football, primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the English-speaking world. Most often, the word \"football\" is used to refer to the code of football that is considered dominant within a particular region (which is association football in most countries)", ". So, effectively, what the word \"football\" means usually depends on where one says it.", "In each of the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada, one football code is known solely as \"football\", while the others generally require a qualifier. In New Zealand, \"football\" historically referred to rugby union, but more recently may be used unqualified to refer to association football. The sport meant by the word \"football\" in Australia is either Australian rules football or rugby league, depending on local popularity (which largely conforms to the Barassi Line)", ". In francophone Quebec, where Canadian football is more popular, the Canadian code is known as while American football is known as and association football is known as .", "Of the 45 national FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) affiliates in which English is an official or primary language, most currently use Football in their organisations' official names; the FIFA affiliates in Canada and the United States use Soccer in their names. A few FIFA affiliates have recently \"normalised\" to using \"Football\", including:\n Australia's association football governing body changed its name in 2005 from using \"soccer\" to \"football\".", "New Zealand's governing body renamed itself in 2007, saying \"the international game is called football\".\n Samoa changed from \"Samoa Football (Soccer) Federation\" to \"Football Federation Samoa\" in 2009.", "Popularity", "Several of the football codes are the most popular team sports in the world. Globally, association football is played by over 250 million players in over 200 nations, and has the highest television audience in sport, making it the most popular in the world. American football, with 1", ". American football, with 1.1 million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players, is the most popular sport in the United States, with the annual Super Bowl game accounting for nine of the top ten of the most watched broadcasts in U.S. television history. The NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and has the highest revenue out of any single professional sports league", ". Thus, the best association football and American football players are among the highest paid athletes in the world.", "Australian rules football has the highest spectator attendance of all sports in Australia. Similarly, Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance, and the All-Ireland Football Final is the most watched event of that nation's sporting year.\n\nRugby union is the most popular sport in New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji. It is also the fastest growing sport in the U.S., with college rugby being the fastest growing college sport in that country.\n\nFootball codes board", "Football codes board\n\nFootball codes development tree \n\n|\n\n|-\n| style=\"text-align: left;\" | Notes:\n\nPresent-day codes and families\n\nAssociation \n\nThese codes have in common the prohibition of the use of hands (by all players except the goalkeeper, though outfield players can \"throw-in\" the ball when it goes out of play), unlike other codes where carrying or handling the ball by all players is allowed", "Association football, also known as football, soccer, footy and footie\n Indoor/basketball court variants:\n Five-a-side football – game for smaller teams, played under various rules including:\n Futsal – the FIFA-approved five-a-side indoor game\n Minivoetbal – the five-a-side indoor game played in East and West Flanders where it is extremely popular\n Papi fut – the five-a-side game played in outdoor basketball courts (built with goals) in Central America.", "Indoor soccer – the six-a-side indoor game, the Latin American variant (fútbol rápido, \"fast football\") is often played in open-air venues\n Masters Football – six-a-side played in Europe by mature professionals (35 years and older)\n Paralympic football – modified game for athletes with a disability. Includes:\n Football 5-a-side – for visually impaired athletes\n Football 7-a-side – for athletes with cerebral palsy\n Amputee football – for athletes with amputations", "Amputee football – for athletes with amputations\n Deaf football – for athletes with hearing impairments\n Powerchair football – for athletes in electric wheelchairs\n Beach soccer, beach football or sand soccer – variant modified for play on sand\n Street football – encompasses a number of informal variants\n Rush goalie – a variation in which the role of the goalkeeper is more flexible than normal\n Crab football – players stand on their hands and feet and move around on their backs whilst playing", "Swamp soccer – the game as played on a swamp or bog field\n Jorkyball\n Walking football – players are restricted to walking, to facilitate participation by older and less mobile players\n Rushball", "The hockey game bandy has rules partly based on the association football rules and is sometimes nicknamed as 'winter football'.\n\nThere are also motorsport variations of the game.\n\nRugby", "There are also motorsport variations of the game.\n\nRugby \n \n\nThese codes have in common the ability of players to carry the ball with their hands, and to throw it to teammates, unlike association football where the use of hands during play is prohibited by anyone except the goalkeeper. They also feature various methods of scoring based upon whether the ball is carried into the goal area, or kicked above the goalposts.", "Rugby football\n Rugby union\n Mini rugby a variety for children.\n Rugby sevens and Rugby tens – variants for teams of reduced size.\n Rugby league – often referred to simply as \"league\", and usually known simply as \"football\" or \"footy\" in the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland.\n Rugby league sevens and Rugby league nines – variants for teams of reduced size.\n Beach rugby – rugby played on sand", "Beach rugby – rugby played on sand\n Touch rugby – generic name for forms of rugby football which do not feature tackles, one variant has been formalised\n Tag Rugby – non-contact variant in which a flag attached to a player is removed to indicate a tackle.\n Gridiron football\n American football – called \"football\" in the United States and Canada, and \"gridiron\" in Australia and New Zealand.", "Nine-man football, eight-man football, six-man football – variants played primarily by smaller high schools that lack enough players to field full teams.\n Street football/backyard football – played without equipment or official fields and with simplified rules\n Flag football – non-contact variant in which a flag attached to a player is removed to indicate a tackle.\n Touch football – non-tackle variants", "Touch football – non-tackle variants\n Canadian football – called simply \"football\" in Canada; \"football\" in Canada can mean either Canadian or American football depending on context. All of the variants listed for American football are also attested for Canadian football.\n Indoor football – indoor variants, particularly arena football\n Wheelchair football – variant adapted to play by athletes with physical disabilities", "Irish and Australian", "These codes have in common the absence of an offside rule, the prohibition of continuous carrying of the ball (requiring a periodic bounce or solo (toe-kick), depending on the code) while running, handpassing by punching or tapping the ball rather than throwing it, and other traditions.", "Australian rules football – officially known as \"Australian football\", and informally as \"football\", \"footy\" or \"Aussie rules\". In some areas it is referred to as \"AFL\", the name of the main organising body and competition\n Auskick – a version of Australian rules designed by the AFL for young children", "Auskick – a version of Australian rules designed by the AFL for young children\n Metro footy (or Metro rules footy) – a modified version invented by the USAFL, for use on gridiron fields in North American cities (which often lack grounds large enough for conventional Australian rules matches)\n Kick-to-kick – informal versions of the game", "Kick-to-kick – informal versions of the game\n 9-a-side footy – a more open, running variety of Australian rules, requiring 18 players in total and a proportionally smaller playing area (includes contact and non-contact varieties)\n Rec footy – \"Recreational Football\", a modified non-contact variation of Australian rules, created by the AFL, which replaces tackles with tags\n Touch Aussie Rules – a non-tackle variation of Australian Rules played only in the United Kingdom", "Touch Aussie Rules – a non-tackle variation of Australian Rules played only in the United Kingdom\n Samoa rules – localised version adapted to Samoan conditions, such as the use of rugby football fields\n Masters Australian football (a.k.a. Superules) – reduced contact version introduced for competitions limited to players over 30 years of age\n Women's Australian rules football – women's competition played with a smaller ball and (sometimes) reduced contact", "Gaelic football – Played predominantly in Ireland. Commonly referred to as \"football\" or \"Gaelic\"\n Ladies Gaelic football\n International rules football – a compromise code used for international representative matches between Australian rules football players and Gaelic football players", "Medieval \n Calcio Fiorentino – a modern revival of Renaissance football from 16th century Florence.\n la Soule – a modern revival of French medieval football\n lelo burti – a Georgian traditional football game", "Britain \n The Haxey Hood, played on Epiphany in Haxey, Lincolnshire\n Shrove Tuesday games\n Scoring the Hales in Alnwick, Northumberland\n Royal Shrovetide Football in Ashbourne, Derbyshire\n The Shrovetide Ball Game in Atherstone, Warwickshire\n The Shrove Tuesday Football Ceremony of the Purbeck Marblers in Corfe Castle, Dorset\n Hurling the Silver Ball at St Columb Major in Cornwall\n The Ball Game in Sedgefield, County Durham", "Hurling the Silver Ball at St Columb Major in Cornwall\n The Ball Game in Sedgefield, County Durham\n In Scotland the Ba game (\"Ball Game\") is still popular around Christmas and Hogmanay at:\n Duns, Berwickshire\n Scone, Perthshire\n Kirkwall in the Orkney Islands", "British schools \n\nGames still played at UK public (private) schools:\n Eton field game\n Eton wall game\n Harrow football\n Winchester College football", "Recent and hybrid \n Keepie uppie (keep up) – the art of juggling with a football using the feet, knees, chest, shoulders, and head.\n Footbag – several variations using a small bean bag or sand bag as a ball, the trade marked term hacky sack is sometimes used as a generic synonym.\n Freestyle football – participants are graded for their entertainment value and expression of skill.\n\nAssociation \n Three sided football\n Triskelion\n\nRugby \n Force 'em backs a.k.a. forcing back, forcemanback", "Hybrid \n Austus – a compromise between Australian rules and American football, invented in Melbourne during World War II.\n Bossaball – mixes association football and volleyball and gymnastics; played on inflatables and trampolines.\n Cycle ball – a sport similar to association football played on bicycles\n Footgolf – golf played by kicking an association football.\n Footvolley – mixes association football and beach volleyball; played on sand\n Football tennis – mixes association football and tennis", "Football tennis – mixes association football and tennis\n Kickball – a hybrid of association football and baseball, invented in the United States about 1942.\n Underwater football – played in a pool, and the ball can only be played when underwater. The ball can be carried as in rugby.\n Speedball – a combination of American football, soccer, and basketball, devised in the United States in 1912.\n Universal football – a hybrid of Australian rules and rugby league, trialled in Sydney in 1933.", "Universal football – a hybrid of Australian rules and rugby league, trialled in Sydney in 1933.\n Volata – a game resembling association football and European handball, devised by Italian fascist leader, Augusto Turati, in the 1920s.\n Wheelchair rugby – also known as Murderball, invented in Canada in 1977. Based on ice hockey and basketball rather than rugby.\nAlthough similar to football and volleyball in some aspects, Sepak takraw has ancient origins and cannot be considered a hybrid game.", "Tabletop games, video games, and other recreations\n\nBased on association football \n Blow football\n Button football – also known as Futebol de Mesa, Jogo de Botões\n Fantasy football\n FIFA Video Games Series\n Lego Football\n Mario Strikers\n Penny football\n Pro Evolution Soccer\n Subbuteo\n Table football – also known as foosball, table soccer, babyfoot, bar football or gettone\n\nBased on American football \n Blood Bowl\n Fantasy football (American)\n Madden NFL\n Paper football", "Based on American football \n Blood Bowl\n Fantasy football (American)\n Madden NFL\n Paper football\n\nBased on Australian football \n AFL video game series\n List of AFL video games\n\nBased on rugby league football \n Australian Rugby League\n Sidhe's Rugby League series\n Rugby League 3\n\nSee also", "See also \n\n 1601 to 1725 in sports: Football\n Football field (unit of length)\n List of types of football\n List of players who have converted from one football code to another\n Names for association football\n American football in the United States\n List of largest sports contracts\n\nNotes\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\nReferences", "Notes\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\nReferences \n\n Eisenberg, Christiane and Pierre Lanfranchi, eds. (2006): Football History: International Perspectives; Special Issue, Historical Social Research 31, no. 1. 312 pages.\n Green, Geoffrey (1953); The History of the Football Association; Naldrett Press, London.\n Mandelbaum, Michael (2004); The Meaning of Sports; Public Affairs, .\n Williams, Graham (1994); The Code War; Yore Publications, .\n\n \nBall games\nBroad-concept articles\nSports culture\nSummer sports" ]

[ "Rawalpindi (; Punjabi, ; ) is a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is the fourth most populous city in Pakistan and third most populous in Punjab according to 2017 Census. Rawalpindi is situated close to Pakistan's capital Islamabad, and the two are jointly known as the \"twin cities\" because of the social and economic links between them.", "Rawalpindi is on the Pothohar Plateau, and remained a small town of less importance up until 18th century. The Potohar region was known for its ancient heritage, in the neighbouring city of Taxila, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 1765, the ruling Gakhars were defeated and the city came under Sikh rule, Rawalpindi from a small regional town became an important city within the Sikh Empire based at Lahore", ". The city's Babu Mohallah neighbourhood was once home to a community of Jewish traders who had fled Mashhad, Persia, in the 1830s. The city was conquered by the British Raj in 1849, and in the late 19th century became the largest garrison town of the British Indian Army's Northern command as its climate suited the British authorities. Britain's army elevated the city from a small town to the third largest city in Punjab by 1921", ". Britain's army elevated the city from a small town to the third largest city in Punjab by 1921. Following the partition of British India in 1947, the city became home to the headquarters of the Pakistan Army.", "In 1951, the Rawalpindi conspiracy took place in which leftist army officers conspired to depose the first elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan. Rawalpindi later became site of the Liaquat Ali Khan's assassination. On 27 December 2007, Rawalpindi was the site of the assassination of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto.", "Construction of Pakistan's new purpose-built national capital city of Islamabad in 1961 led to greater investment in the city provided by IMF and local banks, as well as a brief stint as the country's capital before the completion of Islamabad. Modern Rawalpindi is socially and economically intertwined with Islamabad, and the greater metropolitan area. The city is also home to numerous suburban housing developments that serve as bedroom-communities for workers in Islamabad", ". As home to the GHQ of the Pakistan Army and PAF Base Nur Khan, and with connections to the M-1 and M-2 motorways, Rawalpindi is a major logistics and transportation centre for northern Pakistan. The city is also home to historic havelis and temples, and serves as a hub for tourists visiting Rohtas Fort, Azad Kashmir, Taxila and Gilgit-Baltistan.", "Etymology \nThe word Rawalpindi consists of two Punjabi words; rawal (), and pindi (). The origin of the name may derive from the combination of two words: \"rawal\" meaning lake and \"pind\" meaning village. The combination of the two words thus means \"the village of the lake\".\n\nAnother theory is that Rawalpindi literally means the “Village of Rawals” as it occupies the site of an old village inhabited by the Rawals, a group of yogis (ascetics).\n\nHistory", "History\n\nOrigins\nThe region around Rawalpindi has been inhabited for thousands of years. Rawalpindi falls within the ancient boundaries of Gandhara, and is thus in a region containing many Buddhist ruins. In the region north-west of Rawalpindi, traces have been found of at least 55 stupas, 28 Buddhist monasteries, 9 temples, and various artifacts in the Kharoshthi script.", "To the southeast are the ruins of the Mankiala stupa – a second-century stupa where, according to the Jataka tales, a previous incarnation of the Buddha leapt off a cliff in order to offer his corpse to seven hungry tiger cubs. The nearby town of Taxila is thought to have been home to one of the early universities or education centres of South Asia", ". Sir Alexander Cunningham identified ruins on the site of the Rawalpindi Cantonment as the ancient city of Ganjipur (or Gajnipur), the capital of the Bhatti tribe in the ages preceding the Christian era.", "Medieval\nThe first mention of Rawalpindi's earliest settlement dates from when Mahmud of Ghazni destroyed Rawalpindi and the town was restored by Gakhar chief Kai Gohar in the early 11th century. The town fell into decay again after Mongol invasions in the 14th century. Situated along an invasion route, the settlement did not prosper and remained deserted until 1493, when Jhanda Khan Gakhar re-established the ruined town, and named it Rawal.\n\nMughal", "During the Mughal era, Rawalpindi remained under the rule of the Ghakhar clan, who in turn pledged allegiance to the Mughal Empire. The city was developed as an important outpost in order to guard the frontiers of the Mughal realm. Gakhars fortified a nearby caravanserai, in the 16th century, transforming it into the Rawat Fort in order to defend the Pothohar plateau from Sher Shah Suri's forces", ". Construction of the Attock Fort in 1581 after Akbar led a campaign against his brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim, further securing Rawalpindi's environs. In December 1585, the Emperor Akbar arrived in Rawalpindi, and remained in and around Rawalpindi for 13 years as he extended the frontiers of the empire, in an era described as a \"glorious period\" in his career as Emperor.", "With the onset of chaos and rivalry between Gakhar chiefs after the death of Kamal Khan in 1559, Rawalpindi was awarded to Said Khan by the Mughal Emperor. Emperor Jehangir visited the royal camp in Rawalpindi in 1622, where he first learned of Shah Abbas I of Persia's plan to invade Kandahar.", "Sikh Misl", "Rawalpindi declined in importance as Mughal power declined, until the town was captured in the mid-1760s from Muqarrab Khan by the Sikhs under Sardar Gujjar Singh and his son Sahib Singh. The city's administration was handed to Sardar Milkha Singh, who then invited traders from the neighbouring commercial centers of Jhelum and Shahpur to settle in the territory in 1766. The city then began to prosper, although the population in 1770 is estimated to have been only about 300 families", ". Rawalpindi became for a time the refuge of Shah Shuja, the exiled king of Afghanistan, and of his brother Shah Zaman in the early 19th century.", "Sikh Empire", "Sikh ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh allowed the son of Sardar Milkha Singh to continue as Governor of Rawalpindi, after Ranjit Singh seized the district in 1810. Sikh rule over Rawalpindi was consolidated by defeat of the Afghans at Haidaran in July 1813. The Sikh rulers allied themselves with some of the local Gakhar tribes, and jointly defeated Syed Ahmad Barelvi at Akora Khattak in 1827, and again in 1831 in Balakot", ". Jews first arrived in Rawalpindi's Babu Mohallah neighbourhood from Mashhad, Persia in 1839, in order to flee from anti-Jewish laws instituted by the Qajar dynasty. In 1841, Diwan Kishan Kaur was appointed Sardar of Rawalpindi.", "On 14 March 1849, Sardar Chattar Singh and Raja Sher Singh of the Sikh Empire surrendered to General Gilbert near Rawalpindi, ceding the city to the British. The Sikh Empire then came to an end on 29 March 1849.\n\nBritish", "Following Rawalpindi's capture by the British East India Company, 53rd Regiment of the company army took quarters in the newly captured city. The decision to man a permanent military cantonment in the city was made in 1851 by the Marquess of Dalhousie. The city saw its first telegraph office in the early 1850s. The city's Garrison Church was built shortly after in 1854, and is the site where Robert Milman, Bishop of Calcutta, was buried following his death in Rawalpindi in 1876", ". The city was home to 15,913 people in the 1855 census. During the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, the area's Gakhars and Janjua tribes remained loyal to the British.", "Numerous civil and military buildings were built during the British era, and the Municipality of Rawalpindi was constituted in 1867, while the city's population as per the 1868 census was 19,228, with another 9,358 people residing in the city's cantonment. The city was also connected to railways that offered connection to India and the northwest frontier in Peshawar in the 1880s", ". The Commissariat Steam Flour Mills were the first such mills in Punjab, and supplied most of the needs of British cantonments throughout Punjab. Rawalpindi's cantonment served as a feeder to other cantonments throughout the region.", "Rawalpindi flourished as a commercial centre, though the city remained largely devoid of an industrial base during the British era. A large portion of Kashmir's external trade passing through the city; in 1885, 14% of Kashmir's exports, and 27% of its imports passed through the city", ". A large market was opened in central Rawalpindi in 1883 by Sardar Sujan Singh, while the British further developed a shopping district for the city's elite known as Saddar with an archway built to commemorate Brigadier General Massey.", "Rawalpindi's cantonment became a major centre of military power of the Raj after an arsenal was established in 1883. Britain's army elevated the city from a small town, to the third largest city in Punjab by 1921. In 1868, 9,358 people lived in the city's cantonment – by 1891, the number rose to 37,870. In 1891, the city's population excluding the Cantonment was 34,153", ". In 1891, the city's population excluding the Cantonment was 34,153. The city was considered to be a favourite first posting for newly arrived soldiers from England, owing to the city's agreeable climate, and the nearby hill station of Murree. In 1901, Rawalpindi was made the winter headquarters of the Northern Command and of the Rawalpindi military division. Riots broke out against British rule in 1905, following a famine in Punjab that peasants were led to believe was a deliberate act.", "During World War I, Rawalpindi District \"stood first\" among districts in recruiting for the British war effort, with greater financial assistance from the British government channeled into the area in return. By 1921, Rawalpindi's cantonment had overshadowed the city - Rawalpindi was one of seven cities of Punjab in which over half the population lived in the cantonment district", ". Communal riots erupted between Rawalpindi's Sikh and Muslim communities in 1926 after Sikhs refused to silence music from a procession that was passing in front of a mosque.", "was launched as an ocean liner in 1925 by Harland and Wolff, the same company which built . The ship was converted into an armed vessel, and was sunk in October 1939. The British government carried out poison gas testing on Indian troops during the Rawalpindi experiments over the course of more than a decade beginning in the 1930s.", "Partition", "On 5 March 1947, members of Rawalpindi's Hindu and Sikh communities took out a procession against the formation of a Muslim ministry within the Government of Punjab. Policemen fired upon protestors, while Hindus and Sikhs fought against weaker Muslim counter-protestors", ". The area's first Partition riots erupted the next day on 6 March 1947, when the city's Muslims, angered by the actions of Hindus and Sikhs and encouraged by the Pir of Golra Sharif, raided nearby villages after they were unable to do so in the city on account of Rawalpindi's heavily armed Sikhs.", "At the dawn of Pakistan's independence in 1947 following the success of the Pakistan Movement, Rawalpindi was 43.79% Muslim, while Rawalpindi District as a whole was 80% Muslim. The region, on account of its large Muslim majority, was thus awarded to Pakistan. Rawalpindi's Hindu and Sikh population, who had made up 33.72% and 17", ". Rawalpindi's Hindu and Sikh population, who had made up 33.72% and 17.32% of the city, migrated en masse to the newly independent Dominion of India after anti-Hindu and anti-Sikh pogroms in western Punjab, while Muslim refugees from India settled in the city following anti-Muslim pogroms in eastern Punjab and northern India.", "Modern\n\nIn the years following independence, Rawalpindi saw an influx of Muhajir, Pashtun and Kashmiri settlers. Having been the largest British Cantonment in the region at the dawn of Pakistan's independence, Rawalpindi was chosen as headquarters for the Pakistani Army, despite the fact that Karachi had been selected as the first capital.", "In 1951, the Rawalpindi conspiracy took place in which leftist army officers conspired to depose the first elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan. Rawalpindi later became the site of the Liaquat Ali Khan's assassination, in what is now known as Liaquat Bagh Park. In 1958, Field Marshal Ayub Khan launched his coup d'etat from Rawalpindi", ". In 1958, Field Marshal Ayub Khan launched his coup d'etat from Rawalpindi. In 1959, the city became the interim capital of the country under Ayub Khan, who had sought the creation of a new planned capital of Islamabad in the vicinity of Rawalpindi. As a result, Rawalpindi saw most major central government offices and institutions relocate to nearby territory, and its population rapidly expand.", "The construction of Pakistan's new capital city of Islamabad in 1961 led to greater investment in Rawalpindi. Rawalpindi remained the headquarters of the Pakistani Army after the capital shifted to Islamabad in 1969, while the Pakistan Air Force continues to maintain an airbase in the Chaklala district of Rawalpindi. The military dictatorship of General Zia ul Haq hanged Pakistan's deposed Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, in Rawalpindi in 1979.", "In 1980, tens of thousands of Shia protestors led by Mufti Jaffar Hussain marched to Rawalpindi to protest a provision of Zia ul Haqs Islamization programme. A spate of bombings in September 1987 took place in the city killing 5 people, in attacks that are believed to have been orchestrated by agents of Afghanistan's communist government.", "On 10 April 1988, Rawalpindi's Ojhri Camp, an ammunition depot for Afghan mujahideen fighting against Soviet forces in Afghanistan, exploded and killed many in Rawalpindi and Islamabad. At the time, the New York Times reported more than 93 were killed and another 1,100 wounded; many believe that the toll was much higher.", "Riots erupted in Rawalpindi in 1992 as mobs attacked Hindu temples in retaliation for the destruction of the Babri Masjid in India . On 27 December 2007, Rawalpindi was the site of the assassination of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto.", "Modern Rawalpindi is socially and economically intertwined with Islamabad, and the greater metropolitan area. The city is also home to numerous suburban housing developments that serve as bedroom-communities for workers in Islamabad. In June 2015, the Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus, a new bus rapid transit line with various points in Islamabad, opened for service.\n\nGeography\n\nClimate", "Rawalpindi features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) with hot and wet summers, a cooler and drier winter. Rawalpindi and its twin city Islamabad, during the year experiences an average of 91 thunderstorms, which is the highest frequency of any plain elevation city in the country. Strong windstorms are frequent in the summer during which wind gusts have been reported by Pakistan Meteorological Department to have reached . In such thunder/wind storms, which results in some damage of infrastructure", ". In such thunder/wind storms, which results in some damage of infrastructure. The weather is highly variable due to the proximity of the city to the foothills of Himalayas.", "The average annual rainfall is , most of which falls in the summer monsoon season. However, westerly disturbances also bring quite significant rainfall in the winter. In summer, the record maximum temperature has soared to recorded in June 1954, while it has dropped to a minimum of several occasions, though the last of which was in January 1967.\n\nCityscape", "Social structures in Rawalpindi's historic core centre around neighbourhoods, each known as a Mohallah. Each neighbourhood is served by a nearby bazaar (market) and mosque, which in turn serves as a place where people can gather for trade and manufacturing. Each Mohallah has narrow gallies (streets), and the grouping of houses around short lanes and cul-de-sacs lends a sense of privacy and security to residents of each neighbourhood. Major intersections in the neighbourhood are each referred to as a chowk.", "Rawalpindi is relatively a new city contrasted with Pakistan's millennia-old cities such as Lahore, Multan, and Peshawar. South of Rawalpindi's historic core, and across the Lai Nullah, are the wide lanes of the Rawalpindi Cantonment. With tree-lined avenues and historic architecture, the cantonment was the main European area developed during British colonial rule", ". British colonialists also built the Saddar Bazaar south of the historic core, which served as a retail center geared towards Europeans in the city. Beyond the cantonment are the large suburban housing developments that serve as bedroom communities for Islamabad's commuter population.", "Demographics\n\nThe population of Rawalpindi is 2,098,231 in 2017. 84% of the population is Punjabi, 9% is Pashtun, and 7% is from other ethnic groups.\n\nReligion\n\n96.7% of Rawalpindi's population is Muslim, 3.1% is Christian, 0.2% belong to other religious groups. The city's Kohaati Bazaar is site of large Shia mourning-processions for Ashura. The neighbourhoods of Waris Shah Mohallah and Pir Harra Mohallah form the core of Muslim settlement in Rawalpindi's old city.", "Rawalpindi was a majority Hindu and Sikh city prior to the Partition of India in 1947, combined composing 51.05 percent of the total population according to the 1941 census. The same census detailed Muslims made up 43.79 percent of the total population. The Baba Dyal Singh Gurdwara in Rawalpindi was where the reformist Nirankari movement of Sikhism originated. The city still has a small Sikh population, but has been bolstered by the arrival of Sikhs fleeing political instability in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.", "The city is still home to a few hundred Hindu families. Despite the fact that the vast majority of the city's Hindus fled en masse to India after Partition, most Hindu temples in the old city remain standing, although in disrepair and often abandoned. Many of the old city's neighbourhoods continue to bear Hindu and Sikh names, such as Krishanpura, Arya Mohallah, Akaal Garh, Mohanpura, Amarpura, Kartarpura, Bagh Sardaraan, Angatpura.", "The Shri Krishna Mandir is the only functional Hindu temple in Rawalpindi. It was built in the Kabarri Bazaar in 1897. Other temples are abandoned or were repurposed. Rawalpindi's large Kalyan Das Temple from 1880 has been used as the \"Gov't. Qandeel Secondary School for the Blind\" since 1973. The Ram Leela Temple in Kanak Mandi, and the Kaanji Mal Ujagar Mal Ram Richpal Temple in the Kabarri Bazaar, are both currently used to house Kashmiri refugees", ". Mohan Temple in the Lunda Bazaar remains standing, but is abandoned and the building no longer used for any purpose. The city's \"Shamshan Ghat\" serves as the city's cremation grounds, and was partly renovated in 2012.", "The city's Babu Mohallah neighbourhood was once home to a community of Jewish traders who had fled Mashhad, Persia in the 1830s. The community had entirely emigrated to Israel by the 1960s.\n\nIn the British era many churches were built for the British soldiers to come to the churches for Sunday prayer because\nRawalpindi Cantonment was the home for the British Army.\n\nTransportation\n\nPublic transportation", "The Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus is a bus rapid transit system operating in the Islamabad-Rawalpindi metropolitan area. The Metrobus network's first phase was opened on 4 June 2015, and stretches 22.5 kilometres between Pak Secretariat, in Islamabad, and Saddar in Rawalpindi. The second stage stretches 25.6 kilometres between the Peshawar Morr Interchange and New Islamabad International Airport and was inaugurated on 18 April 2022", ". The system uses e-ticketing and an Intelligent Transportation System and is managed by the Punjab Mass Transit Authority.", "Road", "Rawalpindi is situated along the historic Grand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Lahore. The road is roughly paralleled by the M-1 Motorway between Peshawar and Rawalpindi, while the M-2 Motorway provides an alternate route to Lahore via the Salt Range. The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via the Khyber Pass, with onwards connections to Kabul and Central Asia via the Salang Pass", ". The Karakoram Highway provides access between Islamabad and western China, and an alternate route to Central Asia via Kashgar in the Chinese region of Xinjiang.", "The Islamabad Expressway connects Rawalpindi's eastern portions with the Rawal Lake and heart of Islamabad. The IJP Road separates Rawalpindi's northern edge from Islamabad.\n\nMotorways", "Rawalpindi is connected to Peshawar by the M-1 Motorway. The motorway also links Rawalpindi to major cities in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, such as Charsadda and Mardan. The M-2 motorway offers high speed access to Lahore via the Potohar Plateau and Salt Range. The M-3 Motorway branches off from the M-2 at the city of Pindi Bhattian, where the M-3 offers onward connections to Faisalabad, and connects to the M-4 Motorway which continues onward to Multan", ". A new motorway network is under construction to connect Multan and Karachi as part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor. The Hazara Motorway is also under construction as part of CPEC, and will provide control-access motorway travel all the way to Mansehra via the M-1 or Grand Trunk Road.", "Rail\n\nRawalpindi railway station in the Saddar neighbourhood serves as a stop along Pakistan's -long Main Line-1 railway that connects the city to the port city of Karachi to Peshawar. The stations is served by the Awam Express, Hazara Express, Islamabad Express, Jaffar Express, Khyber Mail trains, and serves as the terminus for the Margalla Express, Mehr Express, Rawal Express, Pakistan Express, Subak Raftar Express, Green Line Express, Sir Syed Express, Subak Kharam Express and Tezgam trains.", "The entire Main Line-1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of $3.65 billion for the first phase of the project, with completion by 2021. Upgrading of the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km per hour speed currently possible on existing track.", "Air\nRawalpindi is served by the Islamabad International Airport. The airport is located 21 km west of the city. It offers non-stop flights throughout Pakistan, as well as to the Middle East, Europe, North America, Central Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia.\n\nAdministrative divisions", "Administrative divisions\n\nThe City-District of Rawalpindi is sub-divided into one Municipal Corporation Two Cantonment Board and Seven tehsils:\nRawalpindi Municipal Corporation Rawalpindi City \nRawalpindi Cantonment Board Rawalpindi Cantt \nChaklala Cantonment Board Chaklala Cantt", "Rawalpindi also holds many private colonies that have developed themselves rapidly, e.g. Gulraiz Housing Society, Korang Town, Agochs Town, Ghori Town, Pakistan Town, Judicial Town, Bahria Town which is the Asia's largest private colony, Kashmir Housing Society, Danial Town, Al-Haram City, Education City, Gul Afshan Colony, Allama Iqbal Colony.\n\nParks", "Parks\n\nAyub National Park is located beyond the old Presidency on Jhelum Road. It covers an area of about and has a playland, lake with boating facility, an aquarium and a garden-restaurant. Rawalpindi Public Park is on Murree Road near Shamsabad. The Park was opened to the public in 1991. It has a playland for children, grassy lawns, fountains and flower beds.", "In 2008 Jinnah Park was inaugurated at the heart of Rawalpindi and has since become a hotspot of activity for the city. It houses a state-of-the-art cinema, Cinepax, a Metro Cash and Carry supermart, an outlet of McDonald's, gaming lounges, Motion Rides and other recreational facilities. The vast lawns also provide an adequate picnic spot.", "Rawalpindi is situated near the Ayub National Park formerly known as 'Topi Rakh' (keep the hat on) is by the old Presidency, between the Murree Brewery Co. and Grand Trunk Road. It covers an area of about and has a play area, lake with boating facility, an aquarium, a garden-restaurant and an open-air theater. This park hosts \"The Jungle Kingdom\" which is particularly popular among young residents.", "Liaquat Bagh, formerly known as the \"company bagh\" (East India Company's Garden), is of great historical interest. The first prime minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan, was assassinated here in 1950. Pakistan's Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto was assassinated here on 27 December 2007. She was the youngest and the only woman to be elected as Prime Minister of Pakistan.", "Rawalpindi Public Park (previously Nawaz Sharif Park, renamed Iqbal Park in 2019) is located on Murree Road just opposite to the Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi. The park was opened in 1991. It has a play area for children, lawns, fountains and flower beds. A cricket stadium was built in 1992 opposite the public park. Several matches in the 1996 World Cup were held on this cricket ground.", "Economy\n\nEducation\n\nRawalpindi District is home to 2,463 government public schools, out of which 1706 are primary schools, 306 middle schools, 334 are high schools, while 117 are higher education colleges.\n\n97.4% of children ages 6–16 in urban areas of Rawalpindi District are enrolled in school – the third highest percentage in Pakistan after Islamabad and Karachi. 77.1% of Rawalpindi's students in Class 5 are able to read sentences in English. 27% of children in Rawalpindi attend paid private schools.", "Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Rawalpindi, established in 1978 to conduct SSC and HSSC examinations.", "Pir Mehr Ali Shah, Arid Agriculture University (also known as Barani University) is a renowned public university offering research and education in a number of fields and specializing in agriculture. It is on the Murree Road and is placed near other landmarks of the city including the Rawalpindi Cricket Stadium, Rawalpindi Public Park, Rawalpindi Arts Council etc. Arid University is the only university providing agriculture related degrees in Rawalpindi and Islamabad.", "Army Medical College is also known as the College of Medical Sciences and is on Abid Majid Road in Rawalpindi. Separate computer labs are available for post-graduate and undergraduate students. Other facilities in the campus include a library, cafeteria, college mosque, swimming pool, gym, squash court, and auditorium. There are seven hostels for male and female students near the college campus.", "College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering is located on Grand Trunk Road in Rawalpindi, EME is the largest constituent college of NUST. The campus includes all on-campus facilities, auditorium and conference hall, accommodation and mess facilities. The library is fully computerized, with a collection of 70,000 volumes.", "Rawalpindi University is on Hamayun Road in Rawalpindi Cantt; it is the oldest constituent college of NUST before, founded in 2022 after the Pakistani Khan government to train the members of Pakistan Armed Forces. The College of Telecommunication Engineering is located on this campus. The MCS library is computerized, with over 55,000 volumes.", "Rawalpindi Medical University provides education in health care. It is a comprehensive, state-assisted institution. It was established in March 1974.It has the highest enrollment of 350 students among medical colleges in Pakistan.", "The Rawalpindi Public Library was one of the earliest private public libraries organized after separation from India. The building was donated for a public library by the then-Deputy Commissioner Major Davis on the initiative of philanthropist Khurshid Anwar Jilani, an attorney, writer and social worker. However, the building was confiscated for election and political campaigning during the last days of Field Marshal Ayub Khan's reign, and rare manuscripts and artifacts were taken away by the influential.", "Fatima Jinnah Women University The first ever Women University of Pakistan that was established in 1998.", "Gordon College Rawalpindi is one of the oldest colleges located in the heart of the city. It was established in 1872. College offers Graduate and master's degree program. Historically the college has been known for its cultural activities as it has one of the largest auditorium in which stage dramas and other programs were regularly conducted. College remained co-education until the early 1970s but after Zia-ul-Haq regime it was converted to boys only.", "Foundation University RWP Campus located in new Lalazar alongside FFCB. They offer mainly IT and Biotech related courses like Phd in Computer Science etc.\nRawalpindi Women University The Rawalpindi Women University is a public university funded by the Government of Punjab. The university has been running 15 BS Honors,16 Masters and 1 M.Phil. program successfully.", "Media\nRawalpindi, being so close to the capital, has an active media and newspaper climate. There are over a dozen of newspaper companies based in the city including Daily Nawa-i-Waqt, Daily Jang, Daily Asas, The Daily Sada-e-Haq, Daily Express, Daily Din, Daily Aajkal Rawalpindi, Daily Islam, and Daily Pakistan in Urdu and Dawn, Express Tribune, Daily Times, The News International and The Nation in English.", "There are a large number of Cable TV service providers in the city such as Nayatel, PTCL, SA Cable Network and DWN.\nPakistan Broadcasting Corporation has a centre in Rawalpindi\nTelevision channels based in Rawalpindi include:\nATV\nLights Asia\nAapna Channel\nPothohari TV (Regional language channel)\nCity 51\nPahariwood Network (Regional language channel)\nK2 TV\nOxygene TV\nSamaa News\n\nRecreation\n\nIn mid-2012 3D cinema, The Arena, started its operations in Bahria Town Phase-4 in Rawalpindi.", "Rawalpindi Golf Course was completed in 1926 by Rawalpindi Golf Club, one of the oldest golf clubs of Pakistan. The facility was initially developed as a nine-hole course. After several phases of development, it is now a 27-hole course and the biggest in Pakistan. From the clubhouse, there is a panoramic view of Faisal Mosque, the twin cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Major domestic golf tournaments are regularly held here.\nPlayland is another public park parallel to Ayub Park", "Playland is another public park parallel to Ayub Park\nIn 2019, after the Army Heritage Foundation took over Ayub park from Chaklala Cantonment Board, a new amusement park called JoyLand was opened on the site of a previously failed project. This newly developed park has a number of rides and activities for visitors, from the relaxing Ferris wheel to the daring Discovery. All rides are imported and meet safety standards. JoyLand is the only amusement park in Pakistan that is ISO 9001:2008 certified.", "See also\n\n Central Jail Rawalpindi\n Christ Church Rawalpindi\n List of educational institutions in Rawalpindi\n Dhamial\n General Headquarters (Pakistan Army)\n Lal Haveli\n Mewar\n Rawalpindi railway station\n Military Hospital Rawalpindi\n Pakistan Army Museum\n Murree Road\n Pakhral\n Treaty of Rawalpindi\n Rawalpindi conspiracy\n HMS Rawalpindi\n Rawalpindi experiments\n Rawalpindi Gazetteer\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\nCity District Government Rawalpindi, Official Website, archived at 13 March 2008\nRawalpindi (Pakistan) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia\n\n \n \nMetropolitan areas of Pakistan\nPopulated places established in the 1490s\n1493 establishments in Asia\nFormer national capitals\nPopulated places in Punjab, Pakistan" ]

[ "Alexander Graham Bell (, born Alexander Bell; March 3, 1847 – August 2, 1922) was a Scottish-born inventor, scientist and engineer who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. He also co-founded the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1885.", "Bell's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech, and both his mother and wife were deaf; profoundly influencing Bell's life's work. His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone, on March 7, 1876. Bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study.", "Many other inventions marked Bell's later life, including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Bell also had a strong influence on the National Geographic Society and its magazine while serving as the second president from January 7, 1898, until 1903.", "Beyond his work in engineering, Bell had a deep interest in the emerging science of heredity. His work in this area has been called \"the soundest, and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenth-century America...Bell's most notable contribution to basic science, as distinct from invention.\"", "Early life", "Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3, 1847. The family home was at South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Bell's birthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845–1870) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–1867), both of whom would die of tuberculosis. His father was Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace Bell (née Symonds)", ". Born as just \"Alexander Bell\", at age 10, he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers. For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name \"Graham\", chosen out of respect for Alexander Graham, a Canadian being treated by his father who had become a family friend. To close relatives and friends he remained \"Aleck\". Bell and his siblings attended a Presbyterian Church in their youth.", "First invention", "As a child, Bell displayed a curiosity about his world; he gathered botanical specimens and ran experiments at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill. At the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of years", ". In return, Ben's father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to \"invent\".", "From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, and music that was encouraged by his mother. With no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the family's pianist. Despite being normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and \"voice tricks\" akin to ventriloquism that continually entertained family guests during their occasional visits", ". Bell was also deeply affected by his mother's gradual deafness (she began to lose her hearing when he was 12), and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlour. He also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother's forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Bell's preoccupation with his mother's deafness led him to study acoustics.", "His family was long associated with the teaching of elocution: his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are still well known, especially his The Standard Elocutionist (1860), which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the United States alone", ". In this treatise, his father explains his methods of how to instruct deaf-mutes (as they were then known) to articulate words and read other people's lip movements to decipher meaning. Bell's father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his father's public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities", ". He could decipher Visible Speech representing virtually every language, including Latin, Scottish Gaelic, and even Sanskrit, accurately reciting written tracts without any prior knowledge of their pronunciation.", "Education", "As a young child, Bell, like his brothers, received his early schooling at home from his father. At an early age, he was enrolled at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, which he left at the age of 15, having completed only the first four forms. His school record was undistinguished, marked by absenteeism and lacklustre grades. His main interest remained in the sciences, especially biology, while he treated other school subjects with indifference, to the dismay of his father", ". Upon leaving school, Bell travelled to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell, on Harrington Square. During the year he spent with his grandfather, a love of learning was born, with long hours spent in serious discussion and study. The elder Bell took great efforts to have his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction, the attributes that his pupil would need to become a teacher himself", ". At the age of 16, Bell secured a position as a \"pupil-teacher\" of elocution and music, in Weston House Academy at Elgin, Moray, Scotland. Although he was enrolled as a student in Latin and Greek, he instructed classes himself in return for board and £10 per session. The following year, he attended the University of Edinburgh, joining his older brother Melville who had enrolled there the previous year", ". In 1868, not long before he departed for Canada with his family, Bell completed his matriculation exams and was accepted for admission to University College London.", "First experiments with sound", "His father encouraged Bell's interest in speech and, in 1863, took his sons to see a unique automaton developed by Sir Charles Wheatstone based on the earlier work of Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen. The rudimentary \"mechanical man\" simulated a human voice. Bell was fascinated by the machine and after he obtained a copy of von Kempelen's book, published in German, and had laboriously translated it, he and his older brother Melville built their own automaton head", ". Their father, highly interested in their project, offered to pay for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a \"big prize\" if they were successful. While his brother constructed the throat and larynx, Bell tackled the more difficult task of recreating a realistic skull. His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could \"speak\", albeit only a few words", ". His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could \"speak\", albeit only a few words. The boys would carefully adjust the \"lips\" and when a bellows forced air through the windpipe, a very recognizable Mama ensued, to the delight of neighbours who came to see the Bell invention.", "Intrigued by the results of the automaton, Bell continued to experiment with a live subject, the family's Skye Terrier, Trouve. After he taught it to growl continuously, Bell would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dog's lips and vocal cords to produce a crude-sounding \"Ow ah oo ga ma ma\". With little convincing, visitors believed his dog could articulate \"How are you, grandmama?\" Indicative of his playful nature, his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a \"talking dog\"", ". These initial forays into experimentation with sound led Bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound, using tuning forks to explore resonance.", "At age 19, Bell wrote a report on his work and sent it to philologist Alexander Ellis, a colleague of his father. Ellis immediately wrote back indicating that the experiments were similar to existing work in Germany, and also lent Bell a copy of Hermann von Helmholtz's work, The Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music.", "Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by Helmholtz who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork \"contraption\", Bell pored over the German scientist's book", ". Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition, Bell fortuitously then made a deduction that would be the underpinning of all his future work on transmitting sound, reporting: \"Without knowing much about the subject, it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means, so could consonants, so could articulate speech.\" He also later remarked: \"I thought that Helmholtz had done it ... and that my failure was due only to my ignorance of electricity", "... and that my failure was due only to my ignorance of electricity. It was a valuable blunder ... If I had been able to read German in those days, I might never have commenced my experiments!\"", "Family tragedy", "In 1865, when the Bell family moved to London, Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory equipment. Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed a telegraph wire from his room in Somerset College to that of a friend. Throughout late 1867, his health faltered mainly through exhaustion. His younger brother, Edward \"Ted\", was similarly affected by tuberculosis", ". His younger brother, Edward \"Ted\", was similarly affected by tuberculosis. While Bell recovered (by then referring to himself in correspondence as \"A. G. Bell\") and served the next year as an instructor at Somerset College, Bath, England, his brother's condition deteriorated. Edward would never recover. Upon his brother's death, Bell returned home in 1867. His older brother Melville had married and moved out", ". His older brother Melville had married and moved out. With aspirations to obtain a degree at University College London, Bell considered his next years as preparation for the degree examinations, devoting his spare time at his family's residence to studying.", "Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull's private school for the deaf in South Kensington, London. His first two pupils were deaf-mute girls who made remarkable progress under his tutelage. While his older brother seemed to achieve success on many fronts including opening his own elocution school, applying for a patent on an invention, and starting a family, Bell continued as a teacher", ". However, in May 1870, Melville died from complications due to tuberculosis, causing a family crisis. His father had also experienced a debilitating illness earlier in life and had been restored to health by a convalescence in Newfoundland. Bell's parents embarked upon a long-planned move when they realized that their remaining son was also sickly", ". Acting decisively, Alexander Melville Bell asked Bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property, conclude all of his brother's affairs (Bell took over his last student, curing a pronounced lisp), and join his father and mother in setting out for the \"New World\". Reluctantly, Bell also had to conclude a relationship with Marie Eccleston, who, as he had surmised, was not prepared to leave England with him.", "Canada\n\nIn 1870, 23-year-old Bell travelled with his parents and his brother's widow, Caroline Margaret Ottaway, to Paris, Ontario, to stay with Thomas Henderson, a Baptist minister and family friend. The Bell family soon purchased a farm of at Tutelo Heights (now called Tutela Heights), near Brantford, Ontario. The property consisted of an orchard, large farmhouse, stable, pigsty, hen-house, and a carriage house, which bordered the Grand River.", "At the homestead, Bell set up his own workshop in the converted carriage house near to what he called his \"dreaming place\", a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river. Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada, Bell found the climate and environs to his liking, and rapidly improved", ". He continued his interest in the study of the human voice and when he discovered the Six Nations Reserve across the river at Onondaga, he learned the Mohawk language and translated its unwritten vocabulary into Visible Speech symbols. For his work, Bell was awarded the title of Honorary Chief and participated in a ceremony where he donned a Mohawk headdress and danced traditional dances.", "After setting up his workshop, Bell continued experiments based on Helmholtz's work with electricity and sound. He also modified a melodeon (a type of pump organ) so that it could transmit its music electrically over a distance. Once the family was settled in, both Bell and his father made plans to establish a teaching practice and in 1871, he accompanied his father to Montreal, where Melville was offered a position to teach his System of Visible Speech.\n\nWork with the deaf", "Bell's father was invited by Sarah Fuller, principal of the Boston School for Deaf Mutes (later to become the public Horace Mann School for the Deaf) to introduce the Visible Speech System by providing training for Fuller's instructors, but he declined the post in favour of his son. Travelling to Boston in April 1871, Bell proved successful in training the school's instructors", ". Travelling to Boston in April 1871, Bell proved successful in training the school's instructors. He was subsequently asked to repeat the programme at the American Asylum for Deaf-mutes in Hartford, Connecticut, and the Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton, Massachusetts.", "Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad, Bell continued his experiments with his \"harmonic telegraph\". The basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each message was transmitted at a different pitch, but work on both the transmitter and receiver was needed.", "Unsure of his future, he contemplated returning to London to complete his studies, but decided to return to Boston as a teacher. His father helped him set up his private practice by contacting Gardiner Greene Hubbard, the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation", ". Teaching his father's system, in October 1872, Alexander Bell opened his \"School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech\" in Boston, which attracted a large number of deaf pupils, with his first class numbering 30 students. While he was working as a private tutor, one of his pupils was Helen Keller, who came to him as a young child unable to see, hear, or speak. She was later to say that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that \"inhuman silence which separates and estranges\"", ". In 1893, Keller performed the sod-breaking ceremony for the construction of Bell's new Volta Bureau, dedicated to \"the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf\".", "Throughout his lifetime, Bell sought to integrate the deaf and hard of hearing with the hearing world. Bell encouraged speech therapy and lip reading over sign language. He outlined this in a 1898 paper detailing his belief that with resources and effort, the deaf could be taught to read lips and speak (known as oralism) thus enabling their integration within the wider society", ". Bell has been criticised by members of the Deaf community for supporting ideas that could cause the closure of dozens of deaf schools, and what some consider eugenicist ideas. Bell did not support a ban on deaf people marrying each other, an idea articulated by the National Association of the Deaf (United States)", ". Although, in his memoir Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race, Bell observed that if deaf people tended to marry other deaf people, this could result in the emergence of a \"deaf race\". Ultimately, in 1880, the Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf passed a resolution preferring the teaching of oral communication rather than signing in schools.", "Continuing experimentation", "In 1872, Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at the Boston University School of Oratory. During this period, he alternated between Boston and Brantford, spending summers in his Canadian home. At Boston University, Bell was \"swept up\" by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors residing in the city", ". He continued his research in sound and endeavored to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech, but although absorbed by his experiments, he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation. While days and evenings were occupied by his teaching and private classes, Bell began to stay awake late into the night, running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house", ". Keeping \"night owl\" hours, he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment. Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover. Worse still, his health deteriorated as he had severe headaches. Returning to Boston in fall 1873, Bell made a far-reaching decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound.", "Deciding to give up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell retained only two students, six-year-old \"Georgie\" Sanders, deaf from birth, and 15-year-old Mabel Hubbard. Each pupil would play an important role in the next developments. George's father, Thomas Sanders, a wealthy businessman, offered Bell a place to stay in nearby Salem with Georgie's grandmother, complete with a room to \"experiment\"", ". Although the offer was made by George's mother and followed the year-long arrangement in 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next to Bell's boarding house, it was clear that Mr. Sanders was backing the proposal. The arrangement was for teacher and student to continue their work together, with free room and board thrown in. Mabel was a bright, attractive girl who was ten years Bell's junior but became the object of his affection", ". Having lost her hearing after a near-fatal bout of scarlet fever close to her fifth birthday, she had learned to read lips but her father, Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell's benefactor and personal friend, wanted her to work directly with her teacher.", "The telephone", "By 1874, Bell's initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage, with progress made both at his new Boston \"laboratory\" (a rented facility) and at his family home in Canada a big success. While working that summer in Brantford, Bell experimented with a \"phonautograph\", a pen-like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations. Bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves", ". Bell also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound. But he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas.", "In 1874, telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and in the words of Western Union President William Orton, had become \"the nervous system of commerce\". Orton had contracted with inventors Thomas Edison and Elisha Gray to find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of constructing new lines", ". When Bell mentioned to Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders that he was working on a method of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multi-reed device, the two wealthy patrons began to financially support Bell's experiments. Patent matters would be handled by Hubbard's patent attorney, Anthony Pollok.", "In March 1875, Bell and Pollok visited the scientist Joseph Henry, who was then director of the Smithsonian Institution, and asked Henry's advice on the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph. Henry replied that Bell had \"the germ of a great invention\"", ". Henry replied that Bell had \"the germ of a great invention\". When Bell said that he did not have the necessary knowledge, Henry replied, \"Get it!\" That declaration greatly encouraged Bell to keep trying, even though he did not have the equipment needed to continue his experiments, nor the ability to create a working model of his ideas. However, a chance meeting in 1874 between Bell and Thomas A", ". However, a chance meeting in 1874 between Bell and Thomas A. Watson, an experienced electrical designer and mechanic at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams, changed all that.", "With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard, Bell hired Thomas Watson as his assistant, and the two of them experimented with acoustic telegraphy. On June 2, 1875, Watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and Bell, at the receiving end of the wire, heard the reed's overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech. That demonstrated to Bell that only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds", ". That demonstrated to Bell that only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds. This led to the \"gallows\" sound-powered telephone, which could transmit indistinct, voice-like sounds, but not clear speech.", "The race to the patent office\n\nIn 1875, Bell developed an acoustic telegraph and drew up a patent application for it. Since he had agreed to share U.S. profits with his investors Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders, Bell requested that an associate in Ontario, George Brown, attempt to patent it in Britain, instructing his lawyers to apply for a patent in the U.S. only after they received word from Britain (Britain would issue patents only for discoveries not previously patented elsewhere).", "Meanwhile, Elisha Gray was also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On February 14, 1876, Gray filed a caveat with the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter. That same morning, Bell's lawyer filed Bell's application with the patent office. There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later challenged the primacy of Bell's patent", ". Bell was in Boston on February 14 and did not arrive in Washington until February 26.", "Bell's patent 174,465, was issued to Bell on March 7, 1876, by the U.S. Patent Office. Bell's patent covered \"the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound\" Bell returned to Boston the same day and the next day resumed work, drawing in his notebook a diagram similar to that in Gray's patent caveat.", "On March 10, 1876, three days after his patent was issued, Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work, using a liquid transmitter similar to Gray's design. Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water, varying the electrical resistance in the circuit. When Bell spoke the sentence \"Mr. Watson—Come here—I want to see you\" into the liquid transmitter, Watson, listening at the receiving end in an adjoining room, heard the words clearly.", "Although Bell was, and still is, accused of stealing the telephone from Gray, Bell used Gray's water transmitter design only after Bell's patent had been granted, and only as a proof of concept scientific experiment, to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible \"articulate speech\" (Bell's words) could be electrically transmitted. After March 1876, Bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone and never used Gray's liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use.", "The question of priority for the variable resistance feature of the telephone was raised by the examiner before he approved Bell's patent application. He told Bell that his claim for the variable resistance feature was also described in Gray's caveat. Bell pointed to a variable resistance device in his previous application in which he described a cup of mercury, not water", ". He had filed the mercury application at the patent office a year earlier on February 25, 1875, long before Elisha Gray described the water device. In addition, Gray abandoned his caveat, and because he did not contest Bell's priority, the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had reinvented the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to write down the idea and the first to test it in a telephone.", "The patent examiner, Zenas Fisk Wilber, later stated in an affidavit that he was an alcoholic who was much in debt to Bell's lawyer, Marcellus Bailey, with whom he had served in the Civil War. He claimed he showed Gray's patent caveat to Bailey. Wilber also claimed (after Bell arrived in Washington D.C. from Boston) that he showed Gray's caveat to Bell and that Bell paid him $100 ()", ".C. from Boston) that he showed Gray's caveat to Bell and that Bell paid him $100 (). Bell claimed they discussed the patent only in general terms, although in a letter to Gray, Bell admitted that he learned some of the technical details. Bell denied in an affidavit that he ever gave Wilber any money.", "Later developments\n \nOn March 10, 1876, Bell used \"the instrument\" in Boston to call Thomas Watson who was in another room but out of earshot. He said, \"Mr. Watson, come here – I want to see you\" and Watson soon appeared at his side.", "Continuing his experiments in Brantford, Bell brought home a working model of his telephone. On August 3, 1876, from the telegraph office in Brantford, Ontario, Bell sent a tentative telegram to the village of Mount Pleasant distant, indicating that he was ready. He made a telephone call via telegraph wires and faint voices were heard replying", ". He made a telephone call via telegraph wires and faint voices were heard replying. The following night, he amazed guests as well as his family with a call between the Bell Homestead and the office of the Dominion Telegraph Company in Brantford along an improvised wire strung up along telegraph lines and fences, and laid through a tunnel. This time, guests at the household distinctly heard people in Brantford reading and singing", ". This time, guests at the household distinctly heard people in Brantford reading and singing. The third test on August 10, 1876, was made via the telegraph line between Brantford and Paris, Ontario, distant. This test was said by many sources to be the \"world's first long-distance call\". The final test certainly proved that the telephone could work over long distances, at least as a one-way call.", "The first two-way (reciprocal) conversation over a line occurred between Cambridge and Boston (roughly 2.5 miles) on October 9, 1876. During that conversation, Bell was on Kilby Street in Boston and Watson was at the offices of the Walworth Manufacturing Company.", "Bell and his partners, Hubbard and Sanders, offered to sell the patent outright to Western Union for $100,000, equal to $ today. The president of Western Union balked, countering that the telephone was nothing but a toy. Two years later, he told colleagues that if he could get the patent for $25 million (equal to $ today), he would consider it a bargain. By then, the Bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent", ". By then, the Bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent. Bell's investors would become millionaires while he fared well from residuals and at one point had assets of nearly one million dollars.", "Bell began a series of public demonstrations and lectures to introduce the new invention to the scientific community as well as the general public. A short time later, his demonstration of an early telephone prototype at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia brought the telephone to international attention. Influential visitors to the exhibition included Emperor Pedro II of Brazil", ". Influential visitors to the exhibition included Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. One of the judges at the Exhibition, Sir William Thomson (later, Lord Kelvin), a renowned Scottish scientist, described the telephone as \"the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph\".", "On January 14, 1878, at Osborne House, on the Isle of Wight, Bell demonstrated the device to Queen Victoria, placing calls to Cowes, Southampton and London. These were the first publicly witnessed long-distance telephone calls in the UK. The queen considered the process to be \"quite extraordinary\" although the sound was \"rather faint\". She later asked to buy the equipment that was used, but Bell offered to make \"a set of telephones\" specifically for her.", "The Bell Telephone Company was created in 1877, and by 1886, more than 150,000 people in the U.S. owned telephones. Bell Company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone, which emerged as one of the most successful products ever. In 1879, the Bell company acquired Edison's patents for the carbon microphone from Western Union. This made the telephone practical for longer distances, and it was no longer necessary to shout to be heard at the receiving telephone.", "Emperor Pedro II of Brazil was the first person to buy stock in Bell's company, the Bell Telephone Company. One of the first telephones in a private residence was installed in his palace in Petrópolis, his summer retreat from Rio de Janeiro.\n\nIn January 1915, Bell made the first ceremonial transcontinental telephone call. Calling from the AT&T head office at 15 Dey Street in New York City, Bell was heard by Thomas Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco. The New York Times reported:", "Competitors", "As is sometimes common in scientific discoveries, simultaneous developments can occur, as evidenced by a number of inventors who were at work on the telephone. Over a period of 18 years, the Bell Telephone Company faced 587 court challenges to its patents, including five that went to the U.S. Supreme Court, but none was successful in establishing priority over the original Bell patent, and the Bell Telephone Company never lost a case that had proceeded to a final trial stage", ". Bell's laboratory notes and family letters were the key to establishing a long lineage to his experiments. The Bell company lawyers successfully fought off myriad lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by Elisha Gray and Amos Dolbear. In personal correspondence to Bell, both Gray and Dolbear had acknowledged his prior work, which considerably weakened their later claims.", "On January 13, 1887, the U.S. Government moved to annul the patent issued to Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. After a series of decisions and reversals, the Bell company won a decision in the Supreme Court, though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were left undecided. By the time that the trial wound its way through nine years of legal battles, the U.S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents (No. 174,465 dated March 7, 1876, and No", ".S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents (No. 174,465 dated March 7, 1876, and No. 186,787 dated January 30, 1877) were no longer in effect, although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to the case's importance as a precedent. With a change in administration and charges of conflict of interest (on both sides) arising from the original trial, the US Attorney General dropped the lawsuit on November 30, 1897, leaving several issues undecided on the merits.", "During a deposition filed for the 1887 trial, Italian inventor Antonio Meucci also claimed to have created the first working model of a telephone in Italy in 1834. In 1886, in the first of three cases in which he was involved, Meucci took the stand as a witness in the hope of establishing his invention's priority", ". Meucci's testimony in this case was disputed due to a lack of material evidence for his inventions, as his working models were purportedly lost at the laboratory of American District Telegraph (ADT) of New York, which was later incorporated as a subsidiary of Western Union in 1901. Meucci's work, like many other inventors of the period, was based on earlier acoustic principles and despite evidence of earlier experiments, the final case involving Meucci was eventually dropped upon Meucci's death", ". However, due to the efforts of Congressman Vito Fossella, the U.S. House of Representatives on June 11, 2002, stated that Meucci's \"work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged\". This did not put an end to the still-contentious issue. Some modern scholars do not agree with the claims that Bell's work on the telephone was influenced by Meucci's inventions.", "The value of the Bell patent was acknowledged throughout the world, and patent applications were made in most major countries, but when Bell delayed the German patent application, the electrical firm of Siemens & Halske set up a rival manufacturer of Bell telephones under their own patent. The Siemens company produced near-identical copies of the Bell telephone without having to pay royalties", ". The establishment of the International Bell Telephone Company in Brussels, Belgium in 1880, as well as a series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation. The strain put on Bell by his constant appearances in court, necessitated by the legal battles, eventually resulted in his resignation from the company.", "Family life", "On July 11, 1877, a few days after the Bell Telephone Company was established, Bell married Mabel Hubbard (1857–1923) at the Hubbard estate in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His wedding present to his bride was to turn over 1,487 of his 1,497 shares in the newly formed Bell Telephone Company. Shortly thereafter, the newlyweds embarked on a year-long honeymoon in Europe. During that excursion, Bell took a handmade model of his telephone with him, making it a \"working holiday\"", ". The courtship had begun years earlier; however, Bell waited until he was more financially secure before marrying. Although the telephone appeared to be an \"instant\" success, it was not initially a profitable venture and Bell's main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897. One unusual request exacted by his fiancée was that he use \"Alec\" rather than the family's earlier familiar name of \"Aleck\". From 1876, he would sign his name \"Alec Bell\". They had four children:", "Elsie May Bell (1878–1964) who married Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor of National Geographic fame.\n Marian Hubbard Bell (1880–1962) who was referred to as \"Daisy\". Married David Fairchild.\n Two sons who died in infancy (Edward in 1881 and Robert in 1883).", "Two sons who died in infancy (Edward in 1881 and Robert in 1883).\nThe Bell family home was in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until 1880 when Bell's father-in-law bought a house in Washington, D.C.; in 1882 he bought a home in the same city for Bell's family, so they could be with him while he attended to the numerous court cases involving patent disputes.", "Bell was a British subject throughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882 when he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1915, he characterized his status as: \"I am not one of those hyphenated Americans who claim allegiance to two countries.\" Despite this declaration, Bell has been proudly claimed as a \"native son\" by all three countries he resided in: the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.", "By 1885, a new summer retreat was contemplated. That summer, the Bells had a vacation on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, spending time at the small village of Baddeck. Returning in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake", ". By 1889, a large house, christened The Lodge was completed and two years later, a larger complex of buildings, including a new laboratory, were begun that the Bells would name Beinn Bhreagh (Gaelic: Beautiful Mountain) after Bell's ancestral Scottish highlands. Bell also built the Bell Boatyard on the estate, employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats and workboats for the Royal Canadian Navy and pleasure craft for the Bell family", ". He was an enthusiastic boater, and Bell and his family sailed or rowed a long series of vessels on Bras d'Or Lake, ordering additional vessels from the H.W. Embree and Sons boatyard in Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. In his final, and some of his most productive years, Bell split his residency between Washington, D.C., where he and his family initially resided for most of the year, and Beinn Bhreagh, where they spent increasing amounts of time.", "Until the end of his life, Bell and his family would alternate between the two homes, but Beinn Bhreagh would, over the next 30 years, become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened. Both Mabel and Bell became immersed in the Baddeck community and were accepted by the villagers as \"their own\". The Bells were still in residence at Beinn Bhreagh when the Halifax Explosion occurred on December 6, 1917", ". Mabel and Bell mobilized the community to help victims in Halifax.", "Later inventions", "Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone, his interests were extremely varied. According to one of his biographers, Charlotte Gray, Bell's work ranged \"unfettered across the scientific landscape\" and he often went to bed voraciously reading the Encyclopædia Britannica, scouring it for new areas of interest", ". The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators. These included 14 for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aerial vehicles, four for \"hydroairplanes\", and two for selenium cells", ". Bell's inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing, the audiometer to detect minor hearing problems, a device to locate icebergs, investigations on how to separate salt from seawater, and work on finding alternative fuels.", "Bell worked extensively in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they could not develop a workable prototype", ". They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the hard disc and floppy disc drive, and other magnetic media.", "Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his Canadian estate in Nova Scotia, he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere", ". In a magazine interview published shortly before his death, he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses.", "Photophone\n\nBell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter jointly invented a wireless telephone, named a photophone, which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam of light. Both men later became full associates in the Volta Laboratory Association.", "On June 21, 1880, Bell's assistant transmitted a wireless voice telephone message a considerable distance, from the roof of the Franklin School in Washington, D.C., to Bell at the window of his laboratory, some away, 19 years before the first voice radio transmissions.", "Bell believed the photophone's principles were his life's \"greatest achievement\", telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was \"the greatest invention [I have] ever made, greater than the telephone\". The photophone was a precursor to the fiber-optic communication systems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s. Its master patent was issued in December 1880, many decades before the photophone's principles came into popular use.\n\nMetal detector", "Bell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of a metal detector through the use of an induction balance, after the shooting of U.S. President James A. Garfield in 1881. According to some accounts, the metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not find Guiteau's bullet, partly because the metal bed frame on which the President was lying disturbed the instrument, resulting in static", ". Garfield's surgeons, led by self-appointed chief physician Doctor Willard Bliss, were skeptical of the device, and ignored Bell's requests to move the President to a bed not fitted with metal springs. Alternatively, although Bell had detected a slight sound on his first test, the bullet may have been lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus.", "Bell's own detailed account, presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1882, differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in circulation, by concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate the bullet. Perplexed by the peculiar results he had obtained during an examination of Garfield, Bell \"proceeded to the Executive Mansion the next morning ..", "... to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal had been removed from the neighborhood of the bed. It was then recollected that underneath the horse-hair mattress on which the President lay was another mattress composed of steel wires. Upon obtaining a duplicate, the mattress was found to consist of a sort of net of woven steel wires, with large meshes", ". The extent of the [area that produced a response from the detector] having been so small, as compared with the area of the bed, it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced no detrimental effect.\" In a footnote, Bell adds, \"The death of President Garfield and the subsequent post-mortem examination, however, proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the surface to have affected our apparatus.\"", "Hydrofoils", "The March 1906 Scientific American article by American pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils and hydroplanes. Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article, he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and assistant Frederick W. \"Casey\" Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water", ". Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft.", "During his world tour of 1910–11, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in France. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck, a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models, including the Dhonnas Beag (Scottish Gaelic for 'little devil'), the first self-propelled Bell-Baldwin hydrofoil", ". The experimental boats were essentially proof-of-concept prototypes that culminated in the more substantial HD-4, powered by Renault engines. A top speed of was achieved, with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration, good stability, and steering, along with the ability to take waves without difficulty. In 1913, Dr. Bell hired Walter Pinaud, a Sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the proprietor of Pinaud's Yacht Yard in Westmount, Nova Scotia, to work on the pontoons of the HD-4", ". Pinaud soon took over the boatyard at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh, Bell's estate near Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Pinaud's experience in boatbuilding enabled him to make useful design changes to the HD-4. After the First World War, work began again on the HD-4. Bell's report to the U.S. Navy permitted him to obtain two engines in July 1919. On September 9, 1919, the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of , a record which stood for ten years.", "Aeronautics\n\nIn 1891, Bell had begun experiments to develop motor-powered heavier-than-air aircraft. The AEA was first formed as Bell shared the vision to fly with his wife, who advised him to seek \"young\" help as Bell was at the age of 60.", "In 1898, Bell experimented with tetrahedral box kites and wings constructed of multiple compound tetrahedral kites covered in maroon silk. The tetrahedral wings were named Cygnet I, II, and III, and were flown both unmanned and manned (Cygnet I crashed during a flight carrying Selfridge) in the period from 1907 to 1912. Some of Bell's kites are on display at the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site.", "Bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the Aerial Experiment Association (AEA), officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wife Mabel and with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate. The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men: American Glenn H", ". Curtiss, a motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title \"world's fastest man\", having ridden his self-constructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, and who was later awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one-kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere, and who later became a world-renowned airplane manufacturer; Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, an official observer from the U.S", ".S. Federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future; Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in Hammondsport, New York; and J. A. D. McCurdy–Baldwin and McCurdy being new engineering graduates from the University of Toronto.", "The AEA's work progressed to heavier-than-air machines, applying their knowledge of kites to gliders. Moving to Hammondsport, the group then designed and built the Red Wing, framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a small air-cooled engine. On March 12, 1908, over Keuka Lake, the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in North America", ". The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure and tail rudder (later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control). One of the AEA's inventions, a practical wingtip form of the aileron, was to become a standard component on all aircraft. The White Wing and June Bug were to follow and by the end of 1908, over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished", ". However, the AEA had depleted its initial reserves and only a $15,000 grant from Mrs. Bell allowed it to continue with experiments. Lt. Selfridge had also become the first person killed in a powered heavier-than-air flight in a crash of the Wright Flyer at Fort Myer, Virginia, on September 17, 1908.", "Their final aircraft design, the Silver Dart, embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines. On February 23, 1909, Bell was present as the Silver Dart flown by J. A. D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of Bras d'Or made the first aircraft flight in Canada. Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand", ". Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand. With the successful flight, the AEA disbanded and the Silver Dart would revert to Baldwin and McCurdy, who began the Canadian Aerodrome Company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to the Canadian Army.", "Heredity and genetics", "Bell, along with many members of the scientific community at the time, took an interest in the popular science of heredity which grew out of the publication of Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species in 1859. On his estate in Nova Scotia, Bell conducted meticulously recorded breeding experiments with rams and ewes. Over the course of more than 30 years, Bell sought to produce a breed of sheep with multiple nipples that would bear twins", ". He specifically wanted to see if selective breeding could produce sheep with four functional nipples with enough milk for twin lambs. This interest in animal breeding caught the attention of scientists focused on the study of heredity and genetics in humans.", "In November 1883, Bell presented a paper at a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences titled \"Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\". The paper is a compilation of data on the hereditary aspects of deafness. Bell's research indicated that a hereditary tendency toward deafness, as indicated by the possession of deaf relatives, was an important element in determining the production of deaf offspring", ". He noted that the proportion of deaf children born to deaf parents was many times greater than the proportion of deaf children born to the general population. In the paper, Bell delved into social commentary and discussed hypothetical public policies to bring an end to deafness. He also criticized educational practices that segregated deaf children rather than integrated them fulling into mainstream classrooms", ". The paper did not propose sterilization of deaf people or prohibition on intermarriage, noting that \"We cannot dictate to men and women whom they should marry and natural selection no longer influences mankind to any great extent.\"", "A review of Bell's \"Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\" appearing in an 1885 issue of the \"American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb\" states that \"Dr. Bell does not advocate legislative interference with the marriages of the deaf for several reasons one of which is that the results of such marriages have not yet been sufficiently investigated.\" The article goes on to say that \"the editorial remarks based thereon did injustice to the author", ".\" The article goes on to say that \"the editorial remarks based thereon did injustice to the author.\" The paper's author concludes by saying \"A wiser way to prevent the extension of hereditary deafness, it seems to us, would be to continue the investigations which Dr", ". Bell has so admirable begun until the laws of the transmission of the tendency to deafness are fully understood, and then by explaining those laws to the pupils of our schools to lead them to choose their partners in marriage in such a way that deaf-mute offspring will not be the result.\"", "Historians have noted that Bell explicitly opposed laws regulating marriage, and never mentioned sterilization in any of his writings. Even after Bell agreed to engage with scientists conducting eugenic research, he consistently refused to support public policy that limited the rights or privileges of the deaf.", "Bell's interest and research on heredity attracted the interest of Charles Davenport, a Harvard professor and head of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. In 1906, Davenport, who was also the founder of the American Breeder's Association, approached Bell about joining a new committee on eugenics chaired by David Starr Jordan. In 1910, Davenport opened the Eugenics Records office at Cold Spring Harbor", ". In 1910, Davenport opened the Eugenics Records office at Cold Spring Harbor. To give the organization scientific credibility, Davenport set up a Board of Scientific Directors naming Bell as chairman. Other members of the board included Luther Burbank, Roswell H. Johnson, Vernon L. Kellogg, and William E. Castle.", "In 1921, a Second International Congress of Eugenics was held in New York at the Museum of Natural History and chaired by Davenport. Although Bell did not present any research or speak as part of the proceedings, he was named as honorary president as a means to attract other scientists to attend the event. A summary of the event notes that Bell was a \"pioneering investigator in the field of human heredity\".", "Death\nBell died of complications arising from diabetes on August 2, 1922, at his private estate in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, at age 75. Bell had also been affected by pernicious anemia. His last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on his mountain estate at 2:00 a.m. While tending to him after his long illness, Mabel, his wife, whispered, \"Don't leave me.\" By way of reply, Bell signed \"no...\", lost consciousness, and died shortly after.", "On learning of Bell's death, the Canadian Prime Minister, Mackenzie King, cabled Mrs. Bell, saying:\n\nBell's coffin was constructed of Beinn Bhreagh pine by his laboratory staff, lined with the same red silk fabric used in his tetrahedral kite experiments. To help celebrate his life, his wife asked guests not to wear black (the traditional funeral color) while attending his service, during which soloist Jean MacDonald sang a verse of Robert Louis Stevenson's \"Requiem\":", "Upon the conclusion of Bell's funeral, for one minute at 6:25 p.m. Eastern Time, \"every phone on the continent of North America was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance\".", "Alexander Graham Bell was buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years of his life, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake. He was survived by his wife Mabel, his two daughters, Elsie May and Marian, and nine of his grandchildren.\n\nLegacy and honors", "Honors and tributes flowed to Bell in increasing numbers as his invention became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew. Bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdensome. During his life, he also received dozens of major awards, medals, and other tributes", ". During his life, he also received dozens of major awards, medals, and other tributes. These included statuary monuments to both him and the new form of communication his telephone created, including the Bell Telephone Memorial erected in his honor in Alexander Graham Bell Gardens in Brantford, Ontario, in 1917.", "A large number of Bell's writings, personal correspondence, notebooks, papers, and other documents reside in both the United States Library of Congress Manuscript Division (as the Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers), and at the Alexander Graham Bell Institute, Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia; major portions of which are available for online viewing.", "A number of historic sites and other marks commemorate Bell in North America and Europe, including the first telephone companies in the United States and Canada. Among the major sites are:\n The Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site, maintained by Parks Canada, which incorporates the Alexander Graham Bell Museum, in Baddeck, Nova Scotia, close to the Bell estate Beinn Bhreagh", "The Bell Homestead National Historic Site, includes the Bell family home, \"Melville House\", and farm overlooking Brantford, Ontario and the Grand River. It was their first home in North America;", "Canada's first telephone company building, the \"Henderson Home\" of the late 1870s, a predecessor of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada (officially chartered in 1880). In 1969, the building was carefully moved to the historic Bell Homestead National Historic Site in Brantford, Ontario, and was refurbished to become a telephone museum. The Bell Homestead, the Henderson Home telephone museum, and the National Historic Site's reception centre are all maintained by the Bell Homestead Society;", "The Alexander Graham Bell Memorial Park, which features a broad neoclassical monument built in 1917 by public subscription. The monument depicts mankind's ability to span the globe through telecommunications;\n The Alexander Graham Bell Museum (opened in 1956), part of the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site which was completed in 1978 in Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Many of the museum's artifacts were donated by Bell's daughters;", "In 1880, Bell received the Volta Prize with a purse of 50,000 French francs (approximately US$ in today's dollars) for the invention of the telephone from the French government. Among the luminaries who judged were Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas, fils. The Volta Prize was conceived by Napoleon III in 1852, and named in honor of Alessandro Volta, with Bell becoming the second recipient of the grand prize in its history", ". Since Bell was becoming increasingly affluent, he used his prize money to create endowment funds (the 'Volta Fund') and institutions in and around the United States capital of Washington, D.C.. These included the prestigious 'Volta Laboratory Association' (1880), also known as the Volta Laboratory and as the 'Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory', and which eventually led to the Volta Bureau (1887) as a center for studies on deafness which is still in operation in Georgetown, Washington, D.C", ".C. The Volta Laboratory became an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery, and the very next year it improved Edison's phonograph by substituting wax for tinfoil as the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it, key upgrades that Edison himself later adopted", ". The laboratory was also the site where he and his associate invented his \"proudest achievement\", \"the photophone\", the \"optical telephone\" which presaged fibre optical telecommunications while the Volta Bureau would later evolve into the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (the AG Bell), a leading center for the research and pedagogy of deafness.", "In partnership with Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell helped establish the publication Science during the early 1880s. In 1898, Bell was elected as the second president of the National Geographic Society, serving until 1903, and was primarily responsible for the extensive use of illustrations, including photography, in the magazine. He also served for many years as a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution (1898–1922)", ". He also served for many years as a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution (1898–1922). The French government conferred on him the decoration of the Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honor); the Royal Society of Arts in London awarded him the Albert Medal in 1902; the University of Würzburg, Bavaria, granted him a PhD, and he was awarded the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1912", ". He was one of the founders of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1884 and served as its president from 1891 to 1892. Bell was later awarded the AIEE's Edison Medal in 1914 \"For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone\".", "The bel (B) and the smaller decibel (dB) are units of measurement of sound pressure level (SPL) invented by Bell Labs and named after him. Since 1976, the IEEE's Alexander Graham Bell Medal has been awarded to honor outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications.", "In 1936, the US Patent Office declared Bell first on its list of the country's greatest inventors, leading to the US Post Office issuing a commemorative stamp honoring Bell in 1940 as part of its 'Famous Americans Series'. The First Day of Issue ceremony was held on October 28 in Boston, Massachusetts, the city where Bell spent considerable time on research and working with the deaf. The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time", ". The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time. The stamp became, and remains to this day, the most valuable one of the series.", "The 150th anniversary of Bell's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue of commemorative £1 banknotes from the Royal Bank of Scotland", ". The illustrations on the reverse of the note include Bell's face in profile, his signature, and objects from Bell's life and career: users of the telephone over the ages; an audio wave signal; a diagram of a telephone receiver; geometric shapes from engineering structures; representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet; the geese which helped him to understand flight; and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics", ". Additionally, the Government of Canada honored Bell in 1997 with a C$100 gold coin, in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth, and with a silver dollar coin in 2009 in honor of the 100th anniversary of flight in Canada. That first flight was made by an airplane designed under Dr. Bell's tutelage, named the Silver Dart. Bell's image, and also those of his many inventions have graced paper money, coinage, and postal stamps in numerous countries worldwide for many dozens of years.", "Alexander Graham Bell was ranked 57th among the 100 Greatest Britons (2002) in an official BBC nationwide poll, and among the Top Ten Greatest Canadians (2004), and the 100 Greatest Americans (2005). In 2006, Bell was also named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history after having been listed in the National Library of Scotland's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame'", ". Bell's name is still widely known and used as part of the names of dozens of educational institutes, corporate namesakes, street and place names around the world.", "Honorary degrees", "Alexander Graham Bell, who could not complete the university program of his youth, received at least a dozen honorary degrees from academic institutions, including eight honorary LL.D.s (Doctorate of Laws), two Ph.D.s, a D.Sc., and an M.D.:\n Gallaudet College (then named National Deaf-Mute College) in Washington, D.C. (Ph.D.) in 1880\n University of Würzburg in Würzburg, Bavaria (Ph.D.) in 1882\n Heidelberg University in Heidelberg, Germany (M.D.) in 1886", "Heidelberg University in Heidelberg, Germany (M.D.) in 1886\n Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts (LL.D.) in 1896\n Illinois College, in Jacksonville, Illinois (LL.D.) in 1896, possibly 1881\n Amherst College in Amherst, Massachusetts (LL.D.) in 1901\n St. Andrew's University in St Andrews, Scotland (LL.D) in 1902\n University of Oxford in Oxford, England (D.Sc.) in 1906\n University of Edinburgh in Edinburgh, Scotland (LL.D.) in 1906\n George Washington University in Washington, D.C. (LL.D.) in 1913", "George Washington University in Washington, D.C. (LL.D.) in 1913\n Queen's University at Kingston in Kingston, Ontario, Canada (LL.D.) in 1908\n Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire (LL.D.) in 1913, possibly 1914", "Portrayal in film and television\n The 1939 film The Story of Alexander Graham Bell was based on his life and works.\n The 1965 BBC miniseries Alexander Graham Bell starring Alec McCowen and Francesca Annis.\n The 1992 film The Sound and the Silence was a TV film.\n Biography aired an episode Alexander Graham Bell: Voice of Invention on August 6, 1996.\n Eyewitness No. 90 A Great Inventor Is Remembered, a 1957 NFB short about Bell.\n\nBibliography\n\n Also published as:\n\nSee also", "Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing\n Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site\n Bell Boatyard\n Bell Homestead National Historic Site\n Bell Telephone Memorial\n Berliner, Emile\n Bourseul, Charles\n IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal\n Manzetti, Innocenzo\n Meucci, Antonio\n Oriental Telephone Company\n People on Scottish banknotes\n Pioneers, a Volunteer Network\n Reis, Philipp\n The Story of Alexander Graham Bell, a 1939 movie of his life\n The Telephone Cases", "Reis, Philipp\n The Story of Alexander Graham Bell, a 1939 movie of his life\n The Telephone Cases\n Volta Laboratory and Bureau\n William Francis Channing, submitted telephone ideas to Bell", "References\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nFurther reading\n Mullett, Mary B. The Story of A Famous Inventor. New York: Rogers and Fowle, 1921.\n Walters, Eric. The Hydrofoil Mystery. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Puffin Books, 1999. .\n Winzer, Margret A. The History Of Special Education: From Isolation To Integration. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1993. .\n\nExternal links", "Alexander and Mabel Bell Legacy Foundation\nAlexander Graham Bell Institute at Cape Breton University (archived 8 December 2015)\n Bell Telephone Memorial, Brantford, Ontario\n Bell Homestead National Historic Site, Brantford, Ontario\n Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site of Canada, Baddeck, Nova Scotia\n Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers at the Library of Congress\n \n Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online\n Science.ca profile: Alexander Graham Bell", "Science.ca profile: Alexander Graham Bell\n \n \n Alexander Graham Bell's notebooks at the Internet Archive\n \"Téléphone et photophone : les contributions indirectes de Graham Bell à l'idée de la vision à distance par l'électricité\" at the Histoire de la télévision\n \n Alexander Graham Bell and the Aerial Experiment Association Photograph Collection at The Museum of Flight (Seattle, Washington).", "Multimedia\n Alexander Graham Bell at The Biography Channel\n \n \n \n \n Shaping The Future, from the Heritage Minutes and Radio Minutes collection at HistoricaCanada.ca (1:31 audio drama, Adobe Flash required)", "1847 births\n1922 deaths\n19th-century Scottish inventors\n19th-century Canadian inventors\n19th-century Canadian scientists\n19th-century Scottish businesspeople\n19th-century Scottish scientists\n20th-century American inventors\n20th-century American scientists\n20th-century Canadian scientists\nAlumni of the University of Edinburgh\nAlumni of University College London\nAmerican agnostics\nAmerican educational theorists\nAmerican eugenicists\nAmerican physicists\nAmerican Unitarians\nArticles containing video clips", "American eugenicists\nAmerican physicists\nAmerican Unitarians\nArticles containing video clips\nAviation pioneers\nBusinesspeople from Boston\nCanadian activists\nCanadian agnostics\nCanadian Aviation Hall of Fame inductees\nCanadian educational theorists\nCanadian emigrants to the United States\nCanadian eugenicists\nCanadian physicists\nCanadian Unitarians\nDeaths from diabetes\nFellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\nGardiner family\nGeorge Washington University trustees", "Gardiner family\nGeorge Washington University trustees\nHall of Fame for Great Americans inductees\nHistory of telecommunications\nIEEE Edison Medal recipients\nJohn Fritz Medal recipients\nLanguage teachers\nMembers of the American Antiquarian Society\nMembers of the American Philosophical Society\nMembers of the United States National Academy of Sciences\nNational Aviation Hall of Fame inductees\nNational Geographic Society\nOfficers of the Legion of Honour\nPeople educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh", "Officers of the Legion of Honour\nPeople educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh\nPeople from Baddeck, Nova Scotia\nPeople from Brantford\nScientists from Edinburgh\nScientists from Washington, D.C.\nScottish agnostics\nScottish emigrants to Canada\nScottish emigrants to the United States\nScottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees\nScottish eugenicists\nScottish inventors\nScottish physicists\nScottish Unitarians\nSmithsonian Institution people" ]

[ "American Airlines Flight 320 was a scheduled flight between Chicago Midway International Airport and New York City's LaGuardia Airport. On February 3, 1959, the Lockheed L-188 Electra performing the flight crashed into the East River during its descent and approach to LaGuardia Airport, killing 65 of the 73 people on board. Weather conditions in the area were poor, which meant that the crew had to descend through dense clouds and fog", ". The aircraft flew lower than the pilots intended and it crashed into the icy river short of the runway at a speed of . American Airlines had been flying the newly-developed Lockheed Electra in commercial service for only about two weeks before the accident.", "Eyewitnesses to the accident reported that the aircraft was flying significantly lower than was normal for planes approaching the airport, but surviving flight crew members claimed that the aircraft's instruments had told them that the flight was operating at normal, safe altitudes right up to the moment of impact", ". An investigation by the Civil Aeronautics Board concluded that mistakes by the flight crew, the flight crew's inexperience flying the type of aircraft, and poor weather conditions were the causes of the crash. The Air Line Pilots Association contested the conclusion, countering that the crash was caused by faulty instruments and poor weather conditions, not by any mistakes made by the highly experienced flight crew.", "Accident\nAmerican Airlines Flight 320 was a regularly-scheduled flight between Chicago and New York City using one of the company's newly obtained Lockheed L-188 Electra turbine propeller aircraft. The airline had first started flying the new aircraft in commercial service on January 23, 1959, and it offered six daily round-trip flights on its routes between New York and Chicago, with plans to expand to other routes once Lockheed was able to deliver more of the new aircraft.", "On the evening of February 3, 1959, the flight was scheduled to leave Chicago's Midway Airport, but wind-driven snow delayed its departure. The flight was eventually airborne at 9:54p.m. EDT, fifty-four minutes late, and was one of the last flights to depart Chicago that evening before the airport was closed due to the storm. Sixty-eight passengers and five crew members were aboard, and the trip was expected to take one hour and forty-two minutes", ". The flight to the New York City area was uneventful, with the aircraft operating on automatic pilot and cruising at an altitude of .", "At 11:34p.m., the flight approached the New York City area. Air traffic controllers at LaGuardia Airport informed the pilots that the weather conditions at the airport included overcast skies with a ceiling of and a visibility of . The tower controller instructed the flight to proceed to the north of the airport, and to prepare to perform a direct approach over the East River to land on runway 22. At 11:55p.m", ". At 11:55p.m., when the aircraft was from the airport, controllers gave the flight its final landing clearance for runway 22. The flight crew acknowledged the clearance with a simple acknowledgement of \"320\", and there was no further radio communication. Moments later, the aircraft struck the surface of the East River about short of the runway, at a speed of .", "A witness aboard a nearby tugboat reported seeing the aircraft flying very low over the river before it hit the water with a tremendous noise. A different crew member on the tugboat also saw the moment of impact, and stated that he thought that the aircraft had a nose-down angle at the time. A witness in a car approaching the Whitestone Bridge described seeing the aircraft pass overhead at an altitude of only about", ". He did not notice if the landing gear was down but he said he could see the whole underside and the lights in the windows of the aircraft. Surviving passengers and crew members in the main cabin said that the descent prior to the crash seemed to be uneventful and routine. Many residents in the area reported hearing the Electra fly overhead and had the impression that it was flying lower than planes usually did in the area.", "The accident was the first crash involving the Lockheed L-188 Electra aircraft, which had begun commercial service at American Airlines in the previous weeks. It was the first significant accident involving an American Airlines aircraft since the crash of American Airlines Flight 327 on January 6, 1957.", "Aftermath", "A privately-owned tugboat from New England was on the river near the site of the crash when its crew saw and heard the impact. It cut loose the barges that it had been towing and was the first to arrive at the scene, illuminating the area with the boat's searchlight. All eight airplane occupants who had survived the crash were rescued by the crew, including one man who was pulled up from below the surface of the water", ". At least a dozen boats from the Coast Guard and the police and two police helicopters arrived minutes later. In the dark fog, rescuers could hear screams from survivors, but poor visibility and swift river currents made recovery of victims and survivors extremely difficult. Responders and nearby residents in the area heard cries for help from locations considerably distant from the crash site.", "Public safety agencies set up four rescue stations along the river to evacuate survivors, but ambulances that were taking injured survivors to hospitals had difficulty navigating the icy roads. Survivors were taken to Flushing Hospital and Queens General Hospital. Two temporary morgues were also set up on opposite sides of the river to receive victims.", "By 5:00a.m. the next morning, at least 9 survivors had been rescued, 22 bodies had been located, and 39 other victims were still missing when the high winds and driving rain led to the decision to suspend the rescue operation. One of the survivors who had been taken to a hospital died of her injuries. The New York Red Cross furnished supplies of rare blood types to aid the victims of the crash", ". The New York Red Cross furnished supplies of rare blood types to aid the victims of the crash. Bodies that had been recovered were taken to Queens General Hospital for identification with assistance by agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation and 25 city detectives. The agents used fingerprint records from its immigration, personal identification, and war service files to help identify the victims.", "After the impact, the body of the aircraft had broken into several pieces, with a section of the fuselage the largest intact piece. After two hours, only of the tail of the aircraft was visible above the surface of the water. Searchers on boats and on the shore picked up plane debris, personal belongings, and mail that had been aboard.", "In Washington, D.C., the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) dispatched two investigators as soon as authorities became aware of the crash, and ordered the airline's records to be impounded. An additional team of 25 investigators was assembled and dispatched later the next day. The team was given the task of investigating all aspects of the flight, including the weather, flight operations, engines and propellers, flight instruments, and aircraft structures", ". Queens County District Attorney Frank O'Connor also started an inquiry about how the rescue efforts could have been improved, stating that having a system of rescue boats available to serve the city's two airports may have helped. The House Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee asked the head of the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) to report on the accident in a closed session in the days after the accident", ". After the two and a half hour meeting, a special House subcommittee was named to investigate the crash and the overall safety issues raised by the transition to jet and turboprop aircraft.", "Days after the crash, reports surfaced that there were safety systems that could have helped prevent the crash if they had been in place at the airport. A representative of the Air Line Pilots Association said that a system of flashing lights known as the Electronic Flash Approach System could have helped the pilot judge his altitude, if it had been installed", ". The association also called for the installation of a more comprehensive instrument landing system that would have provided altitude and horizontal guidance to flight crews landing on runway 22. The system in place at the time of the accident only provided horizontal guidance, although such a system was already installed for the same runway for aircraft approaching from the opposite direction", ". At the time, there were only two airports in the United States that had such a system installed for approaches on both directions of a runway. At a meeting on February 5, commissioners of the Port of New York Authority explained that the installation of such systems on runway 22 was considered to be very difficult because the approach lighting system would block the waterway used by ships to reach docks in Queens.", "Aircraft\n\nThe aircraft was a Lockheed L-188 Electra turbine propeller aircraft, serial number 1015, registered as tail number N6101A. This was the first Electra delivered to American Airlines. Construction had been completed by the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation on November 27, 1958. At the time of the crash, the aircraft had flown for a total of 302 hours. It was powered by four Allison 501-D13 engines.", "Promoted as an efficient, fast, and profitable aircraft, the Electra was the first turbine propeller aircraft to be produced in the United States. The first plane was delivered to Eastern Air Lines in October1958, who began operating commercial flights with the aircraft on January 1, 1959. American Airlines took delivery of its first Electra in December1958, and its first commercial flight was twelve days before the crash", ". After the crash of American Airlines flight 320, two more Electras crashed in the following months after suffering catastrophic structural failures, killing all of the occupants. Braniff Flight 542 crashed in September1959, and Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 710 crashed in March1960. After extensive research, Lockheed identified and corrected a flaw in the engine mounts which had been the cause of the structural failures of the other two crashes", ". However, the negative publicity surrounding all of the accidents within a short period of time led to the loss of public confidence in the safety of the aircraft, and only 174 were ever produced.", "Passengers and crew", "The flight carried 68 passengers and 5 crew members, all residents of the United States. Of the 68 passengers, 5 survived. The bodies of two of the victims were never recovered. One of the two flight attendants and the captain of the flight died in the crash. One of the crash victims was Beulah Zachary, the executive producer of the television series Kukla, Fran and Ollie, which was broadcast from 1947 to 1957", ". Also aboard the plane was Robert Emerson, a research professor at the University of Illinois who was internationally known for his research into plant photosynthesis, and Herbert Greenwald, a Chicago real estate developer.", "The pilot of the flight, Captain Albert Hunt DeWitt, was 59 years old. He started his career at American Airlines in 1929 by flying for the Thompson Aeronautical Corporation of Cleveland, which was later acquired by American. A resident of Decatur, Michigan, he was qualified to fly all of the aircraft that had been operated by American Airlines and was considered one of the most experienced commercial pilots in the world, with seven million miles flown", ". He had a total of 28,135 hours of flight experience, including 48 hours in the Lockheed Electra and 2,500 hours of instrument time, and had at one time acted as one of American's chief pilots in the New York area. He learned to fly airplanes when he was 24 years old. In 1930, he had been involved in an accident while he was flying a mail plane over Mishawaka, Indiana, on his way to Chicago", ". Caught in a severe snowstorm, his aircraft stalled and entered a spin, but he was able to jump out of his plane before it crashed and he landed in a 75-foot-high tree. Before joining American Airlines, he had been a barnstormer in Indiana and Michigan and had been an instructor for various flying schools and clubs in the 1920s. He served in both World Wars; in World War I, he was a motorcycle courier, and during World War II, he served as an instructor at flight schools in New York and Chicago", ". He had planned to retire that May, but did not survive the crash of Flight 320. His cause of death was listed as drowning, but the medical examiner stated that he had also suffered severe internal injuries that would probably have been fatal had he not drowned.", "The first officer, 33-year-old Frank Hlavacek, was a resident of Wilmette, Illinois, and had been employed with the company for eight years. He had a total of 10,192 logged hours, of which 36 hours were in the Electra. He had been flying since he was 14 years old and had served with the United States Army Air Forces in World War II. Before joining American Airlines, he had owned his own air service based in La Jolla, California", ". Before joining American Airlines, he had owned his own air service based in La Jolla, California. After the crash, he helped two of the survivors reach the remnants of the plane's wing, where they were rescued. He suffered fractures to his jaw, pelvis, and both legs in the crash as well as internal injuries, but eventually recovered and returned to work at American Airlines.", "The flight engineer, Warren Cook, was 36 years old and had been working for American Airlines for eleven years. He had a total of 8,700 flying hours, of which 81 were in the Electra. He served in the United States Army Air Corps from 1940 to 1945. In the accident, he suffered a badly wrenched back, cuts, and bruises. After recovering from his injuries, he returned to work at American Airlines.", "Crash investigation", "Within two hours of the accident, investigators conducted an interview with flight engineer Warren Cook, in which he stated that the flight's descent was completely routine right up to the point where the aircraft unexpectedly hit the water", ". They were unable to immediately interview first officer Frank Hlavacek because of his medical condition, but when interviewed several days later, he told investigators that he had been calling out indicated altitudes to Captain DeWitt during the descent in increments as they approached the runway. He said that he had barely gotten the words out for five hundred feet when the plane struck the river", ". Cook's statement to investigators, taken independently at a separate hospital, confirmed that they struck the river just as Hlavacek was saying \"five hundred feet\".", "Recovery of the wreckage of the aircraft began as soon as weather conditions permitted, with 25 percent of the plane recovered by February 5, and 50 percent by the following day. The day after the crash, salvage cranes attempted to raise the fuselage of the aircraft to the surface of the water, but they were only briefly successful before it broke apart and most of it fell back into the water", ". The tail section was raised by crews on the evening of February 5, and newspaper articles reported that the damage to that section suggested that the aircraft may have crashed in a \"nose up\" position, as though the pilot had noticed at the last minute that he was well short of the runway. Divers were brought in to locate missing sections of the aircraft beneath the surface of the water, but recovery efforts were hindered by high winds, strong river currents, and murky waters", ". Some pieces of the plane had been swept away by currents and had been found as far away as Northport, Long Island, more than away. Each piece was identified, tagged, and cleaned off, and relocated to Hangar 9 of the Marine Air Terminal of LaGuardia Airport. The nose section and cockpit were recovered late on February 7. The cockpit was salvaged in good condition, with the spring-wound clock on the instrument panel still working when the section was recovered from the river", ". Investigators predicted that it would take at least two weeks to check all of the instruments to determine if they were functioning correctly at the time of the accident. Early reports from the investigation revealed that the condition of the flight control surfaces revealed that at the time of impact, the aircraft had not been in a violent turn or dive when it hit the water.", "Altimeter concerns", "On February 9, the FAA announced that flying restrictions would be put in place on bad-weather landings by Lockheed Electra aircraft. The restrictions increased the minimum visibility conditions required for landing in poor conditions. In communications with flight crews, both American Airlines and Eastern Airlines described the restrictions as temporary, likely lasting only a few days", ". Lockheed Aircraft Corporation expressed disappointment in the new restrictions, but agreed to cooperate with the investigation to the fullest extent. The following day, the Agency reversed course, and said that the Electra airliners could resume normal operation if they replaced the new altimeters with old-style altimeters. Both airlines agreed to immediately replace the altimeters as a precautionary step", ". Both airlines agreed to immediately replace the altimeters as a precautionary step. The Agency also extended the order to include the requirement that new-style altimeters that had been installed in Boeing 707 aircraft needed to be replaced.", "The altimeters used in the aircraft had been an early focus of the investigation. The units that Lockheed had used in its Electra turboprops were a different style than what had been used in older piston-type aircraft. The older type used three hands of different lengths to indicate the aircraft's altitude, but the new design combined an analog gauge with graduations indicating hundreds of feet, and a rectangular display with numbers printed on rotating drums that indicated the thousands of feet", ". The Kollsman Instrument Corporation, which built both types, described the new style as a \"precision drum altimeter\" and said that it had been \"developed as a result of a human engineering study made by the Aero Medical Laboratory, by an unnamed government body, and at the instigation of the Air Force, primarily to meet the needs of faster flying.\" The Air Force had reported multiple cases where its pilots had misread the older-style altimeters and had misinterpreted their altitude by 10,000 feet", ". On the other hand, pilots training on newer aircraft reported several instances where they had misread the altitude on the new-style altimeters, causing them to misread the aircraft's altitude by up to 1,000 feet. Because of the confusion, early reports said that the airline had made plans to install an additional third altimeter of the old type in the center of the pilot's panel while continuing to use the newer style altimeters", ". Pilots for Eastern Airlines who had been flying the Electra aircraft also complained about the new style of altimeter, stating that not only were they easy to misinterpret, but they tended to lag behind the older style. That airline had installed a third, old-style, altimeter in their cockpits. American Airlines defended the new style altimeter as \"a new and far superior altimeter with finer gradations\" and denied that it had received complaints with the instruments", ". It acknowledged that it had planned to install a third altimeter in the center of the cockpits, but that the third unit was planned to be a new-style model. At the time of the accident, the aircraft in Flight 320 still only had the two original altimeters.", "An investigative hearing of the CAB began in New York City on March 18, 1959. In testimony before the board, first officer Hlavacek confirmed the information that he had given in his earlier interviews and stated that he and the other crew members had checked their altimeters several times during the flight, including when they passed by Newark, New Jersey, saying that his and the pilot's altimeter were very close", ". He said that at the time of the crash, the pilot had been using the automatic pilot with partial manual control during the approach, and also said that some ice had formed at the top of the windshield, but it had not been considered serious. He said that he had not seen any sign of the runway through the windshield ahead, but that he had caught sight of a few reddish lights flashing past his side windows just before impact", ". The investigative board confronted flight engineer Cook with transcripts of an interview that he had given immediately after the accident, in which he stated that the aircraft's altimeter had shown under one hundred feet at the time of impact, but he had later testified that it showed five hundred feet. Cook stated that at the time, he was in a state of shock and that in his mind he had mistaken the one on the drum to mean one hundred feet instead of one thousand feet", ". He confirmed that he had turned on de-icing equipment before the plane had started its descent, and confirmed that the pilot had been using the automatic pilot to fly the plane during the descent. He said that he had been flying with Captain Dewitt since 1951, that he knew him well, and that it was the pilot's custom to use the automatic pilot to descend until about 400 feet above the runway, at which point he would switch to manual control", ". He also testified that he had seen nothing but blackness through the windshield up to the time of the crash.", "Accident investigators took the altimeters that were recovered from the crash to the instrument shop at La Guardia Airport for a detailed examination. On February 26, an article in the Chicago Tribune reported that after the altimeters had been cleaned of corrosion, water, and dirt, they had been tested in a pressure chamber. According to the article, both of the devices functioned normally down to 1,000 feet above ground pressure level, but below 1,000 feet they stuck or lagged considerably", ". However, in official testimony before the board, the manufacturer of the altimeters submitted a report to the board that said that their investigation concluded that the instruments did not have any mechanical failure or malfunction before the crash. When they had been salvaged from the water, the pilot's and co-pilot's instruments had indicated minus 1,500 feet and minus 1,640 feet respectively, reflecting damage to parts of the instruments caused by immersion pressure", ". When questioned, the investigator acknowledged that there was no means to determine what the altimeters showed at the time of impact. In testimony before the CAB, the American Airlines's director of flying said that the identical malfunction of two altimeters at the same time was \"almost mathematically impossible\"", ". The CAB heard from experts from the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation who had attempted to reproduce a 500-foot error in the reported altitude caused by ice buildup in the air pressure lines that provide the input data to the altimeters. They flew an Electra plane behind an Air Force tanker that was spraying ice-producing water to see if they could cause the pressure line to clog", ". In other tests, they artificially plugged the line, used different tools to disrupt the airflow into the port, and even had a mechanic spray a stream of water directly into the pressure port. None of the tests produced the 500-foot error that was reported by the pilots, and produced a maximum error of only of 40 or 50 feet.", "In trying to determine why the crew of the Electra had not seen the runway ahead of them, the CAB heard from two pilots of a Northeast Airlines DC-3 that had landed at La Guardia Airport a minute or two in front of the Electra. They testified that they had had no problem coming in under the 400-foot cloud ceiling and that they could see the whole mile-long runway ahead of them", ". However, interviews with crash survivors and crew members of the rescue tug suggested that an isolated patch of low clouds and fog was hanging over the river at the time of the crash.", "Final report", "The CAB released a final report on the accident on January 10, 1960. The investigators concluded that the crew had been preoccupied with aspects of the flight and had neglected to monitor essential flight instruments during the descent, leading to a premature descent below landing minimums", ". Contributing to the accident were factors including the crew's limited experience with the aircraft type, a faulty approach technique in which the autopilot was used to or almost to the surface, an erroneous setting of the pilot's altimeter, marginal weather in the approach area, possible misinterpretation of the altimeter and the rate of descent indicators on the aircraft, and the crew's sensory illusion with respect to height and altitude resulting from a lack of visual references", ". The board was critical of the airline's lack of adequate simulator training on the aircraft before placing it into passenger service, and made recommendations to the FAA that all large turbine-engine aircraft used in air transportation be equipped with a flight data recorder.", "Over 90 percent of the primary structural components of the aircraft and most of the system's components were recovered by investigators. They found that at the moment of impact, the flaps were approximately in the approach position, the landing gear was extended, and propeller blade angles were relatively uniform and consistent with the power readings obtained from the recovered aircraft instruments and consistent with the testimony of the crew regarding the power being used during the approach", ". Neither of the two vertical speed indicator mechanisms were recovered. Both altimeters were recovered, but since the diaphragms of both had been overstressed due to submersion, it was impossible to establish the calibration or accuracy of either altimeter before the crash.", "Investigators obtained all of the maintenance records including pilot complaints of all operators, civil and military, of the type of altimeter used in the flight", ". None of the reported incidents involved more than one of the altimeters installed at a time, and after reviewing the possibility of a simultaneous failure of both altimeters, the CAB concluded that it would involve such an extreme mathematical improbability that it chose to reject that theory as well as reject portions of the testimony of the surviving crew members", ". It also concluded that after consideration of all possible scenarios, that a failure of just one of the altimeters was also unlikely to have occurred. Based upon eyewitness testimony and analysis of the point of impact, the CAB concluded that it was likely that one or more of the pilots had misread the altimeter due to their unfamiliarity with the new style", ". It also concluded that there was a possibility that the crew had misread the vertical speed indicators, which also used a different scale than what had been used in older aircraft or in the training received by the captain.", "The CAB concluded that all of the required airport, boundary, and runway lights were on and functioning at the time of the accident. However, because the lights were slanted upward at between three and five degrees, and because of a dike located between the end of runway 22 and the water, the CAB concluded that they would not have been visible to the crew because of the aircraft's premature descent below the cloud level.", "The CAB's conclusions were soundly criticized by the president of the Air Line Pilots Association, who called the report \"grossly inaccurate in a number of respects\", and that the report failed to satisfactorily explain the reason for the accident and assumed factors that had not been established by fact", ". He said that pilots at American Airlines were united in protest against the report, saying it \"slandered and wrongfully accused\" crew members of the plane, and was aimed at \"conveniently writing the accident off the books\" rather than accurately determining a cause. He said that in the association's judgement, the crash was the result of marginal weather conditions and inadequate approach and lighting aids at the airport", ". First officer Frank Hlavacek said he was \"furious\" over the CAB report, saying the board tried to take the easy way out by blaming a dead captain. He said he hoped that American Airlines would protest the report.", "Additional investigations", "On February 6, 1959, a special House subcommittee was named to investigate the crash and overall safety issues that the aviation industry was experiencing while transitioning from piston aircraft to jet and turboprop aircraft. The subcommittee was headed by Representative John Bell Williams of Mississippi, a former World War II bomber pilot", ". Representative Oren Harris of Arkansas said the subcommittee would look into the equipment that was being used on the new aircraft as well as the training of their crews. The five members of the subcommittee visited LaGuardia Field on February 12, and inspected the runway where Flight 320 had been trying to reach, but refused to publicly discuss the results of their investigation", ". In March, the committee announced that it was investigating the FAA for suppressing information that the committee had requested about the difficulties that had been encountered with the new type of altimeters used in the Lockheed Electra and Boeing 707 aircraft.", "During hearings of the aviation subcommittee of the Senate Commerce Committee in January1960, the safety director for the CAB testified that had the LaGuardia runway been equipped with high intensity lights, \"the accident probably would not have happened\". He also advocated for more training of copilots of aircraft and the installation of electronic flight recorders in aircraft to assist with accident investigations", ". As a result of the testimony, three of the senators on the subcommittee called for the installation of modern lighting systems at Chicago's Midway Airport and other landing fields, and the implementation of requirements that copilots be certified on the aircraft they fly", ". Elwood Richard Quesada, administrator of the FAA, testified that the government had pledged to pay 75 percent of the cost to install high intensity lighting and radar approaches at La Guardia prior to the accident, but that officials at the airport had declined to pay the 25 percent required for local cooperation.", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nAirliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error\nAviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 1959\nAviation accidents and incidents involving controlled flight into terrain\nFebruary 1959 events in the United States\n1959 in New York City\n320\nAccidents and incidents involving the Lockheed L-188 Electra\nAirliner accidents and incidents in New York City\nLaGuardia Airport" ]

[ "Sportforum Hohenschönhausen is a multi-purpose sports complex in the locality of Alt-Hohenschönhausen of the borough of Lichtenberg in Berlin. The Sportforum was named Dynamo-Sportforum during the East German era.\n\nSportforum Hohenschönhausen covers an area between 45 and 50 hectares, and comprises 35 sports facilities, including three ice rinks, two athletics halls, a football stadium, as well as eight other halls and open spaces for various sports.", "Development of the Dynamo-Sportforum began in 1954. The original building ensemble, including the Dynamo-Sporthalle, which was built in individual sections from 1955, based on designs by an architectural collective led by Walter Schmidt, is a protected building of cultural heritage. Expansion of the Sportforum continued into the 1980s. The complex is the second largest sports complex in Berlin after the Olympiapark.", "The Dynamo-Sportforum was a training center where top athletes and future Olympic medalists trained during the East German era. It was the headquarter of sports association SV Dynamo and home to sports club SC Dynamo Berlin. The Olympic Training Center Berlin (OSP Berlin) is now the main user of the facilities. Around 20 sports clubs are also based in the Sportforum and more than 3,000 athletes use the facilities every day.", "Location\nThe Sportforum Hohenschönhausen is located in the western part of the locality of Alt-Hohenschönhausen of the borough of Lichtenberg in Berlin. It is bordered on the north by an industrial area (on which, among other establishments, the Berliner-Kindl-Schultheiss-Brauerei is located), on the east by the St. Andrew and St. Mark's Cemetery (), on the south by the Konrad-Wolf-Straße and on the west by the Weißenseer Weg.", "Facilities\nThe Sportforum Hohenschönhausen covers an area between 45 and 50 hectares, and comprises 35 sports facilities, including three ice rinks, two athletics halls, a football stadium, as well as eight other halls and open spaces for athletics, swimming, handball, volleyball, judo, fencing, archery, beach volleyball and football. The Sportforum is the second largest sports complex in Berlin after the Olympiapark.", "The history of the Dynamo-Sportforum began in 1952.The Magistrate of East Berlin donated part of the area that is now the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen to the Volkspolizei in 1952. The Volkspolizei then built a large football facility for their athletes on the site. At this time, the sports complex only extended up to the Steffenstraße, opposite today's Sandinostraße. Steffenstraße has since been integrated into the sports complex.", "The Ministry of the State Secuity decided in 1953 to create a large sports complex on area. The sports association SV Dynamo was also officially founded the same year. SV Dynamo was a sports association of the Ministerium of the Interior (MdI) and the Ministry of State Security (MfS).", "Development of the Dynamo-Sportforum began in 1954. The original building ensemble was built in individual sections from 1955, based on designs by an architectural collective led by Walter Schmidt. The architectural collective had emerged as the winner of an architectural competition held in 1953. The construction was carried out by the state-owned company VEB Industriebau Berlin for the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry for State Security of East Germany", ". The Sportforum was expanded according to requirements by the adding of additional facilities and expansion continued into the 1980s.", "The original building ensemble built from 1955 to 1959 is now a protected building of cultural importance. The facilities includes artworks such as mosaic artwork by Wolfgang Frankenstein in the foyer of the Dynamo-Sporthalle and the swimming hall, the copper artwork \"Sport-Fries\" by Wolfgang Frankenstein on the facade of the athletics hall towards the Konrad-Wolf-Straße and the two sculptures \"Seated Swimmers\" () by Gustav Weidanz and \"Standing Swimmers\" () by Waldemar Grzimek at the outdoor swimming pool", ".", "Use of the site\nThe Dynamo-Sportforum was built as a training center for elite sport. It was used by top athletes and future Olympic medalists of East Germany. \n\nThe sports club SC Dynamo Berlin, with its many sports, disciplines and squads, was the main user of sports forum for decades. The Central Management Office () (BdZL) of SV Dynamo also had its offices in the Dynamo-Sportforum.", "The Olympic Training Center Berlin (OSP Berlin) has used the Sportform since the beginning of the 1990s and is now the main user of the facilities. The former sports medicine building of SV Dynamo in the Sportforum has been the headquarters of the OSP Berlin since 1992. More than 300 national team athletes regularly train in the facility. The OSP Berlin is the largest Olympic training center in Germany.", "The Sportforum is also home to eleven state training centres with around 800 state team athletes, the location for the School and High-Performance Sports Center Berlin (SLZB), the \"House of Athletes\" with around 200 rooms to rent, and the Institute for Sports Science of the Humboldt University of Berlin, with approximately 500 students.", "The SLZB sports school in the Sportforum holds a special position in world sports. There is no other school in the world with as many Olympic medals or participation in Olympic Games, World and European championship titles as well as School World Championships as the SZLB. The SLZB was known as the elite Children and Youth Sports School (KJS) ”Werner Seelenbinder” during the East German era.", "Around 20 sports clubs as based in the Sportforum and more than 3,000 athletes use the facilities every day. The main users among the sports clubs based in the Sportforum are SC Berlin, Berliner TSC, BFC Dynamo, Eisbären Berlin junior teams and Alba Berlin junior teams. Other users are Füchse Berlin, SSG Humboldt zu Berlin, SC Charlottenburg and SV Preußen Berlin.\n\nIce sports arenas", "Ice sports arenas\n\nThe Wellblechpalast opened on the sports complex in 1963. It was the home arena of the ice hockey department of SC Dynamo Berlin, and served as the home arena of its continuation, the Eisbären Berlin, until 2008. The arena has a seating capacity for 4,695 people. The arena is still used as a training facility by the professional team of Eisbären Berlin and is the home arena of the youth teams of Eisbären Berlin.", "A 400 m speed skating indoor arena opened on 17 November 1986, and was the first covered speed skating oval in the world, one day prior to Thialf in Heerenveen which hosted the World Allround Speed Skating Championships for Men later that season.", "Speed skating track records\n500 m (m): 34.85; Jeremy Wotherspoon, 14 March 2003\n500 m (w): 37.52; Jenny Wolf, 6 November 2009\n1000 m (m): 1:08.53; Shani Davis, 6 November 2009\n1000 m (w): 1:15.04; Christine Nesbitt, 11 March 2012\n1500 m (m): 1:44.47; Shani Davis, 8 November 2009\n1500 m (w): 1:54:88; Jorien ter Mors, 8 December 2013\n3000 m (m): 3:46.17; Håvard Bøkko, 25 October 2008\n3000 m (w): 4:00.75; Martina Sáblíková, 6 November 2009\n5000 m (m): 6:09.76; Sven Kramer, 17 November 2006", "5000 m (m): 6:09.76; Sven Kramer, 17 November 2006\n5000 m (w): 6:59.26; Martina Sáblíková, 10 February 2008\n10000 m (m): 13:09.06; Sven Kramer, 10 February 2008\nTeam pursuit (m): 3:40.79; Netherlands, 19 November 2006\nTeam pursuit (w): 3:01.03; Canada, 11 March 2012", "Football stadium", "Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum in the East German era (1954–1989)", "A sports field on the site of the football stadium existed already in the 1920s. The sports field was known as the Sportplatz Steffenstraße. The East German Ministry of State Security decided in 1953 to create a large sports complext at the area. The current stadium was then built in 1954, after the sports field was converted into a stadium by raising the ground along both long sides for stands. The stadium was built with the help of the National Construction Work () (NAW) (de).", "SC Dynamo Berlin played the 1954–55 season at the Walter-Ulbricht-Stadion in Mitte. The team moved its home matches to the football stadium in the Dynamo-Sportforum for the short transitional 1955 season. The stadium was also called Stadion Steffenstraße at this time. The capacity of the stadium was 8,000 spectators during the 1955 season", ". The capacity of the stadium was 8,000 spectators during the 1955 season. SC Dynamo Berlin functionary Günther Purrmann praised the Dynamo-Sportforum, as it offered all facilities for training, such as good changing rooms, a small canteen and a bright room for theory lessions. But above all, the football stadium offered better contact with the crowd, compared to the very large Walter-Ulbricht-Stadion. Nevertheless, SC Dynamo Berlin returned to the Walter-Ulbricht-Stadion for the 1956 season.", "SC Dynamo Berlin moved permanently to the Dynamo-Sportforum after the construction of the Berlin wall began on 13 August 1961. The team played its first match at the football stadium in the Dynamo-Sportforum during the 1961–62 season against BSG Motor Zwickau on the 16th matchday of the 1961-62 DDR-Oberliga on 13 September 1961. The stadium had been expanded since the 1955 season and had a capacity of 10,000 spectators at the start of the 1961–62 season.", "The Dynamo-Sportforum was still on the outskirts of Berlin in the early 1960s. The sports complex was surrounded by thousands of small gardens. Hohenschönhausen was primarily known as an excursion destination among Berliners. There was only one tram connection to the Dynamo-Sportforum and the transport options to the stadium had been poor during the 1955 season", ". The Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum was now freshly spruced up for the first match of SC Dynamo Berlin at the stadium at the start of the 1961–62 season. The stadium was repainted and flowers were planted all around. Transport connections to the stadium would now also be improved. Special shuttle buses were arranged from the S-Bahn stations Leninallee and Stalinallee, as well as from Antonplatz.", "The stadium was gradually expanded during the 1960s. The capacity was 10,000 spectators at the start of the 1965–66 season. The northern end towards the ice hockey arena, which was still open, was closed with a relatively flat earth embankment, except for the entrance, in the autumn of 1965. The capacity of the stadium thus increased to 12,000 spectators. The capacity was then further expanded to 14,000 spectators in 1968", ". The capacity was then further expanded to 14,000 spectators in 1968. The stadium had a total capacity of 14,000 spectators at the start of the 1969-70 sesaon, of which 5,000 were seated and 9,000 standing. The clubhouse of BFC Dynamo, the \"BFC-Casino\", was then opened in the Dynamo-Sportforum in August 1969.", "The team drew average attendances between 3,000 and 6,000 spectators in the DDR-Oberliga at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum in the 1960s. The highlights were matches against local rivals ASK Vorvärts Berlin, as well as matches against the various top teams during the period, such as SC Empor Rostock, SC Motor Jena and SC Leipzig. In the late 1960s, the matches against local rival 1. FC Union Berlin drew the largest crowds", ". In the late 1960s, the matches against local rival 1. FC Union Berlin drew the largest crowds. SC Dynamo Berlin drew 10,000 spectators to its match against SC Empor Rostock in on 25 March 1962, 9,000 spectators to its match against SC Motor Jena on 9 August 1964 and 10,000 spectators to its match against SC Leipzig on 18 September 1965. BFC Dynamo then drew 12,000 spectators to its match against FC Vorwärts Berlin on 26 February 1966 and a whole 13,500 spectators to its match against 1", ". FC Union Berlin on 3 May 1969.", "BFC Dynamo began playing occasional matches that required floodlights at the larger Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in Prenzlauer Berg from November 1968. The Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark was the home ground of FC Vorwärts Berlin at the time. However, the stadium became vacant when FC Vorwärts Berlin was relocated to Frankfurt an der Oder on 31 August 1971", ". BFC Dynamo played its home matches in the 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup and two home matches in the 1971-72 DDR-Oberliga at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark during the 1971–72 season. However, more matches at the stadium were not possible after the summer of 1972, as the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark was then undergoing extensive renovation for the upcoming 10th World Festival of Youth and Students.", "BFC Dynamo finished the 1971-72 DDR-Oberliga as runners-up and qualified for the 1972-73 UEFA Cup. However, neither the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark nor the Walter-Ulbricht-Stadion were available for the upcoming UEFA Cup matches. Both were undergoing extensive renovation for the 10th World Festival of Youth and Students. Instead, the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum underwent a complete transformation in just five weeks between the end of July 1972 and September 1972", ". The flat terraces on the side opposite the main stand and on the two curved ends were substantially raised, the exit in the curved end towards the Weißenseer Weg was closed and the old office building at the main stand was demolished. A new 500-seat grandstand and a more spacious 35-metre office building were built at the main stand. Bleechers made of steel pipes were also built on the embankment at the main stand. All these measures increased the capacity to 20,000 spectators, of which 7,500 were seated", ". All these measures increased the capacity to 20,000 spectators, of which 7,500 were seated. A total of 6,000 cubic meters of soil was moved for the transformation of the stadium. The current grandstand and office building at the main stand dates from this time.", "BFC Dynamo played all four home matches in the 1972-73 UEFA Cup at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum. The match against Liverpool F.C. in the Round of 16 on 29 November 1972 was attended by 20,000 spectators. The attendance is still a record attendance for the stadium. BFC Dynamo then remained at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum for a couple more seasons. The surroundings around Dynamo-Sportform had now changed dramatically", ". The surroundings around Dynamo-Sportform had now changed dramatically. The ruling Socialist Unity Party (SED) had decided on an housing construction program at the 8th Party Congress in 1971. The construction of the huge residential area Fennpfuhl, which was the first new large building project of its kind, started in the immediate vicinity of the Dynamo-Sportforum at the end of 1972. The Dynamo-Sportforum was soon surrounded by ten-storey prefabricated buildings", ". The Dynamo-Sportforum was soon surrounded by ten-storey prefabricated buildings. Thousands of people now lived in the vicinity of the stadium.", "The number of spectators for BFC Dynamo at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum increased in the 1970s. BFC Dynamo drew 14,000 spectators to its match against 1. FC Union Berlin on 26 December 1971, 15,000 spectators to its match against 1. FC Union Berlin on 30 September 1972 and 15,000 spectators to its match against SG Dynamo Dresden on 19 May 1973. An average of 12,000 people attended the last six matches of BFC Dynamo at the stadium in the second half of the 1973–74 season", ". A whole 19,000 spectators watched the match between BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Magdeburg at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum on 8 March 1975.", "BFC Dynamo eventually moved its home matches to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark for the 1975–76 season, due to upcoming repair work at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum. The move was meant to be temporary, but eventually became permanent. The repair work continued also during the 1976–77 season. The Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum would rarely be used for larger matches from then. The stadium would mainly be used by the reserve team BFC Dynamo II", ". The stadium would mainly be used by the reserve team BFC Dynamo II. BFC Dynamo II had played in the second tier DDR-Liga since the 1968–69 season. The team was transferred to the Next Generation Oberliga () (de) after the 1975–76 season, but returned to the DDR-Liga in the 1984–85 season under coach Werner Voigt.", "The capacity of the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum was reduced to 15,000 spectators in 1985. BFC Dynamo returned to the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum for the 1986–87 season, as the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportspark was going to be completely redeveloped during the season for the 750th anniversary of Berlin. The steel pipe bleechers on the embankment at the main stand had long since disappeared and had not been rebuilt", ". BFC Dynamo played its 1986-87 European Cup matches against Örgryte IS and Brøndby IF at the stadium. The match against Örgryte IS in the First round on 1 October 1986 was attended by 15,000 spectators at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum. BFC Dynamo then returned to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark for the 1987–88 season.", "The contemporary stadium (1990–present)", "BFC Dynamo was renamed FC Berlin on 19 February 1990. The team moved its home matches to the Stadion im Sportforum during the summer of 1990. FC Berlin played its home matches in the 1990 Intertoto Cup and its first four home matches in the 1990-91 NOFV-Oberliga at the Stadion im Sportforum", ". However, following the death of 18-year-old FC Berlin supporter Mike Polley in a riot in Leutzsch during the away match against FC Sachsen Leipzig on 3 November 1990, the team returned to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark, as the larger Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark could be more easily controlled by the police", ". FC Berlin played its match against SC Freiburg in the first round of the 1991-92 DFB-Pokal 27 July 1991 at the Stadion im Sportforum, but would remain at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in the first seasons of the 1990s. However, after two unsuccessful attempts to win promotion to 2. Bundesliga, FC Berlin eventually returned permanently to the Stadion im Sportforum at the beginning of the 1992–93 season. The team would play in the Sportforum Hohenschönhasen for many seasons to come", ". The team would play in the Sportforum Hohenschönhasen for many seasons to come. The Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark would then rarely be used by the club in the remaining seasons of the 1990s.", "The capacity of the Stadion im Sportforum had been reduced to about 12,000 spectators by 1992. The team drew just a couple of hundred spectators on average per match Stadion im Sportforum in the 1990s. The highlights were the matches against 1. FC Union Berlin. FC Berlin drew 2,338 spectators to its match against 1. FC Union Berlin on 24 September 1994 and 2,170 spectators to its match against 1. FC Union Berlin 21 October 1995", ". FC Union Berlin 21 October 1995. FC Berlin under Club President Volkmar Wanski announced plans in April 1998 to buy and modernize the stadium. The plans included the construction of a new covered grandstand and a floodlight system. However, the plans eventually failed due to lack of funds.", "The team saw slightly rising attendance figures at the Stadion im Sportforum at the end of the 1990s. Active supporters of BFC Dynamo were traditionally found at the northern curved end, popularly known as the \"Nordwall\" stand. BFC Dynamo drew 4,220 spectators to its match against 1. FC Union Berlin on 23 November 1999 and then a whole 8,258 spectators to its match against 1. FC Magdeburg in the play-offs for the Regionalliga Nord on 27 May 2001", ". FC Magdeburg in the play-offs for the Regionalliga Nord on 27 May 2001. The average attendance for BFC Dynamo in the successful 2000–01 season at the Stadion im Sportforum was the highest since 1990–91 season. However, BFC Dynamo suffered a financial crash after the 2000–01 season. Insolvency proceedings were opened against the club on 1 November 2001.", "Supporters of BFC Dynamo installed new bucket seats on the main stand and built a new clubhouse next to the main stand in 2002–2003. The bucket seats had been left over from the demolition of the swimming stadium in the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen. The Stadion in Sportforum was then equipped with a 25-metre player tunnel and plexiglass-clad coaching benches in November 2004", ". BFC Dynamo under Club President Mario Weinkauf announced plans in April 2006 to build a new modern stadium for 10,000–15,000 spectators in the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen. However, these plans did not materialize either.", "BFC Dynamo drew 6,647 spectators to the derby against 1. FC Union Berlin at the Stadion im Sportforum on 13 May 2006. The match was abandoned in the second half, when supporters of BFC Dynomo invaded the pitch to storm the away section. As a result of the riots, the stadium was closed for matches in the NOFV-Oberliga Nord at the end of the 2005–06 season. BFC Dynamo thus temporarily had to move to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark", ". BFC Dynamo thus temporarily had to move to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The Stadion in Sportforum was then refurbised during the first half of the 2006–07 season to increase safety. The stadium was not allowed to open until certain requirements from the NOFV had been met. The refurbisment would include a new fence. BFC Dynamo returned to the Stadion im Sportforum in the match against SV Germania Schöneiche in the 2006-07 NOFV-Oberliga Nord on 11 November 2006", ". The main stand was now secured by a modern fence, but the side opposite the main stand () still remained closed at the time. The team would then have to play two more matches at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in March 2007, in the league matches against Tennis Borussia Berlin on 17 May 2007 and MSV Neuruppin on 31 March 2007.", "BFC Dynamo won promotion to the Regionalliga Nordost at the end of the 2013–14 season. The team moved permanently to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark for the 2014–15 season, due to increased media and spectator interest following its promotion. The 2014-15 Regionalliga Nordost meant matches against well-known opponents such as 1. FC Magdeburg and FC Carl Zeiss Jena. The more central location of the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark was seen by the club as an opportunity to attract more spectators", ". However, BFC Dynamo continued to play occasional minor matches at the Stadion im Sportforum, such as minor matches in the Berlin Cup and friendly matches. BFC Dynamo then returned to play two home matches in the Regionalliga Nordost at the Stadion im Sportforum at the end of the 2018–19 season, due to safety issues at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The deteriorating state of the floodlights at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark, had resulted in a temporary closure of the stadium", ". The move to the Stadion im Sportforum was greeted by some supporters of BFC Dynamo as a move to the true home of the club.", "BFC Dynamo remained at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark for another season. The large stadium in the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark was then planned to be demolished in the autumn of 2020 for a complete redevelopment. However, the demolition was eventually postponed and the operating permit for the stadium was extended until 31 December 2020. BFC Dynamo could therefore continue to play at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark during the first half of the 2020–21 season", ". The 2020-21 Regionalliga Nordost was eventually suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. BFC Dynamo finally officially announced on 21 March 2021 that the club was going to move back to the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen for the next season.", "The Stadion im Sportforum was equipped with a floodlight system in April 2021. The floodlight system installed was the mobile floodlight system that had previously been used at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark as a replacement for the old floodlight system that had been shut down due to its poor structural and technical condition. The mobile floodlight system was no longer needed at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark at the time, as the operating permit for the large stadium had expired", ". A floodlight system was needed in order for the Stadion im Sportform to meet the requirements from the German Football Association (DFB) for matches in the Regionalliga Nordost.", "The Stadion im Sportforum has a total capacity of around 12,000. However, the capacity is currently reduced to about 7,800, as of April 2023. The stadium has a seating area on the main stand. The seating capacity is around 2,000 seats, of which 400 are roofed. The stands on the opposite side of the main stand and at the two curved ends are standing areas. Away supporters are located on the southern curved end towards the Weißenseer Weg", ". Away supporters are located on the southern curved end towards the Weißenseer Weg. The terraces on the stand opposite the main stand and at the two curved ends are filled with gravel and equipped with crush barriers. The stadium has an old manual scoreboard above the southern curved end towards the Weißenseer Weg. BFC Dynamo organized a work effort in the summer of 2021 to get the stadium in shape for the 2021–22 season. Supporters gathered and cleared sections of the old stadium from weeds", ". Supporters gathered and cleared sections of the old stadium from weeds. Members of the interest group IG BFC'er also restored the iconic manual scoreboard in time for the first home match of 2021-22 Regionalliga Nordost.", "BFC Dynamo played its first home match at the Stadion im Sportforum in the 2021-22 Regionalliga Nordost against FC Energie Cottbus on 28 July 2021. The match was attended by 2,000 spectators. BFC Dynamo then played its match against VfB Stuttgart in the first round of the 2021-22 DFB-Pokal at the Stadion im Sportforum on 7 August 2021. It was the first match in the DFB-Pokal at the Stadion im Sportforum since FC Berlin played SC Freiburg at the stadium in the 1991-92 DFB-Pokal on 27 July 1991", ". The stadium was initially only allowed to admit 2,000 spectators for the match, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the day before the match, BFC Dynamo was allowed to sell an additional 1,000 tickets. The match was eventually attended by 2,631 spectators.", "The attendance for BFC Dynamo at the Stadion im Sportforum in the 2021-22 Regionalliga Nordost was almost tripled compared to the last comparable league season before the COVID-19 pandemic. The match between BFC Dynamo and FC Carl Zeiss Jena on 10 April 2022 was attended by 3,219 spectators. BFC Dynamo had great success in the 2021-22 Regionalliga Nordost and reached the play-offs for the 3. Liga. The first match of the play-offs was played at the Stadion im Sportforum", ". Liga. The first match of the play-offs was played at the Stadion im Sportforum. The stadium was allowed to admit 5,000 spectators for the match. 4,420 spectators watched the first match of the play-offs for the 3.Liga between BFC Dynamo and VfB Oldenburg at the Stadion im Sportforum on 28 May 2022.", "Panorama\n\nThe future of the football stadium\nThe Stadion im Sportforum does not meet the requirements of the German Football Association (DFB) for play in the 3. Liga. Among other things, the stadium lacks enough seats, under-soil heating and a sufficiently powerful floodlight system.", "The Sportforum Hohenschönhausen is planned for a complete redevelopment, which will be carried out in several stages. However, the current football stadium is not included in the plan. The redeveloped Sportforum Hohenschönhausen will be organized around a central facility called \"Forum Park\". The Forum Park will be located exactly where the current football stadium is now located. The current stadium is thus planned to be demolished. Also the current clubhouse would have to make way for the Forum Park", ". Also the current clubhouse would have to make way for the Forum Park. However, a new, much smaller football stadium is planned to be built on the edge of the sports complex, towards the Konrad-Wolf-Straße. The new smaller stadium was originally planned to hold only 1,000-1,500 spectators.", "The Sportforum Hohenschönhausen is considered the spiritual home of BFC Dynamo. The sports complex is the location of the club offices and the clubhouse, which serves as a meeting point for supporters and parents. About 24 youth teams of BFC Dynamo, aged from U9 to U19, train regularly at the sports complex. Youth matches takes place in the Sportforum Hohenscönhausen at the weekends. The Stadion im Sportforum stands as the center of club life", ". The Stadion im Sportforum stands as the center of club life. Supporters of BFC Dynamo started a petition in February 2022 for the Stadion im Sportforum to be included in the plans for the redevelopment of the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen and for the preservation of the stadium as the center of the sports complex. The petition reached 8,000 signatures by March 2022.", "BFC Dynamo stood at first place in the 2021-22 Regionalliga Nordost during the second half of the season and promotion to the 3. Liga was a possibility. The question arose where the team would play its matches in the event of a promotion to the 3. Liga. Discussions began with the Senate of Berlin about whether the Stadion im Sportforum could be adapted to 3. Liga requirements. However, the Senate administration announced that there will not be a 3. Liga-stadium in Lichtenberg", ". Liga-stadium in Lichtenberg. BFC Dynamo initially received some support from the The Left faction in the borought of Lichtenberg for a 3. Liga stadium in Lichtenberg. However, The Left emphasized that the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen was a matter for the state of Berlin.", "Members of the District council in Lichenberg also asked the Senate of Berlin whether and how the Stadion im Sportforum Sportforum Berlin could be adapted to 3. Liga requirements, so that BFC Dynamo could represent Hohenschönhausen and the city of Berlin in the 3. Liga. The club eventually received support from CDU politician Martin Pätzold, who represents Lichtenberg in the Berlin House of Representatives. Pätzold raised the question of a 3", ". Pätzold raised the question of a 3. Liga stadium in Sportforum Hohenschönhausen in the Berlin House of Representatives.", "The CDU in Lichtenberg also started a survey to ask whether respondents were in favor of BFC Dynamo getting a 3. Liga-stadium in Sportforum Hohenschöhausen.", "BFC Dynamo eventually failed in the 2021-22 promotion play-offs for the 3. Liga, but the question of the possibility for the team to continue playing its home matches in the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen is still relevant. The supporters of BFC Dynamo has regularly displayed a banner saying \"Sportforum stays\" (). The club eventually received support from also CDU politician Kai Wegner, who was then the opposition leader in the state of Berlin", ". Wegner visited the club in the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen, together with Martin Pätzold. Pätzold arranged round table talks about the future of the football stadium at the end August 2022. The Sports policy spokesman for the parties SPD, CDU, the Greens and FDP, and the State Secretary for Sport, Nicola Böcker-Giannini participated.", "The round table talks did not bring any results for the club. The governing coalition of the SPD, the Greens and The Left wanted to proceed with the current plan for the redevelopment. However, the capacity of the new football stadium, which is planned on the edge of the sports complex, would now be somewhere between 3,000 and 4,000 spectators. However, this capacity is only sufficient for play in the Regionalliga Nordost", ". However, this capacity is only sufficient for play in the Regionalliga Nordost. BFC Dynamo calculates that it would cost between 4,8 and 10 million Euros to adapt the Stadion im Sportforum to the 3. Liga requirements. The club is prepared to cover nearly 1 million Euros itself.", "A repeat election was held in Berlin on 12 February 2023. Kai Wegner was the top-candidate of the CDU in the election. The CDU eventually won the election and became the biggest party in the state of Berlin for the first time since 1999. Martin Pätzold was re-elected to the Berlin House of Representatives as a direct representative in one of constituencies of Lichtenberg. The CDU also became the biggest party in the Lichtenberg District council", ". The CDU also became the biggest party in the Lichtenberg District council. In an interview with Berliner Woche in February 2023, Pätzold talked about the issues for the CDU in Lichtenberg. Pätzold stated that one of the goals must be to give BFC Dynamo a future in the borough by building a stadium suitable for the third tier in Sportforum Hohenschönhausen.", "A new coalition between the CDU and the SPD was formed in Berlin after the repeat election. The new coalition presented its coalition agreement on 3 April 2023. The coalition plans to adapt the Stadion im Sportforum to the requirements for the 3. Liga, according to the agreement. A total of four million Euros is now planned to be invested in the stadium.", "Dynamo-Sporthalle", "The Dynamo-Sporthalle is an indoor sports hall with a capacity of 2,000 to 4,000 spectators located on the Weißenseer Weg. The sports hall was built from 1955 and 1958. It was inaugurated in presence of SED First Secretary Walter Ulbricht, SV Dynamo President Erich Mielke and sprinter Christa Stubnick, among others, on 25 January 1958", ". It measures 47 meters in width, 65 meters in length and 15 meters in height inside, and thus allows several sports such as athletics, handball, boxing, judo, basketball and gymnastics. The Dynamo-Sporthalle is still in operation and is used for various smaller events.", "The Dynamo-Sporthalle was also used for congresses and political mass meetings during the East German era, such as the first Women's congress of the Democratic Women's League of Germany (DFD) on 25 June 1964. The Dynamo-Sporthalle was also the location for the special party congresses of the Socialist Unity Party (SED) on 8-9 and 16–17 December 1989, when the party decided to rename itself SED-PDS.", "Sporthotel and Congress center\nThe Sporthotel and Congress center () was built to serve the athletes training at the Sportforum and to complement the Sportforum. The facility contained a hotel with 200 beds, a congress center and a restaurant. The Sporthotel and Congress center is located at the south-western end of the Sportforum (in the corner between Weißenseer Weg and Konrad-Wolf-Straße).", "The Dynamo-Sporthotel was built from 1960 to 1962 as a hotel in three storeys with an attached restaurant. The facility was then significantly expanded in the late 1970s with a congress center in two to three storeys.", "The Sporthotel and Congress center was made a showcase complex for East German sports. It was used by athletes such as Franziska van Almsick and Claudia Pechstein of SC Dynamo Berlin. However, the facility became vacant in the 1990s and eventually fell into disrepair. The site is currently awaiting redevelopment and the remains of the Sporthotel and Congress center will be demolished. A new hotel is planned to be built on the site, as of 2020.", "Historical gallery\n\nSee also \nSV Dynamo\nSC Dynamo Berlin\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n DESG\n\nExternal links\n\n Sportforum Berlin – City of Berlin \n\nIndoor arenas in Germany\nSpeed skating in Germany\nFootball venues in Berlin\nFootball venues in East Germany\nAthletics (track and field) venues in East Germany\nBerliner FC Dynamo\nSC Dynamo Berlin\nSV Dynamo\nSports venues in Berlin\nHistory of sport in East Germany\nIndoor speed skating venues\n1970 establishments in East Germany\n1986 establishments in East Germany" ]

[ "The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, officially designated Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget, is a metropolitan statistical area in the U.S. state of Texas encompassing 11 counties. Its core cities are Dallas and Fort Worth. It is the economic and cultural hub of North Texas. Residents of the area also refer to it as DFW (airport code), or the Metroplex. The Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan statistical area's population was 7,637,387 according to the U.S", ".S. Census Bureau's 2020 census, making it the most populous metropolitan area in both Texas and the Southern United States, the fourth-largest in the U.S., and the tenth-largest in the Americas. In 2016, the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex had the highest annual population growth in the United States.", "The metropolitan region's economy, also referred to as Silicon Prairie, is primarily based on banking, commerce, insurance, telecommunications, technology, energy, healthcare, medical research, transportation and logistics. As of 2022, Dallas–Fort Worth is home to 23 Fortune 500 companies, the 4th-largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies in the United States behind New York City (62), Chicago (35), and Houston (24)", ". In 2016, the metropolitan economy surpassed Houston to become the fourth-largest in the U.S. The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex boasted a GDP of just over $620.6 billion in 2020. If the Metroplex were a sovereign state, it would have the twentieth largest economy in the world as of 2019. In 2015, the conurbated metropolitan area would rank the ninth-largest economy if it were a U.S. state. In 2020, Dallas–Fort Worth was recognized as the 36th best metropolitan area for STEM professionals in the U.S.", "The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex comprises the highest concentration of colleges and universities in Texas. The UT Southwestern Medical Center is home to six Nobel Laureates and was ranked No. 1 in the world among healthcare institutions in biomedical sciences. The Metroplex is also the second most popular metropolis for megachurches in Texas (trailing the Greater Houston metropolitan area), ranked the largest Christian metropolitan statistical area in the U.S", ".S., and has one of the largest LGBT communities in Texas since 2005.", "Etymology", "A portmanteau of metropolis and complex, the term metroplex is credited to Harve Chapman, an executive vice president with Dallas-based Tracy-Locke, one of three advertising agencies that worked with the North Texas Commission (NTC) on strategies to market the region. The NTC copyrighted the term \"Southwest Metroplex\" in 1972 as a replacement for the previously-ubiquitous \"North Texas\", which studies had shown lacked identifiability outside the state", ". In fact, only 38 percent of a survey group identified Dallas and Fort Worth as part of \"North Texas\", with the Texas Panhandle also a perceived correct answer, being the northernmost region of Texas.", "Geography", "The United States Census Bureau determined the Metroplex encompasses of total area; is land, and is covered by water. The conurbated metropolitan area is larger in area than the U.S. states of Rhode Island and Connecticut combined, and larger than New Jersey. If the metropolitan area were a sovereign state, it would rank the 162nd largest state by total area after Lebanon. The U.S", ". The U.S. Office of Management and Budget combines the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex with the Sherman–Denison metropolitan area and seven micropolitan statistical areas to form the Dallas–Fort Worth TX–OK combined statistical area.", "The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex overlooks mostly prairie land with a few rolling hills dotted by human-made lakes cut by streams, creeks and rivers surrounded by forested land. The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex is situated in the Texas blackland prairies region, so named for its fertile black soil found especially in the rural areas of Collin, Dallas, Ellis, Hunt, Kaufman, and Rockwall counties.", "Many areas of Denton, Johnson, Parker, Tarrant, and Wise counties are located in the Fort Worth Prairie region of North Texas, which has less fertile and more rocky soil than that of the Texas blackland prairie; most of the rural land on the Fort Worth Prairie is ranch land. A large onshore natural gas field, the Barnett Shale, lies underneath this area; Denton, Tarrant and Wise counties feature many natural gas wells", ". Continuing land use change results in scattered crop fields surrounded by residential or commercial development. South of Dallas and Fort Worth is a line of rugged hills that goes north to south about that looks similar to the Texas Hill Country to the south.", "Metropolitan divisions and counties \n\nThe Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan statistical area is formed by a combination of two separate metropolitan statistical divisions. The Dallas–Plano–Irving MDA and Fort Worth–Arlington–Grapevine MDA come together to form one full metropolitan area or conurbation.\n\nDallas–Plano–Irving metropolitan division\n Collin County\n Dallas County\n Denton County\n Ellis County\n Hunt County\n Kaufman County\n Rockwall County", "Fort Worth–Arlington–Grapevine metropolitan division\n Johnson County\n Parker County\n Tarrant County\n Wise County\n\nClimate \nDallas–Fort Worth has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa).\n\nIt is also continental, characterized by a relatively wide annual temperature range for the latitude. The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex is located at the lower end of Tornado Alley, and can experience extreme weather.", "In the Metroplex, summers are very hot and humid, although low humidity characteristics of desert locations can appear at any time of the year. July and August are typically the hottest months, with an average high of and an average low of . Heat indexes regularly surpass at the height of summer. The all-time record high is , set on June 26 and 27, 1980 during the Heat Wave of 1980 at nearby Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport.", "Winters in the area are cool to mild, with occasional cold spells. The average date of first frost is November 12, and the average date of last frost is March 12. January is typically the coldest month, with an average daytime high of and an average nighttime low of", ". The normal daily average temperature in January is but sharp swings in temperature can occur, as strong cold fronts known as \"Blue Northers\" pass through the Metroplex, forcing daytime highs below the mark for several days at a time and often between days with high temperatures above . Snow accumulation is seen in the city in about 70% of winter seasons, and snowfall generally occurs 1–2 days out of the year for a seasonal average of", ". Some areas in the region, however, receive more than that, while other areas receive negligible snowfall or none at all. The all-time record low temperature within the city is , set on January 18, 1930, however the temperature at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport reached on February 16, 2021, during Winter Storm Uri.", "Principal communities \n\nThe following are cities and towns categorized based on the latest population estimates from the North Central Texas Council of Governments (as of July 1, 2022). No population estimates are released for census-designated places (CDPs), which are marked with an asterisk (*). These places are categorized based on their 2020 census population.\n\nPlaces with more than 100,000 inhabitants \n\nPlaces designated \"principal cities\" by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget are italicized.", "Places designated \"principal cities\" by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget are italicized.\n\n1,000,000+\n Dallas (1,299,544)\n\n500,000–999,999\n Fort Worth (956,709)\n\n200,000–499,999\n Arlington (394,602)\n Plano (289,547)\n Irving (254,715)\n Garland (240,854)\n Frisco (219,587)\n McKinney (207,507)\n Grand Prairie (201,843)\n\n100,000–199,999\n Denton (150,353)\n Mesquite (147,899)\n Carrollton (133,820)\n Lewisville (131,215)\n Richardson (118,802)\n Allen (111,551)\n\nPlaces with 10,000 to 99,999 inhabitants", "Addison\n Anna\n Azle\n Balch Springs\n Bedford\n Benbrook\n Burleson\n Cedar Hill\n Celina\n Cleburne\n Colleyville\n Coppell\n Corinth\n Crowley\n DeSoto\n Duncanville\n Ennis\n Euless\n Fairview\n Farmers Branch\n Fate\n Flower Mound\n Forest Hill\n Forney\n Glenn Heights\n Granbury\n Grapevine\n Greenville\n Haltom City\n Heath\n Highland Village\n Hurst\n Keller\n Lancaster\n Little Elm\n Mansfield\n Melissa\n Midlothian\n Mineral Wells (partial)\n Murphy\n North Richland Hills\n Princeton\n Prosper\n Red Oak\n Rendon*\n Rockwall\n Rowlett", "Murphy\n North Richland Hills\n Princeton\n Prosper\n Red Oak\n Rendon*\n Rockwall\n Rowlett\n Royse City\n Sachse\n Saginaw\n Seagoville\n Southlake\n Terrell\n The Colony\n Trophy Club\n University Park\n Watauga\n Waxahachie\n Weatherford\n White Settlement\n Wylie", "Places with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants", "Aledo\n Alma\n Alvarado\n Alvord\n Annetta North\n Annetta South\n Annetta\n Argyle\n Aubrey\n Aurora\n Bardwell\n Bartonville\n Blue Mound\n Blue Ridge\n Boyd\n Briar*\n Briaroaks\n Bridgeport\n Caddo Mills\n Campbell\n Celeste\n Chico\n Cockrell Hill\n Combine\n Commerce\n Cool\n Cooper\n Copper Canyon\n Corral City\n Cottonwood\n Covington\n Crandall\n Cresson (partial) \n Cross Roads\n Cross Timber\n Dalworthington Gardens\n Decatur\n DeCordova\n Dennis\n DISH\n Double Oak\n Eagle Mountain*\n Edgecliff Village\n Everman\n Farmersville\n Ferris", "Dennis\n DISH\n Double Oak\n Eagle Mountain*\n Edgecliff Village\n Everman\n Farmersville\n Ferris\n Garrett\n Glen Rose\n Godley\n Grandview\n Grays Prairie\n Gun Barrel City\n Hackberry\n Haslet\n Hawk Cove\n Hebron\n Hickory Creek\n Highland Park\n Hudson Oaks\n Hutchins\n Italy\n Itasca\n Josephine\n Joshua\n Justin\n Kaufman\n Keene\n Kemp\n Kennedale\n Knollwood\n Krugerville\n Krum\n Lake Bridgeport\n Lake Dallas\n Lake Worth\n Lakeside\n Lakewood Village\n Lavon\n Leonard\n Lincoln Park\n Lone Oak\n Lowry Crossing\n Lucas\n Mabank (partial)", "Lakewood Village\n Lavon\n Leonard\n Lincoln Park\n Lone Oak\n Lowry Crossing\n Lucas\n Mabank (partial) \n Maypearl\n McLendon-Chisholm\n Milford\n Millsap\n Mobile City\n Nevada\n New Fairview\n New Hope\n Newark\n Neylandville\n Northlake\n Oak Grove\n Oak Leaf\n Oak Point\n Oak Ridge\n Ovilla\n Palmer\n Pantego\n Paradise\n Parker\n Pecan Acres*\n Pecan Hill\n Pelican Bay\n Pilot Point\n Ponder\n Post Oak Bend City\n Providence Village\n Quinlan\n Reno\n Rhome\n Richland Hills\n Rio Vista\n River Oaks\n Roanoke\n Rosser\n Runaway Bay", "Quinlan\n Reno\n Rhome\n Richland Hills\n Rio Vista\n River Oaks\n Roanoke\n Rosser\n Runaway Bay\n Saint Paul\n Sanctuary\n Sanger\n Sansom Park\n Scurry\n Shady Shores\n Springtown\n Sunnyvale\n Talty\n Union Valley\n Van Alstyne (partial)\n Venus\n West Tawakoni\n Westlake\n Weston\n Westover Hills\n Westworth Village\n Willow Park\n Wilmer\n Wolfe City", "Unincorporated places \n\n Ables Springs\n Acton\n Avalon\n Avondale\n Bolivar\n Brock\n Cash\n Copeville\n Elizabethtown\n Elmo\n Floyd\n Forreston\n Garner\n Greenwood\n Heartland\n Ike\n Lantana\n Lillian\n Merit\n Paloma Creek\n Peaster\n Poetry\n Poolville\n Rockett\n Sand Branch\n Savannah\n Slidell\n Telico\n Westminster\n Whitt\n Trumbull\n\nDemographics", "At the 2020 U.S. census 7,637,387 people lived in the area, up from 6,371,773 in 2010, and 2,974,805 in 1970. In 2020, the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex's racial composition was 42% non-Hispanic white, 16% Black or African American, 8% Asian, 3-4% two or more races, and 29% Hispanic or Latino American of any race", ". According to information gathered from the North Texas Commission, the Metroplex's racial and ethnic makeup was 46% non-Hispanic white, 15% Black or African American, 7% Asian American, and 3% from other races in 2017. Ethnically, Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 29% of the metropolitan population. From 2010 to 2017, Hispanics and Latinos increased an estimated 38.9% followed by Blacks and African Americans.", "In 2015, an estimated 101,588 foreign-born residents moved to the Metroplex. Of the immigrant population, 44.1% were from Latin America, 35.8% Asia, 7.1% Europe, and 13.1% Africa. In 2010, 77,702 foreign nationals immigrated; approximately 50.6% came from Latin America, 33.0% from Asia, 7.3% Europe, and 9.1% Africa. During the 2020 American Community Survey, an estimated 18", ".3% Europe, and 9.1% Africa. During the 2020 American Community Survey, an estimated 18.5% of its population were foreign-born, with 56% from Latin America, 30% Asia, 8% Africa, 4% Europe, and 1% elsewhere from North America.", "The median household income in Dallas–Fort Worth was higher than the state average in 2017, and its unemployment and poverty rate was lower. The median income for males was $51,498 and $44,207 for females. In 2019, the per capita income of DFW was $72,265. In 2010, the median income for a household in the metropolitan area was $48,062, and the median income for a family was $55,263. Males had a median income of $39,581 versus $27,446 for females", ". Males had a median income of $39,581 versus $27,446 for females. The per capita income for the Metroplex altogether was $21,839.", "The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex's religious population are predominantly Christian and the largest metro area that identify with the religion in the United States (78%). Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, and Catholic churches are prominent in many cities and towns in the metropolitan region. The Methodist and Baptist communities anchor two of the area's major private universities (Southern Methodist University and Dallas Baptist University)", ". Non-Christian faiths including Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and contemporary paganism collectively form a little over 4% of the religious population.", "Combined statistical area \nThe Dallas–Fort Worth, TX–OK combined statistical area is made up of 20 counties in North Central Texas and one county in South Central Oklahoma. The statistical area includes two metropolitan areas and seven micropolitan areas. The CSA definition encompasses of area, of which is land and is water. The population density was 485 people per square mile according to estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau.", "Metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) \n Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington (Collin, Dallas, Denton, Ellis, Hunt, Johnson, Kaufman, Parker, Rockwall, Tarrant, and Wise counties)\n Sherman-Denison (Grayson County); population 143,131 (2022 estimate)", "Micropolitan statistical areas (μSAs) \n Athens (Henderson County); population 84,511 (2022 estimate)\n Bonham (Fannin County) (delineated and added in 2015); population 37,125 (2022 estimate)\n Corsicana (Navarro County); population 54,636 (2022 estimate)\n Durant, OK (Bryan County, Oklahoma); population 48,182 (2022 estimate)\n Gainesville (Cooke County); population 43,050 (2022 estimate)\n Granbury (Hood County) (delineated and added in 2018); population 66,373 (2022 estimate)", "Granbury (Hood County) (delineated and added in 2018); population 66,373 (2022 estimate)\n Mineral Wells (Palo Pinto County); population 29,239 (2022 estimate)", "Demographics", "At the 2000 U.S. census, there were 5,487,956 people, 2,006,665 households, and 1,392,540 families residing within the CSA. The racial makeup of the CSA was 70.41% White, 13.34% Black or African American, 0.59% Native American, 3.58% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 9.62% from other races, and 2.39% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 20.83% of the population. The median income for a household in the CSA was $43,836, and the median income for a family was $50,898", ". Males had a median income of $37,002 versus $25,553 for females. The per capita income for the CSA was $20,460.", "At the 2020 census, the DFW CSA had a population of 8,121,108 (though a July 1, 2015 estimate placed the population at 7,504,362). In 2018 it had an estimated 7,994,963 residents. The American Community Survey determined 18% of the population was foreign-born. The median household income was $67,589 and the per capita income was $34,455. An estimated 11.5% lived below the poverty line. The median age of the DFW CSA was 35.3.\n\nUrban areas within", "At the core of the Dallas–Fort Worth combined statistical area (CSA) lies the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington, TX urban area, the sixth-most populous in the United States. Within the boundaries of the CSA the Census Bureau defines 31 other urban areas as well, some of which form the core of their own metro or micro statistical areas separate from the Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan statistical area", ". Urban areas situated primarily outside the Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan statistical area but within the CSA are identified with a cross (†) in the table below.", "Economy", "The cities of Dallas and Fort Worth are the two central cities of the Metroplex, with Arlington being a third economically important city; it is a center for sporting events, tourism and manufacturing. Most other incorporated cities in the Metroplex are \"bedroom communities\" serving largely as residential and small-business centers, though there are several key employers in these regions", ". Due to the large number of smaller, less well-known cities, Metroplex residents commonly divide the region roughly in half along Texas Interstate 35, which runs north–south, splitting into two 'branches' (I-35E in Dallas and I-35W in Fort Worth) through the Metroplex. They refer to places as being on the \"Dallas side\" or the \"Fort Worth side\", or in \"the Arlington area\", which is almost directly south of the airport; cities in the Arlington area form the Mid-Cities", ". It is nominally between the two major east–west interstates in the region (I-20, passing to the south of both downtowns, and I-30, connecting Dallas and Fort Worth city centers).", "Business management and operations play a central role in the area's economy. Dallas and its suburbs have the third-largest concentration of corporate headquarters in the United States. Moreover, it is the only metro area in the country home to three of the top-ten largest Fortune 500 companies by revenue. The area continues to draw corporate relocation from across the nation, and especially from California", ". From late 2018 to early 2019, both McKesson and Charles Schwab announced they would be relocating from San Francisco to the DFW area. Later in 2019, San Francisco-based Uber announced a massive corporate expansion just east of downtown Dallas.", "Banking and finance play a key role in the area's economy. DFW recently surpassed Chicago to become the second-largest financial services hub in the nation, eclipsed only by New York. Bank of America, JP Morgan Chase, Liberty Mutual, Goldman Sachs, State Farm, TD Ameritrade, Charles Schwab, and Fidelity Investments maintain significant operations in the area", ". The Metroplex also contains the largest Information Technology industry base in the state (often referred to as Silicon Prairie or the Telecom Corridor, especially when referring to US-75 through Richardson, Plano and Allen just north of Dallas itself)", ". This area has a large number of corporate IT projects and the presence of numerous electronics, computing and telecommunication firms such as Microsoft, Texas Instruments, HP Enterprise Services, Dell Services, Samsung, Nokia, Cisco, Fujitsu, i2, Frontier, Alcatel, Ericsson, CA, Google, T-Mobile US and Verizon. AT&T, the second largest telecommunications company in the world, is headquartered at the Whitacre Tower in downtown Dallas", ". ExxonMobil and McKesson, respectively the 2nd and 7th largest Fortune 500 companies by revenue, are headquartered in Irving, Texas. Fluor, the largest engineering & construction company in the Fortune 500, is also headquartered in Irving. In October 2016, Jacobs Engineering, a Fortune 500 company and one of the world's largest engineering companies, relocated from Pasadena, California to Dallas. Toyota USA, in 2016, relocated its corporate headquarters to Plano, Texas", ". Toyota USA, in 2016, relocated its corporate headquarters to Plano, Texas. Southwest Airlines is headquartered in Dallas. The airline has more than 53,000 employees as of October 2016 and operates more than 3,900 departures a day during peak travel season.", "On the other side of the Metroplex, the Texas farming and ranching industry is based in Fort Worth, though the area's economy is diverse. American Airlines, the largest airline in the world, recently completed their new $350M corporate HQ complex in Fort Worth. American Airlines is the largest employer in the Metroplex. Several major defense manufacturers, including Lockheed Martin, Bell Helicopter Textron, and Raytheon, maintain significant operations in the Metroplex, primarily on the \"Fort Worth side", ".\" They are concentrated along State Highway 170 near I-35W, commonly called the \"Alliance Corridor\" due to its proximity to the Fort Worth Alliance regional airport.", "Changes in house prices for the Metroplex are publicly tracked on a regular basis using the Case–Shiller index; the statistic is published by Standard & Poor's and is also a component of S&P's 20-city composite index of the value of the U.S. residential real estate market.", "Sports", "The Metroplex is one of the 13 U.S. metropolitan areas that has a team in each of the four major professional sports leagues. Major professional sports first came to the area in 1952, when the Dallas Texans competed in the National Football League for one season. In 1960, major professional sports returned when the Dallas Cowboys began competing in the National Football League and the Dallas Texans began competing in the American Football League", ". The Dallas Texans later relocated to Kansas City and became the Chiefs. In 1972, Major League Baseball's Washington Senators moved to Arlington to become the Texas Rangers, named after the statewide law enforcement agency. The National Basketball Association expanded into North Texas in 1980 when the Dallas Mavericks were added to the league. The fourth sport was added in 1993 when the Minnesota North Stars of the National Hockey League moved to Dallas, becoming the Dallas Stars.", "The Major League Soccer team FC Dallas is based in Frisco, and the Dallas Wings of the WNBA play in Arlington. The area is also home to many minor-league professional teams, and four colleges that compete in NCAA Division I athletics. A NASCAR Cup Series race is hosted annually at Texas Motor Speedway, the AAA Texas 500, and two PGA Tour events are held annually in the Metroplex, the AT&T Byron Nelson and the Colonial National Invitation Tournament", ". The Metroplex has hosted many premiere sports events on both an annual and one-time basis.", "Major professional sports teams\n\n^- Indicates year team relocated to the area\n\nOther notable professional and amateur teams\n\n^- Indicates year team relocated to the area\n\nDivision I college athletics\n\nThe headquarters for both the Big 12 and American Athletic Conference are located in Irving, Conference USA headquarters are in Dallas, the Southland Conference headquarters are in Frisco, and the Western Athletic Conference is headquartered in Arlington.", "Sports events hosted\nNote: Venues are listed with their current names, not necessarily those in use when an event took place.\n\nThe region is set to host multiple matches during the 2026 FIFA World Cup.\n\nEducation\n\nNotable colleges and universities\n\nPolitics", "The Republican Party has historically been dominant in the Dallas–Fort Worth area, including in presidential elections, although recently since 2016, Democrats have been making inroads in the suburbs. The DFW Area is considered a bellwether polity in recent history", ". The DFW Area is considered a bellwether polity in recent history. Factors causing this shift include an influx of Democratic-voting younger professionals and families from Democratic states, as well as a more diverse population (with increasing numbers of African-Americans along with recent immigrants and their children). Democratic voters dominate a majority of areas in the large cities of Dallas, Grand Prairie, and Arlington (especially areas east of Interstate 35W)", ". Republicans dominate North Dallas, western Fort Worth, along with most suburbs and exurbs of the Metroplex.", "Media \nThe cities of Dallas and Fort Worth have their own newspapers, The Dallas Morning News and the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, respectively. Historically, the two papers had readership primarily in their own counties. As the two cities' suburbs have grown together in recent years (and especially since the demise of the Dallas Times Herald in 1991), many sites sell both papers. This pattern of crossover has been repeated in other print media, radio, and television.", "Since the 1970s all of the television stations and most of the FM radio stations have chosen to transmit from Cedar Hill so as to serve the entire market, and are programmed likewise. There has been a rise in \"80–90 move-ins\", whereby stations have been moved from distant markets, in some cases as far away as Oklahoma, and relicensed to anonymous small towns in the Metroplex to serve as additional DFW stations", ". According to RadioTime, the market had 38 AM stations, 58 FM stations (many of them class Cs), and 18 full-power television stations. Per another study the area has a total of 62 FM stations and 40 AM stations as of 2020.", "Dallas–Fort Worth is the fifth-largest television market in the United States, behind only New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Two of the Metroplex's AM radio stations, 820 WBAP and 1080 KRLD, are 50,000-watt stations with coverage of much of the North American continent and beyond during nighttime hours. The South Asian population (Indian Sub-continent) has increased considerably in the DFW metroplex. They have the FM 104.9 radio channel and 700 AM radio", ". They have the FM 104.9 radio channel and 700 AM radio. Recently Sony TV, a subsidiary of Sony TV Asia, launched its FTA (free to Air OTA) channel on 44.2 station in DFW. It was one of the two locations they chose in the United States, the other being New York City, where there is also a large South Asian demographic.", "TV stations\nThe following are full-powered stations serving the Dallas–Fort Worth television market. Network owned-and-operated stations are highlighted in bold.\n\nTransportation", "The Dallas Fort Worth International Airport (IATA airport code: DFW), located between the cities of Dallas and Fort Worth, is the largest and busiest airport in the state of Texas. At of total land area, DFW is also the second-largest airport in the country and the sixth-largest in the world. It is the third-busiest airport in the world in terms of aircraft movements and the world's seventh-busiest by passenger traffic, transporting 62.9 million passengers in FY 2014", ".9 million passengers in FY 2014. Based in Fort Worth, American Airlines' headquarters are adjacent to DFW. Recently having regained the title as the largest airline in the world in terms of both passengers transported and fleet size, American is a predominant leader in domestic routes and operations.", "The Dallas Love Field Airport (IATA airport code: DAL) is located in northwest Dallas. Based in Dallas, Southwest Airlines is headquartered next to Love Field.", "The Dallas–Fort Worth area has thousands of lane-miles of freeways and interstates. The Metroplex has the second-largest number of freeway-miles per capita in the nation, behind only the Kansas City metropolitan area. As in most major metropolitan areas in Texas, most interstates and freeways have access or frontage roads where most of the businesses are located; these access roads have slip ramps allowing traffic to transition between the freeway and access road", ". North–south interstates include I-35 and I-45. East–west routes include I-30 and I-20. I-35 splits into I-35E and I-35W from Denton to Hillsboro: I-35W goes through Fort Worth while I-35E goes through Dallas. (This is one of only two examples of an interstate splitting off into branches and then rejoining as one; the other such split is in Minneapolis-St. Paul where I-35E goes into St. Paul and I-35W goes through Minneapolis.) I-30 connects Dallas and Fort Worth, and I-45 connects Dallas to Houston", ".) I-30 connects Dallas and Fort Worth, and I-45 connects Dallas to Houston. The \"multiple-of-5\" numbers used for the interstate designations are notable, as these numbers were designed to be used for major multi-state arteries of the U.S. Interstate Highway System. The North Texas region is the terminus for two of them, and I-45 is located only within Texas.", "HOV lanes exist along I-35E, I-30, I-635, US 67, and US 75. I-20 bypasses both Dallas and Fort Worth to the south while its loop, I-820, goes around Fort Worth. I-635 splits to the north of I-20 and loops around east and north Dallas, ending at SH 121 north of Dallas Fort Worth International Airport. I-35E, Loop 12, and Spur 408 ultimately connect to I-20 southwest of Dallas, completing the west bypass loop around Dallas", ". A large number of construction projects are planned or are already underway in the region to alleviate congestion. Due largely to funding issues, many of the new projects involve building new tollways or adding tolled express lanes to existing highways, which are managed by the North Texas Tollway Authority. It was originally established to manage the Dallas North Tollway and oversees several other toll projects in the area.", "Public transit", "Public transit options continue to expand significantly throughout the Metroplex. However, it is limited in several outlying and rural suburbs. Dallas County and portions of Collin and Rockwall counties have bus service and light rail operated by Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART), covering thirteen member cities. DART's rail network currently sprawls for 93 miles throughout the area. The Red Line extends north to Plano and southwest to Westmoreland Road", ". The Red Line extends north to Plano and southwest to Westmoreland Road. The Blue Line reaches from Rowlett in the northeast to the University of North Texas at Dallas campus near I-20 in the south. The 28-mile Green Line, which opened in December 2010, connects Carrollton in the northwest through downtown Dallas to Pleasant Grove in the southeast", ". The Orange Line, which completed expansion in 2014, parallels the Red Line from Plano to downtown Dallas and the Green Line from downtown Dallas to Northwest Hwy before extending through the Las Colinas area of Irving to reach DFW International Airport.", "Denton County has bus service limited to Denton, Highland Village, and Lewisville (with commuter service to downtown Dallas) provided by the Denton County Transportation Authority (DCTA). The A-train, a diesel commuter rail line, parallels I-35E to connect Denton, Highland Village, Lewisville, and Carrollton. Several smaller towns along this line, Corinth, Shady Shores, and Lake Dallas, voted to abstain from DCTA and do not have stations", ". There is an across-the-platform transfer in Carrollton to the DART Green Line. A-Train service began June 20, 2011.", "Tarrant County has bus services operated by Trinity Metro (formerly the Fort Worth Transportation Authority, popularly known as 'The T'), available only in Fort Worth. It additionally operates TEXRail commuter rail, which serves to connect downtown Fort Worth with DFW Airport and the DART Orange Line", ". The diesel commuter train that serves Fort Worth and its eastern suburbs is operated as the Trinity Railway Express; it connects downtown Fort Worth to downtown Dallas, where it links to the DART light rail system. A station near its midpoint, Centerport, also serves DFW Airport via a free airport shuttle bus. The TRE is jointly owned by FWTA and DART. Amtrak serves two stations in the Metroplex—Dallas Union Station and Fort Worth Central Station", ". Amtrak serves two stations in the Metroplex—Dallas Union Station and Fort Worth Central Station. Both are served by the Texas Eagle route, which operates daily between Chicago and San Antonio (continuing on to Los Angeles three days a week), though only Fort Worth is served by the Fort Worth-Oklahoma City Heartland Flyer.", "As of 2016 the Taiwanese airline EVA Air operates a shuttle bus service from George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston to Richardson, so that Dallas-based customers may fly on its services to and from Houston.\n\nSee also \n\n Greater Dallas Korean American Chamber of Commerce\n List of museums in North Texas\n List of metropolitan statistical areas\n Texas Triangle\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Dallas–Fort Worth Property Tax Rates by City and County", "References\n\nExternal links \n\n Dallas–Fort Worth Property Tax Rates by City and County\n\n \nGeography of Collin County, Texas\nGeography of Dallas County, Texas\nGeography of Denton County, Texas\nGeography of Ellis County, Texas\nGeography of Hunt County, Texas\nGeography of Johnson County, Texas\nGeography of Kaufman County, Texas\nGeography of Parker County, Texas\nGeography of Rockwall County, Texas\nGeography of Tarrant County, Texas\nGeography of Wise County, Texas\nMetropolitan areas of Texas\nRegions of Texas" ]

[ "The Lempel–Ziv–Markov chain algorithm (LZMA) is an algorithm used to perform lossless data compression. It has been under development since either 1996 or 1998 by Igor Pavlov and was first used in the 7z format of the 7-Zip archiver", ". This algorithm uses a dictionary compression scheme somewhat similar to the LZ77 algorithm published by Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv in 1977 and features a high compression ratio (generally higher than bzip2) and a variable compression-dictionary size (up to 4 GB), while still maintaining decompression speed similar to other commonly used compression algorithms.", "LZMA2 is a simple container format that can include both uncompressed data and LZMA data, possibly with multiple different LZMA encoding parameters. LZMA2 supports arbitrarily scalable multithreaded compression and decompression and efficient compression of data which is partially incompressible.", "Overview", "LZMA uses a dictionary compression algorithm (a variant of LZ77 with huge dictionary sizes and special support for repeatedly used match distances), whose output is then encoded with a range encoder, using a complex model to make a probability prediction of each bit", ". The dictionary compressor finds matches using sophisticated dictionary data structures, and produces a stream of literal symbols and phrase references, which is encoded one bit at a time by the range encoder: many encodings are possible, and a dynamic programming algorithm is used to select an optimal one under certain approximations.", "Prior to LZMA, most encoder models were purely byte-based (i.e. they coded each bit using only a cascade of contexts to represent the dependencies on previous bits from the same byte)", ". The main innovation of LZMA is that instead of a generic byte-based model, LZMA's model uses contexts specific to the bitfields in each representation of a literal or phrase: this is nearly as simple as a generic byte-based model, but gives much better compression because it avoids mixing unrelated bits together in the same context", ". Furthermore, compared to classic dictionary compression (such as the one used in zip and gzip formats), the dictionary sizes can be and usually are much larger, taking advantage of the large amount of memory available on modern systems.", "Compressed format overview", "In LZMA compression, the compressed stream is a stream of bits, encoded using an adaptive binary range coder. The stream is divided into packets, each packet describing either a single byte, or an LZ77 sequence with its length and distance implicitly or explicitly encoded. Each part of each packet is modeled with independent contexts, so the probability predictions for each bit are correlated with the values of that bit (and related bits from the same field) in previous packets of the same type", ". Both the lzip and the LZMA SDK documentation describes this stream format.", "There are 7 types of packets:\n\nLONGREP[*] refers to LONGREP[0–3] packets, *REP refers to both LONGREP and SHORTREP, and *MATCH refers to both MATCH and *REP.\n\nLONGREP[n] packets remove the distance used from the list of the most recent distances and reinsert it at the front, to avoid useless repeated entry, while MATCH just adds the distance to the front even if already present in the list and SHORTREP and LONGREP[0] don't alter the list.\n\nThe length is encoded as follows:", "The length is encoded as follows:\n\nAs in LZ77, the length is not limited by the distance, because copying from the dictionary is defined as if the copy was performed byte by byte, keeping the distance constant.\n\nDistances are logically 32-bit and distance 0 points to the most recently added byte in the dictionary.", "The distance encoding starts with a 6-bit \"distance slot\", which determines how many further bits are needed.\nDistances are decoded as a binary concatenation of, from most to least significant, two bits depending on the distance slot, some bits encoded with fixed 0.5 probability, and some context encoded bits, according to the following table (distance slots 0−3 directly encode distances 0−3).\n\nDecompression algorithm details", "Decompression algorithm details \n\nNo complete natural language specification of the compressed format seems to exist, other than the one attempted in the following text.\n\nThe description below is based on the compact XZ Embedded decoder by Lasse Collin included in the Linux kernel source from which the LZMA and LZMA2 algorithm details can be relatively easily deduced: thus, while citing source code as reference is not ideal, any programmer should be able to check the claims below with a few hours of work.", "Range coding of bits\n\nLZMA data is at the lowest level decoded one bit at a time by the range decoder, at the direction of the LZMA decoder.", "Context-based range decoding is invoked by the LZMA algorithm passing it a reference to the \"context\", which consists of the unsigned 11-bit variable prob (typically implemented using a 16-bit data type) representing the predicted probability of the bit being 0, which is read and updated by the range decoder (and should be initialized to , representing 0.5 probability).\n\nFixed probability range decoding instead assumes a 0.5 probability, but operates slightly differently from context-based range decoding.", "The range decoder state consists of two unsigned 32-bit variables, range (representing the range size), and code (representing the encoded point within the range).\n\nInitialization of the range decoder consists of setting range to , and code to the 32-bit value starting at the second byte in the stream interpreted as big-endian; the first byte in the stream is completely ignored.", "Normalization proceeds in this way:\n Shift both range and code left by 8 bits\n Read a byte from the compressed stream\n Set the least significant 8 bits of code to the byte value read", "Context-based range decoding of a bit using the prob probability variable proceeds in this way:\n If range is less than , perform normalization\n Set bound to \n If code is less than bound:\n Set range to bound\n Set prob to prob + \n Return bit 0\n Otherwise (if code is greater than or equal to the bound):\n Set range to range − bound\n Set code to code − bound\n Set prob to \n Return bit 1", "Fixed-probability range decoding of a bit proceeds in this way:\n If range is less than , perform normalization\n Set range to \n If code is less than range:\n Return bit 0\n Otherwise (if code is greater or equal than range):\n Set code to code − range\n Return bit 1", "The Linux kernel implementation of fixed-probability decoding in rc_direct(), for performance reasons, does not include a conditional branch, but instead subtracts range from code unconditionally. The resulting sign bit is used to both decide the bit to return and to generate a mask that is combined with code and added to range.", "Note that:\n The division by when computing bound and floor operation is done before the multiplication, not after (apparently to avoid requiring fast hardware support for 32-bit multiplication with a 64-bit result)", "Fixed probability decoding is not strictly equivalent to context-based range decoding with any prob value, due to the fact that context-based range decoding discards the lower 11 bits of range before multiplying by prob as just described, while fixed probability decoding only discards the last bit", "Range coding of integers \n\nThe range decoder also provides the bit-tree, reverse bit-tree and fixed probability integer decoding facilities, which are used to decode integers, and generalize the single-bit decoding described above.\nTo decode unsigned integers less than limit, an array of 11-bit probability variables is provided, which are conceptually arranged as the internal nodes of a complete binary tree with limit leaves.", "Non-reverse bit-tree decoding works by keeping a pointer to the tree of variables, which starts at the root. As long as the pointer does not point to a leaf, a bit is decoded using the variable indicated by the pointer, and the pointer is moved to either the left or right children depending on whether the bit is 0 or 1; when the pointer points to a leaf, the number associated with the leaf is returned.", "Non-reverse bit-tree decoding thus happens from most significant to least significant bit, stopping when only one value in the valid range is possible (this conceptually allows to have range sizes that are not powers of two, even though LZMA does not make use of this).", "Reverse bit-tree decoding instead decodes from least significant bit to most significant bits, and thus only supports ranges that are powers of two, and always decodes the same number of bits. It is equivalent to performing non-reverse bittree decoding with a power of two limit, and reversing the last bits of the result.", "In the function in the Linux kernel, integers are actually returned in the range (with limit added to the conceptual value), and the variable at index 0 in the array is unused, while the one at index 1 is the root, and the left and right children indices are computed as 2i and 2i + 1. The function instead adds integers in the range to a caller-provided variable, where limit is implicitly represented by its logarithm, and has its own independent implementation for efficiency reasons.", "Fixed probability integer decoding simply performs fixed probability bit decoding repeatedly, reading bits from the most to the least significant.", "LZMA configuration \nThe LZMA decoder is configured by an \"properties\" byte and a dictionary size. The value of the byte is , where:\n lc is the number of high bits of the previous byte to use as a context for literal encoding (the default value used by the LZMA SDK is 3)\nlp is the number of low bits of the dictionary position to include in (the default value used by the LZMA SDK is 0)\npb is the number of low bits of the dictionary position to include in (the default value used by the LZMA SDK is 2)", "In non-LZMA2 streams, lc must not be greater than 8, and lp and pb must not be greater than 4.\nIn LZMA2 streams, and pb must not be greater than 4.\n\nIn the 7-zip LZMA file format, configuration is performed by a header containing the \"properties\" byte followed by the 32-bit little-endian dictionary size in bytes. In LZMA2, the properties byte can optionally be changed at the start of LZMA2 LZMA packets, while the dictionary size is specified in the LZMA2 header as later described.\n\nLZMA coding contexts", "LZMA coding contexts \n\nThe LZMA packet format has already been described, and this section specifies how LZMA statistically models the LZ-encoded streams, or in other words which probability variables are passed to the range decoder to decode each bit.\n\nThose probability variables are implemented as multi-dimensional arrays; before introducing them, a few values that are used as indices in these multidimensional arrays are defined.", "The state value is conceptually based on which of the patterns in the following table match the latest 2–4 packet types seen, and is implemented as a state machine state updated according to the transition table listed in the table every time a packet is output.\n\nThe initial state is 0, and thus packets before the beginning are assumed to be LIT packets.", "The pos_state and literal_pos_state values consist of respectively the pb and lp (up to 4, from the LZMA header or LZMA2 properties packet) least significant bits of the dictionary position (the number of bytes coded since the last dictionary reset modulo the dictionary size). Note that the dictionary size is normally the multiple of a large power of 2, so these values are equivalently described as the least significant bits of the number of uncompressed bytes seen since the last dictionary reset.", "The prev_byte_lc_msbs value is set to the lc (up to 4, from the LZMA header or LZMA2 properties packet) most significant bits of the previous uncompressed byte.\n\nThe is_REP value denotes whether a packet that includes a length is a LONGREP rather than a MATCH.\n\nThe match_byte value is the byte that would have been decoded if a SHORTREP packet had been used (in other words, the byte found at the dictionary at the last used distance); it is only used just after a *MATCH packet.", "literal_bit_mode is an array of 8 values in the 0–2 range, one for each bit position in a byte, which are 1 or 2 if the previous packet was a *MATCH and it is either the most significant bit position or all the more significant bits in the literal to encode/decode are equal to the bits in the corresponding positions in match_byte, while otherwise it is 0; the choice between the 1 or 2 values depends on the value of the bit at the same position in match_byte.", "The literal/Literal set of variables can be seen as a \"pseudo-bit-tree\" similar to a bit-tree but with 3 variables instead of 1 in every node, chosen depending on the literal_bit_mode value at the bit position of the next bit to decode after the bit-tree context denoted by the node.", "The claim, found in some sources, that literals after a *MATCH are coded as the XOR of the byte value with match_byte is incorrect; they are instead coded simply as their byte value, but using the pseudo-bit-tree just described and the additional context listed in the table below.\n\nThe probability variable groups used in LZMA are those:", "LZMA2 format \nThe LZMA2 container supports multiple runs of compressed LZMA data and uncompressed data. Each LZMA compressed run can have a different LZMA configuration and dictionary. This improves the compression of partially or completely incompressible files and allows multithreaded compression and multithreaded decompression by breaking the file into runs that can be compressed or decompressed independently in parallel.", "Criticism of LZMA2's changes over LZMA include header fields not being covered by CRCs,\nand parallel decompression not being possible in practice.", "The LZMA2 header consists of a byte indicating the dictionary size:\n 40 indicates a 4 GB − 1 dictionary size\n Even values less than 40 indicate a 2v/2 + 12 bytes dictionary size\n Odd values less than 40 indicate a 3×2(v − 1)/2 + 11 bytes dictionary size\n Values higher than 40 are invalid", "LZMA2 data consists of packets starting with a control byte, with the following values:\n 0 denotes the end of the file\n 1 denotes a dictionary reset followed by an uncompressed chunk\n 2 denotes an uncompressed chunk without a dictionary reset\n 3–0x7f are invalid values\n 0x80–0xff denotes an LZMA chunk, where the lowest 5 bits are used as bit 16–20 of the uncompressed size minus one, and bit 5–6 indicates what should be reset", "Bits 5–6 for LZMA chunks can be:\n 0: nothing reset\n 1: state reset\n 2: state reset, properties reset using properties byte\n 3: state reset, properties reset using properties byte, dictionary reset\n\nLZMA state resets cause a reset of all LZMA state except the dictionary, and specifically:\n The range coder\n The state value\n The last distances for repeated matches\n All LZMA probabilities", "Uncompressed chunks consist of:\n A 16-bit big-endian value encoding the data size minus one\n The data to be copied verbatim into the dictionary and the output", "LZMA chunks consist of:\n A 16-bit big-endian value encoding the low 16 bits of the uncompressed size minus one\n A 16-bit big-endian value encoding the compressed size minus one\n A properties/lclppb byte if bit 6 in the control byte is set\n The LZMA compressed data, starting with the 5 bytes (of which the first is ignored) used to initialize the range coder (which are included in the compressed size)\n\nxz and 7z formats", "xz and 7z formats \n\nThe .xz format, which can contain LZMA2 data, is documented at tukaani.org, while the .7z file format, which can contain either LZMA or LZMA2 data, is documented in the 7zformat.txt file contained in the LZMA SDK.\n\nCompression algorithm details\nSimilar to the decompression format situation, no complete natural language specification of the encoding techniques in 7-zip or xz seems to exist, other than the one attempted in the following text.", "The description below is based on the XZ for Java encoder by Lasse Collin, which appears to be the most readable among several rewrites of the original 7-zip using the same algorithms: again, while citing source code as reference is not ideal, any programmer should be able to check the claims below with a few hours of work.\n\nRange encoder\nThe range encoder cannot make any interesting choices, and can be readily constructed based on the decoder description.", "Initialization and termination are not fully determined; the xz encoder outputs 0 as the first byte which is ignored by the decompressor, and encodes the lower bound of the range (which matters for the final bytes).", "The xz encoder uses an unsigned 33-bit variable called low (typically implemented as a 64-bit integer, initialized to 0), an unsigned 32-bit variable called range (initialized to ), an unsigned 8-bit variable called cache (initialized to 0), and an unsigned variable called cache_size which needs to be large enough to store the uncompressed size (initialized to 1, typically implemented as a 64-bit integer).", "The cache/cache_size variables are used to properly handle carries, and represent a number defined by a big-endian sequence starting with the cache value, and followed by cache_size 0xff bytes, which has been shifted out of the low register, but has not been written yet, because it could be incremented by one due to a carry.\n\nNote that the first byte output will always be 0 due to the fact that cache and low are initialized to 0, and the encoder implementation; the xz decoder ignores this byte.", "Normalization proceeds in this way:\n If low is less than ():\n Output the byte stored in cache to the compressed stream\n Output cache_size − 1 bytes with 0xff value\n Set cache to bits 24–31 of low\n Set cache_size to 0\n If low is greater or equal than :\n Output the byte stored in cache plus one to the compressed stream\n Output cache_size − 1 bytes with 0 value\n Set cache to bits 24–31 of low\n Set cache_size to 0\n Increment cache_size\n Set low to the lowest 24 bits of low shifted left by 8 bits", "Increment cache_size\n Set low to the lowest 24 bits of low shifted left by 8 bits\n Set range to range shifted left by 8 bits", "Context-based range encoding of a bit using the prob probability variable proceeds in this way:\n If range is less than , perform normalization\n Set bound to \n If encoding a 0 bit:\n Set range to bound\n Set prob to \n Otherwise (if encoding a 1 bit):\n Set range to range − bound\n Set low to low + bound\n Set prob to \n\nFixed-probability range encoding of a bit proceeds in this way:\n If range is less than , perform normalization\n Set range to \n If encoding a 1 bit:\n Set low to low + range", "Termination proceeds this way:\n Perform normalization 5 times\n\nBit-tree encoding is performed like decoding, except that bit values are taken from the input integer to be encoded rather than from the result of the bit decoding functions.\n\nFor algorithms that try to compute the encoding with the shortest post-range-encoding size, the encoder also needs to provide an estimate of that.", "Dictionary search data structures \nThe encoder needs to be able to quickly locate matches in the dictionary. Since LZMA uses very large dictionaries (potentially on the order of gigabytes) to improve compression, simply scanning the whole dictionary would result in an encoder too slow to be practically usable, so sophisticated data structures are needed to support fast match searches.", "Hash chains \nThe simplest approach, called \"hash chains\", is parameterized by a constant N which can be either 2, 3 or 4, which is typically chosen so that is greater than or equal to the dictionary size.\n\nIt consists of creating, for each k less than or equal to N, a hash table indexed by tuples of k bytes, where each of the buckets contains the last position where the first k bytes hashed to the hash value associated with that hash table bucket.", "Chaining is achieved by an additional array which stores, for every dictionary position, the last seen previous position whose first N bytes hash to the same value of the first N bytes of the position in question.", "To find matches of length N or higher, a search is started using the N-sized hash table, and continued using the hash chain array; the search stop after a pre-defined number of hash chain nodes has been traversed, or when the hash chains \"wraps around\", indicating that the portion of the input that has been overwritten in the dictionary has been reached.", "Matches of size less than N are instead found by simply looking at the corresponding hash table, which either contains the latest such match, if any, or a string that hashes to the same value; in the latter case, the encoder will not be able to find the match.", "This issue is mitigated by the fact that for distant short matches using multiple literals might require less bits, and having hash conflicts in nearby strings is relatively unlikely; using larger hash tables or even direct lookup tables can reduce the problem at the cost of higher cache miss rate and thus lower performance.", "Note that all matches need to be validated to check that the actual bytes match currently at that specific dictionary position match, since the hashing mechanism only guarantees that at some past time there were characters hashing to the hash table bucket index (some implementations may not even guarantee that, because they do not initialize the data structures).\n\nLZMA uses Markov chains, as implied by \"M\" in its name.", "LZMA uses Markov chains, as implied by \"M\" in its name.\n\nBinary trees \nThe binary tree approach follows the hash chain approach, except that it logically uses a binary tree instead of a linked list for chaining.", "The binary tree is maintained so that it is always both a search tree relative to the suffix lexicographic ordering, and a max-heap for the dictionary position (in other words, the root is always the most recent string, and a child cannot have been added more recently than its parent): assuming all strings are lexicographically ordered, these conditions clearly uniquely determine the binary tree (this is trivially provable by induction on the size of the tree).", "Since the string to search for and the string to insert are the same, it is possible to perform both dictionary search and insertion (which requires to rotate the tree) in a single tree traversal.\n\nPatricia tries \nSome old LZMA encoders also supported a data structure based on Patricia tries, but such support has since been dropped since it was deemed inferior to the other options.", "LZMA encoder \nLZMA encoders can freely decide which match to output, or whether to ignore the presence of matches and output literals anyway.\n\nThe ability to recall the 4 most recently used distances means that, in principle, using a match with a distance that will be needed again later may be globally optimal even if it is not locally optimal, and as a result of this, optimal LZMA compression probably requires knowledge of the whole input and might require algorithms too slow to be usable in practice.", "Due to this, practical implementations tend to employ non-global heuristics.\n\nThe xz encoders use a value called nice_len (the default is 64): when any match of length at least nice_len is found, the encoder stops the search and outputs it, with the maximum matching length.\n\nFast encoder \nThe XZ fast encoder (derived from the 7-zip fast encoder) is the shortest LZMA encoder in the xz source tree.", "It works like this:\n Perform combined search and insertion in the dictionary data structure\n If any repeated distance matches with length at least nice_len:\n Output the most frequently used such distance with a REP packet\n If a match was found of length at least nice_len:\n Output it with a MATCH packet\n Set the main match to the longest match\n Look at the nearest match of every length in decreasing length order, and until no replacement can be made:", "Replace the main match with a match which is one character shorter, but whose distance is less than 1/128 the current main match distance\n Set the main match length to 1 if the current main match is of length 2 and distance at least 128\n If a repeated match was found, and it is shorter by at most 1 character than the main match:\n Output the repeated match with a REP packet", "Output the repeated match with a REP packet\n If a repeated match was found, and it is shorter by at most 2 characters than the main match, and the main match distance is at least 512:\n Output the repeated match with a REP packet\n If a repeated match was found, and it is shorter by at most 3 characters than the main match, and the main match distance is at least 32768:\n Output the repeated match with a REP packet\n If the main match size is less than 2 (or there is not any match):\n Output a LIT packet", "If the main match size is less than 2 (or there is not any match):\n Output a LIT packet\n Perform a dictionary search for the next byte\n If the next byte is shorter by at most 1 character than the main match, with distance less than 1/128 times the main match distance, and if the main match length is at least 3:\n Output a LIT packet\n If the next byte has a match at least as long as the main match, and with less distance than the main match:\n Output a LIT packet", "Output a LIT packet\n If the next byte has a match at least one character longer than the main match, and such that 1/128 of its distance is less or equal than the main match distance:\n Output a LIT packet\n If the next byte has a match more than one character longer than the main match:\n Output a LIT packet\n If any repeated match is shorter by at most 1 character than the main match:\n Output the most frequently used such distance with a REP packet\n Output the main match with a MATCH packet", "Normal encoder \nThe XZ normal encoder (derived from the 7-zip normal encoder) is the other LZMA encoder in the xz source tree, which adopts a more sophisticated approach that tries to minimize the post-range-encoding size of the generated packets.", "Specifically, it encodes portions of the input using the result of a dynamic programming algorithm, where the subproblems are finding the approximately optimal encoding (the one with minimal post-range-encoding size) of the substring of length L starting at the byte being compressed.", "The size of the portion of the input processed in the dynamic programming algorithm is determined to be the maximum between the longest dictionary match and the longest repeated match found at the start position (which is capped by the maximum LZMA match length, 273); furthermore, if a match longer than nice_len is found at any point in the range just defined, the dynamic programming algorithm stops, the solution for the subproblem up to that point is output, the nice_len-sized match is output", ", the solution for the subproblem up to that point is output, the nice_len-sized match is output, and a new dynamic programming problem instance is started at the byte after the match is output", ".", "Subproblem candidate solutions are incrementally updated with candidate encodings, constructed taking the solution for a shorter substring of length L', extended with all possible \"tails\", or sets of 1–3 packets with certain constraints that encode the input at the L' position. Once the final solution of a subproblem is found, the LZMA state and least used distances for it are computed, and are then used to appropriately compute post-range-encoding sizes of its extensions.", "At the end of the dynamic programming optimization, the whole optimal encoding of the longest substring considered is output, and encoding continues at the first uncompressed byte not already encoded, after updating the LZMA state and least used distances.\n\nEach subproblem is extended by a packet sequence which we call \"tail\", which must match one of the following patterns:", "The reason for not only extending with single packets is that subproblems only have the substring length as the parameter for performance and algorithmic complexity reasons, while an optimal dynamic programming approach would also require to have the last used distances and LZMA state as parameter; thus, extending with multiple packets allows to better approximate the optimal solution, and specifically to make better use of LONGREP[0] packets.", "The following data is stored for each subproblem (of course, the values stored are for the candidate solution with minimum price), where by \"tail\" we refer to the packets extending the solution of the smaller subproblem, which are described directly in the following structure:\n\nNote that in the XZ for Java implementation, the optPrev and backPrev members are reused to store a forward single-linked list of packets as part of outputting the final solution.\n\nLZMA2 encoder", "LZMA2 encoder \n\nThe XZ LZMA2 encoder processes the input in chunks (of up to 2 MB uncompressed size or 64 KB compressed size, whichever is lower), handing each chunk to the LZMA encoder, and then deciding whether to output an LZMA2 LZMA chunk including the encoded data, or to output an LZMA2 uncompressed chunk, depending on which is shorter (LZMA, like any other compressor, will necessarily expand rather than compress some kinds of data).", "The LZMA state is reset only in the first block, if the caller requests a change of properties and every time a compressed chunk is output. The LZMA properties are changed only in the first block, or if the caller requests a change of properties.\nThe dictionary is only reset in the first block.", "Upper encoding layers \nBefore LZMA2 encoding, depending on the options provided, xz can apply the BCJ filter, which filters executable code to replace relative offsets with absolute ones that are more repetitive, or the delta filter, which replaces each byte with the difference between it and the byte bytes before it.", "Parallel encoding is performed by dividing the file in chunks which are distributed to threads, and ultimately each encoded (using, for instance, xz block encoding) separately, resulting in a dictionary reset between chunks in the output file.", "7-Zip reference implementation \nThe LZMA implementation extracted from 7-Zip is available as LZMA SDK. It was originally dual-licensed under both the GNU LGPL and Common Public License, with an additional special exception for linked binaries, but was placed by Igor Pavlov in the public domain on December 2, 2008, with the release of version 4.62.", "LZMA2 compression, which is an improved version of LZMA, is now the default compression method for the .7z format, starting with version 9.30 on October 26, 2012.\n\nThe reference open source LZMA compression library was originally written in C++ but has been ported to ANSI C, C#, and Java. There are also third-party Python bindings for the C++ library, as well as ports of LZMA to Pascal, Go and Ada.", "The 7-Zip implementation uses several variants of hash chains, binary trees and Patricia trees as the basis for its dictionary search algorithm.\n\nIn addition to LZMA, the SDK and 7-Zip also implements multiple preprocessing filters intended to improve compression, ranging from simple delta encoding (for images) and BCJ for executable code. It also provides some other compression algorithms used in 7z.", "Decompression-only code for LZMA generally compiles to around 5 KB, and the amount of RAM required during decompression is principally determined by the size of the sliding window used during compression. Small code size and relatively low memory overhead, particularly with smaller dictionary lengths, and free source code make the LZMA decompression algorithm well-suited to embedded applications.", "Other implementations \nIn addition to the 7-Zip reference implementation, the following support the LZMA format.", "xz: a streaming implementation that contains a gzip-like command line tool, supporting both LZMA and LZMA2 in its xz file format. It made its way into several software of the Unix-like world with its high performance (compared to bzip2) and small size (compared to gzip). The Linux kernel, dpkg and RPM systems contains xz code, and many software distributors like kernel.org, Debian and Fedora now use xz for compressing their releases.", "lzip: another LZMA implementation mostly for Unix-like systems to be directly competing with xz. It mainly features a simpler file format and therefore easier error recovery.\n ZIPX: an extension to the ZIP compressions format that was created by WinZip starting with version 12.1. It also can use various other compression methods such as BZip and PPMd.", "LZHAM \nLZHAM (LZ, Huffman, Arithmetic, Markov), is an LZMA-like implementation that trades compression throughput for very high ratios and higher decompression throughput. It was placed by its author in the public domain on 15 September 2020.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n Official home page\n Lzip format specification\n XZ format specification\n LZMA SDK (Software Development Kit)\n LZMA Utils = XZ Utils\n Windows Binaries for XZ Utils\n Data compression, Compressors & Archivers", "Lossless compression algorithms\nIsraeli inventions" ]

[ "Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, a spin-off of the crime drama Law & Order, follows the detectives who work in the \"Special Victims Unit\" of the 16th Precinct of the New York City Police Department, a unit that focuses on crimes involving rape, sexual assault, and child molestation, as well as any crime loosely connected with any of the three, such as domestic violence, kidnapping, and child abandonment", ". Since its debut in September 1999, the series has followed the career of Olivia Benson, as she progresses from the rank of Detective, working with a partner (initially Elliot Stabler, and later Nick Amaro), to Sergeant and then to Lieutenant, replacing Donald Cragen as commanding officer of SVU, and then to Captain. The unit also has a prosecutor assigned from the District Attorney's office, and frequently interacts with medical examiners and psychiatrists.", "Four of the regular characters have appeared as regulars in other NBC series: Captain Donald Cragen (Florek), who was on the first three seasons of Law & Order; ADA Alexandra Cabot (March), who led the cast of Conviction; and Sergeant John Munch (Belzer), as a Baltimore detective in Homicide: Life on the Street. The latter made cross-over appearances on episodes of Law & Order, Law & Order: Trial by Jury, Arrested Development, The Beat, The X-Files, and the HBO series The Wire", ". And, finally: Detective Elliot Stabler (Meloni) on Law & Order: Organized Crime.", "Creation and conception\nThe characters of Elliot Stabler & Olivia Benson were named for creator Dick Wolf's children. Wolf's third child, daughter Sarina, had a character named for her; Benson's mother was named Serena, as well as former ADA Serena Southerlyn on the original Law & Order and Det. Serena Stevens on Law & Order: Criminal Intent.\n\nMain characters\n\nPolice\n\nElliot Stabler \n\n Portrayed by Christopher Meloni\n Episodes: \"Payback\" – \"Smoked\", \"Return of the Prodigal Son\" – present", "Elliot Stabler is a senior detective who previously worked in Manhattan's 16th Precinct, also known as the Special Victims Unit, which investigates sex crimes. He is one of the original members of the squad. A former Marine and a dedicated detective, he has a 97 percent closure rate, but his dedication can turn to obsession and cause him to take cases personally. His dedication to the job also makes him the target for several IAB investigations during the course of his 19-year career at SVU", ". At the start of the series, he is married with four children. He separates from his wife Kathy during seasons 7 and 8, but they reconcile after she becomes pregnant with their fifth child. Elliot is Catholic, which sometimes complicates the cases he works on, but also helps him form a close friendship with ADA Novak", ". His partner is Olivia Benson, with whom he generally has a good working relationship, but it is not without tension and friction, especially in seasons 7 and 8 when they are separated as partners for some time. Captain Cragen also makes both detectives speak with psychiatrist Rebecca Hendrix in order to decide whether they can continue working as partners. Dr. Hendrix tells Cragen that he should split them up only if he wants to lose his two best detectives.", "Stabler abruptly retires from the Special Victims Unit after he shoots and kills a teenage girl who was recklessly firing a gun in the squad room. He is not seen or heard from again until the episode \"Return of the Prodigal Son,\" where it is revealed he has been working as an international liaison for the NYPD working to take down organized crime since having come out of retirement in 2017. He eventually joined the Organized Crime Control Bureau in the NYPD.\n\nOlivia Benson", "Olivia Benson\n\n Portrayed by Mariska Hargitay\n Episodes: \"Payback\" – present", "Olivia Benson is the Captain of the Manhattan Special Victims Unit, which investigates sex crimes. She was primarily partnered with Elliot Stabler, until he retired after season 12. She is tough, empathetic, and completely dedicated to her job, to the point that she is sometimes seen as having little personal life", ". Her dedication sometimes wreaks havoc on her emotional state as she empathizes with victims of sexual assault, having been the child of rape and later the victim of sexual assault while undercover in season 9. She has allowed her compassion for victims of abuse to sometimes cloud her professional judgment and impede her ability to remain impartial. Hargitay has received both a Golden Globe and an Emmy Award for her portrayal of Benson.", "In season 13, Detectives Benson and Tutuola are the senior detectives in the precinct. Throughout the first few episodes of season 13, she struggles to cope with the retirement of Stabler as she is more harsh and argumentative, as seen when she berates ADA Novak for \"losing her nerve\" after Novak said that Benson was \"off\". Her primary partner from seasons 13 to 14 was Nick Amaro, but she is also seen at times working with Tutuola and Detectives Amanda Rollins and Dominick \"Sonny\" Carisi.", "Upon the retirement of Sergeant Munch at the beginning of season 15, Captain Cragen recommends to her that she should take the sergeant's exam, as she was now his second in command. In the episode \"Rapist Anonymous\", she makes the announcement that she has passed the exam, officially making her a sergeant. After Cragen's retirement, she becomes acting commanding officer of SVU until she is subsequently promoted to lieutenant in season 17 and officially takes command of the unit", ". At the end of season 15, she became a foster mother to Noah Porter, formally adopting him at the end of season 16.", "She is taken hostage midway through season 17 (\"Townhouse Incident\"), but is rescued unharmed. Shortly thereafter, she begins a relationship with IAB Captain Ed Tucker.\n\nBenson is promoted to Captain at the end of the season 21 opener (\"I'm Going to Make You a Star\").\n\nFin Tutuola\n\nPortrayed by Ice-T\nEpisodes: \"Wrong is Right\" – present", "Odafin \"Fin\" Tutuola is a sergeant in the Manhattan Special Victims Unit. He was raised in Harlem and he served in the United States Army, where he saw combat in Mogadishu. A former undercover narcotics detective, Tutuola replaced Monique Jeffries after she left the squad in 2000. He transferred out of Narcotics after his partner was shot. He initially has a rocky relationship with his colleagues in SVU, especially his partner John Munch and Olivia Benson", ". He sees the world in black and white, with all criminals equally deserving of prison regardless of extenuating circumstances. He also keeps a tight rein on his emotions, refusing to talk about his problems or to admit that the grisly nature of his work often affects him. He rarely talks about his personal life, not revealing he has a son to his fellow detectives until the sixth season", ". As the series progresses, he becomes closer with Munch and even saves Benson from being raped while they were both undercover in season 9. However, he also begins clashing more frequently with fellow detective Elliot Stabler. As of the season 8 episode \"Screwed\", he is assigned Chester Lake as his new partner. After Lake kills a suspect, Stabler accuses Tutuola of tipping him off before he is taken into custody and checks his phone records", ". Tutuola admits he called Lake, but says he did not expect him to run. Stabler quasi-apologizes for not trusting him, but Tutuola dismisses his apology because he believes Stabler will always be the same \"bulldog\". Afterwards, he requests a transfer from the squad, however the man in charge of transfers is a former colleague of Tutuola's who holds a grudge against him", ". Tutuola resolves himself to being \"stuck\" and his captain, Don Cragen, orders him to investigate a case with Stabler, who he calls a \"headcase\" and \"cranky-balls\". As time has passed, Tutuola has again warmed to Stabler, a point proven in the season 11 episode \"Solitary\", when a suspect throws Stabler off a roof, Tutuola nearly throttles the suspect for attacking his \"friend\".", "After Lake's departure at the end of season 9, Tutuola was again partnered with Sergeant Munch from seasons 10 to 12, sometimes working alone or with Benson and Stabler when Munch was unavailable. Beginning in season 13, Tutuola's primary partner was Detective Rollins until her departure in Season 24.\n\nJohn Munch\n\nPortrayed by Richard Belzer\nEpisodes: \"Payback\" – \"Wonderland Story\", \"Spring Awakening\", \"Fashionable Crimes\".", "John Munch is a detective, and later a sergeant in the Manhattan Special Victims Unit. A conspiracy theorist and dedicated detective, Munch is first partnered with Brian Cassidy (Dean Winters), whom he thinks of as a kind of younger brother, alternately poking fun at him and imparting (often questionable) advice on life and women. When Cassidy leaves the precinct in 2000, Munch is briefly partnered with Monique Jeffries (Michelle Hurd), and then with Odafin Tutuola (Ice-T)", ". He and the gruff, uncompromising Tutuola get off to a rough start, but gradually came to like and respect each other.", "Since being promoted to Sergeant at the beginning of season 9, Munch has taken more of a leadership role and does less investigating in the field, partially due to the fact that Tutuola was partnered with Detective Lake in season 9. After Lake's departure in the season 9 finale, Munch begins working with Tutuola again, while occasionally acting as squad commander when Cragen was unavailable", ". In season 13, Munch is seen mostly in the precinct helping with interrogations and research, as Tutuola is partnered with Detective Rollins. He continues to act as squad commander when Cragen is absent. In season 14, Munch is temporarily reassigned to the Cold Case Unit, after solving a decade old cold child abduction case in the episode, \"Manhattan Vigil\". He returns to SVU in the episode, \"Secrets Exhumed\", in which he brings back a 1980s rape-homicide cold case for the squad to look into", ". Munch filed his retirement papers after the events in the episode \"American Tragedy\", formally leaving in \"Wonderland Story\". He subsequently accepted a position at the District Attorney's office as an investigator.", "The character was first created for the NBC police drama Homicide: Life on the Street, where he worked as a homicide detective with the Baltimore Police Department. The character was based on Jay Landsman, a central figure in David Simon's true crime book Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, a documentary account of the homicide unit's operation over one year", ". After the series cancellation in 1999, the character was transferred to Law and Order: Special Victims Unit, having appeared within the original Law & Order in cross-over episodes. Within the series, it is eventually said he left Baltimore after his wife cheated on him with a friend", ". Munch has been the only fictional character played by a single actor to appear on eight different television shows: Homicide: Life on the Street, Law & Order, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Law & Order: Trial by Jury, The X-Files, Arrested Development, The Beat, and The Wire. He is also mentioned in UK TV series Luther.", "Donald Cragen\n\nPortrayed by Dann Florek\nEpisodes: \"Payback\" – \"Amaro's One-Eighty\", \"Perverted Justice\", \"The Five Hundredth Episode\"", "Donald Cragen is the Captain of the Special Victims Unit. Florek originally portrayed the character from 1990 to 1993 in the original Law & Order series. During his Law & Order tenure, Cragen was investigated by internal affairs for corruption. During the investigation to prove his innocence, he discovered that he was being framed by his former captain and mentor, whom he turns in and is cleared by IAB", ". He was an alcoholic for much of his early career, but goes sober after pulling his service revolver on a taxi driver in a drunken rage. He has remained sober since, even after the death of his wife in a plane crash. Cragen was written out of Law & Order in 1993, as he is transferred to Anti-Corruption Task Force, occasionally making guest appearances on the show. The character was brought back full-time in 1999 to be the Captain of the Special Victims Unit", ". The character was brought back full-time in 1999 to be the Captain of the Special Victims Unit. As SVU Commanding Officer, he is portrayed as a somewhat stern but understanding father figure to the detectives who work under him, often giving them a great deal of leniency because he trusts their ability to get results", ". Cragen departed at the end of \"Amaro's One-Eighty\" after his girlfriend Eileen got two tickets for a six-month cruise around the world and he decided to use his unused leave time to carry him through until June, when he was set to hit the mandatory retirement age.", "Brian Cassidy\n\nPortrayed by Dean Winters\nEpisodes: \"Payback\" – \"Disrobed\", \"Rhodium Nights\" – \"Above Suspicion\", \"Undercover Blue\", \"Her Negotiation\" – \"Downloaded Child\", \"Gone Fishin' – \"Chasing Demons\"", "Brian Cassidy was a detective in the SVU during the series' first season. The youngest and least experienced member of the precinct, he has a genuine desire to put rapists and child molesters in prison, but lacked the professional detachment necessary to deal with the often grisly sex crimes. He often has trouble concealing his anger and revulsion toward the cases he investigates and this created friction between him and his colleagues, made worse when they poke fun at his relative lack of sophistication", ". A genuinely talented and driven police detective, he makes a real effort to learn from the other members of the precinct, particularly Munch, whom he thinks of as a sort of older brother/mentor figure. He has a brief affair with Olivia Benson, and has trouble dealing with her after the relationship ends. Cassidy was written out of the show midway through the first season", ". Cassidy was written out of the show midway through the first season. Cragen sends him to interview a young girl who was repeatedly raped and brutalized, causing Cassidy to realize that he cannot emotionally handle the types of crimes that a SVU detective must deal with on a daily basis. Cragen then offers to assist Cassidy with a transfer to another department, narcotics.", "After a twelve-year absence from the show, Cassidy returned in the season 13 finale, \"Rhodium Nights\". He is working undercover as security personnel for Bart Ganzel, the owner of an escort service. When Amaro and Rollins go to speak to Ganzel, Cassidy confronts Amaro and punches him in the face. After Cassidy is arrested, he is in the interrogation room with Amaro when Benson walks in and sarcastically greets her old colleague, explaining to Amaro how Cassidy worked SVU in another \"century", ".\" Cassidy agrees to help them as long as they don't blow his cover. After Cassidy helps SVU get insight on the war between Ganzel and an opposing escort service, he has to play both sides of the law as he refuses to sacrifice his three years of undercover work. In the season 14 premiere, Bureau Chief ADA Paula Foster reveals to Detective Benson that Cassidy is working undercover for her", ". Benson, along with Cassidy's former SVU partner Sergeant Munch, meets with him on two different occasions to get information on the escort war. When Benson goes to Ganzel's loft to speak with Cassidy again, they walk outside to what appears to be an attempted theft of Ganzel's car. Benson gives chase to one person, while Cassidy and the car thief pull guns on each other. A patrol car pulls up, and two officers draw their weapons, as Cassidy identifies himself as police", ". As Benson returns to identify herself as police, the patrol officer shoots Cassidy twice. Benson calls for a bus and rides with him to the hospital, where he survives, as the bullets missed his main arteries. It is discovered that the officer who shot him was contracted by Ganzel to shoot Cassidy after Ganzel finds the bugs that the DA's office had installed in his loft. Later, Cassidy and Benson share a kiss in his hospital room after Benson tells him she isn't the same person he knew years ago", ". In the episode, \"Undercover Blue\", Cassidy is accused of rape by a prostitute while he was undercover almost four years prior. It is revealed that Cassidy was being set up by the woman and her boss to make money off a lawsuit against the NYPD and the charges are dropped. Also in this episode, Munch says that Cassidy paid the price for having a relationship with a prostitute while undercover with Ganzel, as he was demoted from detective to an officer who works nights at a Bronx courthouse", ". Benson and Cassidy also are forced to reveal their romantic relationship in this episode when Amaro and Munch go to Cassidy's apartment and find Benson there.", "Monique Jeffries\n\nPortrayed by Michelle Hurd\nEpisodes: \"Payback\" – \"Runaway\"", "Monique Jeffries was a police detective with Manhattan's Special Victims Unit and was one of the initial detectives in the SVU squad. Earlier in the series, she is partnered with various detectives, including Brian Cassidy. Initially, she is only seen at headquarters, doing research and showing up in court for various cases to represent the department. After Cassidy's departure in the middle of the first season, she partners with Detective Munch and begins going out on investigations", ". Shortly after this, she is physically and emotionally shaken when a van explodes while she is pursuing a fleeing suspect. Survival of the incident leaves her feeling \"restless\", and she has a one night stand with a man she recognized as a suspect in a previous sexual assault case the unit had investigated. After she confesses this to a department psychiatrist, who is working for a commission investigating problems in various police units, she is taken off active duty and ordered to receive treatment", ". Captain Don Cragen, feeling she has become \"reckless\" and \"a danger\" to herself supports the decision. At the end of the season 2 premiere episode, Detective Fin Tutuola shows up at the SVU precinct, and Jeffries asks if she can help him. Upon reading the folder Tutuola gives her, she realizes he is there to take her job. Finding desk duty intolerable, she cleans out her desk and leaves her gun and badge on the desk of Captain Cragen", ". In the second season, although she is shown in three episodes, it is revealed that she was reinstated and transferred to the Vice Unit.", "Kenneth \"Ken\" Briscoe \n Portrayed by Chris Orbach\n Episodes: \"Payback\" – \"Contact\"\n\nDetective Kenneth \"Ken\" Briscoe is a detective assigned to Manhattan's Special Victims Unit under the command of Captain Donald Cragen. His partner was Detective Monique Jeffries. He is the nephew of Detective Lennie Briscoe (who was portrayed by Chris Orbach's father, Jerry).\n\nDanielle Beck\n\nPortrayed by Connie Nielsen\nEpisodes: \"Clock\" – \"Cage\"", "Detective Danielle \"Dani\" Beck is Detective Olivia Benson's temporary replacement in season 8, while Benson is on an undercover assignment (Mariska Hargitay was on maternity leave). Dani had a husband, a cop named Mike Dooley, who was shot and killed in the line of duty. She and Stabler get off to a rocky start, but they eventually form a solid partnership", ". She and Stabler get off to a rocky start, but they eventually form a solid partnership. A turning point in their relationship occurs when they share a passionate kiss after celebrating a case at a bar, although post-kiss nothing more than increased sexual chemistry is ever implied. During a case involving child abuse, Beck tries to foster a traumatized adopted girl, who attempts to burn down her apartment and kill them both", ". Shaken, Beck tells Stabler she could not stand working in the Special Victims Unit anymore unless he asked her to stay. Stabler reluctantly says he cannot make that decision for her, so she decides it would be best to return to her old post at the Warrants squad. Hargitay returned to her role as Benson in the following episode.", "Chester Lake\n\n Portrayed by Adam Beach \nEpisodes: \"Outsider\", \"Screwed\", \"Alternate\" – \"Cold\"", "Detective Chester Lake transferred to the Manhattan SVU from the Brooklyn Special Victims Unit at the end of the eighth season and was partnered with Detective Fin Tutuola. He is of Native American ancestry, specifically Mohawk, and speaks proudly of his ancestors, noting that many of them helped to build the city's skyscrapers and subway tunnels. He also used to compete as an amateur mixed martial artist under the name \"Naptime\", but had to quit after tearing his ACL", ". Lake suffers from insomnia and often takes walks at night when he cannot sleep.", "In the final episode of the ninth season, Lake begins attending meetings of individuals in Philadelphia who share information on \"cold\" murder cases. He later shoots and kills a fellow police officer, who was suspected of raping two illegal immigrant girls ten years ago, killing one. Lake disappears while his fellow detectives investigate. They are able to prove Lake killed the other cop in self defense after he was shot at himself by a second NYPD officer with a history of brutality", ". Lake is found, wounded, and taken to the hospital. The second officer, however, is released after the jury deadlocks. The officer is killed the same night and Lake is found standing over the body and makes no denial to his fellow SVU detectives. He is arrested and last seen in the series sitting handcuffed in a police car. It was confirmed on April 18, 2008, that Beach would not be returning to the series to reprise the role in the subsequent season.", "Nick Amaro\n\n Portrayed by Danny Pino\n Episodes: \"Personal Fouls\" – \"Surrendering Noah\", \"The Five Hundredth Episode\"", "Nicolas Fiorello \"Nick\" Amaro, Jr. is a NYPD detective who has transferred to the Special Victims Unit from Warrants and Narcotics. When Nick was little, Amaro's father beat his mother. Nick's father later fled to Miami, Florida; he attributes his firm belief in divorce to this. He is fluent in Spanish, is married, with a young daughter named Zara, and has a living mother, Cesaria (Nancy Ticotin). His wife, Maria Grazie Amaro (Laura Benanti), is doing overseas reporting in Iraq", ". His wife, Maria Grazie Amaro (Laura Benanti), is doing overseas reporting in Iraq. Since Maria has been deployed in Iraq, their relationship has been somewhat tense, although they always seem to work through their differences.", "Initially, Amaro did not see eye to eye with his new partner, Detective Benson, mainly because she was adjusting to having him as a partner instead of Elliot Stabler. After their rocky start, Amaro and Benson begin to have a mutual respect for each other and work well together", ". During his early days in SVU, Amaro has a tough time adjusting to the cases and tells Benson he has the urge to physically assault a suspect, but she tells him the better solution would be to ensure that the perpetrators never see the light of day. In the episode \"Hunting Ground\", Amaro saves Detective Benson and a kidnapped victim by shooting and killing a man. He is seen visibly shaken as it happened to be his first kill shot", ". He is seen visibly shaken as it happened to be his first kill shot. In the episode \"Valentine's Day\", he sees his wife go into an apartment of a man he does not know", ". In the episode \"Valentine's Day\", he sees his wife go into an apartment of a man he does not know. In \"Street Revenge\", while trying to work a case of vigilante justice, he shadows his wife to see where she goes during the day; he later gets into a heated argument with his wife at the SVU squad room (after going to Philadelphia and assaulting a military friend of hers), and she tells him she is seeing a psychiatrist because she is trying to adapt back into her old life.", "In the season 14 premiere, Amaro's wife decides to take a job in Washington, D.C., citing that they need a break from each other. Amaro is clearly rattled by this and goes as far as to threaten to shoot Detective Brian Cassidy if Cassidy did not tell him for whom he was working undercover. This, along with his erratic behavior, causes the SVU detectives to be very cautious around him with sensitive information regarding Captain Cragen's case", ". In \"Twenty-Five Acts\", Amaro seeks temporary SVU commanding officer, Captain Harris (Adam Baldwin), to let Amaro work their rape case solo, telling Benson that she needed a partner she could trust, Benson working the case with Rollins.", "In the episode \"Undercover Blue\", Detective Cassidy is put on trial for rape while he was undercover. Amaro is called to the stand by ADA Derek Strauss and he is asked questions about his undercover work. When Cassidy's lawyer questions him, he is forced to reveal that he had a romantic relationship with the sister of a drug lord he was investigating undercover. Munch then informs him that the NYPD brass is requesting he take a paternity test because the woman is claiming he has a son from the relationship", ". He goes to the woman's house to confront her, but is denied by her boyfriend. Later, while watching the boyfriend pick his alleged son up from school, he witnesses the man complete a drug deal using the boy. Amaro then meets the boy and tells the woman that her boyfriend is using their son to deal drugs. After Cassidy apologizes to Amaro for what his lawyer did, Cassidy helps Amaro bust the boyfriend for drug dealing", ". The episode concludes with Amaro knocking on the woman's door and her reluctantly letting him in.", "Amaro begins to show great concern when Rollins begins gambling again, and they begin to get close. In the episode \"Reasonable Doubt\", he comes out of a shower in Rollins' apartment.\n\nAmanda Rollins\n\nPortrayed by Kelli Giddish\nEpisodes: \"Scorched Earth\" – \"And a Trauma in a Pear Tree\", \"All Pain Is One Malady\"", "Amanda Rollins is a detective from Atlanta, Georgia, who moves to New York City to join the Special Victims Unit. Rollins appears to be a detective who is very anxious to do her job, often being told not to get ahead of herself by Detectives Benson and Amaro, and Captain Cragen. She appears to have a good rapport with her partner, Detective Tutuola, compared to his last new partner, Chester Lake. Shortly after transferring to NYC, Rollins deals with a serial rapist case that had a familiar twist for her", ". Rollins tries to prove to Benson and Amaro that the rapist originated in Atlanta and has come to New York for new prey, almost falling victim to him in an attempt to flush him out, since he took a preference to blonde and athletic women. When Rollins becomes distraught over a case where an actress is raped by one of the men in her life, Rollins asks Benson how she can trust any man after working this job. Benson reassures Rollins and tells her that she trusts her partner.", "As for Rollins' personal life, little is mentioned of her off-duty life (although, being from Atlanta, she is a fan of the Braves, whose schedule she keeps on her refrigerator door); Amanda has mentioned that she has a sister, Kim, who has had psychotic and drug issues. Kim has also suffered repeated abuse by her ex-boyfriend. She says that while she was working in Atlanta, there was an accident that occurred that allowed for her to transfer to the SVU", ". Amanda also was exposed as a heavy gambler in the episode \"Home Invasions\". When Cragen discovered her problem, he threatened to take her badge, but decided to help instead—since he is a recovering alcoholic—by requiring her to attend Gamblers Anonymous meetings. Rollins' previously mentioned troubled sister, Kim (Lindsay Pulsipher), comes to New York in the season 14 episode, \"Friending Emily\", causing problems for Amanda while she is trying to work a case", ". Later in the episode \"Deadly Ambition\", Kim returns to New York beaten by her ex-boyfriend Jeff and claiming to be pregnant. When Amanda hears screams from inside her apartment, she finds Kim's ex-boyfriend attempting to rape Kim, and Amanda shoots and kills the man as he pulls a gun on her. The supposed evidence of Amanda shooting Jeff in cold blood leads to Lt. Tucker arresting Amanda in Captain Cragen's office", ". Tucker arresting Amanda in Captain Cragen's office. The charges against Amanda are later dropped when Amaro tapes Kim confessing to setting Amanda up for a life insurance policy on Jeff. Before Kim can be arrested, however, she steals everything from Amanda's apartment and disappears. In the episode \"Poisoned Motive\", Rollins is shot by a sniper in front of the precinct", ". In the episode \"Poisoned Motive\", Rollins is shot by a sniper in front of the precinct. Her shooting leads back to the daughter of Detective Tutuola's narcotics partner, who is out for revenge on the NYPD after her father was injured on the job by protecting Tutuola from a bullet.", "In the season 15 episode \"Rapist Anonymous\", Rollins is caught in the middle of a case in which her friend from Georgia claims to have been raped. When the alleged rapist is killed, her friend is put on trial and Rollins' personal life is revealed on the stand. This proves too much for her to handle and she is seen gambling, smoking, and drinking in the final scene", ". Later in season 15, she frequents an illegal casino (\"Gambler's Fallacy\") and is exposed as a cop by a 15-year-old waitress whom Rollins and Benson had assisted in an earlier episode. The operators of the illegal casino threaten to out Rollins to Benson, and although Rollins comes clean to Fin, Benson is still outraged. Rollins eventually breaks up an art theft ring with the help of Lt. Declan Murphy, who was undercover as one of the casino operators.", "In the season 16 episode \"Forgiving Rollins\", it is revealed Rollins was raped by her commanding officer in Atlanta, Deputy Chief Charles Patton (Harry Hamlin), in 2010. This comes to light when Patton is in New York for a conference and is accused of rape by one of his APD detectives, Reese Taymor (Dreama Walker), at a Manhattan hotel.", "Rollins is revealed to be pregnant in the two-part season 17 opener when she is interviewing serial killer Dr. Gregory Yates (Dallas Roberts). The father is revealed to be Declan Murphy, who came back to New York during Super Bowl weekend 2015 to infiltrate a sex trafficking ring. Rollins undergoes a difficult pregnancy before giving birth to a healthy baby girl, Jesse. Giddish was pregnant in real life and gave birth to a boy in October 2015.", "In season 20, Rollins becomes pregnant again, this time by cardiologist Al Pollack. She gives birth to another girl, Billie Mabel, but declines Dr. Pollack's marriage proposal because she doesn't love him.\n\nIn the season 22 finale, she and Carisi kiss. In the season 23 premiere, it is revealed that she and Carisi are dating, and eventually get married in mid season 24.\n\nDeclan G. Murphy", "Declan G. Murphy\n\n Portrayed by Donal Logue \n Episodes: \"Gambler's Fallacy\", \"Beast's Obsession\" – \"Spring Awakening\", \"Undercover Mother\", \"Community Policing\", \"Silent Night, Hateful Night\"", "Lieutenant Declan G. Murphy is first introduced working as an undercover cop who meets Rollins when she's on a gambling binge. Shortly after William Lewis escapes from prison, One Police Plaza appoints Murphy commanding officer of Manhattan SVU, deeming it inappropriate for Benson to lead the manhunt to recapture Lewis. Murphy's reign as commanding officer continues after Lewis's suicide at the request of One Police Plaza", ". Murphy is a by-the-book CO, often checking behind the detectives' backs that they are apprehending suspects correctly, and he often uses his undercover expertise to lead the direction of investigations. Murphy's strictness often causes him to butt heads with the detectives, mainly Amaro, who does not trust him. Morally, Murphy has shown himself to be flexible", ". Morally, Murphy has shown himself to be flexible. When Benson faces perjury charges after Lewis's suicide, Murphy lies under oath to persuade the grand jury to dismiss, saying that Benson did what she had to do to save the girl Lewis had kidnapped", ". However, when Amaro is arrested for his assault on a photographer investigated for child pornography and building a torture chamber, Murphy tells Amaro that he knows Amaro doesn't value his advice, but to stand down and keep quiet, regardless of the circumstances. After the charges are dismissed, Murphy tells Benson he will do what he can, but that he would not pull strings for Amaro, as he is unconvinced that Amaro's career is worth saving", ". At the end of \"Spring Awakening\", Murphy tells Benson that he has been chosen for an undercover assignment and recommended to One Police Plaza that command of the SVU be returned to her. Subsequently, in the episode \"Undercover Mother\", Murphy's undercover assignment is revealed after SVU takes down a sex trafficking ring.", "In the seventeenth-season episode \"Community Policing\", Murphy returns after finding out about Rollins' pregnancy while he was \"4,000 miles away in Serbia trying to take down a sex trafficking ring.\" Rollins reveals to Murphy that he is in fact the father of her child. Upon hearing this, Murphy lets her know that he is now here to stay, albeit temporarily; however, he gives Rollins a secret cell number, and tells her that should she need him, he would be on a plane within an hour.", "In the twenty-third season, it is revealed Murphy has been promoted to Captain of the Hate Crimes Division. In his reappearance, it is revealed that he has not been active in Jessie's life and laments this. During a joint investigation with SVU, he spoke with Rollins and tries to reconcile with her so he could be in their daughter's life, but Rollins was uncomfortable with this.\n\nMike Dodds\n\n Portrayed by Andy Karl\n Episodes: \"Maternal Instincts\" – \"Heartfelt Passages\"", "Sergeant Mike Dodds is introduced in the season 17 episode, \"Maternal Instincts\", as the son of Deputy Chief William Dodds (Peter Gallagher), who transfers to the 16th Precinct to serve as Lieutenant Benson's second-in-command. He is a war veteran, having enlisted after 9/11 and served in Special Forces. Immediately prior to his transfer, Dodds worked Anti-Crime, and before that, he worked out of the 71st Precinct", ". Dodds is a consummate professional and devoted to his work; as a result, he takes some time to warm up to his new colleagues but he gradually comes to respect and like them. He is shot in the line of duty while pursuing serial killer Dr. Gregory Yates in upstate New York but eventually recovers", ". Gregory Yates in upstate New York but eventually recovers. Only a few months into his tenure, he is offered a position with the Joint Terrorism Task Force by his father but decides to stay with SVU, boldly going against the Deputy Chief's wishes (the elder Dodds had meant for his son's time at SVU to be nothing more than a career step). In \"Manhattan Transfer\", Dodds is made Acting Commander of SVU after Lt. Olivia Benson is relieved of her duties", ". Olivia Benson is relieved of her duties. In the subsequent episode, Dodds leads SVU's continued investigation into a sex trafficking ring while continuing to consult Benson. He happily returns command of SVU back over to Benson after the case is closed. In \"Heartfelt Passages\", Dodds is shot in the stomach during a hostage situation. He makes it through surgery, but he later suffers a stroke in the ICU and is put on life support", ". He makes it through surgery, but he later suffers a stroke in the ICU and is put on life support. After its determined that Dodds is brain dead, he is taken off life support and dies. Both Chief Dodds and the entire SVU squad were devastated by his death and Olivia Benson suffers from survivor's guilt. It is shown a few months after the tragic event that the Deputy Chief still holds Olivia responsible for what happened to his son. As Olivia herself admits, \"he's not wrong\".", "As seen in \"Heartfelt Passages\", Sgt. Dodds is a recipient of the US Flag Bar, World Trade Center Breast Bar, NYPD Meritorious Police Duty, NYPD Excellent Police Duty, and NYPD 150th Commemorative Breast Bar.\n\nKatriona \"Kat\" Tamin\n Portrayed by Jamie Gray Hyder\n \n Episodes: \"I'm Going to Make You a Star\" – \"Never Turn Your Back on Them\"", "Detective Katriona \"Kat\" Tamin is introduced in the Season 21 premiere \"I'm Going to Make You a Star\". Having worked undercover with the NYPD Vice Unit, she is called on by Benson to assist SVU in building a case against an influential media mogul. In the later episode \"The Burden of Our Choices\", she transfers to Benson's squad as a detective-in-training and is placed under the supervision of Fin and Rollins. She sometimes acts recklessly and against orders, a pattern of behavior that concerns Benson.", "Tamin is bisexual.\n\nIn Season 22, when Tutuola and Tamin were walking to celebrate with Sergeant Baker and Benson, he accidentally revealed that Kat was finally promoted to Detective, and they were going to celebrate her promotion.\n\nIn September 2021, it was announced that Gray Hyder would leave the show after the two-hour premiere of season 23. After getting shot and nearly dying, Tamin realizes that SVU is too much for her and decides to resign.", "Christian Garland\n Portrayed by Demore Barnes\n Episodes: \"Down Low in Hell's Kitchen\" – \"Tangled Strands of Justice\"\nChristian Garland is career police officer and former Deputy Chief of the SVU, replace William Dodds. In \"Tangled Strands of Justice\", he mentions joining the NYPD just months before the September 11 attacks. Like Stabler, he is a second-generation cop. He and his wife Lamai (Trian Long-Smith) have a daughter.", "When he was first appointed Benson's superior in \"Down Low In Hell's Kitchen\", the other SVU detectives viewed him with suspicion as he appeared to be too worried about politics. He wins their respect after he went undercover (he fit the profile targeted by the rapist). His involvement in a highly controversial and sensitive case upset many in the police force, especially the corrupt ones, led him to become a target of the higher-ups", ". As a result, he resigned so he would be able to leave with his reputation intact and on his own terms. After his resignation, he became Deputy Mayor. He is reunited with his former colleagues at the SVU when he approached them for help on a missing persons case from 2001.", "Joe Velasco\n Portrayed by Octavio Pisano\n Episodes: \"And the Empire Strikes Back\" – present", "Detective Jose \"Joe\" Velasco is a detective reassigned to SVU by Tommy McGrath, the new chief of detectives, after Katriona Tamin's retirement. Velasco is originally from Ciudad Juárez, a Mexican city bordering El Paso, Texas. He grew up with a physically abusive father and ran with the wrong crowd. The local drug cartel recruited him but he could not go through with the initiation, which required him to commit murder", ". His local parish priest helped him and his mother immigrate to the United State to escape the cartel.", "The character is first introduced in the season 23 premiere \"And the Empire Strikes Back\" when the SVU arrests him during a bust and discover that he was undercover. In \"The One You Feed\", he meets Gang Unit Captain Mike Duarte during a joint investigation and Duarte attempts to recruit him after learning about his background. At the end of the episode, he tells Benson that he wishes to stay in SVU and is put in charge of training Muncy.", "Velasco had a rough start after his permanent transfer to SVU due to the heinous nature of some of the crimes the unit regularly investigates. Benson comes to value him as a member of her team and he strikes up a friendship with the other detectives, as well as ADA Carisi. In season 24, he is invited to stand witness to Rollins and Carisi's civil marriage ceremony despite having only worked with them for a year", ". Like Carisi, he was raised and is a practicing Catholic and crimes involving church authorities particularly disgust him.", "Grace Muncy \n Portrayed by Molly Burnett\n Episodes: \"The One You Feed\" – \"All Pain Is One Malady\"", "Detective Grace Muncy is an inexperienced detective from Captain Duarte's Gang Unit in the Bronx. She was the only white female detective and was rarely sent on undercover assignments since most gangs the unit dealt with were from ethnic minorities. Instead, she would be assigned to talk to witnesses or the gang members' girlfriends and spouses to get information, a skill which Benson compliments her", ". When Duarte and Benson join forces due to a rape case involving a gang Duarte had already been investigating, Muncy is assigned to the SVU.", "Muncy initially has a rough start at her new assignment due to her temper and overconfidence and gets on the wrong side of Fin for leaving food in his car and returning it to him with an empty gas tank. In \"And a Trauma in a Pear Tree\", she was unable to keep her emotions in check during a cross-examination in court and her testimony was thrown out and the case declared a mistrial due to her outburst, earning her the ire of ADA Carisi", ". She becomes a permanent fixture in the SVU following Rollins' departure from the NYPD. Over time, she learns to keep her emotions in check and forms a friendship with Velasco, who Benson had assigned to train her. They form a friendship, to the extent that in \"The Presence Of Absence\", she becomes extremely hostile towards Churlish after the latter reported Velasco for failing to follow protocol while interrogating a criminal.", "She has a brother named Teddy, who was first mentioned in the episode \"The One You Feed\". He later becomes a suspect in a rape case that the SVU was investigating when Churlish runs into him during an undercover operation. In her introductory episode, she tells Benson that their mother left them a house in Queens but the siblings chose to rent their own place instead.\n\nIn the season 24 finale, she decides to leave the SVU to join a joint NYPD-DEA task force.\n\nAssistant district attorneys\n\nAbbie Carmichael", "Assistant district attorneys\n\nAbbie Carmichael\n\n Portrayed by Angie Harmon\t\n Episodes: \"Payback\" – \"Entitled\"\n\nIn season 1, ADA Abbie Carmichael, from Law & Order, prosecuted SVU cases for six episodes.\n\nAlexandra Cabot\n\n Portrayed by Stephanie March\n Episodes: \"Wrong is Right\" – \"Loss\", \"Ghost\", \"Lead\" – \"Liberties\", \"Hardwired\" – \"Witness\", \"Scorched Earth\" – \"Learning Curve\", \"Sunk Cost Fallacy\"", "ADA Alexandra Cabot first appears in the season 2 premiere episode \"Wrong Is Right\", when she is assigned by the DA and Police Commissioner to work with SVU as their permanent ADA. She serves as SVU's ADA until the fourth episode of season 5, in which she survives an assassination attempt by a drug cartel's hitman and subsequently enters the Witness Protection Program", ". In the season 6 episode \"Ghost\", she returned to testify against her assassin, but quickly disappears back into Witness Protection after the trial.", "She appeared in the 2006 short-lived Law & Order spinoff Conviction as Bureau Chief of the homicide unit. In season 10, she makes a surprise return to SVU as the temporary ADA, replacing ADA Greylek, for six episodes, starting with the episode \"Lead\". Although Cabot was absent for the first four episodes of season 11, she becomes their permanent ADA in the fifth episode (\"Hardwired\") after EADA Sonya Paxton entered court-ordered alcohol rehab", ". She left SVU in the season 11 episode \"Witness\" to work for the International Criminal Court to seek justice for rape victims in the Congo. She later returned in the season 13 premiere \"Scorched Earth\", in which Cabot is the lead prosecutor in a rape case against a man who is the favorite to become Italy's next prime minister. She is the prosecutor in seven episodes, sharing the ADA duties with Casey Novak and Bureau Chief Mike Cutter", ". Cabot's last episode of season 13 was \"Learning Curve\" in which she is aiding in the investigation of a school molestation scandal.", "Elizabeth Donnelly\n\n Portrayed by Judith Light\n Episodes: \"Guilt\" – \"Cold\", \"Persona\", \"Zebras\", \"Behave\"", "Elizabeth Donnelly was SVU's Bureau Chief Assistant District Attorney from seasons 3 to 6. In the District Attorney's office, she serves as the supervisor for ADA Cabot and her successor Casey Novak. Donnelly is elevated to judge in season 7. In the season 10 episode \"Persona\", Donnelly takes a leave of absence from her role as a judge and resumes her previous role as an Executive ADA to prosecute a cold case she was involved with in 1974, when a battered woman (Brenda Blethyn) murdered her husband", ". She admits to Benson that she was somewhat responsible for the woman absconding from custody and therefore took on the case due to \"unfinished business.\" Her role in the escape leads to mishaps in the justice system being termed \"doing a Donnelly\" for many years to follow. This episode calls attention to the difficulty Donnelly experiences as a woman working in the justice system", ". But the revelation that the fugitive had been pregnant at the time of her crime leads Donnelly to what, for her, is an act of leniency. She leaves the office, yet again, and returns to the role of a judge.", "From season 7 through 12, the SVU ADAs work without a Bureau Chief supervising their work, and are watched more closely by the District Attorney. In season 13, Executive ADA Michael Cutter (Linus Roache) is transferred from homicide to take over Donnelly's former role as supervisor.\n\nStan Villani\n Portrayed by Ron Leibman\n Episodes: \"Repression\" – \"Ridicule\"", "Stan Villani\n Portrayed by Ron Leibman\n Episodes: \"Repression\" – \"Ridicule\"\n\nStan Villani is an Executive Assistant District Attorney. He was briefly assigned to oversee SVU cases and to sit co-chair with A.D.A. Alexandra Cabot by District Attorney Nora Lewin.\n\nCasey Novak", "Portrayed by Diane Neal\n Episodes: \"Serendipity\" – \"Cold\", \"Reparations\", \"Blood Brothers\" – \"Valentine's Day\"", "Casey Novak was SVU's Assistant District Attorney from seasons 5 to 9, replacing ADA Alexandra Cabot. Although she quickly loses her innocence when dealing with sex crimes, she still shows uneasiness when dealing with the gray areas of human involvement, preferring the letter of the law to the messiness of each individual reality. Nonetheless, Novak has a 71 percent success rate in the cases she prosecutes, whereas the average for prosecutors is 44 percent", ". After initial hesitation, she becomes particularly close to Stabler as they bond over being Catholic and a love of sports. It is revealed that in her final year of law school, Novak was engaged to a man, Charlie, who suffered from schizophrenia. She ended the relationship when his symptoms became so severe she felt she could no longer be intimate with him. In 2002, Charlie attacked her in her home during a psychotic episode. She convinced the police not to press charges, but ended the relationship", ". She convinced the police not to press charges, but ended the relationship. He eventually became homeless, and was found dead as a \"John Doe\" in the spring of 2007. She developed a deep compassion for the mentally ill afterward, but still feels guilty for not being able to help him, as shown in season 9's \"Blinded.\" She states that she is a big supporter of the U.S military. She says that her father was an M-60 Door Gunner on a Huey during the Vietnam War", ".S military. She says that her father was an M-60 Door Gunner on a Huey during the Vietnam War. His helicopter crashed three times and he received a Purple Heart. In season 9, her final year as the SVU ADA, she grew increasingly more reckless and unsure in her prosecution. It is implied that friend and former boss Liz Donnelly (Judith Light) aided in her censure, leading to her replacement by ADA Kim Greylek in season 10.", "It is revealed that Novak was censured for three years and subsequently re-hired by the DA's office. This is explained in the season 12 episode \"Reparations\", where she returns to SVU as their temporary ADA to prosecute a rape case. She is opposed by Law & Order: LA Deputy District Attorney Jonah Dekker (Terrence Howard) who is representing the defendant", ". Casey not only finds herself at odds with Dekker, but also Judge Lena Petrovsky (Joanna Merlin), to whom she had previously lied in the season 9 finale (\"Cold\"), which ultimately led to her censure.", "ADA Novak returned as a recurring character, along with ADA Cabot, in season 13. She was last seen as the lead prosecutor in \"Valentine's Day\", in which she goes up against Defense Attorney Marvin Exley (Ron Rifkin), who is defending a woman who seems to have fabricated her own abduction.\n\nKim Greylek\n\n Portrayed by Michaela McManus\n Episodes: \"Trials\" – \"Lead\"", "Kim Greylek was the SVU's Assistant District Attorney who replaced Casey Novak at the beginning of season 10. Greylek previously worked in the U.S. Department of Justice's Office on Violence Against Women in Washington, D.C. where she had the nickname of \"The Crusader.\" A dogged prosecutor, she pushed the detectives to make cases for the sake of politics in favor of pursuing actual offenders", ". She can be unrelenting, threatening to charge a defendant with a hate crime for raping two women in the season 10 premiere, and having a teenage boy charged with assaulting a police officer so he can be tested for HIV. In the episode \"Babes\", Greylek also angers a woman believed to be involved with a young girl's suicide, but she was found not guilty", ". After gloating about her innocence, the woman attacks Greylek for correcting her about being \"innocent\" and to wash the blood off her hands before holding her daughter's baby. When the officers pull the woman off her, Greylek tells Stabler to charge her with assault.", "But Greylek also has a softer side, as she warns Stabler to get a good defense attorney after his daughter Kathleen (Allison Siko), who has bipolar disorder, is charged with breaking and entering and theft, because the DA's office will prosecute her. Greylek also rushes to get justice for three women who were drugged and raped by a man obsessed with pornography in the episode \"Smut\"", ". Greylek also seeks justice when a man is brutally beaten outside a strip club with the man's ex-wife and 13-year-old transgender daughter as the prime suspect.", "After appearing in only 14 episodes, Greylek was written out of the series in the episode \"Lead\"; in the middle of a trial where pediatrician Gilbert Keppler (Lawrence Arancio) is found guilty of molesting four of his male patients. She is last seen doing a press conference with Cragen, Benson, and Stabler on the steps of the courthouse while the doctor's attorney hands the SVU squad a lawsuit for failure to take action against Keppler immediately", ". Later in the episode, Benson and Stabler discover the doctor murdered in his home. The detectives hold CSU out of the house until Cragen and Greylek arrive. Suddenly, they see ADA Cabot walk up to the scene with Cragen. Cabot tells the detectives that the Justice Department called Greylek back to Washington and DA Jack McCoy (Sam Waterston) let her leave immediately.", "Sonya Paxton\n\n Portrayed by Christine Lahti\n Episodes: \"Unstable\" – \"Hammered\", \"Turmoil\", \"Gray\", \"Pursuit\"", "Sonya Paxton was SVUs Executive ADA who temporarily replaced Alexandra Cabot for four episodes in season 11, starting with the season premiere, \"Unstable\". Paxton works in the Manhattan District Attorney's office under the authority of Jack McCoy (Sam Waterston; Law & Order), as an Executive Assistant District Attorney. A member of the DA's office for over 25 years, she has a black-and-white view of the law, and makes sure all procedures are handled \"by the book", ".\" Working in the Appeals bureau, she was the first to get a Capital Conviction in New York when the then newly elected Governor George Pataki brought back the death penalty in 1995. McCoy sends Paxton to SVU to \"clean house\" in the \"he-said, she-said unit\" due to too many convictions being overturned. However, things start out rocky as she butts heads with the SVU team, particularly Detective Stabler", ". In the second episode \"Sugar\", she and Stabler get into a heated argument after Paxton calls the suspect's lawyer after he declines his right to counsel twice. In the fourth episode \"Hammered\", Paxton is prosecuting a case where a man drank heavily and murders the woman he met at the bar. The defense blames alcoholism for the murder during the trial", ". The defense blames alcoholism for the murder during the trial. Intending to use a computer-generated video mockup of the crime, Paxton accidentally plays a version in which the defendant's face is superimposed onto the attacker. Paxton is embarrassed and meets Benson and Stabler at a bar where she is seen drinking. The following morning, she arrives 45 minutes late to the mistrial hearing, appearing distraught and blaming a \"fender bender\"", ". Judge Barry Moredock (John Cullum) asks if she needed medical help, but the defendant points out that she is drunk. Moredock orders Benson to come with a breathalyzer, which reveals her blood alcohol level is .082, resulting in a mistrial. Moredock orders Paxton to seek treatment. At the end of the episode, she returns to the SVU precinct and apologizes to the team, stating that she intends on making amends to each and every one of them.", "She later appears in the season 11 episode \"Turmoil\", meeting ADA Cabot outside the courtroom after Cabot discovers she is being investigated by the state bar. Paxton tells her to watch out for Benson and Stabler, because they are only loyal to each other.", "In season 12, Paxton makes a surprise return to SVU and served as the Executive ADA in the ninth episode (\"Gray\") to prove to the DA that she hadn't lost her 'winning ways'. Paxton and Stabler go at it again, with Stabler telling her to \"go have a drink.\" In the seventeenth episode (\"Pursuit\"), she returns again to help an old friend, Alicia Harding (Debra Messing), who is being stalked. Paxton tells the SVU squad that she has been working to find Harding's missing sister for decades, as it was her case", ". She also tells them that she started drinking in part because she felt responsible for the killer having never been caught. She releases confidential case information to Harding, which puts Harding in danger. Benson and Tutuola go looking for Paxton at an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting to reprimand her for giving out the information. Benson makes a shocking discovery when entering the women's restroom – Paxton is bleeding to death on the floor", ". As Benson tries to help her, Paxton says \"It's okay, I got him,\" and she dies in Benson's arms. M.E. Melinda Warner (Tamara Tunie) discovers a hair in Paxton's throat, which she got by biting her attacker—which ultimately helps solve the case.", "Christine Lahti was originally slated to guest-star in a single four episode-arc as Executive ADA Sonya Paxton, in the eleventh season of the long-running Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, while producers found a permanent replacement for outgoing ADA Alexandra Cabot (Stephanie March). Lahti couldn't commit to a permanent role, since she resides in Chicago, while filming of SVU takes place in New York City", ". SVU executive producer Neal Baer revealed that, \"She's [Paxton] from Appeals and she's tired of having rape cases overturned because of misidentifications. She's coming to clean things up.\" She returns again in the eighth episode of that season to \"clash\" with Cabot.", "According to Lahti, Paxton was originally written as a control freak, \"needing to always be right and prove others wrong\"—but behind this were Paxton's fears, insecurities, low self-esteem and an alcohol problem.", "Lahti again returned to SVU for two episodes, in the series' twelfth season. In response to Lahti's return, Baer stated, \"We're bringing back characters we love this season.\" Lahti's character was written out of the series by way of death; such is a rarity for those who work with the SVU team on the show, with only a few other characters encountering a similar fate, including CSU technician Ryan O'Halloran (Mike Doyle) in the tenth season, and Sergeant Mike Dodds (Andy Karl) in the seventeenth season.", "TV Guide described the character as an \"overbearing\", \"nasty\" alcoholic. Myra Fleischer of the Washington Times labelled Lahti's character as a \"bitchy alcoholic\".", "WPIX described Paxton as an \"ADA with a dark side\" who has \"serious control issues and several skeletons in her closet\". On the day of the airing of the episode \"Hammered\", Lahti stated that Paxton is the person that \"everyone's loving to hate\", and that hopefully the viewer's perception of her would change after the episode, sympathizing with the character's drinking problem.", "Previously.TV, while noting the misleading representations of lawyers on television, commented on the realism of Paxton's alcoholism storyline, contending that it \"could happen, as alcoholism among lawyers is an issue.\"", "In an interview with HollywoodOutbreak.com, Lahti said she believed that her character struck a huge chord in the show, \"...when those episodes were airing, everywhere I went, people came up to me and said how much they hate me\", others approached Lahti and praised her, saying, \"We love that you’re so mean to Stabler (Christopher Meloni). We’ve been waiting for someone to stand up to him.\"\n\nLahti appeared in 7 episodes of SVU as Paxton, more than any other character in the Executive ADA capacity.", "Jo Marlowe\n\nPortrayed by Sharon Stone\nEpisodes: \"Torch\" – \"Shattered\"", "ADA Jo Marlowe is drafted by DA Jack McCoy in season 11 after ADA Alexandra Cabot takes a leave of absence to help rape victims in the Congo. She is a former police lieutenant and Detective Stabler's partner approximately four years before he paired with Detective Benson. She first appears in the 21st episode of the season, \"Torch\", in which McCoy directs her to handle a case in which two young girls were killed in a fire", ". Stabler and Benson show up at the crime scene and Stabler is shocked to see his old partner and more surprised to know she now works for the DA's office. Benson believes Marlowe only took the job as SVU's ADA so that she could work with Stabler again.", "In the following episode, \"Ace\", Marlowe and Captain Cragen clash over the way to handle a case in which a baby-trafficking ring is discovered and a young woman and her baby are in danger. Marlowe orders Benson and Stabler to catch the ring's leader in the act, while Cragen wants ESU to take the perp at his warehouse. Cragen remarks to Marlowe, \"You're the boss in court counselor, not here", ". Cragen remarks to Marlowe, \"You're the boss in court counselor, not here.\" Marlowe leaves the precinct only to have Cragen follow her outside, where he reminds her of \"why she really retired\" back in 1995: when she was a lieutenant she had sent two undercover detectives who later died in an attempt to arrest a drive-by murderer. Marlowe responds it was a \"Command decision.\" Cragen's detectives do arrest the ringleader, while Cragen saves the young woman in the warehouse", ".\" Cragen's detectives do arrest the ringleader, while Cragen saves the young woman in the warehouse. Marlowe is able to convict the leader by using his delivery doctor's testimony, which he delivered in the judge's chambers for protection.", "In the season 11 finale, \"Shattered\", Marlowe is taken hostage, along with Detective Benson and Dr. Warner, in the morgue by Sophie Gerard (Isabelle Huppert), the distraught mother of a dead boy. Gerard shoots Dr. Warner and Benson and Marlowe must take action to save her life. In talking the mother down, Marlowe says she knows what it is like to be in pain as she reveals that she was diagnosed with an \"aggressive\" type of cancer and had a bilateral radical mastectomy a year before taking the job at SVU", ". Marlowe makes Gerard drop the gun by picking up the dead boy and saying that he needs his mother and handing him to her. ADA Gillian Hardwicke replaces Marlowe as SVU's permanent ADA at the beginning of season 12.", "Entertainment Weekly reviewed Stone's performance as a \"great presence\", and having \"had to revive her best ... tone to sell hokey lines\" in a series it described as \"mawkish and overwrought.\"\n\nSherri West\n Portrayed by Francie Swift\n Episodes: \"Bullseye\", \"Behave\", \"Delinquent\", \"Smoked\", and \"Double Strands\"", "Sherri West is brought in as a temporary ADA to start season 12. West first appears in the second episode, where she is the prosecutor on a case where a pedophile is kidnapping and raping young girls. When the suspect is brutally beaten in the SVU holding cell by an officer, West assures the judge that violence against the defendant will not occur again", ". West next appeared in the third episode, \"Behave\", in which Benson works with to get justice for a rape victim named Vicki Sayers (Jennifer Love Hewitt), and to ensure that Bill Harris (James Le Gros), her rapist, is put away.", "West returned in the 23rd episode, \"Delinquent\". When SVU detectives find a teenage boy named Hunter Mazelon (Sterling Beaumon) naked and asleep in a young woman's bed, West tells them that she can't charge him with a sex crime but he can be charged with burglary and criminal trespassing, among other charges. When Hunter says during his arraignment that Stabler molested him after handcuffing him, West's case is in jeopardized, since there was also no actual victim", ". West manages to get Mazelon to allocute, which he did falsely, but Stabler wished for West to call for a recess. Tutuola and Stabler comment about how they have been “burning through ADAs” and maybe West cut the deal to cover Stabler so that they would like her.", "In the season 12 finale \"Smoked\", a rape victim is murdered days before her trial is set to start. West is called again and pushes Benson and Stabler to find the victim's murderer. Benson and Stabler, with West's help, discover the murder was orchestrated by the rapist, a friend, and a greedy ATF agent. West never gets the chance to convict anyone, however, the victim's daughter kills all three defendants in the SVU squad room, before Stabler is forced to shoot her dead.", "In the fourth episode of season 13, \"Double Strands\", West appears back in the SVU precinct, but now as a defense attorney; it is revealed that the firm that hired her \"offered her a better deal.\"\n\nGillian Hardwicke\nPortrayed by Melissa Sagemiller\nEpisodes: \"Branded\" – \"Bombshell\"", "Gillian \"Gill\" Hardwicke was SVU's primary ADA in season 12. She is a Brooklyn ADA who transfers to Manhattan SVU due to her great admiration for detectives Benson and Stabler. She replaces Mikka Von (Paula Patton), who had been fired after only one case with the SVU team. Hardwicke has a 92% conviction rate as she stated in her premiere episode, \"Branded\"", ". Hardwicke has a 92% conviction rate as she stated in her premiere episode, \"Branded\". She often gets into conflict over cases with Benson and Stabler; with Benson over a case where a woman was raped as a teenager and she began seeking revenge on her attackers, branding them with hot clothes hangers. She and Benson also clash when Vivian Arliss (Maria Bello)—who gave custody of her son Calvin (Charlie Tahan) to Benson—is a suspect in a string of burglaries", ". Hardwicke and Stabler get into conflict over a case where presumably, a boy named Nicky Roberts (Al Calderon), shot and killed his abusive stepfather; she is eventually forced to drop the case because both Nicky and his mother Sandra (Drea de Matteo) admit to killing him, creating reasonable doubt for both of them. In \"Penetration\", Hardwicke convicts a man who raped FBI Agent Dana Lewis (Marcia Gay Harden) while she was undercover, on orders from Brian Ackerman (J. C", ". C. MacKenzie), the leader of a white supremacist group who is angry at Lewis for killing his son Kyle in the season 7 episode \"Raw\".", "In her final episode, \"Bombshell\", Hardwicke attempts to convict twins Cassandra (Rose McGowan) and Doug (Ryan Hurst)—who are also in a sexual relationship—for their involvement in a man's brutal stabbing along with fraud crimes in New York and Miami. They are released on bail due to lack of evidence, which leads to Doug's murder by Cassandra's former lover Jerry Bullard (Tom Irwin)", ". Hardwicke is mentioned in the episode \"Reparations\" as Tutuola says she is at a convention in Miami, before ADA Casey Novak returns as their temporary prosecutor. West then assumes the temporary ADA role for the final two episodes in season 12.", "Melissa Sagemiller had previously been on SVU in season 1 episode \"Russian Love Poem\", portraying a rape victim. Sagemiller said about her character's personality: \"She's tough... she has a heart, she just gets what she wants.\" Sagemiller also added, \"She sticks to the letter of the law, sometimes to a fault, but in the end I think she always does the right thing.\"\n\nMichael Cutter\n\nPortrayed by Linus Roache\nEpisodes: \"Scorched Earth\", \"True Believers\", \"Lost Traveller\", \"Father's Shadow\"", "Executive ADA Michael Cutter from seasons 18-20 of Law & Order has been promoted to Bureau Chief ADA of the Special Victims unit, where he is supervising ADAs Alexandra Cabot and Casey Novak. Both Cabot and Novak were previously supervised by Bureau Chief ADA Elizabeth Donnelly, before she was elevated to judgeship in season 7. The season 13 premiere, \"Scorched Earth\", was Cutter's first appearance on SVU, in which he helps Cabot with her prosecution of an Italian diplomat accused of raping a hotel maid.", "In \"True Believers\", Cutter takes the lead in a case where a college music student (Sofia Vassilieva) is raped at gunpoint by a drug dealer. Defense attorney Bayard Ellis (Andre Braugher) accuses \nthe NYPD of racially profiling the defendant, who is African-American, and reveals that Tutuola and Rollins frisked three identical suspects - all of which result in Cutter losing the case.", "In the episode \"Lost Traveller\", ADA Cabot is forced to call on Cutter after defense attorney Marvin Exley (Ron Rifkin) tells her to \"call her boss\" to work out a deal for his client. In \"Father's Shadow\", Cutter is the lead prosecutor when a reality show producer named Fred Sandow (Michael McKean) is accused of raping young first-time actresses", ". Cutter's office does not drop the charges, even when the producer's son takes his father's girlfriend and her daughter hostage and demands that his father be set free.", "David Haden\n\nPortrayed by Harry Connick, Jr.\nEpisodes: \"Official Story\", \"Father's Shadow\", \"Hunting Ground\", \"Justice Denied\"", "Executive Assistant District Attorney David Haden joins the show in the season 13, \"Official Story\", with a four-episode arc. Referred to as the executive assistant to the District Attorney, or the DA's \"number two\", Haden is a dedicated prosecutor who is assigned a case with Benson and the SVU squad when the CEO of a private military contractor is confronted by Occupy Wall Street protesters and later found drugged and sexually assaulted in a park", ". A much larger crime and conspiracy in Iraq is unveiled, with a rape occurring overseas and the rape kit being kept hidden. Haden and the SVU detectives are threatened by the CEO (John Doman), but Haden dismisses the threat, telling Benson, \"This is what I live for.\" Although Benson is at first wary of Haden, they are both surprised to find they work well together. As the case develops, so does their relationship, as they share dinner and a kiss at the end of the episode.", "In the following episode, \"Father's Shadow\", Haden offers to take Benson to dinner, but she respectfully declines, saying she is still on duty and joking there would be a possible conflict of interest. Later, Haden shows up at the scene of a hostage situation, in which Benson is trying to talk a teenage boy down from killing his younger sister. After Benson finally convinces the boy to give her the gun, Haden comforts her and offers to take her home", ". In \"Hunting Ground\", Haden and Benson's relationship becomes romantic as they work together to catch a serial killer; they are shown on a date and later sleeping together.", "In \"Justice Denied\", Haden becomes involved in an SVU case in which it appears that Benson had coerced a confession out of a man eight years earlier and the real rapist is attacking women again. After defense attorney Bayard Ellis questions their relationship and threatens to expose them, Haden and Benson have to decide how they are going to handle the case without having their judgement clouded", ". At the end of the episode, after the real rapist has been caught and the wrongfully imprisoned man released, Cragen informs Benson that the District Attorney has decided to form a Conviction Integrity Unit to investigate past cases and ensure no one is wrongfully imprisoned. Cragen says that the DA's office will be starting with sex crimes, and that Haden has been appointed as the Bureau Chief of the unit", ". Benson and Haden meet for drinks and decide that they have to end their relationship and pretend like it never happened.", "In the 13th-season finale episode, \"Rhodium Nights\", Defense Attorney Marvin Exley (Ron Rifkin) tells Benson that Haden may not be the person he claims to be, hinting that Haden is corrupt. It is revealed in the season 14 premiere that Haden's name came up on the wire tap in the investigation of an escort service", ". At the end of the episode, after several members of the DA's office are arrested for bribery and corruption, including Bureau Chief Paula Foster (Paget Brewster), Amaro tells Benson that Haden resigned from the office.", "Rafael Barba\n\nPortrayed by Raúl Esparza\nEpisodes: \"Twenty-Five Acts\" – \"The Undiscovered Country\", \"Redemption In Her Corner\" – \"A Final Call At Forlini's Bar\"", "Assistant District Attorney Rafael Barba is brought in at the behest of temporary SVU captain, Steven Harris (Adam Baldwin), when Barba requests a transfer from Brooklyn to Manhattan after he prosecutes two johns for raping a prostitute. Barba is a headstrong, by-the-book prosecutor, who puts pressure on not only the detectives, but also the victims and witnesses", ". In his first case, he prosecutes a rape similar to one portrayed in the best selling erotic novel Twenty-Five Acts, supposedly written by the victim, Jocelyn Paley (Anna Chlumsky). Barba tells the detectives to uncover anything and everything about Paley and her attacker. After rushing to put Paley on the stand to testify, Barba and the detectives discover that she did not write the book, which forces Barba to get creative with the trial", ". When Barba exposes the defendant's viciousness by taunting him with a belt, the jury finds the defendant guilty.", "ADA Barba goes head to head with the Suffolk County District Attorney, Pam James (Jane Kaczmarek), in the episode \"Beautiful Frame\", after a Manhattan rape victim is charged with murder of her ex-boyfriend in Suffolk County. Benson questions the charges against the woman and gathers enough evidence for Barba to put another man on trial for the murder, as Barba and James race to get a conviction before the other", ". Barba and the SVU detectives uncover a scandal within the Suffolk County DA's office, as one of James' investigators set the young woman up for the murder. Barba offers to spare James' office further embarrassment as long as the investigator is convicted for the murder in Suffolk County.", "In the episode, \"Funny Valentine\", Barba and the detectives have a tough time convincing pop star Micha Green (Tiffany Robinson) to testify against her abusive boyfriend, hip-hop artist Caleb Bryant (Eugene Jones III). After a shooting that kills her manager with Bryant as a suspect, Barba and Benson convince Green to testify to the grand jury. But when she finally takes the stand, she tells Barba that Bryant was not at the scene and instead says Barba and Benson put those words in her mouth", ". The couple flees on a vacation, where Bryant finally beats Green to death.", "Towards the end of the fourteenth season, Barba becomes close with the squad, and they rely on his legal advice on many of their assigned cases. In the episode \"Undercover Blue\", Benson goes to Barba in an attempt to provide evidence that could potentially exonerate Brian Cassidy (Dean Winters) against a rape charge", ". In the season finale \"Her Negotiation\", Rollins calls Barba in on a weekend for a misdemeanor case in which she senses the accused, William Lewis (Pablo Schreiber) is more dangerous than he seems. When Lewis turns out to be a serial rapist and murderer, Barba tries to put him in prison, but Lewis’ lawyer (and lover) manages to get the charges dropped. Soon afterward, Lewis kidnaps and tortures Benson, who escapes after beating him within an inch of his life", ". In “Psycho/Therapist”, Barba faces Lewis in court when the latter acts as his own lawyer and accuses Benson of assaulting him. Barba manages to convict Lewis of kidnapping, unaware that Benson gave perjured testimony.", "Esparza was added to the opening credits in season 15, making Barba the squad's fourth full-time ADA. On February 7, 2018, Esparza left the series after six seasons in the episode \"The Undiscovered Country\". In this episode, Barba disconnects a severely handicapped baby's life support in a mercy killing and is charged with murder. Although he is found innocent, he decides that it is time to move on from the DA's office.\n\nPeter Stone", "Peter Stone\n\nPortrayed by Philip Winchester\nEpisodes: \"The Undiscovered Country\" - \"End Game\"", "Assistant District Attorney Peter Stone is appointed by District Attorney Jack McCoy as special counsel prosecuting Rafael Barba in the death of a terminally ill child in the episode \"The Undiscovered Country\". First introduced in the Chicago P.D", ". First introduced in the Chicago P.D. third season episode \"Justice\" and appearing in his own show, Chicago Justice, Stone, the son of the late Executive ADA Ben Stone (Michael Moriarty) has spent most of his adult life in Chicago, primarily as prosecutor with the State's Attorney's office in Cook County.", "In his first appearance at Law & Order: SVU, Stone attends his father's funeral before being brought in to prosecute Barba. However, when Benson confronts him during the trial and he admits he sympathizes with Barba but cannot ignore the prosecution because he fears it will set a bad example to others, she urges him to talk to Barba and be more reasonable with him. This later results in Barba being found not guilty, a result Stone ultimately approves of.", "After Barba resigns, traumatized by the case, Stone takes over as ADA overseeing the Manhattan SVU. His stint begins to a rocky start, particularly with initial tension with the rest of the members of the SVU team due to Barba's sudden departure", ". He soon begins to grow into the job and bond with them, particularly as he reveals that he was a professional baseball player in the Chicago Cubs' minor league system, briefly called up to the major leagues, but was forced to retire from the game due to injury that tore his ligament. He also has a sister named Pamela (Amy Korb) who suffers from paranoid schizophrenia and whom their father committed to a psychiatric hospital. Peter visits her every week after their father's death.", "When Pamela begins to show signs of memory loss, believing that he is their father, Stone reluctantly increases her medication on her doctor's advice, concerned that stopping the medication could cause her to become suicidal. In the episode \"Remember Me, Too\", Pamela is abducted by members of a criminal network Peter is prosecuting, who ultimately invade the psychiatric hospital and shoot her. Pamela dies in her devastated brother's arms", ". Pamela dies in her devastated brother's arms. In the season 20 premiere \"Man Up\", it is revealed that Stone blames himself for her death, and has been drinking heavily and having anonymous sex to numb the guilt. In the final episode of season 20, Stone devises a fake prosecution to entrap serial rapist Rob Miller (Titus Welliver), and tells one of his victims to lie under oath. The ruse is revealed, making Miller so angry that he incriminates himself - just as Stone planned", ". The ruse is revealed, making Miller so angry that he incriminates himself - just as Stone planned. While his plan is successful, however, he realizes that he let his emotions get the better of his legal ethics, and that he has to resign to make sure it doesn't happen again.", "Dominick Carisi Jr.\n\nAssistant District Attorney Dominick \"Sonny\" Carisi Jr. is introduced in the season 16 premiere, \"Girls Disappeared\". He originally serves as Detective Amaro's temporary replacement when Amaro is reassigned to Queens. In the fifth episode of season 16, it is revealed he has permanently joined the Manhattan SVU team.", "Carisi is an inexperienced detective who transfers to the Manhattan Special Victims Unit as Detective Nick Amaro's (Danny Pino) temporary replacement when Amaro is reassigned to Queens. He began his law enforcement career as a patrol officer in the Bronx. After getting his detective's shield, he did some time in Vice and then did short stints in the Special Victims Units in the Bronx, Brooklyn and Staten Island before transferring to Manhattan SVU.", "Carisi and his three sisters grew up \"off Arden Avenue\" in Staten Island, where their parents still reside; in real-life, it is located within one of the few remaining New York City districts with a significant population of Italian-Americans. He comes from a tight-knit family and has spoken fondly of his parents, sisters and various relatives. A fourth-generation Italian-American, his great-grandfather immigrated to the United States from Turin as a boy", ". He was raised and still is a practicing Roman Catholic; two of his cousins are in the priesthood and he had aspired to do so as a child.", "Carisi gets off to a rough start with his new colleagues in the sixteenth season premiere episode \"Girls Disappeared\", coming off as blunt and insensitive during his initial meeting with Sergeant Olivia Benson (Mariska Hargitay) and Detective Amanda Rollins (Kelli Giddish). He is nonetheless a talented detective with a knack for interrogations, getting suspects to talk by playing \"good cop\". He also eventually wins his colleagues' respect and friendship.", "Unlike his older, more seasoned colleagues, he has difficulty keeping his emotions in check when confronted by the horrific crimes he sees, especially those involving religious leaders or the perpetrator abusing another family member. He is particularly upset by a case in which prominent dentist Neil Alexander (Paul Adelstein) rapes his own niece; while taking Alexander's fingerprints, Carisi loses his temper and nearly breaks Alexander's hand.", "In the fifth episode, it is revealed that Carisi has permanently joined the Manhattan SVU team. In the same episode, Carisi helps turn one suspect against another during the investigation of a porn star's rape, earning him praise from Benson. Throughout season 16, he mentions that he is going to night classes at Fordham University's law school. A running joke has Carisi annoying Assistant District Attorney Rafael Barba (Raúl Esparza) with unsolicited advice on how to prosecute cases", ". Barba eventually allows Carisi to shadow him for a trial, with Carisi helping Barba spot a key inconsistency in a witness' testimony. Some months later, Carisi reveals that he has recently taken the bar exam and thanks Barba for the earlier opportunity. The season 17 episode \"Intersecting Lives\" reveals that Carisi has passed the exam. At the end of the season finale \"Heartfelt Passages\", he serves as a pallbearer for Sgt", ". At the end of the season finale \"Heartfelt Passages\", he serves as a pallbearer for Sgt. Mike Dodds (Andy Karl) after the latter is killed by a corrupt corrections officer in a hostage situation. Carisi had considered applying for a ADA position but decides to stay since the SVU would be a detective down following Dodds' death.", "In \"Parole Violations\", his sister Bella's (Marin Ireland) fiancé Tommy (Michael Chernus) reports that his female parole officer raped him at gunpoint in her office. While he dislikes Tommy, Carisi comes to believe his story and works to make sure that the woman is brought to justice.\n\nIn \"Next Chapter\", he is held at gunpoint and nearly killed by a rape suspect, former police Sgt. Tom Cole (Chris Bauer). Benson saves him by shooting Cole in the back of the head, killing him.", "In \"In Loco Parentis\", Carisi's niece Mia (Ryann Shane) says she was raped by a classmate, Ethan (Sam Vartholomeos), at a college party, but later admits it was consensual. However, Ethan rapes her for real in her room after she invited him over to apologize. Carisi takes the stand in Ethan's trial and admits what Mia told him. ADA Peter Stone (Philip Winchester) gets Ethan to confess to the rape, for which he is sentenced to seven years in prison", ". Carisi helps Mia move out of her dorm and tells her that she was not at fault for what happened to her.", "In \"Sunk Cost Fallacy\", while driving a victim, Jules Hunter (Sarah Wilson), to her house, Carisi's car is hit by a car ignoring a stop sign; the driver flees the scene, with the car being reported as stolen two days prior. Carisi is injured, and Jules is killed. It is implied that their car was hit by Jules' abusive husband, Nick (Scott Porter).", "In the season 21 premiere, \"I'm Going to Make You a Star\", Carisi leaves the NYPD to become an assistant district attorney. His new role finds him caught in the middle of conflicts between his former colleagues at SVU and his new boss, Vanessa Hadid (Zuleikha Robinson), at the district attorney's office. However, his former colleagues still consider him a friend despite professional differences and Benson attended his first trial as a ADA to provide moral support", ". Of the detectives who joined the SVU after his resignation, he gets along best with Velasco and they play basketball together regularly.", "During \"She Paints For Vengeance\", he is assigned his first case as a full-fledged ADA when a young stripper/aspiring artist (Tonya Glanz) is raped by a former athlete. Carisi initially has trouble defending her and nearly resigns, but chooses to stay on the case after encouragement from Benson. The next day, he handles his job more professionally by getting the rapist to show his aggressive nature, resulting in a conviction.", "Carisi is married to former fellow SVU detective Amanda Rollins. She initially viewed him unfavorably when he first transferred to the SVU. By season 20, they develop a close friendship and he is named godfather to her second daughter Billie in the season 21 episode \"The Burden Of Our Choices\". In the season 22 finale, Carisi and Rollins kiss. In the season 23 premiere, “And the Empire Strikes Back”, it is revealed that he and Rollins are dating", ". In the season 24 episode \"And A Trauma In A Pear Tree\", they marry in a civil ceremony presided by Judge McNamara and with Benson, Fin and Velasco standing as witnesses.", "Medical experts\n\nGeorge Huang\n \n\nPortrayed by BD Wong\nEpisodes: \"Pique\" – \"Bombshell\", \"Father Dearest\", \"Born Psychopath\", \"Thought Criminal\", \"Depravity Standard\"", "Dr. Huang is an FBI forensic psychiatrist and criminal profiler, specializing in studying sexual predators and their victims. He becomes SVU's resident psychiatrist in season 3 after he was originally on loan to the squad towards the end of season 2", ". Though he is liked and respected by the SVU detectives and they generally defer to his professional judgment, his diagnoses sometimes hinder prosecutions, particularly where he finds mental illness, making defendants either not fully responsible for their crimes, or not fit to stand trial. This makes him a constant hindrance for the ADAs who are trying to prosecute the offenders. He frequently observes interrogations of suspects, advising detectives on how to best interact to obtain a confession", ". Very little is known about Huang's personal life, other than that he is gay, which he noted in season 11's \"Hardwired\", has a sister (noted in \"Inheritance\"), and that he speaks Cantonese and Mandarin.", "Dr. Huang was last seen in a main role during the season 12 episode \"Bombshell\" in which he helps Benson and Stabler get information out of a homeless man. The reason for his departure is not revealed until the season 13 episode \"Father Dearest\" in which Dr. Huang returns to the SVU squad temporarily to aid in an investigation and tells them about his new assignment in Oklahoma City", ". Huang returns to New York in the season 14 episode, \"Born Psychopath\", and helps the SVU detectives with a case involving a young boy who has become increasingly violent towards those close to him. He diagnoses the boy with antisocial personality disorder and makes arrangements to get him into a treatment facility.", "After not appearing in season 16, the first season he did not appear in since joining the show in season 2, Huang returns in the season 17 episode, \"Depravity Standard\". He tells Benson that he took early retirement from the FBI in order to return to New York, where he is now doing private consulting.\n\nMelinda Warner\n\nPortrayed by Tamara Tunie\nEpisodes: \"Noncompliance\" – \"The Five Hundredth Episode\"", "Dr. Warner is a NYC medical examiner who is one of SVU's biggest allies. Though originally a recurring character, she became a regular cast member in season 7, remaining through season 12; she reverted to being a recurring character in season 13. In the season 7 episode \"Blast\", she becomes directly involved in the efforts to rescue an eight-year-old kidnapping victim who has just been diagnosed with leukemia", ". Warner is held hostage with Detective Stabler at a bank where the hostage taker's father is the manager. When the taker demands Detective Stabler to come out of the office, he gives Warner his second gun, which she later uses to shoot the taker to prevent him from committing suicide by cop. In the season 9 episode, \"Harm\", she uses her medical skills to diagnose past torture in a victim and takes the lead in making the case to prosecute the doctor responsible", ". In the season 11 finale \"Shattered\", she is held hostage in her own morgue with Detective Benson and ADA Marlowe and is shot by the woman holding them hostage. She talks Benson through life-saving techniques before the woman lets her go to get real medical attention", ". She is well liked by the SVU squad, though briefly argues with Stabler when he accuses her of botching a DNA test on Benson, expected to absolve her of a homicide, before she discovered the DNA was intentionally doctored to make Benson look guilty. She served as a doctor in the U.S. Air Force during the Gulf War and is married with a daughter.", "Emil Skoda\n\nEmil Skoda is a psychiatrist who works with the New York Police Department. In addition to his own private practice, he often testifies for the prosecution as an expert witness on whether a defendant is legally sane to stand trial. He also profiles suspects and offers advice to the District Attorneys regarding witnesses' and suspects' mental states.", "Unlike his predecessor, Dr. Elizabeth Olivet, little has been revealed about Skoda's personal life. One exception occurs in the episode \"Burned\", in which he compares a teenage suspect to his own son and admits that he enjoys rollerblading and Nintendo.", "Skoda is also far more skeptical of defendants pleading insanity than Olivet, and quicker to believe they were faking to avoid prison. In more than one episode, both Skoda and Olivet are hired to evaluate a suspect, and argue over the appropriate diagnosis. The two doctors have radically different training and education: Olivet is a clinical psychologist with a Ph.D", ".D. earned through graduate studies and a research-based dissertation; whereas Skoda is a physician, a doctor of medicine specializing in psychiatry. Skoda also has differences in philosophy with Captain Donald Cragen, with whom he argued passionately on cases.", "As has often taken place in the Law & Order franchise, Simmons first appeared as a different character—Jerry Luppin in the Season 4 episode \"Sanctuary\". Simmons also played another character in Law & Order continuity—Colonel Alexander Rausch in the Homicide: Life on the Street Season 4 episode \"For God and Country\", a continuation of the Law & Order Season 6 episode \"Charm City\".\n\nElizabeth Rodgers\nPortrayed by Leslie Hendrix\nEpisodes: \"Payback\" – \"Misleader\"", "Elizabeth Rodgers\nPortrayed by Leslie Hendrix\nEpisodes: \"Payback\" – \"Misleader\"\n\nDr. Elizabeth Rodgers was a recurring character in the Law & Order franchise. She was the medical examiner on SVU throughout the first season and has since been replaced by Dr. Melinda Warner. She also had a recurring role on Law & Order and Law & Order: Criminal Intent and appeared in one episode of Law & Order: Trial by Jury and Exiled: A Law & Order Movie.\n\nRebecca Hendrix", "Rebecca Hendrix\n\nPortrayed by Mary Stuart Masterson\nEpisodes: \"Weak\", \"Contagious\", \"Identity\", \"Ripped\", \"Philadelphia\"", "Dr. Rebecca Hendrix is a former police officer who was at the police academy with Detective Benson. She left the force to become a psychiatrist. She initially appears for three episodes in the series' sixth season, to replace series regular BD Wong while he was performing in Broadway's Pacific Overtures. Within the series, it is said that Wong's character George Huang is on special assignment with the FBI back in Washington", ". Neal Baer stated that the character also gave him an opportunity to introduce a conflict between Benson and Stabler and said \"Stabler hasn't always felt warmly toward psychiatry, but he does warm up to this character—who has been both a cop and a shrink.\"", "Masterson reprises the role in the seventh-season episode, \"Ripped\", where she helps Detective Stabler come to terms with unresolved issues in what Baer called \"an emotionally devastating scene\". She makes a final appearance in the eighth season, episode \"Philadelphia\".\n\nRecurring characters\n\nNYPD personnel\n\nCrime Scene Unit technicians\nFull title: New York City Police Department Crime Scene Unit Forensic Technician Officers\n\nFBI special agents\n\nAssistant United States attorneys", "FBI special agents\n\nAssistant United States attorneys\n\nManhattan district attorneys\n\nChief assistant district attorneys\n\nBureau chief assistant district attorneys\n\nExecutive assistant district attorneys\n\nAssistant district attorneys\n\nTrial division chiefs\n\nDefense attorneys\n\nJudges\n\nMedical experts\n\nHospital personnel\n\nThe Stabler family\nMembers of the Stabler family also appear in Law & Order: Organized Crime.\n\nThe Rollins family\n\nThe Benson family\n\nMinor characters", "The Rollins family\n\nThe Benson family\n\nMinor characters\n\nBarry Moredock\nPortrayed by John Cullum\nEpisodes: \"Appearances\" – \"Possessed\"", "Barry Moredock, a judge, originally appeared as a defense attorney in the episode \"Appearances\", on a case in which a child pornography maker is put on trial for giving instructions on how to kill via a story on his company's website. He works on another case with Cabot in the episode \"Manic\", where a child kills two high school students and is given medication from his mother due to an illegal marketing campaign by the major pharmaceutical company Tauscher-Leto", ". In the seventh season, he works as a defense attorney on a case with Casey Novak as ADA in the episode \"Raw\", where he defends a Neo-Nazi group. In the season 9 episode \"Blinded\", Moredock and Novak work on a case together in which a violent, schizophrenic artist kidnaps and rapes two girls. Starting in the episode \"Babes\" to present, Moredock is a judge. His first case (seen) is the case of a homeless boy burned to death by a high school student", ". His first case (seen) is the case of a homeless boy burned to death by a high school student. In the episode \"Smut\", he is blackmailed when SVU is notified about a video he was sent by an acquaintance showing a dolphin humping a woman on his personal file server, which could be classified as pornography. Moredock recuses himself from the case, in which a rapist claims he was driven by pornography to sexually assault women", ". He reunites with Cabot in the episode \"Lead\" as the judge presiding over the case of a developmentally disabled man who killed the pediatrician who molested him as a child. As the trial goes on, it is discovered that the defendant suffers from lead poisoning caused by Chinese-made products. In the 2009 episode \"Hammered\" Moredock presides over the case of a heavy drinker accused of killing a woman during an alcoholic blackout", ". When ADA Sonya Paxton shows up to court drunk, he orders her to get alcoholism treatment. In \"Possessed\", Moredock drops a statutory rape case because the statute of limitations had run out, even as he states that he finds the defendant, an elderly pedophile, repulsive.", "Kathy Stabler\nPortrayed by Isabel Gillies\nEpisodes: \"Payback\" – \"Delinquent\" – \"Return of the Prodigal Son\"", "Kathy Stabler was Detective Elliot Stabler's wife: they got married when they were both 17. The two are separated for some time in seasons 6 through 8, but Kathy shows up in the squad-room in the season 8 finale \"Screwed\" and tells him that she needs him to come home because she is pregnant. In the season 9 episode \"Paternity\", Kathy and Detective Benson are involved in a car accident while Benson was helping Elliot by bringing Kathy to the doctor for a check-up", ". Kathy is pinned and unconscious when Benson wakes up and calls for help. Benson is tasked with helping EMS stabilize her as they cannot get into the car. Kathy is extracted from the car by firefighters and placed in the ambulance, where she goes into labor and delivers a baby boy before she becomes unconscious again. Elliot, who had been upstate retrieving a perp, arrives at the hospital and embraces Kathy and his new son, Elliot Jr", ". Kathy and Elliot have five children together: Maureen, Kathleen Louise, twins Richard (\"Dickie\") and Elizabeth (\"Lizzie\"), and Elliot Jr (\"Eli\"). Kathy returned to L&O:SVU after a 10-year hiatus along with her husband, Elliot. In \"Return of the Prodigal Son,\" she is approaching a rental car she intends to drive when a bomb goes off and she is caught in the blast radius. She is taken to a hospital and, while there, goes into cardiac arrest, eventually dying from a ruptured spleen incurred from the bombing.", "TARU Tech Ruben Morales\nPortrayed by Joel de la Fuente\nEpisodes: \"Surveillance\" – \"Bully\"", "Ruben Morales is an officer in the NYPD's Technical Assistance Response Unit who aided the SVU squad with investigations that included computer or video evidence. He appeared in 52 episodes between seasons 3–12. In the Season 7 episode \"Web\", Morales takes a hands on approach in the investigation of an Internet pornography site. Due to his own guilt about his nephew's rape by an online predator, Morales beats one of the suspects up in the interrogation room, threatening the detectives' case.", "CSU Tech Ryan O'Halloran\nPortrayed by Mike Doyle\nEpisodes: \"Choice\" – \"Zebras\"", "Crime Scene Technician Ryan O'Halloran came in frequent contact with the SVU detectives when they investigated crime scenes of their victims. He appeared in 52 episodes between seasons 5–10. He was one of SVU's biggest allies until his death in the season 10 finale. He was murdered by CSU tech Dale Stuckey, who was trying to prevent O'Halloran from informing the detectives that he was the real killer of a defense attorney and young woman.", "Ed Tucker\nPortrayed by Robert John Burke\nEpisodes: \"Counterfeit\" – \"The Longest Night of Rain\"", "Ed Tucker is an officer in the Internal Affairs Bureau of the NYPD who has frequently been assigned to question the SVU squad whenever there is an allegation of misconduct. He has appeared in 21 episodes throughout the duration of the series, starting with the season 3 episode \"Counterfeit\". He has opened numerous investigations on Detectives Stabler, Benson, Amaro, and Rollins and frequently feuded with Captain Cragen. Tucker was originally introduced as a sergeant, but was later promoted to lieutenant", ". Tucker was originally introduced as a sergeant, but was later promoted to lieutenant. Although he feuded with the squad for many years, Tucker slowly became an ally for Benson after she took over for Cragen as squad commander. In the season 16 finale, \"Surrendering Noah\", he alerted Benson that 1PP would likely not consider promoting Amaro to Sergeant now that Benson, who looks to become SVU's Lieutenant, will need a Sergeant by her side", ". In \"Townhouse Incident\" (season 17), Tucker—who has now been named the Captain of IAB—acts as the hostage negotiator when Benson and others are taken captive in a violent home invasion; he is selected at Benson's request and reveals that he was a negotiator prior to transferring to IAB. When Tucker tries to help Benson bust a sex trafficking ring with ties to the Catholic Church (and his own cousin, a priest), it is revealed that he and Benson are in a romantic relationship", ". In \"Heartfelt Passages\", Tucker tells Benson of his intention to transfer to the NYPD Emergency Response Unit's Hostage Negotiation Team.", "As seen in \"Heartfelt Passages\", Capt. Tucker is a recipient of the U.S. Flag Bar, the World Trade Center Breast Bar, NYPD Meritorious Police Duty, NYPD Excellent Police Duty, and NYPD 150th Commemorative Breast Bar.", "In Season 18, Tucker wanted Benson to retire with him. Benson had mixed feelings about this. The two eventually ended their romantic relationship. In Season 21, he made a guest appearance, where he is shown to be retiring. Tucker has remarried, and has two stepdaughters. Tucker privately reveals to Benson he is dying of lung cancer, that has metastasized to his brain, causing memory loss", ". After Vice Officer Rachel Wilson blames Tucker for ignoring her rape at the hands of Internal Affairs Officer Gary Wald before her suicide, Tucker records a confession from Wald to make things right. Tucker also reconciles with Benson. However, before the trial, Tucker commits suicide, wanting to spare his wife from suffering due to his terminal cancer.", "Sister Peg\n Portrayed by Charlayne Woodard\n Episodes: \"Silence\", \"Chameleon\", \"Loss\", \"Criminal\", \"Identity\", \"Pure\", \"Underbelly\", \"Smoked\"", "Sister Peg is a Catholic nun who lived and worked in New York City. Most of her work involved helping and protecting prostitutes, and so she came into contact with SVU detectives Stabler and Benson. In the season 6 episode \"Pure\", she was kidnapped by the murderer that the SVU detectives were trying to capture after they came in contact in the SVU squad-room. She was beaten up by a pimp in the season 8 episode \"Underbelly\", after trying to help one of his girls", ". She was killed in the season 12 finale \"Smoked\" by the young girl who fired a gun in the SVU squad-room with the intention of killing the men in holding who murdered her mother.", "Ken Randall\nPortrayed by Ernest Waddell\nEpisodes: \"Haunted\", \"Strain\", \"Venom\", \"Outsider\", \"Screwed\", \"Conned\", \"Learning Curve\", \"Intersecting Lives\", \"Send In The Clowns\", \"Down Low in Hell's Kitchen\", \"Wolves In Sheep's Clothing\"", "Kwasi Tutuola or as he prefers Ken Randall is Detective Tutuola's son and is first mentioned in \"Counterfeit\", where Fin stated he loved old cop weapons. Fin stated that Ken is 18. He is introduced in the season 6 episode, \"Haunted\", in which Tutuola is shot after trying to prevent a robbery. Ken reveals to his father that he is openly gay in the season 7 episode, \"Strain\". In the season 7 episode, \"Venom\", Ken is arrested after he was found digging in a vacant lot while he was intoxicated", ". It is discovered that Ken was searching for the woman and baby that his half-brother, Darius, said he had killed. This puts heat on Tutuola within the squad, as he fights to exonerate his son and prove that Darius is a murderer. When Darius cons SVU into getting his confession without his lawyer present, the case continues in the season 8 finale, \"Screwed\". Ken returns to try to help his father and the rest of the detectives find evidence to convict Darius", ". While being questioned on the stand, Ken's mother is forced to reveal that Darius was a product of rape by her own father. This news left Ken stunned that Darius is also his uncle. Afterwards, he and his father mutually cut ties with Darius for his actions. During the season 13 episode, \"Learning Curve\", Ken asks for Sergeant Munch's help in revealing to his father that he is getting married. But before Ken is able to tell his father, his fiancé is brutally attacked", ". But before Ken is able to tell his father, his fiancé is brutally attacked. While at the hospital, Munch tells Tutuola that the man is Ken's fiancé, which makes Tutuola determined to find the attackers. Eventually, Alejandro recovers from his injuries and he and Ken marry. As of \"Intersecting Lives\", Ken and Alejandro are expecting a child, having found a surrogate; to Ken's surprise and relief, Fin is excited about becoming a grandfather.", "During \"Send in the Clowns \", Ken and Alejandro visit Fin at his job for his birthday. They are shown to have been successful in adopting a baby boy named Jaden, who Fin dots on to his coworkers.\n\nIn \"Down Low in Hell's Kitchen\", Ken assists SVU in tracking down a serial rapist attacking gay men outside a bar.\n\nSpecial Agent Dana Lewis\n\nPortrayed by Marcia Gay Harden\nEpisodes: \"Raw\", \"Informed\", \"Penetration\", & \"Secrets Exhumed\"", "FBI Agent Dana Lewis, who first introduced in the season 7 episode \"Raw\" while working undercover to bring down a white supremacist group as \"Star Morrison\". Lewis (while undercover as Star) slaps Munch and calls him \"kike\" as a part of her cover, prompting her arrest for assaulting a police officer. She's forced to blow her cover and reveal herself as a Federal Agent during the trial against the group's leader when she shoots and kills the leader's son before he could kill Stabler", ". She tries to apologize for her actions after the case is over, but Munch holds no grudge. Agent Lewis specializes in undercover work, often working under assumed identities for weeks or even months at a time. While working undercover, she uses the name Star Morrison and speaks with a Southern accent (though the actress herself is not from the South). In the season 8 premiere \"Informed\", she shows up in New York again when Detective Benson is hounding her eco-terrorism informant to tell her about her rape", ". Lewis and Benson must find the informant after she goes missing and stop her from conducting a terrorist bombing. Lewis mentions to Benson that she calls her informant \"Peggy Sue\" because she reminds Lewis of her baby sister, Margaret. In her last appearance, Lewis tells Benson and Stabler that her family (husband and children) is currently living in Europe to protect them from criminals who attempt to retaliate against her", ". One of these criminals, the leader of the aforementioned supremacist group, ordered a fellow inmate to attack and rape her in the season 12 episode \"Penetration\". Elliot Stabler has been injured each time she has worked with them, by gunshot in season 7, by explosives in season 8, and by gunshot again in season 12 which was the only injury she was directly responsible for", ". Stabler half-jokingly refers to her as a \"jinx\", saying \"[he's] nearly been killed\" every time Lewis shows up; she counters his remarks by saying that maybe she is his \"good luck charm\", as he's survived every injury during their three episodes together.", "In the season 14 episode, \"Secrets Exhumed\", Agent Lewis returns to partner with SVU when she believes that a Manhattan cold case is connected to several rape-homicides across the country. Lewis beats Detectives Benson and Amaro to the Miami correctional facility where the detectives were supposed to rearrest the suspect, a handicapped man, who was being released after completing his stint for another crime", ". Lewis accompanies Benson and Amaro back to Manhattan, where she observes the interrogation and pleads with Captain Cragen to let her have a shot at the suspect after the detectives could not get the man to admit to killing the fifth victim. When Cragen obliges, Lewis sweats the suspect into admitting he was at the scene when the victim was murdered", ". Amaro begins to question the confession when the boyfriend of the victim comes to the precinct and Lewis says that he was an old friend from when they dated in college at Tulane University. Pieces of the confession begin to fall apart as Munch and Rollins finds evidence missing in the cold case file and the boyfriend of the victim admits to having a romantic relationship with Agent Lewis. Amaro then gets the suspect to recant his confession and Lewis begins to seem increasingly panicked", ". Cragen gets Lewis to believe that the handicapped suspect had an accident and he will be awhile before her and Benson could re-interview him. As Benson begins to ask Lewis questions, Lewis realizes that Benson's questioning seemed interrogation-like. Benson and Amaro begin to ask Lewis pressing questions about the nature of Lewis' relationship with the victim and her boyfriend at the time. They get her to admit they had a several-month-long romantic relationship, which subsequently got Lewis pregnant", ". After he forced Lewis to get an abortion, she found out that he asked the victim to marry him. Lewis, in tears, admits she went to the victim's home, and after the victim taunted Lewis with the fact he asked her to marry her, she says she blacked out. She says that when she came to, the girl was dead. She tells Benson, who is clearly shocked and distraught, that she is so sorry. Cragen enters the room with a pair of handcuffs and tells Lewis she is under arrest for the murder", ". Amaro grabs the handcuffs and takes her into custody. Resigned to her fate, she cooperates, repeatedly saying, \"I understand,\" as tears continue rolling down her cheeks.", "Special Agent Dean Porter\nPortrayed by Vincent Spano\nEpisodes: \"Infiltrated\", \"Florida\", \"Screwed\", \"Savant\", & \"Spooked\"", "FBI Agent Dean Porter worked with Detective Benson as her handler during her stint undercover in an Oregon eco-terrorist group during season 8. When a man is murdered with ties to the group EDGE, it's discovered he was a pedophile by Benson, working under the name Persephone James, who is investigating the crime as a civilian. After Benson uncovers the pedophile nest and deduces that a girl is missing, Porter blows Benson's cover after she was arrested by local police", ". Benson convinces Porter to help her search for the girl even though Porter was aggravated with Benson and her obsession on finding the girl. But when they find the victim and she confesses to why she killed her rapist, Porter understands why Benson is passionate for working sex crimes.", "Porter returns later in the season 8 episode \"Florida\" after Benson gives Simon Marsden (Michael Weston) money, who she had just discovered was her half-brother. Marsden was being looked at by River Park, NJ police on suspicion of rape. Porter wanted to arrest Benson for helping Marsden, so he offered her a deal, no jail time if she helped Porter catch him. Marsden flees after a meet with Olivia when he felt something was wrong and Porter let Olivia go as he had no direct evidence of her helping Simon", ". After they finally find Marsden holding the River Park Police Captain hostage, it is discovered that the Captain is setting Marsden up, and Porter decides to drop charges the FBI had against Marsden. Porter returns a few episodes later in the episode \"Screwed\", when the SVU squad is under fire due to Fin's stepson Darius (Ludacris) being on trial for murder. Porter is trying not to be subpoenaed by the defense to avoid having to give dirt on Detective Benson", ". At the end of the episode as everything is unraveling for the SVU squad, Benson convinces Porter to tell IAB about his involvement with her and her brother.", "Porter returns in the season 9 episode \"Savant\" when SVU is working on a case where a girl with Williams syndrome heard her mother being beaten and raped. Her father Ben Nicholson (Aidan Quinn) is being eyed by the FBI for extortion and other federal crimes and Porter is upset with SVU for running interference with the FBI's case against Nicholson. Porter returned in season 11's \"Spooked\" to work a case with SVU where two people were killed, their killer leaving a rape tree", ". Benson and Stabler believed the case was a drug-deal gone bad with involvement from a Mexican drug cartel. It is revealed Porter knew who the killer was all along as the victim's roommate Terri Baines (Paola Mendoza) was working with the FBI as undercover intelligence agent. Porter tried to take over the investigation several times, going so far as having the Special Victims Unit's telephones tapped to keep tabs on the case. Porter has not been seen since.", "Simon Marsden\n Portrayed by Michael Weston.\n Episodes: \"Philadelphia\", \"Florida\", \"Screwed\", \"Child's Welfare\", \"Murdered at a Bad Address\"", "Simon Marsden is Detective Benson's half-brother whom she discovers through a DNA kinship analysis. He caused extensive trouble throughout season 8 for Olivia and the entire squad after Olivia seeks him out at his New Jersey home. She discovers he is being investigated by police for stalking, but in the season 8 episode \"Florida\", it is revealed he is being set up by the police captain after Simon holds her hostage", ". Because of Benson's involvement with a \"fugitive\", she is suspended for some time, which is made known in the season 9 premiere \"Alternate\". Simon makes his return in season 13, when he pleads with Detective Benson to help him after his children are removed by the city (Benson is visibly shaken when Simon says that their father was a better parent to him, than he was to his own kids)", ". Benson enlists attorney Bayard Ellis to act as Simon's lawyer, but she is shocked when Captain Cragen alerts her that Simon has kidnapped the children from foster care. Simon reappears once again in Season 21, where he attempts to patch things up with Benson and meet her adoptive son Noah. She invites him to lunch with Noah, but is enraged when he does not show up and leaves him an enraged voice mail. Benson later learns he had died of a drug overdose.", "Bayard Ellis\n\nPortrayed by Andre Braugher\nEpisodes: \"True Believers\", \"Spiraling Down\", \"Child's Welfare\", \"Justice Denied\", \"Monster's Legacy\", \"Perverted Justice\"", "Defense Attorney Bayard Ellis is introduced in season 13's \"True Believers\". He is said to be a high-powered defense attorney who has turned his attention to the underprivileged and minorities, which in turn makes him a civil rights champion. In \"True Believers\", he defends a black man who is on trial for attacking a girl in her apartment, and cites poor police procedure and the victim's creditably to get a not guilty verdict", ". At the close of this episode, he has a discussion with Detective Benson on the steps of the courthouse. After Benson blasts him for shaming the young girl on the stand, he tells her that she needs an escape and gives her his card, telling her to come by one of his daughter's softball games. In the episode \"Spiraling Down\", Benson gives Ellis' card to the defendant's wife, whose husband is a former football star who suffers from diminished capacity", ". He defends the former football star and receives a not guilty verdict. Benson also calls on Ellis when her half-brother is in need of legal help after his kids have been removed by the city. Benson and Ellis have become close, which creates conflict in the episode \"Justice Denied\", as Ellis defends a man who Benson coerced a confession out of eight years earlier", ". Executive ADA David Haden, the prosecutor who is re-investigating the case and Benson's love interest, is confronted by Ellis about their relationship and threatens to expose them if they didn't do the right thing. Benson asks Ellis to give her some time to find the real rapist, which she does, or she will tell the District Attorney about her relationship with EADA Haden", ". Ellis returns in the season 14 episode, \"Monster's Legacy\", when Detective Benson asks him to look into the case of Reggie Rhodes (Mike Tyson), who is scheduled to be executed after being convicted of murder in Ohio. Benson is able to get Rhodes to admit that he was abused when he was a child by the head of a camp in New York, which allows Ellis to argue that Rhodes' original defense attorney never presented that during the trial", ". Ellis uncovers a massive cover up by the lead prosecutor in the original case, who withheld photographic evidence of Rhodes being sexually assaulted by the man he murdered. Ellis subsequently convinces the judge to spare Rhodes from execution. Ellis is next seen in the season 16 episode, \"Perverted Justice\", when he comes to Benson and SVU asking them to reinvestigate a case he is working for Project Innocence", ". With the help of the now-retired Captain Cragen, Ellis is able to vacate the original charge against his client for raping his daughter decades earlier.", "Maria Grazie Amaro", "Portrayed by Laura Benanti\nEpisodes: \"Spiraling Down\" – \"Above Suspicion\", \"Military Justice\", \"Thought Criminal\"", "Detective Amaro's wife, Maria, is introduced in the season 13 episode \"Spiraling Down\". She is serving in the armed forces and stationed in Iraq. In \"Spiraling Down\", Amaro video chats with her about the father of a victim in one of his cases, who served overseas with her. They have somewhat of a tense conversation, as she does not like the tone he is using with her, after he asked why he has never heard of this man", ". After returning to New York City in the episode \"Official Story\", she heads back overseas on a new assignment. In the episode \"Valentine's Day\", she is once again back in New York and shows up in the squad room after Amaro was late for their Valentine's Day dinner. At the end of this episode, Amaro watches his wife enter an unknown brownstone, and he has the increased suspicion that she is having an affair", ". In the following episode, \"Street Revenge\", Amaro sees her meet for lunch with the same military friend who appeared in \"Spiraling Down\". Amaro drives to Philadelphia, where her friend lives, punches him, and tells him to stay away from his wife. Maria discovers this and comes into the squad room in a rage, knocking folders off his desk. They begin to argue in front of the squad, until Cragen tells Amaro, \"not here\", and they go into the bunk room", ". Amaro reveals his suspicion and she says that she is not having an affair and that the brownstone he saw her enter was her psychiatrist, before she storms out of the room. In the season 14 premiere, after Amaro delays talking to her about their issues, he finally begins to apologize when she tells him that she has taken a job in Los Angeles, California. and she is taking their daughter with her.", "William Lewis\nPortrayed by Pablo Schreiber\nEpisodes: \"Her Negotiation\" – \"American Tragedy\", \"Psycho/Therapist\", \"Beast's Obsession\", \"Post-Mortem Blues\"", "William Lewis is a serial rapist and murderer who had gotten away with numerous counts of rape and murder because of mistakes in the system made by different police jurisdictions. In the season 14 finale, Benson and ADA Barba pursue justice for Lewis' victims and attempt to get him locked up for good; but again, Lewis walks on a technicality", ". He later breaks into Detective Benson's apartment and tortures her before later abducting her and bringing her to at an isolated location, killing a traffic cop and his own defense attorney's parents on the way.", "Benson breaks free of her restraints and beats him within an inch of his life. Lewis is shipped off to a hospital and is later charged and brought to trial (SVU: \"Psycho/Therapist\") for his assault and abduction of Benson. Lewis represents himself and maneuvers to force Benson to take the stand and tell everyone what he did to her and what she did to him; crippling him in one leg, damaging numerous internal organs, and even deafening him in one ear", ". Benson lies and denies that she had him restrained, that he had broken free and she had to harm him to subdue him; this drives Lewis into a rage during his cross testimony with her. Lewis is found not guilty on the rape charge but guilty on the kidnapping charge, as well as assault of a police officer. He goes away to prison but before the trial ends, he bribes a juror to use drugged baked goods for them to make him sick and have a way to make a jailbreak", ". Lewis then pursues Benson again, killing and raping people in his path and abducting a little girl, Amelia Cole (Lily Pilblad) to make Benson come to him at an abandoned quarry where he abducts her again. He is about to attempt to rape Benson again, but when Benson refuses to show him fear, he decides to force her to play a game of Russian roulette with him", ". It winds up where Olivia has to take the last bullet, thinking he is about to kill her; he stands beside her and quickly shoots himself in the head with his left hand, making it seem as if she shot him; this is his final revenge. The charges against Benson are later dropped, however. The last thing Lewis tells Benson is that his death will be the last thing she will see before she dies. At the Kings County morgue, Benson asks if she can take one last look at Lewis' dead body in order to achieve closure.", "In subsequent seasons, Lewis' name becomes a kind of code for an intensely dangerous situation and Benson reveals that her trauma and ordeal with him will always be a part of her. During a heated exchange with Amaro, he pointedly asks her whether she can ever forgive Lewis; she does not answer and he apologizes.", "Deputy Chief William Dodds\n Portrayed by Peter Gallagher\n Episodes: \"Holden's Manifesto\", \"Pornstar's Requiem\", \"Pattern Seventeen\", \"Forgiving Rollins\", \"Institutional Fail\", \"Maternal Instincts\"", "The former Deputy Chief of the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs, Dodds is Sergeant (later Lieutenant) Benson's politically savvy commanding officer. A former homicide detective, he is often hard on Benson and her squad, most notably during their early interactions, but ultimately respects the work that they do and frequently backs them up to the NYPD brass", ". He assisted the squad during their investigation into Atlanta PD Deputy Chief Charles Patton (Harry Hamlin), who was accused of assaulting one of his own detectives in a New York City hotel, by personally interviewing Patton in the interrogation room. In season 17, he names his son, Mike (Andy Karl), Manhattan SVU's new sergeant, and is devastated by his death in a domestic violence dispute between a corrupt corrections officer (Brad Garrett) and his wife.", "As seen in \"Heartfelt Passages\", Dep. Chf. Dodds is a recipient of the US Flag Bar.\n\nDodds is currently the first major character in any Law & Order series to portray an NYPD officer holding the rank of deputy chief. Almost every prior portrayal of NYPD senior officers above the rank of captain has been that of three-star bureau chiefs, the four-star chief of department or first deputy commissioner, or the commissioner of the NYPD.", "In the season 21 premiere he resigned, but not before insisting that Benson be promoted to the rank of captain.\n\nOther minor characters", "Detective Kenneth \"Ken\" Briscoe, portrayed by Chris Orbach (season 1) is the nephew of 27th Homicide Precinct detective, Lennie Briscoe (Jerry Orbach, Chris is his son). Ken Briscoe was more of an extra detective in the SVU precinct, consulting on cases with Detectives Benson, Stabler, Munch, and Jefferies. He was in the episode \"Entitled\" with his uncle, Lennie. It's been unknown what happened to Ken Briscoe as his last on-screen episode was \"Contact\"", ". It's been unknown what happened to Ken Briscoe as his last on-screen episode was \"Contact\". The character was set to return after more than twelve years in the season 14 episode \"Manhattan Vigil\" in flashback scenes. However, during final editing of the episode, Dick Wolf reported the character's scenes had been removed.", "Bureau Chief Muldrew, portrayed by John Schuck (episodes: \"Outcry\", \"Haunted\", \"Storm\", \"Screwed\", \"Signature\", \"Inconceivable\", \"Anchor\", \"Shadow\") is the NYPD Chief of Detectives who served as Captain Cragen's commanding officer.", "Christine Danielson, portrayed by Gloria Reuben (episodes: \"Snitch\", \"Merchandise\" & \"Dirty\") is the Homicide Bureau Chief ADA (a role Cabot had a year prior, in Conviction) prosecuting a case in which a Nigerian polygamist's wife is killed, and the husband fears that his testifying in a crime may have led to his wife's demise. Danielson returns in the twelfth season, this time as an Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of New York", ".S. Attorney for the Eastern District of New York. To assist in the first conviction of a child trafficking case in the New York area, she deputizes Benson and Stabler as U.S. marshals. Danielson returns again in the season, to help Benson investigate the murder of a corrupt Brooklyn ADA.", "Captain Steven Harris, portrayed by Adam Baldwin (episodes: \"Lost Reputation\", \"Above Suspicion\", \"Twenty-Five Acts\") is the Special Victims Unit interim captain who is installed by the Public Integrity Bureau Chief ADA Paula Foster for the first three episodes of the 14th season while Cragen is suspended", ". A by-the-book commanding officer, Harris warns the SVU detectives not to investigate Cragen's murder case, which they ignore, and criticizes the way Detective Tutuola dresses, citing the business attire dress code. When Detective Cassidy is shot while undercover in a hit arranged by his own boss, Harris backs Olivia during the Internal Affairs investigation. In \"Twenty-Five Acts\", Harris gives a nod to Amaro's request to work a case solo, pairing Benson with Rollins", ". He departs at the end of the episode, as Captain Cragen returns from suspension.", "NYPD Lab Tech Colin Bennett, portrayed by Max Baker (episodes: \"Justice Denied,\" \"Brief Interlude,\" \"Criminal Pathology,\" \"Know It All\") is an NYPD Crime Lab technician known as Fin's \"rope guy,\" Bennett specifically specializes in types of rope found at crime scenes. He is first introduced in \"Justice Denied\" where a rapist strikes during Fleet Week and uses an M.O. specific to a perpetrator that Benson had arrested in 2004. Bennett helped analyze the knots that were tied in the differing crime scenes", ". Bennett helped analyze the knots that were tied in the differing crime scenes. In the season eighteen episode \"Know It All\", Bennett and ADA Barba are blackmailed by a rapist to make his case and the evidence disappear. Bennett makes an attempt to lead the SVU detectives astray with his \"findings\" during the investigation until Detectives Tutuola and Rollins discover the truth, as Bennett attempts suicide due to the guilt of tampering with the case.", "Kim Rollins, portrayed by Lindsay Pulsipher (episodes: \"Friending Emily\", \"Deadly Ambition\", \"Maternal Instincts\", \"Heightened Emotions\", \"Eternal Relief From Pain\") is Detective Amanda Rollins' sister, who comes to New York in the season 14 episode, \"Friending Emily\". She frequently interrupts Amanda while she is working an abduction case, and at the end of the episode, Amanda draws her gun on Kim's ex-boyfriend, who is in her apartment with Kim, telling him to get out", ". Later in the episode \"Deadly Ambition\", Kim returns to New York, beaten and pregnant with her ex-boyfriend's baby. When Amanda hears screams from inside her apartment, she finds Kim's ex-boyfriend attacking Kim, and Amanda shoots the man as he pulls a gun on her. After her initial interview with IAB Lt. Tucker, Kim changes her story to further implicate Amanda, including revealing a life insurance policy on the ex-boyfriend with Amanda's name on it", ". Kim says she did it to make it look like an accident, but it leads to Amanda's arrest. When Detective Amaro records Kim admitting to him that she set Amanda up, IAB drops the charges against Amanda and pursues Kim for the murder, only to find she has skipped town. Kim returns in season 17, as a suspect in an assault and robbery of a musician. Her criminal involvement coincides with their mother being in New York to throw Amanda a baby shower", ". Their mother sides with Kim, as they blame Amanda for her getting arrested and charged.", "Detective Frank Bucci, portrayed by Nicholas Turturro (episodes: \"Part 33\", \"Can't Be Held Accountable\", \"Must Be Held Accountable\"), is a detective who has crossed paths with the SVU in many of their investigations. He is also the father of two girls, Ivy and Milly. He first appears in \"Part 33\" testifying during the trial of Annabeth Pearl. He reappears in \"Can't Be Held Accountable\" asking the Special Victims Unit for help when Steve Getz grooms his daughters", ". Bucci is shocked and horrified when his daughters defend Getz, and he is later assaulted by two men hired by Getz to deliver Bucci a warning. When Getz is let go by Judge Joe Ellery, Detective Bucci snaps and barges into Amanda Rollins's therapy session, taking both her and her therapist Dr. Alexis Hanover hostage, demanding Getz be charged.", "Crossover characters within the Law & Order universe\n\nReferences\n\n \nSpecial Victims Unit\nLists of American crime television series characters\nLists of American drama television series characters" ]

[ "Environmental racism, ecological racism or ecological apartheid is a form of institutional racism leading to landfills, incinerators, and hazardous waste disposal being disproportionately placed in communities of color. Internationally, it is also associated with extractivism, which places the environmental burdens of mining, oil extraction, and industrial agriculture upon indigenous peoples and poorer nations largely inhabited by people of color.", "Response to environmental racism has contributed to the environmental justice movement, which developed in the United States and abroad throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Environmental racism may disadvantage minority groups or numerical majorities, as in South Africa where apartheid had debilitating environmental impacts on Black people. Internationally, trade in global waste disadvantages global majorities in poorer countries largely inhabited by people of color", ". It also applies to the particular vulnerability of indigenous groups to environmental pollution. Environmental racism is a form of institutional racism, which has led to the disproportionate disposal of hazardous waste in communities of colour in Russia. Environmental racism is a type of inequality where people in Communities of Color and other low income communities face a disproportionate risk of exposure to pollution and related health conditions.", "History", "\"Environmental racism\" was a term coined in 1982 by Benjamin Chavis, previous executive director of the United Church of Christ (UCC) Commission for Racial Justice", ". In a speech opposing the placement of hazardous polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) waste in the Warren County, North Carolina landfill, Chavis defined the term as:racial discrimination in environmental policy making, the enforcement of regulations and laws, the deliberate targeting of communities of color for toxic waste facilities, the official sanctioning of the life-threatening presence of poisons and pollutants in our communities", ", and the history of excluding people of color from leadership of the ecology movements", ".Recognition of environmental racism catalyzed the environmental justice movement that began in the 1970s and 1980s with influence from the earlier civil rights movement. Grassroots organizations and campaigns brought attention to environmental racism in policy making and emphasized the importance of minority input. While environmental racism has been historically tied to the environmental justice movement, throughout the years the term has been increasingly disassociated.", "Following the events in Warren County, the UCC and US General Accounting Office released reports showing that hazardous waste sites were disproportionately located in poor minority neighborhoods. Chavis and Dr. Robert D. Bullard pointed out institutionalized racism stemming from government and corporate policies that led to environmental racism. These racist practices included redlining, zoning, and colorblind adaptation planning", ". These racist practices included redlining, zoning, and colorblind adaptation planning. Residents experienced environmental racism due to their low socioeconomic status, and lack of political representation and mobility. Expanding the definition in \"The Legacy of American Apartheid and Environmental Racism\", Dr", ". Expanding the definition in \"The Legacy of American Apartheid and Environmental Racism\", Dr. Bullard said that environmental racism:refers to any policy, practice, or directive that differentially affects or disadvantages (whether intended or unintended) individuals, groups, or communities based on race or color.", "Global environmental racism \nAlthough the term was coined in the US, environmental racism also occurs on the international level. Studies have shown that since environmental laws have become prominent in developed countries, companies have moved their waste towards the Global South. Less developed countries frequently have fewer environmental regulations and become pollution havens.", "Marginalized communities that do not have the socioeconomic and political means to oppose large corporations are vulnerable to environmentally racist practices that are detrimental to their health.", "Environmental justice combats barriers preventing equal access to work, recreation, education, religion, and safe neighborhoods. In \"Environmentalism of the Poor\", Joan Martinez-Allier writes that environmental justice \"points out that economic growth-unfortunately means increased environmental impacts, and it emphasizes geographical displacement of sources and sinks.\"", "Causes", "There are four factors which lead to environmental racism: lack of affordable land, lack of political power, lack of mobility, and poverty. Cheap land is sought by corporations and governmental bodies. As a result, communities which cannot effectively resist these corporations and governmental bodies and cannot access political power cannot negotiate just costs. Communities with minimized socio-economic mobility cannot relocate", ". Communities with minimized socio-economic mobility cannot relocate. Lack of financial contributions also reduces the communities' ability to act both physically and politically", ". Chavis defined environmental racism in five categories: racial discrimination in defining environmental policies, discriminatory enforcement of regulations and laws, deliberate targeting of minority communities as hazardous waste dumping sites, official sanctioning of dangerous pollutants in minority communities, and the exclusion of people of color from environmental leadership positions.", "Minority communities often do not have the financial means, resources, and political representation to oppose hazardous waste sites. Known as locally unwanted land uses (LULUs), these facilities that benefit the whole community often reduce the quality of life of minority communities. These neighborhoods also may depend on the economic opportunities the site brings and are reluctant to oppose its location at the risk of their health", ". Additionally, controversial projects are less likely to be sited in non-minority areas that are expected to pursue collective action and succeed in opposing the siting of the projects in their area.", "In cities in the Global North, suburbanization and gentrification lead to patterns of environmental racism. For example, white flight from industrial zones for safer, cleaner, suburban locales leaves minority communities in the inner cities and in close proximity to polluted industrial zones. In these areas, unemployment is high and businesses are less likely to invest in area improvement, creating poor economic conditions for residents and reinforcing a social formation that reproduces racial inequality", ". Furthermore, the poverty of property owners and residents in a municipality may be taken into consideration by hazardous waste facility developers, since areas with depressed real estate values will save developers' money.", "Socioeconomic aspects", "Cost–benefit analysis (CBA) is a process that places a monetary value on costs and benefits to evaluate issues. Environmental CBA aims to provide policy solutions for intangible products such as clean air and water by measuring a consumer's willingness to pay for these goods. CBA contributes to environmental racism through the valuing of environmental resources based on their utility to society", ". When someone is willing and able to pay more for clean water or air, their payment financially benefits society more than when people cannot pay for these goods. This creates a burden on poor communities. Relocating toxic wastes is justified since poor communities are not able to pay as much as a wealthier area for a clean environment. The placement of toxic waste near poor people lowers the property value of already cheap land", ". The placement of toxic waste near poor people lowers the property value of already cheap land. Since the decrease in property value is less than that of a cleaner and wealthier area, the monetary benefits to society are greater by dumping the toxic waste in a \"low-value\" area.", "Impacts on health", "Environmental racism impacts the health of the communities affected by poor environments. Various factors that can cause health problems include exposure to hazardous chemical toxins in landfills and rivers. Exposure to these toxins can also weaken or slow brain development", ". Exposure to these toxins can also weaken or slow brain development. These hazards also affect the health of individuals living in these communities, showing how maintaining quality environmental health is important to ensuring that vulnerable populations are able to live healthy alongside parts of the environment they depend upon.", "The animal protection organization In Defense of Animals claims intensive animal agriculture negatively affects the health of nearby communities. They believe that associated manure lagoons produce hydrogen sulfide and contaminate local water supplies, leading to higher levels of miscarriages, birth defects, and disease outbreaks. These farms are disproportionately placed in low-income areas and communities of color", ". These farms are disproportionately placed in low-income areas and communities of color. Other risks include exposure to pesticides, chemical run-off and particulate matter in the air. Poor cleanliness in facilities and chemical exposure may also affect agricultural workers, who are frequently people of color.", "The climate science community needs to work on diversifying the information available, the data they collect, as well as working to get rid of historic inequities in resources. For example, there is a serious lack of data about worsening heat waves in Africa, yet the heat waves affect many people.\n\nPollution", "The southeastern part of the United States has experienced a large amount of pollution and minority populations have been hit with the brunt of those impacts. There are many cases of people who have died or are chronically ill from coal plants in places such as Detroit, Memphis, and Kansas City. Tennessee and West Virginia residents are frequently subject to breathing toxic ash due to blasting in the mountains for mining", ". Drought, flooding, the constant depletion of land and air quality determine the health and safety of the residents surrounding these areas. Communities of color and low-income status most often feel the brunt of these issues firsthand. There are many communities around the world that face the same problems. For example, the work of Desmond D'Sa focused on communities in South Durban where high pollution industries impact people forcibly relocated during Apartheid.", "Reducing environmental racism", "Activists have called for \"more participatory and citizen-centered conceptions of justice.\" The environmental justice (EJ) movement and climate justice (CJ) movement address environmental racism in bringing attention and enacting change so that marginalized populations are not disproportionately vulnerable to climate change and pollution", ". According to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, one possible solution is the precautionary principle, which states that \"where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.\" Under this principle, the initiator of the potentially hazardous activity is charged with demonstrating the activity's safety", ". Environmental justice activists also emphasize the need for waste reduction in general, which would act to reduce the overall burden, as well as reduce methane emissions which in turn reduce climate change.", "Studies\nIn wartimes, environmental racism occurs in ways that the public later learn about through reports. For example, Friends of the Earth International's Environmental Nakba report brings attention to environmental racism that has occurred in the Gaza Strip during the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Some Israeli practices include cutting off three days of water supply to refugee Palestinians and destroying farms.", "Besides studies that point out cases of environmental racism, studies have also provided information on how to go about changing regulations and preventing environmental racism from happening", ". In a study by Daum, Stoler and Grant on e-waste management in Accra, Ghana, the importance of engaging with different fields and organizations such as recycling firms, communities, and scrap metal traders are emphasized over adaptation strategies such as bans on burning and buy-back schemes that have not caused much effect on changing practices.", "Environmental justice scholars such as Laura Pulido, Department Head of Ethnic Studies and Professor at the University of Oregon, and David Pellow, Dehlsen and Department Chair of Environmental Studies and Director of the Global Environmental Justice Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara, argue that recognizing environmental racism as an element stemming from the entrenched legacies of racial capitalism is crucial to the movement", ", with white supremacy continuing to shape human relationships with nature and labor", ".", "Procedural justice", "Current political ideologies surrounding how to make right issues of environmental racism and environmental justice are shifting towards the idea of employing procedural justice. Procedural justice is a concept that dictates the use of fairness in the process of making decisions, especially when said decisions are being made in diplomatic situations such as the allocation of resources or the settling of disagreements", ". Procedural justice calls for a fair, transparent, impartial decision-making process with equal opportunity for all parties to voice their positions, opinions, and concerns. Rather than just focusing on the outcomes of agreements and the effects those outcomes have on affected populations and interest groups, procedural justice looks to involve all stakeholders throughout the process from planning through implementation", ". In terms of combating environmental racism, procedural justice helps to reduce the opportunities for powerful actors such as often-corrupt states or private entities to dictate the entire decision-making process and puts some power back into the hands of those who will be directly affected by the decisions being made.", "Activism \nActivism takes many forms. One form is collective demonstrations or protests, which can take place on a number of different levels from local to international. Additionally, in places where activists feel as though governmental solutions will work, organizations and individuals alike can pursue direct political action. In many cases, activists and organizations will form partnerships both regionally and internationally to gain more clout in pursuit of their goals.", "Indigenous women's movements in Canada", "There have been many resistance movements in Canada initiated by Indigenous women against environmental racism. One that was prominent and had a great impact on the movement was, The Native Women's Association of Canada's (NWAC) Sisters in Spirit Initiative. This initiative aims to create reports on the deaths and disappearances of Indigenous women in order to raise awareness and get government and civil society groups to take action", ". Though the Canadian federal government decided to defund the Sisters in Spirit Initiative in 2010, the NWAC continues to support women, Two-Spirit and LGBTQ+ Indigenous peoples in their fight to be heard. In other Indigenous resistance movements there is an emphasis on healing from trauma by focusing on spirituality and traditional practices in order to fight against the forces of patriarchy and racism that have caused environmental racism", ". Activists and Indigenous communities have also gone through state official legal routes to voice their concerns such as discussing treaties, anti-human trafficking laws, anti-violence against women laws and UNDRIP.  These have been deemed insufficient solutions by Indigenous groups and communities because there are some voices that are not heard and because the state does not respect or recognize the sovereignty of Indigenous nations.", "Environmental reparations", "Some scientists and economists have looked into the prospect of Environmental Reparations, or forms of payment made to individuals who are affected by industry presence in some way. Potential groups to be impacted include individuals living in close proximity to industry, victims of natural disasters, and climate refugees who flee hazardous living conditions in their own country", ". Reparations can take many forms, from direct payouts to individuals, to money set aside for waste-site cleanups, to purchasing air monitors for low income residential neighborhoods, to investing in public transportation, which reduces green house gas emissions. As Robert Bullard writes,\"Environmental Reparations represent a bridge to sustainability and equity... Reparations are both spiritual and environmental medicine for healing and reconciliation.\"", "Policies and international agreements", "The export of hazardous waste to third world countries is another growing concern. Between 1989 and 1994, an estimated 2,611 metric tons of hazardous waste was exported from Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries to non-OECD countries. Two international agreements were passed in response to the growing exportation of hazardous waste into their borders", ". The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was concerned that the Basel Convention adopted in March 1989 did not include a total ban on the trans-boundary movement on hazardous waste. In response to their concerns, on 30 January 1991, the Pan-African Conference on Environmental and Sustainable Development adopted the Bamako Convention banning the import of all hazardous waste into Africa and limiting their movement within the continent", ". In September 1995, the G-77 nations helped amend the Basel Convention to ban the export of all hazardous waste from industrial countries (mainly OECD countries and Lichtenstein) to other countries. A resolution was signed in 1988 by the OAU which declared toxic waste dumping to be a \"crime against Africa and the African people\"", ". Soon after, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) passed a resolution that allowed for penalties, such as life imprisonment, to those who were caught dumping toxic wastes.", "Globalization and the increase in transnational agreements introduce possibilities for cases of environmental racism. For example, the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) attracted US-owned factories to Mexico, where toxic waste was abandoned in the Colonia Chilpancingo community and was not cleaned up until activists called for the Mexican government to clean up the waste.", "Environmental justice movements have grown to become an important part of world summits. This issue is gathering attention and features a wide array of people, workers, and levels of society that are working together. Concerns about globalization can bring together a wide range of stakeholders including workers, academics, and community leaders for whom increased industrial development is a common denominator\".", "Many policies can be expounded based on the state of human welfare. This occurs because environmental justice is aimed at creating safe, fair, and equal opportunity for communities and to ensure things like redlining do not occur. With all of these unique elements in mind, there are serious ramifications for policy makers to consider when they make decisions.\n\nExamples by region\n\nAfrica\n\nNigeria", "Examples by region\n\nAfrica\n\nNigeria\n\nFrom 1956 to 2006, up to 1.5 million tons of oil were spilled in the Niger Delta, (50 times the volume spilled in the Exxon Valdez disaster). Indigenous people in the region have suffered the loss of their livelihoods as a result of these environmental issues, and they have received no benefits in return for enormous oil revenues extracted from their lands. Environmental conflicts have exacerbated ongoing conflict in the Niger Delta.", "Burning of toxic waste and urban air pollution are problems in more developed areas.", "Ogoni people, who are indigenous to Nigeria's oil-rich Delta region have protested the disastrous environmental and economic effects of Shell Oil's drilling and denounced human rights abuses by the Nigerian government and by Shell. Their international appeal intensified dramatically after the execution in 1995 of nine Ogoni activists, including Ken Saro-Wiwa, who was a founder of the nonviolent Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP).", "South Africa", "The linkages between the mining industry and the negative impacts it has on community and individual health has been studied and well-documented by a number of organizations worldwide. Health implications of living in proximity to mining operations include effects such as pregnancy complications, mental health issues, various forms of cancer, and many more. During the Apartheid period in South Africa, the mining industry grew quite rapidly as a result of the lack of environmental regulation", ". Communities in which mining corporations operate are usually those with high rates of poverty and unemployment. Further, within these communities, there is typically a divide among the citizens on the issue of whether the pros of mining in terms of economic opportunity outweigh the cons in terms of the health of the people in the community. Mining companies often try to use these disagreements to their advantage by magnifying this conflict", ". Additionally, mining companies in South Africa have close ties with the national government, skewing the balance of power in their favor while simultaneously excluding local people from many decision-making processes. This legacy of exclusion has had lasting effects in the form of impoverished South Africans bearing the brunt of ecological impacts resulting from the actions of, for example, mining companies", ". Some argue that to effectively fight environmental racism and achieve some semblance of justice, there must also be a reckoning with the factors that form situations of environmental racism such as rooted and institutionalized mechanisms of power, social relations, and cultural elements.", "The term \"energy poverty\" is used to refer to \"a lack of access to adequate, reliable, affordable and clean energy carriers and technologies for meeting energy service needs for cooking and those activities enabled by electricity to support economic and human development\". Numerous communities in South Africa face some sort of energy poverty. South African women are typically in charge of taking care of both the home and the community as a whole", ". Those in economically impoverished areas not only have to take on this responsibility, but there are numerous other challenges they face. Discrimination on the basis of gender, race, and class are all still present in South African culture. Because of this, women, who are the primary users of public resources in their work at home and for the community, are often excluded from any decision-making about control and access to public resources", ". The resulting energy poverty forces women to use sources of energy that are expensive and may be harmful both to their own health and that of the environment. Consequently, several renewable energy initiatives have emerged in South Africa specifically targeting these communities and women to correct this situation.", "Asia\n\nChina\n\nFrom the mid-1990s until about 2001, it is estimated that some 50 to 80 percent of the electronics collected for recycling in the western half of the United States was being exported for dismantling overseas, predominantly to China and Southeast Asia. This scrap processing is quite profitable and preferred due to an abundant workforce, cheap labour, and lax environmental laws.", "Guiyu, China, is one of the largest recycling sites for e-waste, where heaps of discarded computer parts rise near the riverbanks and compounds, such as cadmium, copper, lead, PBDEs, contaminate the local water supply. Water samples taken by the Basel Action Network in 2001 from the Lianjiang River contained lead levels 190 times higher than WHO safety standards. Despite contaminated drinking water, residents continue to use contaminated water over expensive trucked-in supplies of drinking water", ". Nearly 80 percent of children in the e-waste hub of Guiyu, China, suffer from lead poisoning, according to recent reports. Before being used as the destination of electronic waste, most of Guiyu was composed of small farmers who made their living in the agriculture business. However, farming has been abandoned for more lucrative work in scrap electronics", ". However, farming has been abandoned for more lucrative work in scrap electronics. \"According to the Western press and both Chinese university and NGO researchers, conditions in these workers' rural villages are so poor that even the primitive electronic scrap industry in Guiyu offers an improvement in income\".", "Researchers have found that as rates of hazardous air pollution increase in China, the public has mobilized to implement measures to curb detrimental impacts. Areas with ethnic minorities and western regions of the country tend to carry disproportionate environmental burdens.\n\nIndia", "Union Carbide Corporation is the parent company of Union Carbide India Limited which outsources its production to an outside country. Located in Bhopal, India, Union Carbide India Limited primarily produced the chemical methyl isocyanate used for pesticide manufacture. On 3 December 1984, a cloud of methyl isocyanate leaked as a result of the toxic chemical mixing with water in the plant in Bhopal. Approximately 520,000 people were exposed to the toxic chemical immediately after the leak", ". Approximately 520,000 people were exposed to the toxic chemical immediately after the leak. Within the first 3 days after the leak an estimated 8,000 people living within the vicinity of the plant died from exposure to the methyl isocyanate. Some people survived the initial leak from the factory, but due to improper care and improper diagnoses many have died", ". As a consequence of improper diagnoses, treatment may have been ineffective and this was precipitated by Union Carbide refusing to release all the details regarding the leaked gases and lying about certain important information. The delay in supplying medical aid to the victims of the chemical leak made the situation for the survivors even worse", ". Many today are still experiencing the negative health impacts of the methyl isocyanate leak, such as lung fibrosis, impaired vision, tuberculosis, neurological disorders, and severe body pains.", "The operations and maintenance of the factory in Bhopal contributed to the hazardous chemical leak. The storage of huge volumes of methyl isocyanate in a densely inhabited area, was in contravention with company policies strictly practiced in other plants. The company ignored protests that they were holding too much of the dangerous chemical for one plant and built large tanks to hold it in a crowded community", ". Methyl isocyanate must be stored at extremely low temperatures, but the company cut expenses to the air conditioning system leading to less than optimal conditions for the chemical. Additionally, Union Carbide India Limited never created disaster management plans for the surrounding community around the factory in the event of a leak or spill. State authorities were in the pocket of the company and therefore did not pay attention to company practices or implementation of the law", ". The company also cut down on preventive maintenance staff to save money.", "Russia\n\nEurope", "Eastern Europe", "Predominantly living in Central and Eastern Europe, with pockets of communities in the Americas and Middle East, the ethnic Romani people have been subjected to environmental exclusion. Often referred to as gypsies or the gypsy threat, the Romani people of Eastern Europe mostly live under the poverty line in shanty towns or slums", ". Facing issues such as long term exposure to harmful toxins given their locations to waste dumps and industrial plants, along with being refused environmental assistance like clean water and sanitation, the Romani people have been facing racism via environmental means", ". Many countries such has Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary have tried to implement environmental protection initiatives across their respected countries, however most have failed due to \"addressing the conditions of Roma communities have been framed through an ethnic lens as \"Roma issues\". Only recently has some form of environmental justice for the Romani people come to light", ". Only recently has some form of environmental justice for the Romani people come to light. Seeking environmental justice in Europe, the Environmental Justice Program is now working with human rights organizations to help fight environmental racism.", "It is important to note that in the \"Discrimination in the EU in 2009\" report, conducted by the European Commission, \"64% of citizens with Roma friends believe discrimination is widespread, compared to 61% of citizens without Roma friends.\"", "France \nExporting toxic wastes to countries in the Global South is one form of environmental racism that occurs on an international basis. In one alleged instance, in 2006, the French aircraft carrier Clemenceau was prohibited from entering Alang, an Indian ship-breaking yard, due to a lack of clear documentation about its toxic contents. French President Jacques Chirac ultimately ordered the carrier, which contained tons of hazardous materials including asbestos and PCBs, to return to France.", "United Kingdom \n\nIn the UK environmental racism (or also climate racism) has been called out by multiple action groups such as the Wretched of the Earth call out letter in 2015 and Black Lives Matter in 2016.\n\nNorth America\n\nCanada \nSee more: Environmental Racism in Nova Scotia", "North America\n\nCanada \nSee more: Environmental Racism in Nova Scotia\n\nIn Canada, progress is being made to address environmental racism (especially in Nova Scotia's Africville community) with the passing of Bill 111, An Act to Address Environmental Racism in the Nova Scotia Legislature. Still, however, indigenous communities such as the Aamjiwnaang First Nation continue to be harmed by pollution from the Canadian chemical industry centered in Southeast Ontario.", "Forty percent of Canada's petrochemical industry is packed into a 15-square mile radius of Sarnia, Ontario. Immediately south of the petrochemical plants is the Aamjiwnaang reservation with a population of 850 Aamjiwnaang First Nation members. Since 2002, coalitions of indigenous individuals have fought the disproportionate concentration of pollution in their neighborhood.\n\nImpact on Canadian Indigenous women", "Environmental racism affects particularly women and especially Indigenous women and women of color. Many of these communities reside in rural areas rich in natural resources that are very attractive to extractive industries. These effects not only pollute the environment but also have detrimental effects on both physical and mental health. Many of these extractive industries such as oil and gas and mining have caused pollution to water sources, food sources as well as effects in air quality", ". This has started to affect people's bodies, especially those of women. This is because the toxins and poisons from extractive industries affect women's reproductive organs, can cause cancer as well as the health of their children", ". The harms of this activity last through generations in these communities, for example in the Indigenous community of Grassy Narrows in Northern Ontario, they are still dealing with health effects from high mercury levels that have affected drinking water and fish in the region that occurred from a spill in the 1960s.", "It is not just the pollution that affects women but also social changes that extractive industries bring. For example, in small communities that have extractive industries the rate of domestic violence is significantly higher due to the fact that there is an influx of single men that arrive in the community. This overall can create toxic home lives that can lead to substance abuse as a coping mechanism, which also creates more fatalities and abuse", ". These worker camps have also contributed to the disproportionate amount of missing and murdered Indigenous women across North America. The consequences of extractive industries also disproportionately effect transgender, Two-Spirit and other members of the LGBTQ+ community. However, most of the adverse health issues befall the workers of the extractive industries themselves, triggering various societal vicious cycles.", "Mexico", "The Cucapá are a group of indigenous people that live near the U.S.-Mexico border, mainly in Mexico but some in Arizona as well. For many generations, fishing on the Colorado River was the Cucapá's main means of subsistence. In 1944, the United States and Mexico signed a treaty that effectively awarded the United States rights to about 90% of the water in the Colorado River, leaving Mexico with the remaining 10%", ". Over the last few decades, the Colorado River has mostly dried up south of the border, presenting many challenges for people such as the Cucapá. Shaylih Meuhlmann, author of the ethnography Where the River Ends: Contested Indigeneity in the Mexican Colorado Delta, gives a first-hand account of the situation from Meuhlmann's point of view as well as many accounts from the Cucapá themselves", ". In addition to the Mexican portion of the Colorado River being left with a small fraction of the overall available water, the Cucapá are stripped of the right to fish on the river, the act being made illegal by the Mexican government in the interest of preserving the river's ecological health. The Cucapá are, thus, living without access to sufficient natural sources of freshwater as well as without their usual means of subsistence", ". The conclusion drawn in many such cases is that the negotiated water rights under the US-Mexican treaty that lead to the massive disparity in water allotments between the two countries boils down to environmental racism.", "1,900 maquiladoras are found near the US-Mexico border. Maquiladoras are companies that are usually owned by foreign entities and import raw materials, pay workers in Mexico to assemble them, and ship the finish products overseas to be sold. While Maquiladoras provide jobs, they often pay very little. These plants also bring pollution to rural Mexican towns, creating health impacts for the poor families that live nearby.", "In Mexico, industrial extraction of oil, mining, and gas, as well as the mass removal of slowly renewable resources such as aquatic life, forests, and crops. Legally, the state owns natural resources, but is able to grant concessions to industry through the form of taxes paid. In recent decades, a shift towards refocusing these tax dollars accumulated on the communities most impacted by the health, social, and economic impacts of extractivism has taken place", ". However, many indigenous and rural community leaders argue that they ought to consent to companies extracting and polluting their resources, rather than be paid reparations after the fact.", "United States \n\nA US Government Accountability Office study, completed in response to the 1982 protests of the PCB landfill in Warren County, was among the first studies that drew correlations between the racial and economic background of communities and the location of hazardous waste facilities. However, the study was limited in scope by focusing only on off-site hazardous waste landfills in the Southeastern United States.", "In response to this limitation, in 1987, the United Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice (CRJ) directed a comprehensive national study on demographic patterns associated with the location of hazardous waste sites. The CRJ national study conducted two examinations of areas surrounding commercial hazardous waste facilities and the location of uncontrolled toxic waste sites", ". The first study examined the association between race and socio-economic status and the location of commercial hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities", ". After statistical analysis, the first study concluded that \"the percentage of community residents that belonged to a racial or ethnic group was a stronger predictor of the level of commercial hazardous waste activity than was household income, the value of the homes, the number of uncontrolled waste sites, or the estimated amount of hazardous wastes generated by industry\"", ". A second study examined the presence of uncontrolled toxic waste sites in ethnic and racial minority communities and found that three of every five African and Hispanic Americans lived in communities with uncontrolled waste sites. A seprate 1991 study found race to be the most influential variable in predicting where waste facilities were located.", "In 1994, President Bill Clinton's issued Executive Order 12898 which directed agencies to develop a strategy to manage environmental justice. In 2002, Faber and Krieg found a correlation between higher air pollution exposure and low performance in schools and found that 92% of children at five Los Angeles public schools with the poorest air quality were of a minority background disproportionate to Los Angeles' then 70% minority population.", "As a result of the placement of hazardous waste facilities, minority populations experience greater exposure to harmful chemicals and suffer from health outcomes that affect their ability at work and in schools. A comprehensive study of particulate emissions across the United States, published in 2018, found that Black people were exposed to 54% more particulate matter emissions (soot) than the average American", ". In a study that analyzed exposure to air pollution from vehicles in the American Mid-Atlantic and American North-East, it was found that African Americans were exposed to 61% more particulate matter than whites, with Latinos exposed to 75% more and Asians exposed to 73% more. Overall, minorities experienced 66% more pollution exposure from particulate matter than the white population.", "Carl Zimring states that environmental racism is often engrained in day-to-day work and living conditions", ". Examples cited of environmental racism in the US include the Dakota Access Pipeline (where a portion of the proposed 1,172 mile pipeline would pass near to the Standing Rock Indian Reservation), the Flint water crisis (which affected a town that was 55% African American), cancer alley (Louisiana), as well as the government response to hurricane Katrina (where a mandatory evacuation was not ordered in the majority-Black city of New Orleans until 20 hours before Hurricane Katrina made landfall).", "Overall, the US has worked to reduce environmental racism with municipality changes. These policies help develop further change. Some cities and counties have taken advantage of environmental justice policies and applied it to the public health sector.\n\nNative American peoples", "Native scholars have discussed whether the concept of Environmental Justice make sense in the context of Native Americans and settler colonialism. This is because Native Americans' legal status differs from other marginalized peoples in the United States. As such, Colville scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker explains that \"because Indigenous peoples' relationships to the state (i.e", ".e. the United States) are different than those of ethnic minorities, environmental justice must exceed equality and be able to live up to the concepts of tribal sovereignty, treaty rights, and government-to-government relationships.\"", "Gilio-Whitaker further argues that the distributive justice model on which evironmental racism is based is not helpful to Native communities: \"Frameworks for EJ in non-Native communities that rely on distributive justice are built on capitalistic American values of land as commodity — i.e. private property — on lands that were expropriated from Native peoples.\" In contrast, Native peoples have very different relationships to land beyond the modes of land as commodity.", "Indigenous studies scholars have argued that environmental racism, however, began in the United States with the arrival of settler colonialism.", "Potawatomi philosopher Kyle Powys Whyte and Lower Brule Sioux historian Nick Estes explain that Native peoples have already lived through one environmental apocalypse, the coming of colonialism. Métis geographer Zoe Todd and academic Heather Davis have also argued that settler colonialism is \"responsible for contemporary environmental crisis", ".\" In that way, it has been shown that climate change has been weaponized against Indigenous American peoples, as Founding Fathers such as Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin deforested the Americas and welcomed warmer weather, which they thought would displace Native peoples and enrich the United States. Thus, \"the United States, from its birth, played a key role in causing catastrophic environmental change", ".\" Whyte explains further that \"Anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change is an intensification of environmental change imposed on Indigenous peoples by colonialism.\"", "Anishinaabe scholar Leanne Betasamosake Simpson has also argued, \"We should be thinking of climate change as part of a much longer series of ecological catastrophes caused by colonialism and accumulation-based society.\"", "The Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the Trail of Tears may also be considered early examples of environmental racism in the United States. As a result of the former, by 1850, all tribes east of the Mississippi had been removed to western lands and essentially confined them to \"lands that were too dry, remote, or barren to attract the attention of settlers and corporations", ".\" During World War II, military facilities were often located conterminous to Indian reservations, which led to a situation in which \"a disproportionate number of the most dangerous military facilities are located near Native American lands.\" A study analyzing the approximately 3,100 counties in the Continental United States found that Native American lands are positively associated with the count of sites with unexploded ordnance deemed extremely dangerous", ". The study also found that the risk assessment code (RAC), which is used to measure dangerousness of sites with unexploded ordnance, can sometimes conceal how much of a threat these sites are to Native Americans. The hazard probability, or probability that a hazard will harm people or ecosystems, is sensitive to the proximity of public buildings such as schools and hospitals", ". Those parameters neglect elements of tribal life such as subsistence consumption, ceremonial use of plants and animals, and low population densities. Because those tribal-unique factors are not considered, Native American lands can often receive low-risk scores, despite threats to their way of life. The hazard probability does not take Native Americans into account when considering the people or ecosystems that could be harmed", ". Locating military facilities coterminous to reservations lead to a situation in which \"a disproportionate number of the most dangerous military facilities are located near Native American lands.\"", "More recently, Native American lands have been used for waste disposal and illegal dumping by the US and multinational corporations. The International Tribunal of Indigenous People and Oppressed Nations, convened in 1992 to examine the history of criminal activity against indigenous groups in the United States, and published a Significant Bill of Particulars outlining grievances indigenous peoples had with the US", ". This included allegations that the US \"deliberately and systematically permitted, aided, and abetted, solicited and conspired to commit the dumping, transportation, and location of nuclear, toxic, medical, and otherwise hazardous waste materials on Native American territories in North America and has thus created a clear and present danger to the health, safety, and physical and mental well-being of Native American People.\"", "Oceania", "Australia", "The Australian Environmental Justice (AEJ) is a multidisciplinary organization which is closely partnered with Friends of the Earth Australia (FoEA). The AEJ focuses on recording and remedying the effects of environmental injustice throughout Australia. The AEJ has addressed issues which include \"production and spread of toxic wastes, pollution of water, soil and air, erosion and ecological damage of landscapes, water systems, plants and animals\"", ". The project looks for environmental injustices that disproportionately affect a group of people or impact them in a way they did not agree to.", "The Western Oil Refinery started operating in Bellevue, Western Australia, in 1954. It was permitted rights to operate in Bellevue by the Australian government in order to refine cheap and localized oil. In the decades following, many residents of Bellevue claimed they felt respiratory burning due to the inhalation of toxic chemicals and nauseating fumes", ". Lee Bell from Curtin University and Mariann Lloyd-Smith from the National Toxic Network in Australia stated in their article, \"Toxic Disputes and the Rise of Environmental Justice in Australia\" that \"residents living close to the site discovered chemical contamination in the ground- water surfacing in their back yards\". Under immense civilian pressure, the Western Oil Refinery (now named Omex) stopped refining oil in 1979", ". Years later, citizens of Bellevue formed the Bellevue Action Group (BAG) and called for the government to give aid towards the remediation of the site. The government agreed and $6.9 million was allocated to clean up the site. Remediation of site began in April 2000.", "Micronesia\n\nPapua New Guinea", "Starting production in 1972, the Panguna mine in Papua New Guinea has been a source of environmental racism. Although closed since 1989 due to conflict on the island, the indigenous peoples (Bougainvillean) have suffered both economically and environmentally from the creation of the mine", ". Terrance Wesley-Smith and Eugene Ogan, University of Hawaii and University of Minnesota respectively, stated that the Bougainvillean's \"were grossly disadvantaged from the beginning and no subsequent renegotiation has been able to remedy the situation\"", ". These indigenous people faced issues such as losing land which could have been used for agricultural practices for the Dapera and Moroni villages, undervalued payment for the land, poor relocation housing for displaced villagers and significant environmental degradation in the surrounding areas.", "Polynesia\n\nSouth America", "The Andes", "Extracitivism, or the process of humans removing natural, raw resources from land to be used in product manufacturing, can have detrimental environmental and social repercussions. Research analyzing environmental conflicts in four Andean countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) found that conflicts tend to disproportionately affect indigenous populations and those with Afro-descent, and peasant communities", ". These conflicts can arise as a result of shifting economic patterns, land use policies, and social practices due to extractivist industries.", "Chile", "Beginning in the late 15th century when European explorers began sailing to the New World, the violence towards and oppression of indigenous populations have had lasting effects to this day. The Mapuche-Chilean land conflict has roots dating back several centuries. When the Spanish went to conquer parts of South America, the Mapuche were one of the only indigenous groups to successfully resist Spanish domination and maintain their sovereignty", ". Moving forward, relations between the Mapuche and the Chilean state declined into a condition of malice and resentment. Chile won its independence from Spain in 1818 and, wanting the Mapuche to assimilate into the Chilean state, began crafting harmful legislation that targeted the Mapuche. The Mapuche have based their economy, both historically and presently, on agriculture", ". The Mapuche have based their economy, both historically and presently, on agriculture. By the mid-19th century, the state resorted to outright seizure of Mapuche lands, forcefully appropriating all but 5% of Mapuche lineal lands. An agrarian economy without land essentially meant that the Mapuche no longer had their means of production and subsistence. While some land has since been ceded back to the Mapuche, it is still a fraction of what the Mapuche once owned", ". Further, as the Chilean state has attempted to rebuild its relationship with the Mapuche community, the connection between the two is still strained by the legacy of the aforementioned history.", "Today, the Mapuche people are the largest population of indigenous people in Chile, with 1.5 million people accounting for over 90% of the country's indigenous population.\n\nEcuador", "Due to their lack of environmental laws, emerging countries like Ecuador have been subjected to environmental pollution, sometimes causing health problems, loss of agriculture, and poverty. In 1993, 30,000 Ecuadorians, which included Cofan, Siona, Huaorani, and Quichua indigenous people, filed a lawsuit against Texaco oil company for the environmental damages caused by oil extraction activities in the Lago Agrio oil field", ". After handing control of the oil fields to an Ecuadorian oil company, Texaco did not properly dispose of its hazardous waste, causing great damages to the ecosystem and crippling communities. Additionally, UN experts have said that Afro-Ecuadorians and other people of African descent in Ecuador have faced greater challenges than other groups in accessing clean water, with minimal response from the State.", "Haiti", "Legacies of racism exist in Haiti, and affect the way that food grown by peasants domestically is viewed compared to foreign food. Racially coded hierarchies are associated with food that differs in origin – survey respondents reported that food such as millet and root crops are associated with negative connotations, while foreign-made food such as corn flakes and spaghetti are associated with positive connotations", ". This reliance on imports over domestic products reveals how racism ties to commercial tendencies – a reliance on imports can increase costs, fossil fuel emissions, and further social inequality as local farmers loose business.", "See also \n\n Biological inequity\n Climate change and poverty\n Electronic waste\n Environmental determinism\n Environmental discrimination in the United States\n Environmental dumping\n Environmental struggles of the Romani\n Fenceline community\n Green Imperialism\n Health inequality and environmental influence\n Intergenerational equity\n Intersectionality\n Netherlands fallacy\n NIMBY\n Pollution haven hypothesis\n Racial capitalism\n Sacrifice zone\n Pollution is Colonialism\n Toxic colonialism\n\nReferences", "References\n\nExternal links\n United States Environmental Protection Agency - Environmental Justice\n Environmental Justice and Environmental Racism\n Marathon for Justice, 2016 - Film on Environmental Racism \n Water and Environmental Racism. Lesson by Matt Reed and Ursula Wolfe-Rocca\n\nEnvironmental controversies\nDefinition of racism controversy\nUrban decay\n \nEnvironmental social science concepts\nEnvironment and society\nApartheid" ]

[ "Imogen Jennifer Jane Heap ( ; born 9 December 1977) is a British musician, singer, songwriter and record producer. Her work has been considered pioneering in pop and electropop music.", "Heap classically trained in piano, cello and clarinet starting at a young age. She began writing songs at the age of 13 and, while attending boarding school, taught herself music production. After being discovered by manager Mickey Modern while attending the BRIT School, Heap signed to independent record label Almo Sounds at the age of 18 and later began working with experimental pop band Acacia. She released her debut album, an alternative rock record, I Megaphone, in 1998", ". She released her debut album, an alternative rock record, I Megaphone, in 1998. In early 2002, Heap and English record producer Guy Sigsworth formed the electronic duo Frou Frou and released their only album to date, Details (2002).", "Her second studio album, Speak for Yourself, was released in 2005 on her own label, Megaphonic Records, and was certified gold in the United States and Canada. The album spawned three singles: \"Headlock\", \"Goodnight and Go\", which became her highest-charting single as a lead artist on the UK Singles Chart, and \"Hide and Seek\", which was certified gold in the United States and gained popularity after being used in the Fox teen drama television series The O.C.", ".C.. Heap's third studio album, Ellipse (2009), peaked in the top five of the Billboard 200 chart and received mostly positive reviews. This was followed by her fourth studio album, Sparks (2014). In 2017, she reunited with Sigsworth as part of Frou Frou.", "Heap developed the Mi.Mu Gloves, a line of musical gloves, as well as a blockchain-based music-sharing program, Mycelia. She also composed the music for the West End/Broadway play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child. Over the course of her career, she has received two Grammy Awards, one Ivor Novello Award, and one Drama Desk Award. In July 2019, Heap was awarded an honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music.", "Early life", "Imogen Jennifer Jane Heap was born on 9 December 1977 in Havering, Greater London. Her name was inspired by that of British composer Imogen Holst, as her mother wanted Heap to become a cellist like Holst. She played music from an early age, first learning the piano due to \"wanting attention\" as a middle child and realizing, according to her, that \"it was something [she] could make a lot of noise with\"", ". She did not enjoy playing the music of classical composers such as Bach and Beethoven, and would instead attempt to play in their style to convince her parents she was practicing their music. As a child, she began recording music by recording herself playing piano on cassette, then recording herself again singing over it", ". She soon began taking lessons and became classically trained in several instruments including piano, cello and clarinet while attending Friends School, a private, Quaker-run boarding school in Saffron Walden. At around age 10, she began composing Christmas carols for her school's choir.", "Due to being placed a year above children her age, Heap claims she did not get along with many people from the school and spent most of her time in the music room practising piano. She stated, \"In boarding school...I was mocked about the clothes I wore, the way I looked, whatever. People there really did regard me as some kind of freak from the middle of nowhere. And these things do matter a lot when you are sixteen, seventeen", ". And these things do matter a lot when you are sixteen, seventeen.\" Heap's mother, an art therapist, and father, a construction rock retailer, separated when she was twelve years old. Also at age twelve, she taught herself how to use Cubase on an Atari computer at Friends School. By the age of thirteen, she had begun writing songs. At age fifteen, she began using reel-to-reel recording to record her music, using a home computer to program the music.", "Career", "1995–1996: Almo Sounds & Acacia", "After boarding school, she went on to study at the BRIT School for Performing Arts & Technology in Croydon, South London, where she first began regularly singing and writing songs due to loneliness. It was there that she recorded her first song to feature her vocals, \"Missing You\", which was released on the BRIT School's Class of 1994 album and earned her attention from manager Mickey Modern after he saw her performance at a talent showcase", ". After being introduced to Nik Kershaw by Modern, Heap recorded demos which were taken to Rondor Music. A few months later, Heap signed her first record contract, aged 18, with independent record label Almo Sounds.", "In 1996, Heap began working with British experimental pop band Acacia, which featured her future collaborator Guy Sigsworth. While never a full member of the band, Heap was a guest vocalist and contributed to various Acacia singles and album tracks. Heap's first major live solo performance was as part of the line-up for the 1996 Prince's Trust Concert in Hyde Park.", "1998–2001: I Megaphone", "Heap's debut commercial single, \"Getting Scared\", was released in 1997 and included on the soundtrack for the 1998 horror film I Still Know What You Did Last Summer. She released her debut album, the alternative rock record I Megaphone, on 16 June 1998 through Almo, with \"Getting Scared\" as its lead single. The record was made with several producers, including English musician Dave Stewart and Sigsworth, and received some critical praise but was a commercial failure, as Almo did little to promote the album", ". Soon after Heap released the record, Almo Sounds was acquired by Universal, forcing its artists to either move to other labels or be released. Heap was one of the artists who was dropped from the label, leaving her without a record contract.", "During her time as an unsigned artist, Heap appeared on two singles: \"Meantime\", a track written by her former Acacia colleagues Guy Sigsworth and Alexander Nilere for the soundtrack to the independent British film G:MT – Greenwich Mean Time, and \"Blanket\", a 1998 collaboration with British hip hop band Urban Species. \"Blanket\" was Heap's first charting single, reaching number 56 on the UK Singles Chart. The song would later appear in a 2005 sex tape of Limp Bizkit frontman Fred Durst", ". The song would later appear in a 2005 sex tape of Limp Bizkit frontman Fred Durst. Heap appeared as a featured vocalist on two songs\"Dirty Mind\" and \"Rollin' and Tumblin'\"on the 2001 album You Had It Coming by English guitarist Jeff Beck.", "2002–2003: Frou Frou\nHeap had kept in contact with Guy Sigsworth (who had co-written and produced \"Getting Scared\" from I Megaphone), and this led to the pair of them establishing the collaborative project Frou Frou.", "The initial concept for Frou Frou was Sigsworth's, and the project was to have been an album written and produced by her with each track featuring a different singer, songwriter, poet or rapper. Heap explains that Sigsworth invited her over to his studio to write lyrics to a four-bar motif he had, with one condition – that she include the word \"love\" somewhere. The first line she came up with was \"lung of love, leaves me breathless\", and the Details album track \"Flicks\" was written", ". A week later, Sigsworth called Heap again, and together they wrote and recorded the future single \"Breathe In\".", "On 4 June 2002, they released Details, their first and only album to date. The album spawned the singles \"Breathe In\", \"It's Good to Be in Love\" and \"Must Be Dreaming\". The song \"Let Go\" was featured on the soundtrack for the 2004 film Garden State.\n\nIn late 2003, after an extensive promotional tour of the UK, Europe and the US, the duo was told that their record label Island Records would not be picking up the option for a second album.", "Heap and Sigsworth remain firm friends and have worked together since the project, including their temporary re-formation in late 2003, when they covered the Bonnie Tyler classic \"Holding Out for a Hero\" which was featured during the credits of the movie Shrek 2 after Jennifer Saunders' version in the film. Frou Frou saw a resurgence in popularity in 2004, when their album track \"Let Go\" was featured in the film Garden State, the soundtrack of which won a Grammy award.", "In a 2005 interview, Heap said of Frou Frou, \"[It] was really like a kind of little holiday from my own work. Guy and I, we have always worked together, and then over the years, it became clear that we wanted to do a whole album together. It was very organic and spontaneous – just one of those wonderful things that happens. But there was never a mention of a second record from either of us, and not uncomfortably. We're just both kind of free spirits", ". We're just both kind of free spirits. I love to work with a lot of different people, but I was also just gagging to see what I could do on my own. But I'm sure in the future, Guy and I will get back together to do another record, or to record a few songs together.\"", "2004–2007: Speak for Yourself\n\nIn December 2003, Heap announced on her website that she was going to write and produce her second solo album, using her site as a blog to publicise progress.", "Heap recorded a rendition of the song \"I'm a Lonely Little Petunia (In an Onion Patch)\" for the seventh episode of the fourth season of the HBO drama series Six Feet Under, which premiered in August 2004. Her rendition later appeared as the album closer for the 2005 soundtrack album Six Feet Under, Vol. 2: Everything Ends.", "Heap set herself a deadline of one year to make the album, booking a session to master the album one year ahead in December 2004. She re-mortgaged her flat to fund production costs, including renting a studio at Atomic Studios, London (previously inhabited by UK grime artist, Dizzee Rascal), and purchasing instruments.\n\nAt the end of 2004, with the album completed, Heap premiered two album tracks online, selling them prior to the album's release – \"Just for Now\" and \"Goodnight and Go\".", "In May 2005, Heap released the lead single from her forthcoming album, \"Hide and Seek\". The song earned immense popularity after being used to score the season two finale of the Fox television series The O.C. on the same day as its release. It peaked in the top-40 of the Billboard Digital Songs chart, eventually receiving a gold certification from the RIAA and going on to be sampled in the song \"Whatcha Say\" by American singer Jason Derulo, which topped the Billboard Hot 100.", "Heap released the album on her own label, Megaphonic Records. The album was titled Speak for Yourself. Speak for Yourself was released in the UK on 18 July 2005 on CD and iTunes UK, where it entered the top 10 chart. The initial 10,000 physical copies pressed sold out, distributed through large and independent record stores and Heap's own online shop. In August 2005, Heap announced that she had licensed Speak for Yourself to RCA Records for the album's release in the United States, Canada and Mexico", ". The album was released in November 2005 and débuted at number 144 in the Billboard Top 200 album chart. In concert, Heap performed solo, controlling the sound through her laptop, as well as singing and playing the piano and array mbira. Also that month, Heap appeared on the soundtrack for the 2005 romantic comedy film Just Like Heaven, performing a cover of the song \"Spooky\" by American band Classics IV", ". Heap announced, upon her return to the UK, that she had signed a deal for the album to be released internationally, as well as re-promoted in the UK, with a new imprint of Sony BMG, White Rabbit, run by former Sony BMG UK A&R vice president Nick Raphael.", "In November 2005, Heap wrote and recorded the song \"Can't Take It In\" for the soundtrack of the fantasy film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, which was released one month later.", "Speak for Yourself was re-released on the label on 24 April 2006, ahead of a full promotional push on 15 May, a week after the second single, \"Goodnight and Go\", was commercially released in the UK. Heap recorded an a cappella cover of the Leonard Cohen song \"Hallelujah\" for the season three finale of The O.C., which premiered in May 2006.", "In August 2006, Heap performed a set at the V Festival, where it was announced that \"Headlock\" was to be the third single lifted from the album and released on 16 October 2006 in the UK. Heap wrote and performed the song \"Glittering Cloud\", which was based on the plague of locusts, as part of an event called the Margate Exodus sponsored by Artangel in November 2006, where ten artists each performed one song based on one of the Plagues of Egypt in Margate", ". The songs were compiled in the 2006 album Plague Songs.", "In late September and early October, Heap embarked on a tour of the UK, holding a competition on MySpace for different support acts for each venue before touring throughout Canada and the US in November and December. This was her first tour of North America that included a band, incorporating upright bass, percussion, and support acts Kid Beyond and Levi Weaver on beatbox and guitar, respectively. In December 2006, Heap was featured on the front page of The Green Room magazine.", "On 7 December 2006, Heap received two Grammy nominations for the 49th Annual Grammy Awards, one for Best New Artist and the other for Best Song Written For Motion Picture, Television Or Other Visual Media for \"Can't Take It In\".\n\n2008–2010: Ellipse", "2008–2010: Ellipse\n\nThroughout the creation of her album Ellipse, Heap posted vlogs or VBlogs as she called them, on YouTube.\nShe used these to comment on the album as well as update on its release.\nThe album's release was pushed back multiple times.\nThese included Heap being asked to perform at the annual event PopTech in October 2008. During the event, she premiered one of her album's songs, \"Wait it Out\".", "In October 2008, Heap gave a musical performance in the anti-human trafficking documentary and rockumentary film Call + Response, directed by Justin Dillon. She was also featured on two songs on Jeff Beck's live album Live at Ronnie Scott's and appeared in the accompanying DVD in April 2009.\n\nHeap announced on her Twitter page that Ellipses first single would be \"First Train Home\".\n\nOn 17 August 2009, Heap made the entire album Ellipse available for live streaming via her webpage.", "Ellipse was released in the United Kingdom on 24 August 2009 and in the United States on 25 August 2009.\n\nHeap received two nominations for the 49th Annual Grammy Awards, where she won the Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical for her engineering work on Ellipse, making her the first female artist to win the award.", "2011–2014: Sparks\nIn March 2011, Heap began working on her then-unnamed fourth studio album and revealed that she would be writing and releasing a new single for the album once every three months, beginning with the recording and release of the album's lead single, then released under the working title \"Heapsong1\" and eventually released commercially as \"Lifeline\", via Ustream. \"Propeller Seeds\", the second single, followed in July 2011.", "The third single from the album, \"Neglected Space\", was created as part of Heap's project with charity organization Clear Village to restore a walled garden in Bedfords Park in October 2011. She starred in the debut episode of the MTV India musical reality television series The Dewarists, where she recorded \"Minds Without Fear\", her fourth single from Sparks, with Indian production duo Vishal–Shekhar. Both \"Neglected Space\" and \"Minds Without Fear\" were released in October 2011.", "Heap recorded her song \"Xizi She Knows\" during a trip to Hangzhou, which was partially funded by PRS for Music and the British Council. It was released as the fifth single from the album in February 2012. \"You Know Where to Find Me\" was then released as the album's sixth single", ". \"You Know Where to Find Me\" was then released as the album's sixth single. She collaborated with Canadian record producer Deadmau5 on the song \"Telemiscommunications\", which was included on his 2012 studio album, Album Title Goes Here, and released as the eighth single from the album in March 2013 alongside an animated music video", ". Her single \"Run-Time\" was made using a generative music app, which she designed with RjDj and Intel that created custom music for running, and was released in July 2014 with a music video.", "The title of Sparks, Heap's fourth studio album, was announced in September 2013, and the album was released on 18 August 2014 through Megaphonic Records. It debuted at number 40 on the UK Albums Chart, at number 21 on the Billboard 200, and at number one on Billboards Dance/Electronic Albums chart. Its deluxe boxset was nominated for the AIM Independent Music Award for Special Catalogue Release of the Year and for the Grammy Award for Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package in 2015.", "2015–present: Harry Potter and the Cursed Child", "In October 2015, Heap released the single \"Tiny Human\" using her blockchain-based platform Mycelia. Sales of \"Tiny Human\" via Ethereum smart contracts as of October 2017 were £30,000. After being contacted by movement director Steven Hoggett, Heap reworked and composed music from her catalogue to be used as the music in Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, the eighth instalment of the Harry Potter series in the form of a West End play that opened in the summer of 2016", ". For her work on the play, she received several award nominations, including for the Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album, the Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music and the Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding New Score (Broadway or Off-Broadway), and won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music in a Play.", "Heap co-wrote and produced the Taylor Swift song \"Clean\", which appeared as the closer to Swift's fifth studio album 1989 and led to her being part of the production team that won Album of the Year at the 58th Grammy Awards. She returned to produce the re-recording of the song for 1989 (Taylor's Version), released in 2023", ". She returned to produce the re-recording of the song for 1989 (Taylor's Version), released in 2023. Heap was one of the artists featured in an episode of the 2016 PBS docuseries Soundbreaking and she narrated and composed music for the 2016 documentary Crossing Bhutan, which premiered at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival", ". Also in 2016, she was commissioned by French advertising agency BETC and British company Cow & Gate, in collaboration with researchers from Goldsmiths, University of London, to help write a song which would be proven to \"make babies happy\", which was eventually titled \"The Happy Song\". The track was engineered through several months of scientific testing and was released in October 2016.", "Heap wrote, produced and recorded the song \"Magic Me\" as the score for the 2017 animated short film Escape, which premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival in April of that year. Heap also recorded \"The Quiet\" as the end credits song for the 2017 Square Enix video game The Quiet Man. She performed \"Hide and Seek\" at the benefit concert and television special One Love Manchester in Manchester in June 2017. Her performance was praised by critics as \"powerful\" and \"melancholy\"", ". Her performance was praised by critics as \"powerful\" and \"melancholy\". The following month, she was featured on the song \"We Drift On\" by British singer-songwriter Dan Black from his second studio album Do Not Revenge. She announced in November 2017 that she would be reuniting Frou Frou with Guy Sigsworth and would be embarking on the Mycelia World Tour with him to promote the release of Mycelia's Creative Passport program", ". In March 2018, she was awarded the Inspiration Award at the 2018 Music Producers Guild Awards.", "On 18 September 2018, Heap released The Music of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child in Four Contemporary Suites, a condensed soundtrack album of the play. An interview with her appeared in the Alex Winter-directed documentary Trust Machine: The Story of Blockchain in November 2018. The Mycelia World Tour began in Europe in 2018, while the North American leg began in April 2019, marking her first North American tour in nine years and her first tour as part of Frou Frou since 2003", ". That same month, she and Sigsworth released \"Guitar Song (Live)\", their first Frou Frou song in 15 years, through We Are Hear. She gave a lecture at Boston Calling Music Festival in May 2019. In June 2019, she announced that she planned to release an album consisting of collaborations in 2020, the lead single of which would be one of three versions of \"The Quiet\". She also performed on NPR's Tiny Desk Concerts series that same month.", "She hosted the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards Premiere Ceremony in January 2020. In April 2020, she appeared as a main artist on the commercial re-release of the 2009 song \"I'm God\" by Italian-American record producer Clams Casino, which samples Heap's song \"Just for Now\", and released the single \"Phase and Flow\" as part of a collaboration with IBM. The following month, she performed during Royal Albert Hall's Royal Albert Home virtual concert series", ". Heap gave a livestreamed closing performance for the Virtual Design Festival held by Dezeen in July 2020. During the COVID-19 pandemic, she launched a self-titled app for fans to view unreleased material and demos and participate in listening parties with her through Discord for a monthly fee, and began work on a project called \"Augmented Imogen\", meant to be an AI version of herself. She released the single \"Last Night of an Empire\" in December 2020", ". She released the single \"Last Night of an Empire\" in December 2020. In late March 2022, Imogen Heap partnered with Symphonic Distribution to re-release previous material, including a handful of Frou Frou demos, which will compile into the Off Cuts release. The first single \"A New Kind of Love (Demo)\" is slated to release 8 April.", "Film", "After touring for nearly two years straight for her album Speak for Yourself, Heap continued her travels, this time with only a laptop and video camera on hand as she began her writing trip for her next album. Nine weeks later she returned to the UK with the beginnings of the award-winning Ellipse and footage (as requested by a fan to film the making of the album) from its quiet beginning. Back in Essex, Heap hired Justine Pearsall to document the creation of the album", ". Back in Essex, Heap hired Justine Pearsall to document the creation of the album. The film documents the creation of the album and the renovation of Heap's childhood home, including turning her old playroom into her new home studio. Everything In-Between: The Story of Ellipse was released in November 2010.", "On 5 November 2010 at the Royal Albert Hall, Heap conducted an orchestra including her friends and family as they performed an original piece composed by Heap and orchestrated by Andrew Skeet. Heap also worked with London Contemporary Voices at this time, a scratch choir formed for this concert, which continues as a new choir in its own right", ". It was the score to the concept film Love The Earth, for which fans were invited to submit video footage highlighting all the qualities of nature to be selected and edited into a film. This performance was broadcast live worldwide.", "In March, for the Birds Eye View Film Festival at the Southbank Centre, Heap, in collaboration with Andrew Skeet, composed an a cappella choral score for the first-ever surrealist film The Seashell and the Clergyman (Germaine Dulac, 1927), with the Holst Singers, a programme repeated at the Reverb Festival at the Roundhouse in February 2012 and in the Sage, Gateshead.\n\nHeap performed in the Film and Music Arena at Latitude Festival in 2011.", "Heap performed in the Film and Music Arena at Latitude Festival in 2011.\n\nIn 2014, filmmaker Christopher Ian Smith made Cumulus, an experimental documentary exploring key elements of Heap's background, personality and music practice. Crafted entirely out of social media content and data created by Heap and her fans, Cumulus explores Imogen's digital footprint and identity as well as her relationship with fans. The film is available to view online.\n\nOther endeavors\n\nMi.Mu", "In July 2011, Heap unveiled a pair of in-development, wired musical gloves at the TEDGlobal conference in Edinburgh, Scotland. They were originally developed by Heap with Tom Mitchell, a University of the West of England, Bristol lecturer in music systems, and designed and sewn by Rachel Freire, a costume designer, over the course of the prior two and a half years", ". They were inspired by another pair of musical gloves developed by engineer Elly Jessop at MIT which Heap had witnessed during a visit to the university's Media Lab. Early versions of Heap's gloves had issues with latency and accuracy", ". Early versions of Heap's gloves had issues with latency and accuracy. In an interview, Heap stated, \"The gloves help me embody those sounds which are hidden inside the computer, for me to physicalize them and bring them out so that I can play them and the audience members will understand what I am doingrather than fiddling around on a keyboard and mouse which is not very clearI could just be doing my emails.\"", "The gloves, which eventually came to be known as the Mi.Mu gloves (a name derived from an abbreviation of \"me\" and \"music\"), are made from the material Yulex and consist of a hardware board at the wrist developed by Seb Madgwick with an inertial measurement unit used to determine the speed and orientation of the hands, flex sensors over the knuckles, a haptic motor, a removable battery, open palms and LED lights in between the thumb and forefinger which indicate whether or not the user is recording", ". Open Sound Control data is sent to a computer, which can perform a number of different actions, including adjusting volume, recording loops and filtering sound. The gloves also come with a custom software called Glover that can be integrated with music production apps such as Ableton Live and Pro Tools, and use 802.11 Wi-Fi.", "Heap recorded her song \"Me the Machine\" using an early version of the gloves, debuting the single during a livestream on Earth Day in 2012. Also in 2012, she showcased the Mi.Mu gloves on an episode of the BBC television series Dara Ó Briain's Science Club. Heap began crowdfunding to produce more pairs of the gloves in April 2014 on Kickstarter, with a goal of £200,000, but the campaign failed to meet its target. However, the Mi", ". However, the Mi.Mu project found investors who collaborated with Heap's team to continue to develop the gloves. An early investor and user of the gloves was American singer Ariana Grande, who used the gloves during her second concert tour, The Honeymoon Tour, in 2015. In April 2019, the Mi.Mu gloves became publicly available for pre-order. Popular Science included the Mi.Mu gloves on their list of the 100 greatest innovations of 2019.", "Mycelia\nIn October 2015, Heap released the single \"Tiny Human\" using the blockchain-based platform Mycelia, which she created as a decentralized musical database for artists to share their music on and enforce smart contracts using Ethereum. Mycelia's Creative Passport program is a personalized profile for artists not signed to a major label. As of August 2016, gross sales of \"Tiny Human\" through Mycelia amounted to $133.20.\n\nArtistry", "In the late 1990s, Heap's music was largely alternative rock. Her earlier songs, specifically those from her debut album I Megaphone, were frequently compared in the media to those of fellow singer-songwriters Tori Amos, Kate Bush and Alanis Morissette", ". However, after forming and subsequently disbanding the electronic duo Frou Frou, whose work on their sole album to date, Details, was mainly alternative pop and electropop, her music became primarily based in pop, specifically electropop, art pop and synth-pop. She has written, produced and engineered most of her music on her own. She has also stated that she rarely listens to music, but draws inspiration from TED conferences.", "Heap plays a number of instruments, including piano, clarinet, cello, guitar, drums and the array mbira. She extensively uses manipulated electronic sounds as an integral part of her music. She also mixes ambient sound into her music and has commented that \"certain sounds give the music a width and a space, and that's important.\" CNN stated that Heap is known for \"her distinctive fusion of soft acoustic sounds, electronica and tech\".", "Heap states that her song lyrics come from personal experience, but are not straightforwardly confessional. She has stated, \"Most of the time, the lyrics are kind of like my secret messages to my friends or my boyfriend or my mum or my dad. I would never tell them that these songs are about them or which specific lyric is about somebody. Often, when I sit down to write a lyric, it is in the heat of the moment, and something has just happened.\"", "Heap's frog-themed outfit at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards has been included in several lists of the most \"outrageous\" Grammys outfits of all time.", "Legacy", "Heap has been regarded as influential in pop music, specifically in electropop and for using technology in her music. NPR's Lindsay Kimbell also referred to Heap as a \"pioneer of electronic pop\" in 2018. Billboard called Heap an \"electro-pop innovator\". In 2018, Stereogums Margaret Farrell referred to Heap as \"pop's unsung pioneer\" and \"an electronic pop mastermind\", going on to describe her as \"a mystical force that has loomed over pop music for nearly two decades\"", ". In 2019, The New York Times similarly called Heap a \"pop pioneer\" whose work \"has established her as an innovator in musical technology\". For Paper, Matt Moen called Heap \"the Nikola Tesla of pop music\" in that \"[her] influence in the field of pop has largely gone unappreciated in her own time\". Various outlets, including NPR and New Statesman, have called Heap a \"tech pioneer\"", ". Various outlets, including NPR and New Statesman, have called Heap a \"tech pioneer\". Patrick Ryan of USA Today wrote that Heap \"pioneered\" the subgenre of folktronica, which combines elements of folk music and electronica.", "Heap has been cited as a musical inspiration by a number of artists and groups, including Ariana Grande, Bebe Rexha, Ellie Goulding, Kacey Musgraves, Pentatonix, Chloe Bailey, Empress Of, Dawn Richard, Jamila Woods, Muna, Mree, Woodes, Ben Hopkins, Matthew Parker, Red Moon, Michelle Chamuel, Chaz Cardigan, Laura Doggett, GoodLuck, Kool Kojak, and Stars and Rabbit", ". Heap's songs have also been covered by artists including Pentatonix and Kelly Clarkson, and have been sampled by artists including Grande, Jason Derulo, Wiz Khalifa, Mac Miller, Clams Casino, Lil B, Ryan Hemsworth, Deniro Farrar, Suicideboys, ASAP Rocky, MellowHype, Trinidad James and Kendrick Lamar. The sampling of her songs has been considered influential in the subgenre of cloud rap.", "Charity\n\nIn 2008, Heap participated in an album called Songs for Tibet: The Art of Peace, which is an initiative to support Tibet, Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso and to underline the human rights situation in Tibet. The album was released on 5 August via iTunes and on 19 August in music stores around the world. On 12 October 2008, Heap participated in \"Run 10k: Cancer Research UK\", placing fifth of the women in the actual run and raising over £1000 for the cause with the help of her fans.", "In 2010 Heap began performing improvised pieces at shows, asking for donations for charity after the show to download the song.", "In 2011, Heap played a benefit concert in Christchurch, New Zealand, to help rebuild the Unlimited Paenga Tawhiti High School following a severe earthquake which destroyed a large portion of the city earlier in the year. The concert was held at the Burnside High Aurora Centre, also featuring performances from Roseanna Gamlen-Greene, and The Harbour Union including The Eastern, Lindon Puffin, Delaney Davidson and The Unfaithful Ways. It was her only New Zealand show for the year.", "On 4 June 2017, Heap performed at One Love Manchester, a benefit concert organised by Ariana Grande in response to the bombing after her concert at Manchester Arena two weeks earlier. She performed \"Hide and Seek\". Other celebrity participants included Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Niall Horan, Coldplay, Miley Cyrus and Pharrell Williams.\n\nLive 4 X\nIn 2010, Imogen Heap partnered with Thomas Ermacora of Bubbletank to organise a series of online charitable events called Live 4 X.", "The initial event was inspired by the 2010 Pakistan floods. Triggered by monsoon rains, the floods left approximately one-fifth of the country of Pakistan under water, affecting over 14 million people and damaging or destroying over 900,000 homes. Teaming up with Richard Branson's Virgin Unite and Vokle.com, Heap and Ermacora created a webcast/online fundraiser to raise awareness and money for those affected by the floods", ". Hosted by comedian, creative and Internet personality Ze Frank, the webcast included a series of conversations with Cameron Sinclair of Architecture for Humanity, Gary Slutkin and Anders Wilhelmson (and later Richard Branson and Mary Robinson), with live performances by musicians Ben Folds, Amanda Palmer, Kate Havnevik, KT Tunstall, Josh Groban, Kaki King, Zoe Keating and Mark Isham.", "The premise of Live 4 X thus established, Heap has since continued to refine the model, organize, host and perform a number of charitable, live-streaming concert events. By integrating live entertainment with educated discussion and technology, Live 4 X became an effective charitable outreach tool.", "Following the Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011, Heap told Washington Times Communities journalist and recording artist Jennifer Grassman that she intended to continue organising Live 4 X events to benefit various charitable causes.", "Catalogue of Live 4 X events to date:", "31 August 2010 – Live 4 Pakistan raised funds for flood relief and recovery in that region. Musicians included Ben Folds, Amanda Palmer, Kate Havnevik, KT Tunstall, Josh Groban and Zoe Keating. In an ironic turn of events, Heap was kept from appearing on Live 4 Pakistan due to Hurricane Earl which at the time was progressing along the US eastern seaboard. Heap, stranded and unable to get an internet connection, later posted a video message as well as a performance of her song \"Wait It Out\" from Ellipse.", "3 February 2011 – Live 4 Cape Town\n 11 April 2011 – Live 4 Sendai raised funds for Japanese tsunami recovery following the disastrous Great East Japan earthquake of 2011. The event was also used to solicit rebuilding design ideas on behalf of Architecture for Humanity. Performers included Amanda Palmer, Ben Folds, KT Tunstall and Jamie Cullum and hosted by Ze Frank.", "Personal life\nHeap began dating film director Michael Lebor in 2012. In June 2014, Heap announced in her video blog that she was pregnant with her first child with Lebor. She gave birth to their daughter later that year.\n\nHeap's sister, Juliet, died while abroad in November 2019.\n\nDiscography\n\n I Megaphone (1998)\n Speak for Yourself (2005)\n Ellipse (2009)\n Sparks (2014)\n The Music of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child - In Four Contemporary Suites (2018)\n Chordata Bytes I & II (2022)", "Tours\n Ellipse Tour (2009–2010)\n Mycelia Tour (2019–2020)\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nSee also \n List of ambient music artists\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "1977 births\nLiving people\nAbleton Live users\nAlmo Sounds artists\nBritish women record producers\nEnglish audio engineers\nEnglish electronic musicians\nEnglish expatriates in Japan\nEnglish expatriates in the United States\nEnglish multi-instrumentalists\nEnglish record producers\nEnglish women in electronic music\nEnglish women singer-songwriters\nEnglish singer-songwriters\nGrammy Award winners\nIvor Novello Award winners\nPeople educated at Friends School Saffron Walden\nPeople educated at the BRIT School", "People educated at Friends School Saffron Walden\nPeople educated at the BRIT School\nPeople from the London Borough of Havering\nRCA Records artists\nSingers from London\nSynth-pop singers\nWomen rock singers\n20th-century English singers\n21st-century English singers\n20th-century English women singers\n21st-century English women singers\nBritish autoharp players" ]

[ "Ireland's Corporate Tax System is a central component of Ireland's economy. In 2016–17, foreign firms paid 80% of Irish corporate tax, employed 25% of the Irish labour force (paid 50% of Irish salary tax), and created 57% of Irish OECD non-farm value-add. As of 2017, 25 of the top 50 Irish firms were U.S.–controlled businesses, representing 70% of the revenue of the top 50 Irish firms. By 2018, Ireland had received the most U.S. in history, and Apple was over one–fifth of Irish GDP", ".S. in history, and Apple was over one–fifth of Irish GDP. Academics rank Ireland as the largest tax haven; larger than the Caribbean tax haven system.", "Ireland's \"headline\" corporation tax rate is 12.5%, however, foreign multinationals pay an aggregate of 2.2–4.5% on global profits \"shifted\" to Ireland, via Ireland's global network of bilateral tax treaties. These lower effective tax rates are achieved by a complex set of Irish base erosion and profit shifting (\"BEPS\") tools which handle the largest BEPS flows in the world (e.g", ".g. the Double Irish as used by Google and Facebook, the Single Malt as used by Microsoft and Allergan, and Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets as used by Accenture, and by Apple post Q1 2015).", "Ireland's main use \"intellectual property\" (\"IP\") accounting to affect the BEPS movement, which is why almost all foreign multinationals in Ireland are from the industries with substantial IP, namely technology and life sciences.", "Ireland's GDP is artificially inflated by BEPS accounting flows. This distortion escalated in Q1 2015 when Apple executed the largest BEPS transaction in history, on-shoring $300 billion of non–U.S. IP to Ireland (resulting in a phenomenon dubbed by some as \"leprechaun economics\"). In 2017, it forced the Central Bank of Ireland to supplement GDP with an alternative measure, modified gross national income (GNI*), which removes some of the distortions by BEPS tools. Irish GDP was 162% of Irish GNI* in 2017", ". Irish GDP was 162% of Irish GNI* in 2017.", "Ireland's corporation tax regime is integrated with Ireland's IFSC tax schemes (e.g. Section 110 SPVs and QIAIFs), which give confidential routes out of the Irish corporate tax system to Sink OFC's in Luxembourg. This functionality has made Ireland one of the largest global Conduit OFCs, and the third largest global Shadow Banking OFC.", "As a countermeasure to potential exploits by U.S. companies, the U.S. Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (TCJA) moves the U.S to a \"territorial tax\" system. The TJCA's GILTI–FDII–BEAT tax regime has seen U.S. IP–heavy multinationals (e.g. Pfizer), forecast 2019 effective tax rates that are similar to those of prior U.S. tax inversions to Ireland (e.g. Medtronic). Companies taking advantage of Ireland's corporate tax regime are also threatened by the EU's desire to introduce EU–wide anti-BEPS tool regimes (e", ".g. the 2020 Digital Services Tax, and the CCCTB).", "Tax system\n\nTax rates\n\n, there are two rates of corporation tax (\"CT\") in Ireland:", "a 12.5% headline rate for trading income (or \"active businesses income\" in the Irish tax code); trading relates to conducting a business, not investment trading;\na 25.0% headline rate for non-trading income (or also called passive income in the Irish tax code); covering investment income (e.g. income from buying and selling assets), rental income from real estate, net profits from foreign trades, and income from certain land dealings and income from oil, gas and mineral exploitations in Ireland.", "The 10% manufacturing relief tax scheme ended in 2010 (see graphic).", "Key aspects\n\n, the key attributes that tax experts note regarding the Irish corporate tax system are as follows:", "Low headline rate. At 12.5%, Ireland has one of the lowest headline tax rates in Europe (Hungary 9% and Bulgaria 10% are lower); OECD average is 24.9%.\n Transparent. Many of Ireland's corporation tax tools are OECD–whitelisted, and Ireland has one of the lowest secrecy scores in the 2018 FSI rankings.\n \"Worldwide tax\". Ireland is one of six remaining countries that use a \"worldwide tax\" system (Chile, Greece, Ireland, Israel, South Korea, Mexico).", "No \"thin capitalisation\". Ireland has no thin capitalisation rules, which means that Irish corporates can be financed with 100% debt, and 0% equity.\n Double Irish residency. Before 2015, Irish CT was based where a company was \"managed and controlled\" versus registered; the \"Double Irish\" ends in 2020.\n Single Malt residency. Post closure of the Double Irish to new entrants in 2015, it can be recreated by wordings in selective tax treaties (e.g. Malta and UAE).", "Extensive treaties. , Ireland has bilateral tax treaties with 73 countries (the 74th, Ghana, is pending).\n Holding company regime. Built for tax inversions, it gives Irish–based holding companies tax relief on withholding taxes, foreign dividends and CGT.\n Intellectual property regime. Built for the BEPS tools of U.S. technology and life sciences firms, recognises a wide range of intellectual assets that can be charged against Irish tax; the CAIA arrangement.", "Knowledge Development Box. Ireland created the first OECD–compliant KDB in 2016 to support its IP–based BEPS tools.", "Yearly returns (2001–2017)\n\nThe trends in Irish corporation tax (\"CT\") receipts to the Irish Exchequer were:", "Foreign firms pay 80% of Irish CT Revenue (notwithstanding that large U.S.–controlled tax inversions to Ireland, are classed as Irish firms).\n Irish CT Revenues jump in 2015, the year of Apple's re-structure of its BEPS tools.\n Since Apple's 2015 re-structure, Irish CT Revenue as a % of Total Irish Exchequer Tax Revenue is at its pre-crisis peak of over 16% (OECD average is 7.5%); \n Irish CT Revenue has been 10 to 16% of Total Irish Exchequer Tax Revenue (see graphic).", "Irish CT Revenue has been 10 to 16% of Total Irish Exchequer Tax Revenue (see graphic).\n The concentration of the Top 10 Irish CT Payers has risen post the crisis, despite the fact that Irish banks stopped paying Irish CT due to accumulated losses.", "Structure of Irish taxation\n\nEach year, the Department of Finance is required to produce a report on Estimates for Receipts and Expenditure for the coming year. The table below, is extracted from the \"Tax Revenues\" section of the report for the prior-year (e.g. the 2017 column is from the 2018 report), by which time the \"Tax Revenues\" for that year are largely known (although still subject to further revision in later years).", "The \"Tax Revenues\" quoted are Exchequer Tax Revenues, and do not include Appropriations-in-Aid (\"A–in–A\") items, the largest being Social Security (or PRSI) which for 2015 was €10.2 billion, and other smaller items. Irish Personal Income tax, and the two main Irish consumption taxes of VAT and Excise, have consistently been circa 80% of the total Irish Exchequer Tax Revenue, with the balance being Corporate tax.\n\nLow tax economy\n\nTransition in 1987", "Ireland's economic model was transformed from a predominantly agricultural-based economy to a knowledge-based economy, when the EU agreed to waive EU State-aid rules to allow Ireland's 'special rate' of 10% for manufacturing (created in 1980–81 with the EU's agreement), to be extended to the special economic zone called the International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) in Dublin city centre in 1987. The transformation was accelerated when Ireland's standard corporate tax rate was reduced from 40% to 12", ".5% (phased in from 1996 to 2003), in response to the EU's 1996–1998 decision to withdraw the State-aid waiver. The passing of the 1997 Taxes and Consolidated Acts laid the legal foundations for the base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) tools used by U.S. multinationals in Ireland (e.g. the Double Irish, the Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets and the Section 110 SPV), to achieve an effective Irish CT rate, or ETR, of 0–2.5%.", "While low CT rates (and even lower effective tax rates), are a central part of Irish tax policy, non–CT Taxation in the Republic of Ireland is closer to EU–28 and OECD averages. Ireland's policy is summarised by the OECD's Hierarchy of Taxes pyramid (reproduced in the Department of Finance Tax Strategy Group's 2011 corporate tax policy document). As shown in , annual Irish CT has been between 10 and 16 percent of annual Total Irish Tax from circa 1994 to 2018", ". From 2000 to 2014, Ireland's Total Tax-to-GDP ratio was circa 27–30%, versus the OECD average of 33%. However, since Apple's Irish restructuring artificially inflated Ireland's GDP by 34.3% in 2015, Ireland's Tax-to-GDP ratio had fallen to the bottom of the OECD range at under 23%.", "In June 2018, tax academics estimated that Ireland was the largest global tax haven, exceeding the combined flows of the entire Caribbean tax haven system. Tax academics have also showed that being a corporate tax haven has been a prosperous economy strategy for Ireland, and most other havens", ". However, research also showed that the artificial distortion of Ireland's economic data, and GDP in particular, by BEPS flows, led to a large credit bubble during 2003–2007 (due to the mispricing of Ireland's credit by international markets), and an eventual credit–property–banking crisis in 2008–2013 (when Ireland's credit was re-priced).", "Ireland's main foreign multinationals are from periods when their home jurisdiction had a \"worldwide tax\" system (see Table 1), and since the UK switched to a \"territorial tax\" system in 2009–12, Ireland has been almost exclusively a U.S. corporate–tax haven (see Table 1). In October 2014, The Guardian quoted Bono, the lead singer of Ireland's U2, as saying that \"his country's tax policies have \"brought our country the only prosperity we've known\"\"", ". In April 2016, award-winning Irish writer, Fintan O'Toole labelled Ireland's focus on being a U.S. corporate tax haven as the core economic model, as Ireland's OBI, (or \"One Big Idea\").", "Multinational economy", "U.S.–controlled multinationals, either legally based in the U.S. or legally based in Ireland (e.g. tax inversions), dominate Ireland's economy. In June 2018, the American Chamber of Commerce (Ireland) estimated the value of U.S. investment in Ireland was €334 billion, which compared to 2017 Irish GNI* of €181.2 billion. In January 2018, Eurostat used 2015 data to show the gross operating surplus of foreign companies in Ireland was almost exclusively from U.S", ".S. companies, with the UK was a distant second, and little other foreign firm activity.", "In 2016–2017, foreign multinationals, being entirely U.S.–controlled:", "Directly employed one–quarter of the Irish private sector workforce;\n Paid an average wage of €85k (€17.9bn wage roll on 210,443 staff) versus the Irish Industrial wage of €35k;\n Directly contributed €28.3 billion annually in taxes, wages and capital spending;\n Paid 80% of all Irish corporation and Irish business taxes;\n Paid 50% of all Irish salary taxes (due to higher paying jobs), 50% of all Irish VAT, and 92% of all Irish customs and excise duties;", "Created 57% of private sector non–farm value–add: 40% of value–add in Irish services and 80% of value–add in Irish manufacturing;\n Made up 25 of the top 50 Irish companies (by 2017 turnover) (see Table 1).", "Multinational features\nThe main features regarding foreign multinationals in Ireland are:", "They are almost exclusively U.S. U.S.–controlled multinationals are 25 of the top 50 firms in Ireland, and 70% of top 50 firm revenue (see Table 1). This includes U.S. multinationals that are legally headquartered in Ireland (e.g. Medtronic), but who are run from the U.S. (e.g. all senior executives and the main offices are in the U.S.).", "They are from countries with \"worldwide tax\" systems. Tax academics show that firms from \"territorial tax\" systems (over 95% of all countries), make little use of tax havens. The only non–U.S. foreign firms in the top 50 Irish firms are UK firms from pre–2009, after which the UK switched to a \"territorial tax\" system. In December 2017, the U.S. switched to a hybrid-\"territorial tax\" system.", "They are concentrated. The top–20 corporate taxpayers pay 50% of all Irish corporate taxes, while the top–10 pay 40% of all Irish corporate taxes. Post–leprechaun economics, Apple, Ireland's largest company by turnover (see Table 1), constitutes over one–quarter of Ireland's GDP. The top 10 U.S.–controlled multinationals comfortably account for over 50% of Irish 2017 GDP.", "They are mostly technology and life sciences. To use Ireland's main BEPS tools, a multinational needs to have intellectual property (or \"IP\"), which is then converted into intellectual capital and royalty payment plans, which shift profits from high–tax locations to Ireland. Most global IP is concentrated in the technology and life sciences industries (see Table 1).", "They use Ireland to shield all non–U.S. profits, not just EU profits, from the US \"worldwide tax\" system. In 2016, Facebook recorded global revenues of $27 billion, while Facebook (Ireland) paid €30 million in Irish tax on Irish revenues of €13 billion (half of all global revenues). Similarly, Google also runs most of its non–U.S. revenue and profits through its Dublin operation.", "They artificially inflate Irish GDP by 62%. All tax havens have a distorted GDP due to the effect of BEPS flows. Apple's Q1 2015 re-structuring of their Double Irish BEPS tool into a CAIA BEPS tool, increased the distortion to such a level that in February 2017, the Central Bank replaced Irish GDP with GNI*. In 2017, Irish GDP was 162% of 2017 GNI*.", "They pay effective tax rates of 0–2.5%. Irish Revenue quote an effective 2015 CT rate of 9.8%, but this omits profits deemed not taxable. The US Bureau of Economic Analysis gives an effective 2015 Irish CT rate of 2.5%. BEA agrees with the Irish CT rates of Apple, Google and Facebook (<1%), and the CT rates of Irish BEPS tools (0-2.5%). ()", "Multinational job focus\n\nIreland's corporate BEPS tools emphasise job creation (either of Irish employees or of foreign employees to Ireland). To use Irish BEPS tools, and their ETRs of 0–2.5%, the multinational must meet conditions on the intellectual property (\"IP\") they will be using as part of their Irish BEPS tool. This is outlined in the Irish Finance Acts particular to each scheme, but in summary, the multinational must:", "Prove they are carrying out a \"relevant trade\" on the IP in Ireland (i.e. Ireland is not just an \"empty shell\" through which IP passes en route to another tax haven);\n Prove the level of Irish employment doing the \"relevant activities\" on the IP is consistent with the Irish tax relief being claimed (the ratio has never been disclosed);\n Show that the average wages of the Irish employees are consistent with such a \"relevant trade\" (i.e. must be \"high-value\" jobs earning +€60,000–€90,000 per annum);", "Put this into an approved \"business plan\" (agreed with Revenue Commissioners and other State bodies, such as IDA Ireland), for the term of the tax relief scheme;\n Agree to suffer \"clawbacks\" of the Irish tax relief granted (i.e. pay the full 12.5% level), if they leave before the end plan (5 years for schemes started after February 2013)", "The percentage of Irish wages-to-profits required in the \"business plan\" has never been disclosed, however, commentators imply the Irish wage-roll needs to be circa 2–3% of profits booked in Ireland:", "Apple employed 6,000 people in 2014, and at a €100,000 cost per employee gave a €600 million wage-roll on 2014 Irish profits of €25 billion (see table below), or 2.4%\n Google employed 2,763 people in 2014, and at a €100,000 cost per employee gave a €276 million wage roll on Google 2014 Irish profits of €12 billion, or 2.3%", "To the extent that the Irish jobs are performing real functions (i.e. the function is not replicated elsewhere in the Group), the cost is not an \"employment tax\", however, at worst case, the U.S. multinational should incur an aggregate effective Irish corporation tax of 2–6% (actual Irish BEPS tool tax of 0–2.5%, plus Irish employment costs of 2–3%). Therefore, as shown in , while Irish CT has consistently been between 10 and 15% of Total Irish Tax, the additional employment contribution made by U.S", ".S. multinationals in Ireland, has led to strong growth in overall Irish Total Taxes.", "Top 50 Irish corporations\n\nThe top 50 Irish companies, ranked by 2017 Irish registered revenues, are as follows:\n\nFrom the above table:\n\nMultinational tax schemes\n\nBackground\n\nThe tax schemes used by U.S. multinationals in Ireland are called base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) tools by tax academics. Whereas Ireland's headline corporation tax rate is 12.5%, Ireland's BEPS tools enable an effective tax rate of 0% to 2.5% to be achieved, depending on which BEPS tool is used.", "Ireland has been associated with U.S. multinational profit shifting to avoid taxes since the U.S. IRS produced a list on the 12 January 1981. In February 1994, the U.S. tax academic, James R. Hines Jr. identified Ireland as one of seven \"major\" tax havens for U.S. multinational profit shifting", ". identified Ireland as one of seven \"major\" tax havens for U.S. multinational profit shifting. During the 2014–2016 EU investigation into Apple's Irish BEPS tools, it was revealed that the Irish Revenue Commissioners had been issuing private rulings on Apple's Double Irish BEPS tools as far back as 1991; and that Apple, Ireland's largest company, had an ETR of less than 1%", ". In 2014, the EU Commission forced Ireland to close its Double Irish BEPS tool, however, Ireland had replacements in place: the Single Malt (2014), and the Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets (CAIA) (2009).", "When Apple closed its hybrid–Double Irish BEPS tool in Q1 2015 and restructured into the CAIA BEPS tool, the Irish Central Statistics Office (\"CSO\") had to re-state Irish 2015 GDP as Apple's CAIA tool had artificially inflated Irish GDP by 34.4%; an event Paul Krugman christened in July 2016 as Leprechaun economics", ".4%; an event Paul Krugman christened in July 2016 as Leprechaun economics. Because the Irish CSO delayed the re-statement and redacted normal economic data to protect Apple's identity, it was not until January 2018, that economists could confirm Apple as the source of \"leprechaun economics\", and that at $300 billion, was the largest BEPS action in history", ". By February 2017, the distortion of Irish economic data by Irish BEPS tools had grown so large, that the Central Bank of Ireland replaced GDP with Modified GNI; 2017 Irish GNI* is 40% below Irish GDP (see Table 2).", "In November 2016, Ireland signed the OECD BEPS Multilateral Instrument (\"MLI\") to curb global BEPS tools but opted out of Article 12 to protect the Single Malt and CAIA BEPS tools. In March 2018, the Financial Stability Forum showed Ireland's Debt–based BEPS tools made it the 3rd–largest Shadow Banking OFC in the world. In June 2018, tax academics showed Irish IP–based BEPS tools were artificially distorting aggregate EU GDP data, and had artificially inflated the EU–U.S. trade-deficit", ".S. trade-deficit. In June 2018, tax academics confirmed IP–based BEPS tools had made Ireland the world's largest tax haven, and that the $106 billion of annual corporate profits shielded by Irish BEPS tools, exceeded the BEPS flows of the entire Caribbean tax haven system.", "Key features\n\nIntellectual property", "Ireland's main BEPS tools use intellectual property (IP) to effect the profit shift from the higher-tax locations to Ireland, via royalty payment schemes. To avoid incurring Irish corporation tax on these shifted profits, the BEPS tools either send-on the profits to traditional tax havens (with explicit 0% CT rates) via royalty payment schemes (e.g. the Double Irish and Single Malt BEPS tools), or use intangible capital allowances schemes to write-off the profits against Irish tax (e.g", ".g. the CAIA BEPS tool). This is the reason why most U.S. multinationals in Ireland are from the two largest IP–industries, namely technology companies and life sciences; or, are specific companies with valuable industrial patents such as Ingersoll-Rand and Eaton Corporation.", "Ireland describes its IP–based BEPS tools as being part of its \"knowledge economy\"; however, U.S. tax academics describe IP as \"the leading tax avoidance vehicle in the world\". Despite its small size, Ireland ranks 6th in the 2018 U.S. Global Intellectual Property Center (GIPC) league table of the top 50 global centres for IP–legislation, and 4th in the important Patents sub-category (see graphic opposite).", "While Ireland's most important BEPS tools are all IP–based, Ireland has other BEPS tools including Transfer Pricing–based BEPS tools (e.g. contract manufacturing), and Debt–based BEPS tools (e.g. the Irish Section 110 SPV, and the Irish L-QIAIF).\n\n\"Worldwide Tax\" systems", "Ireland's IP–based BEPS tools have only attracted material operations from multinationals whose home jurisdiction had a \"worldwide tax\" system; namely, the U.K pre–2009, and the U.S. pre–2018 (see Table 1). Ireland has not attracted material technology or life sciences multinationals (outside of a specific plant, under its TP–based Contract Manufacturing BEPS tool), whose home jurisdiction operates a \"territorial tax\" system", ". , there are only 6 remaining jurisdictions in the world who operate a \"worldwide tax\" system, of which Ireland is one (namely, Chile, Greece, Ireland, Israel, South Korea, Mexico).", "In 2016, U.S. tax academic, James R. Hines Jr. showed firms from \"territorial tax\" systems make little use of corporate–tax havens, as their tax code applied lower rates to foreign-sourced profits. Hines, with German tax academics, showed the German tax code charged a CT rate of 5% to the foreign profits of German multinationals. Hines was one of the most-cited sources when the U.S. Council of Economic Advisors advocated switching the U.S", ".S. Council of Economic Advisors advocated switching the U.S. tax code to a \"territorial system\" in the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.", "In 2014, the U.S Tax Foundation, reported on how the UK had effectively stopped UK corporates inverting to Ireland, by switching the UK corporate tax-code to a \"territorial system\" over 2009–2012. By 2014, the UK HMRC reported that most of the UK multinationals that had inverted to Ireland had either returned to the UK (e.g., WPP plc, United Business Media plc, Henderson Group plc), or were about to be acquired by U.S. multinationals as part of a U.S. corporate tax inversion to Ireland (e.g. Shire plc).", "Distortion of GDP\n\nAn \"artificially inflated GDP-per-capita statistic\", is a known feature of tax havens, due to the BEPS flows. In February 2017, Ireland's national accounts became so distorted by BEPS flows that the Central Bank of Ireland replaced Irish GDP with a new economic measure, Irish Modified GNI*. However, in December 2017, Eurostat reported that Modified GNI* did not remove all of the distortions from Irish economic data.", "By September 2018, the Irish Central Statistics Office (\"CSO\") reported that Irish GDP was 162% of Irish GNI* (i.e. BEPS tools had artificially inflated Ireland's economic statistics by 62%). Irish public indebtedness changes dramatically depending on whether debt-to-GDP, debt-to-GNI* or debt-per-capita is used; the debt-per-capita metric removes all distortion from Irish BEPS tools and implies a level of Irish public-sector indebtedness that is only surpassed by Japan.", "(†) The Central Statistics Office (Ireland) revised 2015 GDP higher in 2017, increasing Ireland's 2015 GDP growth rate from 26.3% to 34.4%.\n(‡) Eurostat show that GNI* is also still distorted by certain BEPS tools, and specifically contract manufacturing, which is a significant activity in Ireland.\n\nIP–based BEPS tools\n\nDouble Irish", "The earliest recorded versions of the Double Irish BEPS tool are by Apple in the late 1980s; and the EU discovered Irish Revenue rulings on the Double Irish for Apple in 1991. Almost every major U.S. technology and life sciences firm has been associated with the Double Irish. Feargal O'Rourke, PwC tax partner in the IFSC (and son of Minister Mary O'Rourke, cousin of the 2008–2011 Irish Finance Minister Brian Lenihan Jnr) is regarded as its \"grand architect\"", ". In 2018, tax academics showed the Double Irish shielded $106 billion of mainly U.S. annual corporate profits from both Irish and U.S. taxation in 2015. As the BEPS tool with which U.S. multinationals built up untaxed offshore reserves of circa US$1 trillion from 2004 to 2017, the Double Irish is the largest tax avoidance tool in history", ". In 2016, when the EU levied a €13 billion fine on Apple, the largest tax fine in history, it covered the period 2004–14, during which Apple paid an Irish ETR of <1% on €110.8 billion in Irish profits. Despite the loss of taxes to the U.S. exchequer, it was the EU Commission that forced Ireland to close the Double Irish from January 2015; with closure to existing users by 2020.", "Single Malt", "In an October 2013 interview, PwC tax partner Feargal O'Rourke (\"architect\" of the Double Irish, see above), said that: \"the days of the Double Irish tax scheme are numbered\". In October 2014, as the EU forced the Irish State to close the Double Irish BEPS tool, the influential U.S. National Tax Journal published an article by Jeffrey L Rubinger and Summer Lepree, showing that Irish based subsidiaries of U.S", ".S. corporations could replace the Double Irish arrangement with a new structure (now known as Single Malt). The Irish media picked up the article, but when an Irish MEP notified the then Finance Minister, Michael Noonan, he was told to \"Put on the green jersey\". A November 2017 report by Christian Aid, titled Impossible Structures, showed how quickly the Single Malt BEPS tool was replacing the Double Irish", ". The report detailed Microsoft's and Allergen's schemes and extracts from advisers to their clients. In September 2018, The Irish Times revealed that U.S. medical device manufacturer Teleflex, had created a Single Malt scheme in July 2018, and reduced their corporate tax rate to circa 3%; and that the Irish State were keeping the matter, \"under consideration\".", "In November 2018, the Irish Government amended the Ireland–Malta tax treaty to prevent the Single Malt BEPS tool being used between Ireland and Malta (it can still be used with the UAE for example). On the same day the closure was announced, LinkedIn in Ireland, identified as a user of the Single Malt tool in 2017, announced in filings that it had sold a major IP asset to its parent, Microsoft (Ireland)", ". In July 2018, it was disclosed in the Irish financial media that Microsoft (Ireland) were preparing a restructure of their Irish BEPS tools into a CAIA (or Green Jersey) Irish tax structure.", "Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets", "In June 2009, the Irish State established the Commission on Taxation, to review Ireland's tax regime, and included Feargal O'Rourke (\"architect\" of the Double Irish, see above). In September 2009, the Commission recommended that the Irish State provide capital allowances for the acquisition of intangible assets, creating the Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets (CAIA) BEPS tool", ". Whereas the Double Irish and Single Malt BEPS tools enable Ireland to act as a confidential \"Conduit OFC\" for rerouting untaxed profits to places like Bermuda (i.e. it must be confidential as higher-tax locations would not sign full tax treaties with locations like Bermuda), the CAIA BEPS tool, enables Ireland to act as the \"Sink OFC\" (i.e. the terminus for untaxed profits, like Bermuda).", "CAIA uses the accepted tax concept of providing capital allowances for the purchase of physical assets. However, Ireland turns it into a BEPS tool by providing the allowances for the purchase of intangible assets, and particularly intellectual property assets; and critically, where the owner of the intangible assets is a \"connected party\" (e.g. a Group subsidiary, often located in a tax haven); and has valued the assets for the inter-Group transaction using an Irish IFSC accounting firm.", "CAIA capitalises the tax shield of the Double Irish, and thus materially increases the distortion of the Irish national accounts. This was shown in July 2016 when the Irish CEO had to restate Irish 2015 GDP by 34.4% due to Apple's Q1 2015 restructure into a CAIA BEPS tool", ".4% due to Apple's Q1 2015 restructure into a CAIA BEPS tool. A June 2018 report by the EU Parliament's GUE–NGL body showed that Apple doubled the Irish corporate tax shield of its CAIA BEPS tool by financing the acquisition of the IP via Jersey (the report called the CAIA BEPS tool, the Green Jersey). Whereas the Double Irish and Single Malt have an ETR of less than 1%, the ETR of the CAIA BEPS tool ranges from 0% to 2.5% depending on the date on which the CAIA tool was started (see effective tax rates).", "Knowledge Development Box\nIreland created the first OECD–compliant 'Knowledge Development Box' (\"KDB\"), in the 2015 Finance Act, to further support its intellectual property BEPS toolkit.", "The KDB behaves like a CAIA BEPS scheme with a cap of 50% (i.e. similar to getting 50%–relief against capitalised IP, for a net effective Irish tax rate of 6.25%). As with the CAIA BEPS scheme, the KDB is limited to specific \"qualifying assets\", however, unlike the CAIA tool, these are quite narrowly defined by the 2015 Finance Act.", "The Irish KDB was created with tight conditions to ensure OECD compliance and thus meets the OECD's \"modified Nexus standard\" for IP. This has drawn criticism from Irish tax advisory firms who feel that its use is limited to pharmaceutical (who have the most \"Nexus\" compliant patents/processes), and some niche sectors.\n\nIt is expected these conditions will be relaxed over time through refinements of the 2015 Finance Act; a route taken by other Irish IP–based BEPS tools:", "Double Irish – the unusual definition of tax residence was embedded in the 1997 Taxes and Consolidation Act (TCA), and expanded in 1999–2003 Finance Acts.\n Single Malt – takes the Double Irish tax-residence concept around \"management and control\", and worded directly into specific bilateral tax treaties (Malta, UAE).\n Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets – introduced in the 1997 TCA but expanded in the 2009 Finance Act, and made tax-free in the 2015 Finance Act for Apple.", "Section 110 SPVs – created in the 1997 TCA with strong anti-avoidance controls, which were eroded in 2003, 2008, 2011 Finance Acts (see Section 110 article).\n L–QIAIFs – QIAIFs were introduced in 2013 with the new EU AIFMD regulations, but expanded in 2018 into a full Debt–based BEPS tool.", "Irish tax-law firms expect the Irish KDB terms will be brought into alignment with the CAIA BEPS tool terms in the future.\n\nDebt–based BEPS tools\n\nSection 110 SPV", "Debt–based BEPS tools\n\nSection 110 SPV\n\nA Section 110 Special Purpose Vehicle (\"SPV\") is an Irish tax resident company, which qualifies under Section 110 of the 1997 Irish Taxes Consolidation Act (\"TCA\"), by virtue of restricting itself to only holding \"qualifying assets\", for a special tax regime that enables the SPV to attain full tax neutrality (i.e. the SPV pays no Irish corporate taxes). It is a major Irish Debt–based BEPS tool.", "Section 110 was created to help IFSC legal and accounting firms compete for the administration of global securitisation deals. While they pay no Irish taxes, they contribute circa €100 million annually to the Irish economy from fees paid to the IFSC legal and accounting firms. IFSC firms lobbied the Irish State for successive amendments to the Section 110 legislation, so that by 2011, Section 110 had become an Irish Debt–based BEPS tool, for avoiding tax on Irish and international assets.", "In 2016, it was discovered that U.S. distressed debt funds used Section 110 SPVs, structured by IFSC professional service firms, to avoid material Irish taxes on domestic Irish activities, while State-backed mezzanine funds were using Section 110 SPVs to lower their clients Irish corporate tax liability", ". Academic studies in 2017 note that Irish Section 110 SPVs operate in a brass plate fashion with little regulatory oversight from the Irish Revenue or Central Bank of Ireland, and have been attracting funds from undesirable activities (e.g. sanctioned Russian banks).", "These abuses were discovered because Section 110 SPVs must file public accounts with the Irish CRO. In 2018 Central Bank of Ireland overhauled the little-used L–QIAIF vehicle, so that is now offers the same tax benefits on Irish assets held via debt as the Section 110 SPV, but without having to file Irish public accounts.\n\nStephen Donnelly TD estimated that U.S. funds would avoid €20 billion in Irish taxes from 2016 to 2026 on circa €40 billion of Irish investments (2012–2016), by using Section 110 SPVs.", "L–QIAIF\n\nThe Irish QIAIF regime is exempt from all Irish taxes and duties (including VAT and withholding tax), and apart from the VCC wrapper, do not have to file public accounts with the Irish CRO. This has made QIAIF an important \"backdoor\" out of the Irish corporate tax system. The most favoured destination is to Sink OFC Luxembourg, which receives 50% of all outbound Irish foreign direct investment (\"FDI). QIAIFs, with Section 110 SPVs, have made Ireland the 3rd largest Shadow Banking OFC.", "When the Section 110 SPV Irish domestic tax avoidance scandals surfaced in late 2016, it was due to Irish financial journalists and Dáil Éireann representatives scrutinising the Irish CRO public accounts of U.S. distressed firms. In November 2016 the Central Bank began to overhaul the L-QIAIF regime. In early 2018, the Central Bank upgraded the L-QIAIF regime so that it could replicate the Section 110 SPV (e.g. closed end debt structures), but without needing to file public CRO accounts", ".g. closed end debt structures), but without needing to file public CRO accounts. In June 2018, the Central Bank announced that €55 billion of U.S. distressed debt assets had transferred out of Section 110 SPVs.", "It is expected that the Irish L–QIAIF will replace the Irish Section 110 SPV as Ireland's main Debt–based BEPS tool for U.S. multinationals in Ireland.", "The ability of foreign institutions to use QIAIFs (and particularly the ICAV-wrapper) to avoid all Irish taxes on Irish assets has been blamed for the bubble in Dublin commercial property (and, by implication, the Dublin housing crisis). This risk was highlighted in 2014 when Central Bank of Ireland consulted the European Systemic Risk Board (\"ESRB\") after lobbying to expand the L-QIAIF regime.", "TP–based BEPS tools", "Ireland's transfer pricing (\"TP\") based BEPS tools are mostly related to contract manufacturing. By refusing to implement the 2013 EU Accounting Directive (and invoking exemptions on reporting holding company structures until 2022), Ireland enables their TP and IP–based BEPS tools to structure as \"unlimited liability companies\" (ULCs) which do not have to file public accounts with the Irish CRO", ". In spite of this, many Irish IP–based BEPS tools are so large that tax academics have been able to separate out their scale from filed group accounts (e.g. work of Gabriel Zucman). However, Irish TP–based BEPS tools are smaller, and therefore harder to pick out from a listed multinational's group accounts. In addition, the Irish State, to help obfuscate the activities of the larger and more important IP–based BEPS tools, sometimes present their data as manufacturing data", ". It is generally regarded that Ireland's main TP–based BEPS tool users are the life sciences manufacturers.", "Effective tax rate (ETR)\n\nBackground\nThe headline tax rate is the rate of taxation that is applied to the profits that a tax-code deems to be taxable after deductions. The effective tax rate is the rate of taxation implied by the actual quantum of tax paid versus profits before all deductions are applied. The gap between the Irish corporate headline rate of 12.5%, and the much lower Irish corporate effective rate of 2–4%, is a source of controversy:", "The Irish State asserts Ireland's ETR similar to the Irish headline CT rate of 12.5%. This is an important issue as Ireland's BEPS tools, the core of Ireland's , rely on having a global network of full bilateral tax treaties that accept Ireland's BEPS tools; major economies do not sign full bilateral tax treaties with known tax havens (e.g. Bermuda or Jersey)", ".g. Bermuda or Jersey). When the EU Commission published their findings on Apple's Irish BEPS tools in 2016 (see below), Brazil became the first G–20 economy to blacklist Ireland as a tax haven, and suspended the Brazil–Ireland bilateral tax treaty.", "In 2014, Ireland refused to implement the 2013 EU Accounting Directive, and invoked exemptions on reporting holding company structures until 2022, so that multinationals can register as Irish \"unlimited liability companies\" (ULCs), which do not have to file public accounts with the Irish CRO. However, as most foreign multinationals in Ireland are major U.S. listed companies (see Table 1), tax academics have been able to estimate their Irish ETR from U.S. filings", ".S. filings. In addition, the 2014–2016 EU investigation into Apple, Ireland's largest company, produced detail on Apple's Irish ETR from 2004 to 2014.", "Independent research\n\nNotable independent research from 1994 to 2018, has estimated Ireland's overall aggregate effective tax rate for foreign corporates at between 2.2% to 4.5%:", "Filed accounts", "Over the years, the largest U.S. multinationals in Ireland, who are both Ireland's largest companies and pay most of Ireland's corporation tax (see low tax economy), have filed various accounts showing their Irish ETR. As discussed above, because Ireland refused to ratify the 2013 EU Accounting Directive, many of these multinationals have switched to \"unlimited liability companies\" in Ireland, which do not file accounts; thus the information is only available in a few cases. However, where U.S", ". However, where U.S. multinationals have disclosed Irish financials, they all imply an Irish ETR of less than 1 percent.", "Examples are (see Table 1 for rankings):\n\n Apple Inc <1% (largest Irish company, by 2017 revenues)\n Google <1% (4th largest Irish company, by 2017 revenues)\n Facebook <1% (9th largest Irish company, by 2017 revnues)\n Oracle <1% (12th largest Irish company, by 2017 revenues)", "Marketing brochures\nIrish BEPS tools are not overtly marketed as brochures showing near-zero effective tax rates would damage Ireland's ability to sign and operate bilateral tax treaties (i.e. higher-tax countries do not sign full treaties with known tax havens). However, since the Irish financial crisis, some Irish tax law firms in the IFSC produced CAIA brochures openly marketing that its ETR was 2.5%.\n\nApple investigations", "Apple investigations\n\nApple is Ireland's largest company, with Irish 2017 revenues that exceed the combined Irish 2017 revenues of the next 5 largest Irish companies added together. Apple has been in Ireland since at least December 1980, when it opened its first Irish plant in Holyhill, in Cork. Apple's tax strategies with Irish BEPS tools had long been under suspicion by tax academics and investigative journalists.", "In May 2013, Apple's Irish tax practices were questioned by a U.S. bipartisan investigation of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigation. The investigation aimed to examine whether Apple used offshore structures, in conjunction with arrangements, to shift profits from the U.S. to Ireland. Senators Carl Levin and John McCain drew light on what they referred to as a special tax arrangement between Apple and Ireland which allowed Apple to pay a corporate tax rate of less than 2%", ". The investigation labelled Ireland as the \"holy grail of tax avoidance\".", "In June 2014, the EU Commission launched an investigation into Apple's tax practices in Ireland for the period 2004–2014, whose summary findings were published on 30 August 2016 in a 4–page press release; with a 130–page report, including partially redacted information on Apple's Irish business (e.g. profits, employees, Board minutes etc.), published on 30 August 2016.", "In July 2020, the European General Court (EGC) ruled that the EU Commission \"did not succeed in showing to the requisite legal standard\" that Apple had received tax advantages from Ireland, and overturned the findings against Apple.", "Irish State rebuttals\nIn February 2014, as a result of Bloomberg's Special Investigation and Trinity College Professor Dr. Jim Stewart's ETR calculations (see above), the \"architect\" of Ireland's Double Irish BEPS tool, PricewaterhouseCoopers tax-partner Feargal O'Rourke, went on RTÉ Radio to state that: \"there was a hole the size of the Grand Canyon\", in the analysis. O'Rourke also referenced the PricewaterhouseCoopers/World Bank survey that Ireland's ETR was circa 12%.", "In December 2014, the Irish Department of Finance, gathered a panel of Irish experts (but no international experts) to estimate Irish corporate ETR for the Committee on Finance Public Expenditure. The results, summarised on Section 2 (page 13) of the report, showed all of the Irish experts, with the exception of Dr. Jim Stewart, agreed with Feargal O'Rourke and PricewaterhouseCoopers:", "11.1% Prof. Frank Barry Trinity College Dublin (using Devereaux methodology)\n 14.4% Mr. Gary Tobin Department of Finance (using European Commission/ZEW data)\n 12.5% Mr. Eamonn O'Dea Revenue Commissioners (using Irish Revenue Statistical Data)\n 12.4% Mr. Conor O'Brien KPMG (Ireland) (using Irish Revenue Statistical Data)\n 2.2% to 3.8% Prof. Jim Stewart Trinity College Dublin (using U.S. BEA Data)", "In August 2016, when the EU Commission published the results of their 2–year detailed investigation of Apple's tax structure in Ireland (see above), showing that Apple's ETR in 2014 was 0.005%, the Irish Revenue Commissioners stated that they: \"had collected the full amount of tax that was due from Apple in accordance with the Irish law\".", "In December 2017, the Department of Finance published a report they commissioned on the Irish corporate tax code by UCC economist, Seamus Coffey. The report estimated that Ireland's effective corporation tax rate for 2015 was 7.2%, based on the Net Operating Surplus Method (which accepts IP BEPS flows as tax deductible costs); and had fallen from 11.2% in 2008 (section 9.4 page 128).\n\nCorporate tax inversions", "Background", "An Irish corporate tax inversion is a strategy in which a foreign multinational corporation acquires or merges with an Irish–based company, then shifts its legal place of incorporation to Ireland to avail itself of Ireland's favourable corporate tax regime. The multinational's majority ownership, effective headquarters and executive management remain in its home jurisdiction", ". Ireland's corporate tax code has a holding company regime that enables the foreign multinational's new Irish–based legal headquarters to gain full Irish tax-relief on Irish withholding taxes and payment of dividends from Ireland.", "Almost all tax inversions to Ireland have come from the US, and to a lesser degree, the UK (see below). The first US tax inversions to Ireland were Ingersoll Rand and Accenture 2009. As of November 2018, Ireland was the destination for the largest US corporate tax inversion in history, the $81 billion merger of Medtronic and Covidien in 2015", ". The US tax code's anti-avoidance rules prohibit a US company from creating a new \"legal\" headquarters in Ireland while its main business is in the US (known as a \"self-inversion\"). Until April 2016, the US tax code would only consider the inverted company as foreign (i.e. outside the U.S. tax-code), where the inversion was part of an acquisition, and the Irish target was at least 20% of the value of the combined group", ". Although the Irish target had to be over 40% of the combined group for the inversion to be fully considered as outside of the U.S. tax-code.", "Once inverted, the US company can use Irish multinational BEPS strategies to achieve an effective tax rate well below the Irish headline rate of 12.5% on non–U.S. income, and also reduce US taxes on US income. In September 2014, Forbes magazine quoted research that estimated a US inversion to Ireland reduced the US multinational's aggregate tax rate from above 30% to well below 20%.", "In July 2015, The Wall Street Journal noted that Ireland's lower ETR made US multinationals who inverted to Ireland highly acquisitive of other US firms (i.e. they could afford to pay more to acquire US competitors to re-domicile them to Ireland), and listed the post-inversion acquisitions of Activis/Allergan, Endo, Mallinckrodt and Horizon.", "In July 2017, the Irish Central Statistics Office (CSO) warned that tax inversions to Ireland artificially inflated Ireland's GDP data (e.g. without providing any Irish tax revenue).\n\nU.S. inversions\n\nShare of inversions\n, Bloomberg ranks Ireland as the most popular destination for U.S. tax inversions, attracting almost a quarter of the 85 inversions since 1983:", "List of inversions", ", the table below is the Bloomberg list of the 21 U.S. corporate tax inversions to Ireland (note, Bloomberg lists U.S. corporate tax inversions by order of the year in which they first left the U.S. which is used below). The table also includes some known aborted U.S. tax inversions to Ireland. All of the U.S. multinationals listed below are listed on stock exchanges and the Market Capitalisation is as per 21 November 2018. \"Spin-off inversions\" and \"self-inversions\" happen outside of the U.S. (e.g", ". \"Spin-off inversions\" and \"self-inversions\" happen outside of the U.S. (e.g. the corporate/corporate parent had previously left the U.S.), and thus do not need an acquisition of an Irish—based corporate to execute the move to Ireland, as per U.S. tax code requirements (see above).", "U.S. countermeasures", "In April 2016, the Obama administration announced new tax rules to increase the threshold for a U.S. corporate tax inversion to be considered a \"foreign company\", and thus escape U.S. taxation. The new rules were directly designed to block the proposed $160 billion merger of U.S.–based Pfizer and Irish–based Allergan, which would have been the largest corporate tax inversion in history. The rule changes worked by disregarding acquisitions a target (e.g", ". The rule changes worked by disregarding acquisitions a target (e.g. Allergan), had made in the 3 years prior to the inversion, in meeting the requirement for the target to be 40% of the merged group.", "In December 2017, the Trump administration's U.S. Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) overhauled the U.S. tax-code and replicated many of the changes the UK made to their tax-code in 2009–2012 to successfully combat inversions (see below). In particular, the TCJA moved the U.S to a hybrid–\"territorial tax\" system, reduced the headline rate from 35% to 21% and introduced a new GILTI–FDII–BEAT regime designed to remove incentives for U.S. multinationals to execute corporate tax inversions to Ireland.", "In December 2017, U.S technology firm Vantiv, the world's largest payment processing company, confirmed it had abandoned its plan to execute a corporate tax inversion to Ireland. In Q1 2018, Pfizer disclosed that post the TCJA its global tax rate for 2019 would be 17%, similar to the circa 15–16% 2019 tax rate of past U.S. corporate tax inversions to Ireland, Eaton, Allergan, and Medtronic. In March 2018, the Head of Life Sciences in Goldman Sachs, Jami Rubin, stated that: \"Now that [U.S", ". In March 2018, the Head of Life Sciences in Goldman Sachs, Jami Rubin, stated that: \"Now that [U.S.] corporate tax reform has passed, the advantages of being an inverted company are less obvious\". In August 2018, U.S. multinational Afilias, who had been headquartered in Ireland since 2001, announced that as a result of the TCJA, it was moving back to the U.S.", ", there have been no further U.S. corporate tax inversions to Ireland since the 2016–2017 rule changes by the Obama, and the Trump administrations.\n\nApple's inversion", "Apple's Q1 2015 re-structure of their Irish BEPS tool, is considered by some economists to be a quasi–inversion. Whereas Apple did not relocate its corporate headquarters to Ireland like Pfizer tried to do with Allergan, Apple was able to use the CAIA BEPS tool to legally re-locate $300 billion of IP, equivalent to all of Apple's non–U.S. business, to Ireland", ".S. business, to Ireland. While the Obama administration blocked the proposed $160 billion Pfizer–Allergan tax inversion to Ireland in 2016 (see above), Apple completed a much larger transaction in Q1 2015, that remained unknown until January 2018. In July 2018, Irish newspaper The Sunday Business Post reported that Microsoft was planning a similar IP–based quasi–inversion to Ireland, as Apple executed in 2015.", "UK inversions\nIreland's largest law firm, Authur Cox, records the move of Experian plc to Ireland in 2006, as the first UK corporate tax inversion to Ireland. Experian was formed in 2006 from the de-merger of UK conglomerate GUS plc, but most of Experian's business was U.S. based (e.g. it had a limited connection to the UK).", "Between 2007 and 2009, several UK multinationals \"re-domiciled\" to Ireland: WPP plc, United Business Media plc, Henderson Group plc, Shire plc and Charter (Engineering) plc. Unlike the U.S. tax code, the UK tax-code did not require the inversion to be executed by way of an acquisition of an Irish–based corporate who was at least 20% of the merged group", ". However, in 2009, the UK Labour government switched to a \"territorial tax\" system, and over 2009 to 2012, the UK Conservative government introduced a number of other corporate tax reforms including reduction of the UK headline CT rate to 20%, creation of new BEPS tools (e.g. a patent box), and re-structure of \"controlled foreign corporation\" (CFC) rules. By 2014, the UK HMRC reported that most of the UK multinationals that had inverted to Ireland had either returned to the UK (e.g", ".g., WPP plc, United Business Media plc, Henderson plc), or were about to be acquired by U.S. multinationals as part of a U.S. tax inversion (e.g. Shire plc).", "The UK corporate tax reforms not only reversed many of Irish tax inversions but in 2014, The Wall Street Journal reported that \"In U.S. tax inversion Deals, U.K. is now a winner\". , the UK had received the 3rd–largest number of U.S. corporate tax inversions in history, only ranking behind Ireland and Bermuda in popularity (see above).\n\n, there have been no further UK corporate tax inversions to Ireland since the 2009–2012 rule changes by the Labour, and the Conservative governments.", "Other inversions", "Ireland's largest law firm, Authur Cox, records the move of Pentair to Ireland in 2014, as the first Swiss corporate tax inversion to Ireland. However, Pentair was a U.S.–controlled firm that had previously inverted to Switzerland, and moved to Ireland (without a corporate acquisition), in 2014 to make it more attractive to a larger U.S. corporate tax inversion, which Emerson Electric attempted in 2016, however the change in the U.S", ".S. corporate tax inversion, which Emerson Electric attempted in 2016, however the change in the U.S. tax-code (see above), meant that Emmerson decided to abandon the inversion, and instead purchased a division of called Pentair Valves for $3.15 billion; the renaming Pentair group re-domiciled to the UK in 2018.", ", outside of U.S. and UK inversions to Ireland, there have been no other recorded corporate tax inversions to Ireland from other jurisdictions.\n\nCorporate tax haven\n\nIreland as a tax haven\n\nIreland is labelled both a corporate tax haven, due to its BEPS tools (e.g. Double Irish, Single Malt and CAIA), and a traditional tax haven, due to QIAIFs. The topic is covered in more detail in Ireland as a tax haven, however, the main facts regarding Ireland's corporate tax haven status are:", "Ireland does not appear on the 2017 OECD list of tax havens; only Trinidad and Tobago is on the 2017 OECD list, and no OECD member has ever been listed. Ireland does not appear on the 2017 EU list of 17 tax havens, or the EU's list of 47 \"greylist\" tax havens; again, no EU-28 country has ever been listed by the EU.\n\nCountermeasures to Ireland", "UK countermeasures (2009–2012)", "In September 2008, The New York Times reported that \"Britain is facing a potential new problem: an exodus of British companies fleeing the tax system\". During 2007–2008, several major UK multinationals executed corporate tax inversions to Ireland. During 2009–2012, both the Labour Government and the Conservative Government, overhauled the UK corporate tax code, switching from a \"worldwide tax\" system to a \"territorial tax\" system", ". By 2014, the UK HMRC reported most of the UK firms that inverted to Ireland had returned to the UK (e.g., WPP plc, United Business Media plc, Henderson plc), or were about to be acquired by U.S. multinationals as part of a U.S. tax inversion (e.g. Shire plc).", ", since the UK overhauled its tax code, there have been no inversions of UK firms to Ireland; of the 3 main UK–controlled firms in Ireland (see Table 1):", "Shire plc – the UK pharmaceutical inverted to Ireland in 2009, but did not return to the UK post the 2009–2012 UK tax reforms due to acquisition interest by U.S. pharmaceutical firms attempting to use Shire plc to execute a U.S. tax inversion to Ireland; however, the Obama administration's changes to the U.S. tax code in 2016 stopped further U.S", ".S. tax code in 2016 stopped further U.S. interest in Shire plc, and in 2018, it accepted a lower bid from Japanese pharmaceutical multinational Takeda, who will not be using Shire plc to invert to Ireland.", "Experian plc – the first UK corporate tax inversion to Ireland in 2016, however almost all of Experian's business is U.S.–based, so it is unlikely to return to the UK.\n Tesco (Ireland) Tesco is not in Ireland for any tax-related reason; Tesco (Ireland) is the Irish holding company for Tesco plc's large network of Irish grocery stores.", "EU countermeasures (1996–2018)", "While national tax policy is excluded from EU treaties, the EU has challenged Ireland's tax code under State-aid legislation. Seamus Coffey's 2016 Review of Ireland's Corporation Tax Code chronicled how the EU withdrew the exemption from State-aid rules for Ireland's special tax rate of 10% in 1996–1998, however, Ireland countered the EU withdrawal by lowering the entire Irish standard rate of corporate tax from 40% to 12.5% over 1996–2003 (see )", ".5% over 1996–2003 (see ). In October 1994, the Financial Times chronicled how the EU Commission forced the closure of the Double Irish BEPS tool in 2015 on the threat of a full State-aid investigation into Ireland's tax code. However, Ireland won a concession from the EU to allow existing users of the Double Irish (e.g. Google, Facebook, Microsoft) to keep using it until 2020, and developed replacement BEPS tools, namely the Single Malt and CAIA BEPS tools", ". In August 2016, the EU Commission levied the largest corporate tax fine in history, on Apple's Irish Double Irish BEPS tool from 2004 to 2014, using State-aid rules.", "In January 2017, the EU Commissioner for Taxation, Pierre Moscovici, explicitly stated to an Irish State Oireachtas Finance Committee that \"Ireland is not a tax haven\"; however, in January 2018 Moscovi called Ireland and the Netherlands \"tax black holes\". In January 2018, Ireland was accused of \"tax dumping\" by German political leaders.", "In March 2018, the EU Commission proposed a \"Digital Services Tax\" (DST), targeted at U.S. technology firms using Irish BEPS tools. The DST is designed to \"override\" Ireland's BEPS tools and force a minimum level of EU tax on U.S. technology firms", ".S. technology firms. The EU have proposed the DST should be a 3% tax on revenues which would translate into an effective 10–15% tax rate (using pre-tax margins of 20–30% for Apple, Google and Microsoft); it is also expensible against national tax, and so the DST would reduce net Irish tax (e.g. Google Ireland would offset its DST against Irish CT).", "In April 2018, the EU Commission's GDPR rules forced Facebook to move 1.5 billion of the 1.9 billion Facebook accounts hosted in Ireland ( 79% of the 2.4 billion total global Facebook accounts), back to the U.S. The April 2018 Irish High Court ruling in the Max Schrems EU data-protection case could make Ireland even less attractive to Facebook.\n\nThe EU Commission's long-standing desire to introduce a Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (\"CCCTB\"), would have a more severe effect on Ireland's CT system.", "US countermeasures (2016–2018)", "The U.S. has had a contradictory approach to Ireland's CT system. U.S. investigations, from the first U.S. IRS study in 1981, up to and including 2013 U.S. McCain–Levin Senate investigations into Apple's tax structures, label Ireland as a \"tax haven\" for U.S. multinationals. However, it was the EU and not the U.S., that forced Ireland to close its Double Irish BEPS tool in 2015", ".S., that forced Ireland to close its Double Irish BEPS tool in 2015. While the Obama administration supported the McCain–Levin findings on Apple, it came to Apple's defense in 2016 when the EU Commission fined Apple €13 billion for taxes avoided over 2004–2014.", "This contradiction is chronicled in \"political compromises\". The source of the contradiction is ascribed to the findings of U.S. tax academic, James R. Hines Jr.; Hines is the most cited author on tax haven research, and his important 1994 Hines–Rice paper was one of the first to use the term \"profit shifting\". The 1994 Hines–Rice paper showed that low foreign tax rates [from tax havens] ultimately enhance U.S. tax collections. Hines' insight that the U.S", ".S. tax collections. Hines' insight that the U.S. is the largest beneficiary from tax havens was confirmed by others, and dictated U.S. policy towards tax havens, including the 1996 \"check-the-box\" rules, and U.S. hostility to OECD attempts in curbing Ireland's BEPS tools.", "However, by 2014 Ireland had become the leading destination for U.S. corporate tax inversions, and in 2016, the Obama administration decided to move against Ireland's CT system by amending the U.S. tax-code to block the proposed $160 billion Pfizer–Allergan Irish corporate tax inversion, which would have been the largest tax inversion in history.", "The most serious threat to Ireland's CT system, and Ireland's economic model came in December 2017 with the passing of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) by the Trump administration. Parts of the TCJA are specifically targeted at Irish BEPS tools as used by U.S. multinationals in Ireland", ".S. multinationals in Ireland. The TCJA introduces many of the changes that the UK made to its tax code in 2009–2012, including moving to a \"territorial tax\" system and reduction of headline rate of tax; the UK changes reversed many of the UK corporate tax inversions to Ireland. However the TCJA goes even further and the GILTI–FDII–BEAT tax regime are a more severe \"carrot and stick\" to encourage U.S. multinationals to re-locate their substantive operations (and IP), back to the U.S.", "However, the TCJA is large and complex, and in 2018, tax experts have noted that errors and flaws in the TCJA, could be a \"boom for Ireland\", over the next few years.", "Sustainability of system\nThe above post–2009 UK, EU and U.S. countermeasures against Ireland's corporate tax system, and by extension Ireland's economic model, have been a cause of concern in Ireland, and even the \"architect\" of Ireland's BEPS tools, PricewaterhouseCoopers tax-partner, Feargal O'Rourke, has warned on the sustainability of Irish CT revenues.", "In December 2017, the Irish Government published a study on the sustainability of its corporate tax system by University College Cork economist Seamus Coffey (called the Coffey Report). Coffey reported that Irish CT revenues were sustainable to 2020, but caveated that given the concentration of CT revenues to a handful of U.S. multinationals, a shock to CT revenues was \"inevitable\".", "In Q2 2018, an IMF country report on Ireland, while noting the significant exposure of Ireland's economy to U.S. corporates, concluded that the TCJA may not be as effective as Washington expects in countering Ireland as a U.S. corporate tax haven. In writing its report, the IMF conducted confidential anonymous interviews with Irish corporate tax experts.", "However, in June 2018, the former IMF mission-chief for Ireland Ashoka Mody, who oversaw Ireland's bailout during the 2009–2012 Irish financial crisis, warned that in relation to TCJA:\n\nHistorical rates (1994–2018)\n\nThe following are the historical rates of Irish corporation tax since 1994.", "A 'special rate' of 10% for companies in manufacturing (and the Shannon Free Zone), was introduced in 1980–81 (with EU State-aid approval), and extended to the financial services in the IFSC zone in 1987 (with EU State-aid approval); due to EU decision to withdraw EU State-aid approval in 1996–1998, the special rate was phased-out and ended on 31 December 2003 for new schemes, with expiry for all existing IFSC schemes in 2005, and all existing manufacturing schemes by 2010", ". To counter the EU's decision to withdraw State-aid approval for Ireland's special rate, the Irish State reduced the Irish standard rate of corporation tax from 40% in 1995, to 12.5% by 2003; splitting the standard rate into trading and non-trading rates in 2000.", "History", "Ireland's corporate tax code has gone through distinct phases of development, from building a separate identity from the British system, to most distinctively, post the creation of the Irish International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) in 1987, becoming a \"low tax\" knowledge based (i.e. focus intgangible assets) multinational economy", ".e. focus intgangible assets) multinational economy. This has not been without controversy and complaint from both Ireland's EU partners, and also from the US (whose multinationals, for specific reasons, comprise almost all of the major foreign multinationals in Ireland).", "Post-independence under Cumann na nGaedheal\nIt was only with the acceptance of the Anglo-Irish Treaty by both the Dáil and British House of Commons in 1922 that the mechanisms of a truly independent state begin to emerge in the Irish Free State. In keeping with many other decisions of the newly independent state the Provisional Government and later the Free State government continued with the same practices and policies of the Irish administration with regard to corporate taxation.", "This continuation meant that the British system of \"corporate profits taxation\" (\"CPT\") in addition to income tax on the profits of firms was kept. The CPT was a relatively new innovation in the United Kingdom and had only been introduced in the years after World War I, and was widely believed at the time to have been a temporary measure", ". However, the system of firms being taxed firstly through income tax and then through the CPT was to remain until the late seventies and the introduction of Corporation Tax, which combined the income and corporation profits tax in one.", "During the years of W. T. Cosgrave's governments, the principal aim with regard to fiscal policy was to reduce expenditure and follow that with similar reductions in taxation. This policy of tax reduction did not extend to the rate of the CPT, but companies did benefit from two particular measures of the Cosgrave government", ". Firstly, and probably the achievement of which the Cumann na nGaedheal administration was most proud, was the reduction by 50% in the rate of income tax from 6 shillings in the pound to 3 shillings. While this measure benefited all income earners, be they private individuals or incorporated companies, a number of adjustments in the Finance Acts, culminating in 1928, increased the allowance on which firms were not subject to taxation under the CPT", ". This allowance was increased from £500, the rate at the time of independence, to £10,000 in 1928. This measure was in part to compensate Irish firms for the continuation of the CPT after it has been abolished in the United Kingdom.", "A measure which marked the last years of the Cumann na nGaedheal government, and one that was out of kilter with their general free trade policy, but which came primarily as a result of Fianna Fáil pressure over the 'protection' of Irish industry, was the introduction of a higher rate of CPT for foreign firms", ". This measure survived until 1948, when the Inter-Party government rescinded it, as many countries with which the government was attempting to come to double taxation treaties viewed it as discriminatory.", "Fianna Fáil under Éamon de Valera", "The near twenty years of Fianna Fáíl government between from 1931 to 1948, cannot be said to have been a time where much effort was expended on changing or analysing the taxation system of corporations. Indeed, only one policy sticks out during those year of Fianna Fáil rule; being the continued reduction in the level of the allowance on which firms were to be exempt from taxation under the CPT, from £10,000 when Cumman na nGaehael left office, to £5,000 in 1932 and finally to £2,500 in 1941", ". The impact of this can be seen in the increasing importance of CPT as a percentage of government revenue, rising from and less than 1% of tax revenue in the first decade of the Free State to 3.64% in the decade 1942–43 to 1951–52. This increase in revenue from the CPT was due to more firms being in the tax net, as well as the reduction in allowances. The increased tax net can be seen from the fact that between 1932–33 and 1938–39, the number of firms paying CPT increased by over 33%", ". One other aspect of the Fianna Fáil government which bears all the fingerprints of Seán Lemass, was the 1946 decision to allow mining companies to write off all capital expenditure against tax over five years.", "Seán Lemass and an Irish tax system", "The period between after the late 1950s and up to the mid-1970s can be viewed as a period of radical change in the evolution of the Irish Corporate Taxations system. The increasing realisation of the government that Ireland would be entering into an age of increasing free trade encouraged a number of reforms of the tax system", ". By the mid-1970s, a number of amendments, additions and changes had been made to the CPT, these included fifteen-year tax holidays for exporting firms, the decision by the government to allow full depreciation in 1971 and in 1973, and the Section 34 of the Finance Act, which allowed total tax relief in respect of royalties and other income from licenses patented in Ireland.", "This period from c.1956 to c.1975, is probably the most influential on the evolution of the Irish corporate tax system and marked the development of an 'Irish' corporate tax system, rather than continuing with a version of the British model.", "This period saw the creation of Corporation Tax, which combined the Capital Gains, Income and Corporation Profits Tax that firms previously had to pay. Future changes to the corporate tax system, such as the measures implemented by various governments over the last twenty years can be seen as a continuation of the policies of this period", ". The introduction in 1981 of the 10% tax on manufacturing was simply the easiest way to adjust to the demands of the EEC to abolish the export relief, which the EEC viewed as discriminatory. With the accession to the EEC, the advantages of this policy became increasingly obvious to both the Irish government and to foreign multi-nationals; by 1982 over 80% of companies who located in Ireland cited the taxation policy as the primary reason they did so.", "Charles Haughey low-tax economy (1987–2009)\n\nThe Irish International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) was created in Dublin in 1987 by Taoiseach Charles Haughey with an EU approved 10% special economic zone corporate tax rate for global financial firms within its 11-hectare site. The creation of the IFSC is often considered the birth of the Celtic Tiger and the driver of its first phase of growth in the 1990s.", "In response to EU pressure to phase out the 10% IFSC rate by the end 2005, the overall Irish corporation tax was reduced to 12.5% on trading income, from 32%, effectively turning the entire Irish country into an IFSC. This gave the second boost to the Celtic Tiger from 2000 up until the Irish economic crisis in 2009.", "In the 1998 Budget (in December 1997) Finance Minister, Charlie McCreevy introduced the legislation for a new regime of corporation tax that led to the introduction of the 12.5% rate of corporation tax for trading income from 1 January 2003. The legislation was contained in section 71 of the Finance Act 1999 and provided for a phased introduction of the 12.5% rate from 32% for the financial year 1998 to 12.5% commencing from 1 January 2003", ".5% rate from 32% for the financial year 1998 to 12.5% commencing from 1 January 2003. A higher rate of corporation tax of 25% was introduced for passive income, income from a foreign trade and some development and mining activities. Manufacturing relief, effectively a 10% rate of corporation tax, was ended on 31 December 2002. For companies that were claiming this relief before 23 July 1998, it would still be available until 31 January 2010", ". The 10% rate for IFSC activities ended on 31 December 2005 and after this date, these companies moved to the 12.5% rate provided their trade qualified as an Irish trading activity.", "The additional passing of the important Irish Taxes Consolidation Act, 1997 (\"TCA\") by Charlie McCreevy laid the foundation for the new vehicles and structures that would become used by IFSC law and accounting firms to help global multinationals use Ireland as a platform to avoid non-US taxes (and even the 12.5% Irish corporate tax rate). These vehicles would become famous as the Double Irish, Single Malt and the Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets tax arrangements", ". The Act also created the Irish Section 110 SPV, which would make the IFSC the largest securitisation location in the EU.", "Post crisis zero-tax economy (2009–2018)", "The Irish financial crises created unprecedented forces in the Economy. Irish banks, the largest domestic corporate taxpayers, faced insolvency, while Irish public and private debt-to-GDP metrics approached the highest levels in the OECD. The Irish Government needed foreign capital to re-balance their overleveraged economy", ". The Irish Government needed foreign capital to re-balance their overleveraged economy. Directly, and indirectly, they amended many Irish corporate tax structures from 2009 to 2015 to effectively make them \"zero-tax\" structures for foreign multinationals and foreign investors. The US Bureau of Economic Analysis (\"BEA\") \"effective\" Irish CT rate, fell to 2.5%.", "They materially expanded the capital allowances for intangible assets scheme in the 2009 Finance Act. This would encourage US multinationals to locate intellectual property assets in Ireland (as opposed to the Caribbean, as per the double Irish scheme), which would albeit artificially, raise Irish economic statistics to improve Ireland's \"headline\" Debt-to-GDP metric", ". They also indirectly, allowed US distressed debt funds to use the Irish Section 110 SPV to enable them to avoid Irish taxes on the circa €100bn of domestic Irish assets they bought from NAMA (and other financial institutions) from 2012 to 2016.", "While these BEPS schemes were successful in capital, they had downsides. US multinational tax schemes lead to large distortions in Irish GNI/GNP/GDP statistics. When Apple \"onshored\" their ASI subsidiary in January 2015, it caused Irish GDP to rise 26.3% in one quarter (\"leprechaun economics\"). Foreign multinationals were now 80% of corporate taxes, and concentrated in a smaller group", ". Foreign multinationals were now 80% of corporate taxes, and concentrated in a smaller group. In response, the Government introduced \"modified GNI\" (or GNI*) in 2017, which was circa 40% below 2017 Irish GDP, and a paired back of some BEPS schemes to improve corporation tax sustainability.", "Ireland's BEPS tax strategy led it to become labelled as one of the top 5 global conduit OFCs, and has come under attack from the US and the EU (Apple's largest tax fine in history). Under pressure from the EU, Ireland closed down the double Irish in 2015, which was described as the largest tax avoidance scheme in history. However, Ireland replaced it with the new single malt system, and an expanded capital allowances scheme. More targeted responses have come in the form of the US 2017 TCJA (esp", ". More targeted responses have come in the form of the US 2017 TCJA (esp. FDII and GILTI rates), and the EU's 2018 impending Digital Services Tax.", "See also\n\n Taxation in the Republic of Ireland\n Corporate tax haven\n Feargal O'Rourke architect of Ireland's BEPS tools\n Matheson (law firm) Ireland's largest U.S. tax advisor\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal references\nIrish Industrial Development Authority Corporate Tax (\"CT\") Portal\nRevenue Commissioners Corporate Tax (\"CT\") Portal\nErnst & Young Ireland Corporate Tax Portal\nIrish Tax Institute Portal", "Ireland\nEconomy of the Republic of Ireland\nTaxation in the Republic of Ireland\nCorporate tax avoidance\nApple Inc.\nGoogle\nMicrosoft\nOffshore magic circle\nOffshore law firms" ]

[ "The Christ Myth, first published in 1909, was a book by Arthur Drews on the Christ myth theory. Drews (1865–1935), along with Bruno Bauer (1809–1882) and Albert Kalthoff (1850–1906), is one of the three German pioneers of the denial of the existence of a historical Jesus.\n\nHistory\n\n19th-century historical criticism", "History\n\n19th-century historical criticism \n\nDrews emphatically argues that no independent evidence for the historical existence of Jesus has ever been found outside the New Testament writings. He denounces the Romanticism of the liberal cult of Jesus (Der liberale Jesuskultus) as a violation of historical method, and the naive sentimentalism of historical theology which attributes the formation of Christianity to Jesus's \"great personality\".", "He mentions the key names of historical criticism that emerged in the late 18th century and blossomed in the 19th century in Germany.\n Charles-François Dupuis (1742–1809) and Comte Constantin-François de Volney (1757–1820), the two French critical thinkers of the Enlightenment, who were the first to deny the historicity of Jesus on astromythical grounds, which they saw as key factors in the formation of religions including Christianity.", "David Strauss (1808–1874), who, at 27, pioneered the search for the historical Jesus with his Life of Jesus in 1835 (of 1,400 pages) by rejecting all the supernatural events as mythical elaborations.", "Bruno Bauer (1809–1882), the first academic theologian to affirm the non-historicity of Jesus. He claimed that Mark was the original Gospel, and the inventor of the historicity of Jesus. He traced the impact of major Greco-Roman ideas on the formation of the NT, especially the influence of Stoic philosophy (Seneca). Bruno Bauer's scholarship was buried by German academia, and he remained a pariah, until Albert Kalthoff rescued him from neglect and obscurity.", "Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918), an expert scholar of the Torah/Pentateuch, who was a leader in historical and source criticism;\n William Wrede (1859–1906), the promoter of the Messianic Secret in Mark, and who confirmed Bruno Bauer's claim that Mark was the real creator of Christianity;", "Johannes Weiss (1863–1914), the first exegete of the Gospels to attribute an apocalyptic vision to Jesus, accepted by Schweitzer and many others. He initiated form criticism later developed by Rudolf Bultmann. Weiss gave the name of Q to the \"sayings of the Lord\" common to Matthew and Luke. He was considered the highest authority in his time.", "G.J.P.J. Bolland (1854–1922), a Dutch autodidact radical, interested in Hegel and von Hartmann (letters from Drews to Bolland were published in German from 1890 to 1904), who saw the origin of Christianity in syncretism by Hellenized Jews in Alexandria;", "Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965), a historian of theology, who presented an important critical review of the history of the search for Jesus's life in The Quest of the Historical Jesus – From Reimarus to Wrede (1906, first edition), denouncing the subjectivity of the various writers who injected their own preferences in Jesus's character. Schweitzer devotes three chapters to David Strauss (Ch. 7, 8, and 9), and a full chapter to Bruno Bauer (Ch. 11). Ch", ". 7, 8, and 9), and a full chapter to Bruno Bauer (Ch. 11). Ch. 10 discusses the Priority of Mark hypothesis of Christian H. Weisse and Christian G. Wilke advanced in 1838.", "Consequences of German historical criticism\nConsequences have been dramatic.\n A general skepticism about the validity of the New Testament: \"There is nothing, absolutely nothing, either in the actions or words of Jesus, that has not a mythical character or cannot be traced to parallel passages in the Old Testament or the Talmud. Historical criticism resolves all details of the Gospel story in mythical mist and makes it impossible to say that there ever was such a person\" (Ch. 12).", "A loss of substance and meaning in the figure of the \"historical Jesus\": \"But what [a liberal theologian] leaves intact of the personality and story of Jesus is so meagre, and so devoid of solid foundation, that it cannot claim any historical significance.\" (Ch. 8) The human Jesus of liberal theologians, found by reduction and elimination of supernatural and other unwanted features, is so bloodless that it could have never induced the emotional fervor of a new spiritual movement, let alone a new religion.", "Syncretism \n\nDrews uses the new findings of anthropology collected by James Frazer (1854–1941) with his descriptions of ancient pagan religions and the concept of dying-and-rising god. Drews also pays extreme attention to the social environment of religious movements, as he sees religion as the expression of the social soul.\n\nDrews argues that the figure of Christ arose as a product of syncretism, a composite of mystical and apocalyptic ideas:", "1. A Savior/Redeemer derived from the major prophets of the Old Testament and their images of:\n- the suffering Servant of God (in Isaiah 53),\n- the Suffering Victim (in Psalm 22),\n- and the personification of Wisdom (in Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach and Proverbs)\n\n2. The concept of Messiah liberator freeing the Jews in Palestine from Roman occupation and taxation.", "3. Mixed with the patterns of Persian and Greco-Roman dying-and-rising godmen — godly heroes, kings, and emperors, whose stories inspired the new anthropological concept of dying and rising gods popularized by Frazer – such as Baal, Melqart, Adonis, Eshmun, Attis, Tammuz, Asclepius, Orpheus, Persephone, Inanna, also known as Ishtar, as well as Ra the Sun god, with its fusion with Osiris, Zalmoxis, Dionysus, and Odin, figuring in mystery cults of the Ancient Near East.", "The Jesus Cult and the Mystery Cults\nDrews points out the marked similarities of the early Christ cult to the existing and popular mystery cults – a theme already developed by W.B. Smith and J.M. Robertson, and later echoed by Maurice Goguel and reprised by the older brother of G.A. van den Bergh van Eysinga and van Eysinga himself. The rapid diffusion of the Christ religion took place in a population already shaped by and conversant with the sacred features of the mystery cults.\n\nMithras", "Mithras\n\nThe Christ Myth is sprinkled with comparisons between the Mithraic mysteries and the cult of Jesus. Although the god Mithras was not exactly a dying-and-rising god, some similarities are meaningful. Especially the sacramental feast which allowed the initiated to experience a mystical union with the god.", "Mithraism, imported from Persia to Rome, spread rapidly through the Roman Empire in the 1st century, and was considered a certain rival to early Christianity. The major images show the god being born from a rock. The central theme is the hunting and killing a bull with blood gushing out. The sun was portrayed as a friend of Mithras, and banquets with him on the hide of the bull. Females played no part in the images or the cult. The cult was popular among soldiers, and was likely spread by them", ". The cult was popular among soldiers, and was likely spread by them. Few initiates came from the social elite, until the revival in the mid-4th century (Emperor Julian). Drews claims that the figure of Jesus seemed more concrete, his story more moving, and it appealed more to women and the underdogs of society. The premature death of Emperor Julian was one of the causes of the Jesus mystery eventually winning over the Mithraic mysteries.", "Christianity and the historical personality of Jesus \n\nDrews asserted that everything about the story of Jesus had a mythical character, and that it was therefore not necessary to presuppose that a historical Jesus had ever existed. In fact, Christianity could have developed without Jesus, but not without Paul, and certainly not without Isaiah.", "Drews concludes in the last chapter, \"The Religious Problem of the Present\": The Christ-faith arose quite independently of any historical personality known to us ;... Jesus was in this sense a product of the religious social soul and was made by Paul, with the required amount of reinterpretation and reconstruction, the chief interest of those communities founded by him", ". The historical Jesus is not earlier but later than Paul; and as such he has always existed merely as an idea, as a pious fiction in the minds of members of the community...the Gospels are the derivatives...for the propaganda of the Church, and being without any claim to historical significance...[Religion] is a group-religion...the connection of the religious community..", "...[Religion] is a group-religion...the connection of the religious community...[Our personal religion], a religion of the individual, a principle of personal salvation, would have been an offense and an absurdity to the whole of ancient Christendom. [emphasis added]", "Christ Myth II – the witnesses to the historicity of Jesus (1912)\n\nCritique of circular historical theology", "Critique of circular historical theology \n\nArthur Drews published a second part to his book, Die Christusmythe II: \"Die Zeugnisse für die Geschichtlichkeit Jesu\" (1911), to answer objections of scholars and critically examine the historical method of theologians. Joseph McCabe (1867–1955), who started life as a Roman Catholic priest, produced a translation of Christ Myth II as The Witnesses to the Historicity of Jesus (1912), published both in London and Chicago.\n\nHistoricity of Jesus", "Historicity of Jesus\n\nThe preface of this classic book states: \"The question of the historicity of Jesus [die Frage nach der Historizität von Jesus Christus] is a purely historical question to be settled with the resources of historical research.\"", "In Ch. 3, \"The Methods of Historical Criticism\" of Part IV, \"The Witness of the Gospels\", Drews denounces the unscientific methodology principles of theological history which have been used in Schweitzer's The Quest for the Historical Jesus, the new theological vogue since David Strauss (1808–1874), and resulted in a long string of Lives of Jesus", ". Drews criticizes historical theology as not respecting the rules of non-Christian historical method, and giving way to \"sentimental intuitions\" and \"basic circularity\" of argumentation, where the existence of Jesus is presupposed, but not evidenced by outside sources. He takes as example the case of Johannes Weiss.", "[C]ritics are convinced of the historicity of the gospels a priori, before investigating the subject...[They only have] to seek the \"historical nucleus\" in tradition...How is it that Weinel knows the [innermost nature] of Jesus so well before beginning his inquiry that he thinks he can determine by this test what is spurious in tradition and what is not?...The gospels, it seems, are to be understood from \"the soul of Jesus\", not from the soul of their authors!..Johannes Weiss..", "..Johannes Weiss... acknowledges that in all his inquiries he starts with the assumption that the gospel story in general has an historical root, that it has grown out of the soil of the life of Jesus, goes back to eye-witnesses of his life, and comes so near to him that we may count upon historical reminiscences...There is a further principle, that all that seems possible... may at once be set down as actual... [This is how] all theological constructions of the life of Jesus are based..", "... [This is how] all theological constructions of the life of Jesus are based... the historicity of which is supposed to have been proved by showing that they are possible... Johannes Weiss is a master in...[this] way of interpreting the miracles of Jesus..", "... Johannes Weiss is a master in...[this] way of interpreting the miracles of Jesus... If any one ventures to differ from him, Weiss bitterly retorts: \"Any man who says that these religious ideas and emotions are inconceivable had better keep his hand off matters of religious history; he has no equipment to deal with them\" [A classical response of theologians to skeptics.]...[In] Weiss's Das älteste Evangelium...he tries to prove that... Mark is merely incorporating an already existing tradition", "...he tries to prove that... Mark is merely incorporating an already existing tradition. \"Not without certain assumptions\", he admits, \"do we set about the inquiry...\" [emphasis added]", "Drews, like Schweitzer in his Quest, focuses mostly on German liberal theologians, while mentioning Ernest Renan (1823–1892) only en passant. He completely ignores Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789), the first to publish a critical Life of Jesus, with his Ecce Homo! (Histoire critique de Jésus-Christ, ou Analyse raisonnée des évangiles) (1770).", "The Jewish witnesses \n Philo: a Jewish contemporary of Jesus, knew of the Essenes, but makes no mention of Jesus or Christians.", "Justus of Tiberias: Drews mentions the curious case of Photius, the 9th-century Patriarch of Constantinople, who became famous for his Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon, a collection of excerpts and summaries of some 280 classical volumes now mostly lost. Photius read through the Chronicle of Justus of Tiberias, a contemporary of Josephus, who went through the Jewish Wars and the destruction of Jerusalem. Justus wrote a book about the War, and a Chronicle of the Jewish people from Moses to Agrippa II (27-c", ". 94 AD). \"Photius himself believed there ought to be some mention of Jesus [in Justus's Chronicle], and was surprised to find none.\" [emphasis added]", "Josephus: pros and cons of the Testimonium Flavanium, concluding it is most likely an interpolation or alteration.\n Talmud: offers no contemporary report on Jesus, only later fragments from the Gospel tradition.", "The Roman witnesses", "Pliny the Younger (61-c. 112 AD): his letter to Trajan of c. 110 AD (X, 96) only mentions the existence of a cult of Christians with an innocent early-morning ritual. This letter has aroused the suspicion of Bruno Bauer and Edwin Johnson.\n Suetonius (69–122 AD): the expulsion of Jews, making trouble at the instigation of an enigmatic Chrestus (impulsore Chresto), not spelled Christus, under Emperor Claudius leaves uncertain who Chrestus was, and does not support the historicity of a Jesus.", "Tacitus (56–117 AD): Next to Josephus, is host to the second most important non-Christian passage in Annals, XV, 44 (c. 115 AD). Nero lays the blame for the 64 AD fire of Rome on Christianos, followers of Christus, whose death was ordered by Pontius Pilate in Judaea, who is mentioned as procurator instead of prefect. This passage has given rise to an intense examination of pros and cons", ". This passage has given rise to an intense examination of pros and cons. Jesus, as a name, is not mentioned; Christianos seems to be a correction of an original Chrestianos; the persecution of Christians by Nero is doubtful, mentioned only in Sulpicius Severus (c. 400), whose text could have been interpolated back into Tacitus; Tacitus's source must have been, not the archives, but hearsay from Christians", ". The strange circumstances of the discovery of the manuscript in the 15th century also raised questions. A discussion on the authenticity of the Annals passage remains inconclusive.", "Lucus a non Lucendo, no evidence can be deduced from the destroyed pagan manuscripts.", "The witness of Paul \n\nThe Epistles of Paul, and doubts about their authenticity: [The first ten epistles of Paul of Tarsus appeared around 140 AD, collected in Marcion's Apostolikon. Their lost text was reconstituted by Adolf von Harnack in Marcion: The Gospel of the Alien God, 1921]", "The leader of the Tübingen School of theology, Ferdinand Christian (F.C.) Baur (1792–1860), in Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi (1845), had established as genuine the four chief Pauline Epistles — Romans, Galatians, First Corinthians and Second Corinthians — and that Paul in the Acts was different from the Paul of the Epistles.", "Drews stresses that in the Germany of the 1900s, the genuineness of those four chief \"Paulinae\" (i.e. Paul's Epistles) \"is so firmly held by [theologians] that any doubt about it is at once rejected by them as not to be taken seriously.\" This fear didn't stop from doubts the likes of:\n Bruno Bauer, the first to declare all Paul's epistles to be 2nd-century forgeries;\n the English radicals Edwin Johnson, John M. Robertson, Thomas Whittaker;", "the English radicals Edwin Johnson, John M. Robertson, Thomas Whittaker;\n the Dutch radicals G.J.P.J. Bolland, Willem C. Van Manen (with two key articles in English on \"Paul & Paulinism\" and Romans, and G.A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, all belonging to the famous Dutch Radical School, whose specialty was radical criticism of the Paulinae and denial of their authenticity;\n and Albert Kalthoff who revived Bruno Bauer's ideas and gave them a new shine.", "and Albert Kalthoff who revived Bruno Bauer's ideas and gave them a new shine.\nDrews says it loud and clear: There's a vicious circle of methodology in historical theologians, and if they find Jesus, it's because they assume in advance he's already in the stories.\n1. Proofs of the Historicity of Jesus in Paul\n(a) Simple Proofs:", "The Savior has to appear to be a real man. The law (Halakha) did not make men righteous, and so Jesus Christ was despatched to free men from the law, redeem them and deliver them from sin and death by his own sacrificial death. By his union with Christ, man becomes dead to the law and gains eternal life. Philo's Logos is a similar divine savior and mediator.Blended with the Liberator Messiah (who has to descend from David), the fusion results in a Suffering, Dying and Rising God", ". But this Mediator/Savior has to appear as a real man before his sacrifice — born of a woman under the law (Gal. 4:4) (a Jewish expression). The idea of a son of God sent as mediator to benefit mankind and confer redemption is abundant in Ancient Greek stories (Herakles, Dionysos), and Ancient Near East mysteries (Attis, Adonis, Osiris). Same idea in the Son of Man of the prophet Daniel. The God figure is linked to the cycle of nature and sun periodicity. Paul enlarged and deepened the idea. Gal. 4:1", ". Paul enlarged and deepened the idea. Gal. 4:1. The mention of the twelve in 1 Cor. 15:5 is a gloss.", "(b) The Appearances of the Risen Christ.\n\nAbout the \"visions\" in 1 Cor. 15: Is the whole episode fashioned according to the Scriptures? And the mention that Jesus resurrected appeared to more than 500 brothers seems an interpolation.\n\n(c) The account of the Last Supper.", "1 Cor. 11:23, has a suspicious liturgical form, while Mark and Matthew's accounts differ, and the phrase \"in memory of me\" is seen by many as a later interpolation. The betrayal by Judas is an invention, with paradidonai not meaning \"betray\", but \"give up\", (Isaiah, 53:12), while selecting the \"night\" for the action is pure stage setting. The preceding text, 1 Cor. 11:17–22, has been dealing with agape, the love-feast of early Christians, to which the text returns. 1 Cor. 27–33.", "(d) The \"brothers\" of the Lord [vs brethren in Christ]", "In 1 Cor. 9:5 and Gal. 1:19, has the phrase Brothers of the Lord a physical meaning and is it different from brethren in Christ (spiritual brotherhood in a sect or church)? This is an old controversy, but its conclusion remains obscure. \"Missionary journeys\" assigned to physical brothers seem highly improbable. James the Just is also called The Brother of the Lord (Gal. 1:19) because he is the most virtuous. Drews finds it impossible to define what kind of man this James is", ". Drews finds it impossible to define what kind of man this James is. Identifying who the man is (among the too many Jameses in the texts) remains utterly \"hopeless\".", "(e) The “Words of the Lord.”", "[Those are the \"sayings\" of Jesus, their compilation first called Logia, after Papias of Hierapolis, and renamed the hypothetical \"Q source\" by Johannes Weiss (1863–1914).] There are many approximate parallels between Paul and Gospel sayings. Prohibition to part with a wife (1 Cor. 7:10 and Matthew 5:32). Making one's living through the Gospel (1 Cor. 9:14 and Matthew 10:10). Parousia in the clouds (1 Thessalonians 4:15 and Mark 13:26) etc", ". 9:14 and Matthew 10:10). Parousia in the clouds (1 Thessalonians 4:15 and Mark 13:26) etc. Who borrows from whom? From Paul into Gospels, or the reverse? Those sayings are not all exceptional, including many banal platitudes from Talmud (Romans 2:1 and Matthew 7:1); (Romans 2:19 and Matthew 15:14), etc.", "2. Paul no witness to the historicity of Jesus", "Paul was not concerned with the earthly life of Jesus, and his idea of Christ was formed independently of an historical Jesus. Wrede concurs: For Paul, only Jesus's death is important, and it is a \"superhistorical\" fact for Paul. Paul knew nothing of Jesus. Paul is not the disciple of a historical Jesus. Paul invokes no distinctive acts of the \"Lord\", no sayings of Jesus, even when it would have been most useful to his own preaching, for instance on the question of the law.", "\"[I]nstead of doing so, [Paul] uses the most complicated arguments from the Scriptures and the most determined dialectic, when he might have acted so much more simply.\" [Emphasis added.] Why not, for example, in Gal. 2:11–14 \"in order to convince Peter that he is wrong in avoiding the tables of the Gentiles?\".", "Theologians have a ready-made \"psychological\" excuse to explain Paul's silence on Jesus' life: The epistles are occasional papers that never have reason to speak expressly about Jesus, as if everything about Jesus had already been communicated orally, and did not need to be repeated in the letters. Even when \"[t]hese letters, [are] swarming with dogmatic discussions of the most subtle character\", remarks Drews. It's one more excuse that theologians invent to conceal a major difficulty", ". It's one more excuse that theologians invent to conceal a major difficulty. Paul's Christ does not point to the Jesus of the Gospels.", "3. The question of genuineness\n Drews examines the question of the authenticity of the Epistles, and the Historicity of Paul and starts with a reminder:The Pauline Christ is a metaphysical principle, and his incarnation only one in idea, an imaginary element of his religious system. The man Jesus is in Paul the idealised suffering servant of God of Isaiah and the just man of Wisdom an intermediate stage of metaphysical evolution, not an historical personality. [emphasis added]", "Not a single trace of Paul has been found in the writings of Philo and Josephus. The Epistle of Clement is not reliable. There's no proof of the existence of the Pauline epistles before Justin. Papias of Hierapolis was also silent about them.", "(a) Emotional arguments for the genuineness.\n\nThe only tools for analyzing the epistles are internal evidence and philology. Theologians rely on aesthetics, since there's no outside comparison to identify what they perceive as the distinctiveness of style. Theologians also resort to their \"feeling\" to detect the powerful personality of Paul, the uninventible originality of the epistles, they even claim they can sense his soul.\n\n(b) Arguments for genuineness from the times.", "Van Manen showed that the communities visited by Paul were complex organizations, not newly founded and young. They point to the middle of the 2nd century rather than the middle of the 1st. The Gnostic influence is noticeable. Gift of tongues, circumcisions were still issues in the 2nd century. Justin's Trypho showed that the two sides of established Jews versus sectarian Jewish-Christians (Nazarene) were still confronting each other as in Galatians", ". Only after the destruction of Jerusalem did Jews and Christians split, turning to enmity and hatred. Later Christians took the side of Romans against the Jews (135). Christians felt they were the new chosen, with a new Covenant, and the Jews had become outcasts and damned. In Romans 9-11 the Jews are excluded from salvation.Paulinism is very close to the Gnosticism of the 2nd century, Drews emphasizes:", "In one case the connection between Gnosticism and Paul is so evident that it may be cited as a proof that Paul knew nothing of an historical Jesus; it is the passage in 1 Cor. 2:6, where the apostle speaks of the princes of this world, who knew not what they did when they crucified the Lord of glory", ". It was long ago recognised by van Manen and others that by these princes we must understand, not the Jewish or Roman authorities, nor any terrestrial powers whatever, but the enemies of this world, the demons higher powers, which do indeed rule the earth for a time, but will pass away before the coming triumph of the saviour-God", ". That is precisely the Gnostic idea of the death of the Redeemer, and it is here put forward by Paul; from that we may infer that he did not conceive the life of Jesus as an historical event, but a general metaphysical drama, in which heaven and earth struggle for the mastery. [emphasis added]", "Paul does use a lot of Gnostic language, which was understandable in the 2nd century, but not around 50–60 AD, given as the spurious dating of the Epistles. Not enough time had passed to elaborate and deepen the new thoughts. The Damascus vision is not enough to explain in Paul such a quick turn-around conversion from zealot Jew to fanatic Christian.", "(c) The spuriousness of the Pauline Epistles.", "Paul's Judaism is highly questionable. Consulted rabbis cannot recognize a student of Judaism in Paul. Paul is constantly referring only to the Septuagint, and there's no clue that he knew any Hebrew. He thinks Greek, speaks Greek, eats Greek, uses Greek in everything. Paulinism is much closer to the Hellenistic Judaism of Philo and Wisdom. Paul never shows any respect for the sacred texts, distorting or changing their meaning, as in Gal. 4:21", ". 4:21. His mindset is unique, similar only to other 2nd-century writers, like Hebrews, Barnabas, Justin. The Epistles and the Acts present two radically different stories (F.C. Baur). The Dutch Radical School (Rudolf Steck and Willem C. van Manen) has mostly denied the authenticity of the Epistles. The Epistles' goal was to separate Christianity from Judaism", ". The Epistles' goal was to separate Christianity from Judaism. Many intriguing scenarios are possible about the character of Paul, a Jew who turned against the law and Judaism, to give freedom to the new cult: one writer, or many? But, for Drews's Christ Myth, the historicity of Paul is secondary.", "The witness of the Gospels \n\nThis important part IV covers a complete text criticism and historical criticism of Gospel scholarship in 1912, in 14 chapters:", "1. The Sources of the Gospels\n2. The Witness of Tradition\n3. The Methods of Historical Criticism\n(a) The Methodical Principles of Theological History\n(b) The Method of Johannes Weiss\n4. The \"Uniqueness\" and \"Uninventibility\" of the Gospel Jesus\n5. Schmiedel’s [Nine] Main Pillars\n6. The Methods of 'The Christ-Myth' \n(a) The Literary Character of the Gospels.\n(b) The Mythical Character of the Gospels.\n 7. The Mythic-Symbolic Interpretation of the Gospels\n(a) The Suffering and Exaltation of the Messiah.", "(a) The Suffering and Exaltation of the Messiah.\n(b) The Character and Miracles of the Messiah. — Supplement [On Job] \t\n(c) John the Baptist and the Baptism of Jesus.\n(d) The Name of the Messiah.\n(e) The Topography of the Gospels.\n I. NAZARETH.\n II. JERUSALEM.\n III. GALILEE.", "(f) The Chronology of the Gospels. \t\t\n(g) The Pre-Christian Jesus. \t\t\n(h) The Conversion of the Mythical into an Historical Jesus. \t\t\n(i) Jesus and the Pharisees and Scribes. \t\t\n(k) Further Modifications of Prophetical and Historical Passages.\n8. Historians and the Gospels\n9. The Words of the Lord [The \"Sayings\" of Jesus\", the \"Q source\"]\n(a) The Tradition of the Words of the Lord. \t\n(b) The Controversies with the Pharisees. \t\n(c) Sayings of Jesus on the Weak and Lowly.", "(b) The Controversies with the Pharisees. \t\n(c) Sayings of Jesus on the Weak and Lowly. \t\n(d) Jesus's Belief in God the Father \t\n(e) Love of Neighbours and of Enemies. \t\n(f) The Sermon on the Mount. \t\n(g) Further Parallel Passages.\n10. The Parables of Jesus\n11. General Result\n12. The \"Strong Personality\"\n13. The Historical Jesus and the Ideal Christ\n14. Idea and Personality: Settlement of the Religious Crisis\nAppendix [Astral Speculations of the Ancients on Psalm 22]", "The Suffering Servant of God in Isaiah 53", "The book emphasized the role played in the formation of the figure of Jesus by the Old Testament character of The Suffering Servant in Isaiah 53, Jeremiah, Job, Zechariah, Ezechiel, etc. especially as presented in the Greek version of the Septuagint. Isaiah 52:13 – 53:12 ESV tells the story of the human scapegoat who, on God's will, is turned into an innocent lamb offered for sacrifice:3 He was despised and rejected by men; a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief;..", "... 4 Surely he has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows; yet we esteemed him stricken, smitten by God, and afflicted. 5 But he was pierced for our transgressions; he was crushed for our iniquities; upon him was the chastisement that brought us peace, and with his wounds we are healed. 6 All we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned—every one—to his own way; and the Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all. 7... yet he opened not his mouth; like a lamb that is led to the slaughter..", ". 7... yet he opened not his mouth; like a lamb that is led to the slaughter... 8 By oppression and judgment he was taken away; ... stricken for the transgression of my people? 9 And they made his grave with the wicked... although he had done no violence, and there was no deceit in his mouth.10 Yet it was the will of the Lord to crush him... when his soul makes an offering for guilt... 11..", "... when his soul makes an offering for guilt... 11...by his knowledge shall the righteous one, my servant, make many to be accounted righteous, and he shall bear their iniquities. 12...because he poured out his soul to death and was numbered with the transgressors; yet he bore the sin of many, and makes intercession for the transgressors. [emphasis added]", "In ch. 7, \"The Mythic-Symbolic Interpretation of the Gospels\", Drews writes: The mythic-symbolic interpretation of the gospels sees in Isaiah 53 the germ-cell of the story of Jesus, the starting-point of all that is related of him, the solid nucleus round which all the rest has crystallised. The prophet deals with the Servant of Jahveh, who voluntarily submits to suffering in order to expiate the sin and guilt of the people. [emphasis added]", "The Suffering Victim of Psalm 22", "Isaiah 53 is seconded by the Suffering Victim in crucial Psalm 22, especially its lines: My God, my God, why have you forsaken me? (Psalm 22:1; Mark 15:34); They hurl insults, shaking their heads. (Psalm 22:7; Mark 15:29); They divide my clothes among them and cast lots for my garment. (Psalm 22:18; Mark 15:24). Other psalms present passages supporting the figure of the Suffering Servant of Yahweh (Psalm 1, 8, 15, 23, 24, 34, 37, 43, 69, 103, 109, 110, 116, 118, 121, 128, etc.)", "The righteous as personification of wisdom, his persecution and death \nDrews also underlines the contribution of the character of the Just or the Righteous in the Book of Wisdom, and Sirach.\n- In \"Wisdom 7:15–29\", she is a breath of the power of God, a pure emanation of the glory of the Almighty.\n- In \"Wisdom 2:10–19\" the wicked are plotting against the righteous man: Let us oppress the righteous poor man,", "- and in \"Wisdom 2:20\" they decide Let us condemn him to a shameful death, for, according to what he says, he will be protected.", "Drews adds: [Ch. 7, \"The Mythic-Symbolic Interpretation of the Gospels\"] According to Deuteronomy (21:23), there was no more shameful death than to hang on a tree (in Greek xylon and stauros, in Latin crux); so that this naturally occurred as the true manner of the just one's death. Then the particular motive of the death was furnished by the passage in Wisdom and the idea of Plato. He died as a victim of the unjust, the godless.", "[Ch. 8, \"Historians and the Gospels\"] No one will question that the figure of Jesus in the gospels has a certain nucleus, about which all the rest has gradually crystallised", ". But that this nucleus is an historical personality, and not Isaiah's Servant of God, the Just of Wisdom, and the Sufferer of the 22d Psalm, is merely to beg the question; and this is the less justified since all the really important features of the gospel life of Jesus owe their origin partly to the myth, partly to the expansion and application of certain passages in the prophets.", "[Ch. 13, \"The Historical Jesus and the Ideal Christ\"]...There is not in the centre of Christianity one particular historical human being, but the idea of man, of the suffering, struggling, humiliated, but victoriously emerging from all his humiliations, servant of God, symbolically represented in the actions and experiences of a particular historical person. [emphasis added]", "Features of dying-and-rising God \n\nIn Chapter 13, Drews emphasizes the mystery cult character of early Christian ecstatic reverence:\n\nReception\n\nGermany", "Reception\n\nGermany \n\nDrews managed an intense advertising campaign in Germany with lectures, articles, interviews. It caused considerable controversy. His work proved popular enough that prominent theologians and historians addressed his arguments in several leading journals of religion. In response, Drews took part in a series of public debates, which often became emotionally charged.", "Drews led a militant campaign for his book, supported by the National Association of Free Religion Societies, and The National Association of Monists. which organized a huge debate on Jan 31 and Feb 1, 1910 in the Berlin Zoological Garden between monists and liberal theologians including Baron von Soden of the Berlin University. Attended by 2,000 people, including the country's most eminent theologians, the meetings went on until three in the morning", ". The New York Times called it \"one of the most remarkable theological discussions\" since the days of Martin Luther, reporting that Drews's supporters caused a sensation by plastering the town's billboards with posters asking, Did Jesus Christ ever live? According to the newspaper his arguments were so graphic that several women had to be carried from the hall screaming hysterically, while one woman stood on a chair and invited God to strike him down.", "On Feb 20, 1910, a counter confrontation took place in the Bush Circus. The following year, on March 12, 1911 another follow-up debate was organized. In 1912, S. J. Case noted that within the last decade, doubts about Jesus existence had been advanced in several quarters, but nowhere so insistently as in Germany where the skeptical movement had become a regular propaganda, \"Its foremost champion is Arthur Drews, professor of philosophy in Karlsruhe Technical High School", ". Since the appearance of his Christusmythe in 1909 the subject has been kept before the public by means of debates held in various places, particularly at some important university centers such as Jena, Marburg, Giessen, Leipzig, Berlin.\"", "United States", "Drews's international popularity was confirmed by the New York Times'''s critical review of his Christ Myth book on March 26, 1911, \"A German's Christ Myth: Prof. Arthur Drews Carries the Higher Criticism to the Point of Absurdity\". The anonymous reviewer recites the current objections addressed to Drews's Christ Myth book. He lists the general criticisms addressed by theologians, denouncing ...the pseudo-scientific vagaries... in a style redolent of the professorial chair of a German pedant..", "... in a style redolent of the professorial chair of a German pedant...[ Jesus's] characteristics...are derived from Jewish ideals floating in the air at the time...This mythical personage was transformed into a demigod by St. Paul...virtually the creator of Christianity. His main grounds for disbelief in the existence of Jesus are the absence of any contemporary references to him except in the Gospels – a rather large exception, one would think", ". Passages of Josephus, Tacitus and Pliny are explained away as being late, or interpolated, or applying to the myth rather than to the person...", "Dr. Drews proceeds ruthlessly to remove even this kernel [of a gracious life, with its marked individuality left by liberal theologians] and leaves virtually nothing in its place except a mass of floating ideas and ideals...concentrated around a non-existent personality...", "[Prof. Drews] denies the originality of the sayings attributed to Jesus, and considers them tainted with other-worldliness...[his book] is an argument in favor of...Monism...known as Pantheism...It is, however, just the sort of presentment which attracts the half-baked mind that cannot judge of historic evidence. [emphasis added]", "Russia \nDrews's Christ Myth was to find an unpredictable reception in Russia, as his ideas reached the new Soviet Union leadership at the end of a very circuitous route – as a distant repercussion of the philosophy of Hegel and the reactions of his students, notably the relationship between Bruno Bauer and his young student, Karl Marx.", "At the end of World War I, back on the social front, the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) had become the successor of Marx and Engels' socialism/communism, formulating his own Russian version of Marxism-Leninism of communism and atheism. Once the Bolsheviks gained power in the Soviet Union, Marxist–Leninist atheism became de facto the official doctrine of the state, under the leadership of Lenin, the Soviet leader from 1917 until his death.", "Lenin was particularly receptive to the ideas of Bruno Bauer, a former friend and ally of Karl Marx when both were Young Hegelians. According to Zvi Rosen, in Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx (1977), Lenin was eager to use Bruno Bauer's attacks on Christianity as agitprop against the bourgeoisie, as updated by Arthur Drews. He accepted Drews's thesis that Jesus had never existed as anti-Christian propaganda.", "Lenin argued that it was imperative in the struggle against religious obscurantists to adopt revolutionary ideas like those of Drews, and demolish the icons of bourgeois society.Edyth C. Haber, \"The Mythic Bulgakov: 'The Master and Margarita' and Arthur Drews's 'The Christ Myth'\", Slavic & East European Journal, volume 43, issue 2, 1999, p. 347", ". 347. Several editions of Drews's The Christ Myth were published in the Soviet Union from the early 1920s onwards, and his arguments were included in school and university textbooks. Public meetings debating Did Christ live? were organized, during which party operatives debated with clergymen.", "However, this acceptance of his ideas in Moscow and the Soviet Union did not save Drews, a believer, from Lenin's attacks, for being a \"reactionary, openly helping the exploiters to replace old and rotten prejudices with new, still more disgusting and base prejudices\".\n\nAt home, the diffusion of his book in the USSR had no impact on Drews's modest life as a teacher in Karlsruhe and were of no use to improving his social lot.", "Influence on Couchoud and G.A. Wells", "In a different development to the West, Arthur Drews became influential on the formation of the \"Jesus existence denial\" theories of Paul-Louis Couchoud and G. A. Wells. Fluent in German, they had followed the huge academic controversy over the Christ Myth, and were able to read all of Drews's work in the original German. They both accepted and adapted Drews's main ideas. Drews had finally found some followers abroad, both in France and England", ". Drews had finally found some followers abroad, both in France and England. Wells, for instance, saw Jesus as a personification of Wisdom, which had appeared on earth in some indefinite time past. William B. Smith in the US, who also could read German fluently, remained a very close ally and a kindred soul.", "In the same manner that Schweitzer is a seminal reference for historicists, Drews is a basic reference for the denial of Jesus historicity. Arthur Drews left his mark on practically the whole development of the Christ Myth thesis, (so-called \"mythicism\") which followed him.\n\n Professional theologians", "In Christ Myth II (1912), Drews describes the cultural commotion: Now the whole Press is engaged against the disturber of the peace...Opposing lectures and Protestant meetings are organised, and J. Weiss publicly declares that the author of the book has no right to be taken seriously", ". Weiss publicly declares that the author of the book has no right to be taken seriously. But among his fellows, within the four walls of the lecture-hall, and in the printed version of his lectures, Weiss assures his readers that he has taken the matter 'very seriously', and speaks of the fateful hour through which our [theological] science is passing. [emphasis added]", "Most significant theologian scholars immediately felt the need to take up the challenge and entered the debate sparked off by Drews's Christ Myth about the Historicity of Jesus. Most of the responses world-wide by theologians were violently negative and critical.", "But Drews had some quality supporters, like the famous Orientalist Peter Jensen. Coincidentally, M. M. Mangasarian also published in 1909 The Truth About Jesus, Is He A Myth?. In 1912, William Benjamin Smith published Ecce Deus: Studies of Primitive Christianity, (with an introduction by Paul Wilhelm Schmiedel (1912).", "Albert Schweitzer\nTo discuss Drews's thesis, Albert Schweitzer added two new chapters in the 1913 second edition of his Quest of the Historical Jesus. (Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung, 2. Auflage, 1913)", "Ch. 22, (p. 451–499), \"The New Denial of the Historicity of Jesus\" (Die Neueste Bestreitung der Geschichtlichkeit Jesu) analyzes Drews's thesis, plus eight writers in support of Drews's thesis about the non-existence of Jesus: J. M. Robertson, Peter Jensen, Andrzej Niemojewski, Christian Paul Fuhrmann, W.B. Smith, Thomas Whittaker, G.J.P.J. Bolland, Samuel Lublinski. Three of them favor mythic-astral explanations.", "Ch. 23 (p. 500–560), \"The Debate About the Historicity of Jesus\" (Die Diskussion über die Geschichtlichkeit Jesu), reviews the publications of 40 theologians/scholars in response to Drews, and mentions the participants in the Feb. 1910 public debate. Most of the publications are critical and negative. Schweitzer continues his systematic exposure of the problems and difficulties in the theories of the Bestreiter (\"challengers') and Verneiner (\"deniers\") — the Dutch Radicals, J. M. Robertson, W. B", ". M. Robertson, W. B. Smith and Drews – and the authenticity of Paul's epistles and Paul's historicity as well.", "The Christ Myth theological debate, in 1909–1913 and 1914–1927, tabulated by Peter De Mey", "Peter De Mey, a professor of Systematic Theology at the Catholic Un. of Leuven (Belgium), in a comprehensive paper \"On Rereading the Christ Myth Theological Debate\" (c. 2004), cited and tabulated refutations from academic theologians in Germany, Britain, the United States, and France. De Mey offers a list of 87 books and articles: 83 publications in 1909–1927 (62 in German, 19 in English, 2 in French), plus 4 isolated odd ones", ". A near-unanimity of the responses cited by De Mey are opposed to Drews's conclusions, with some variations.", "– 68 citations of publications in the 1909–1913 period (52 in German, 14 in English, 2 in French), until Schweitzer's 2d edition of The Quest (1913)", ". The list includes established German authorities such as Wilhelm Bousset, Daniel Chwolson, Alfred Jeremias, Adolf Jülicher, Paul Wilhelm Schmiedel, Albert Schweitzer, Paul Tillich, Ernst Troeltsch, Hermann von Soden, and Johannes WeissOf the 40 theologians already listed by Schweitzer's Quest in his second edition, De Mey ignores nine scholars (as not being \"fundamental\" theologians) that Schweitzer had considered significant, including an important response by the famous Babylonian expert Peter Jensen.", "– 15 citations after the 2d edition of The Quest, in 1914–1927. Of those, 10 were in German, 5 in English.", "Refutations from 1912 to WW II", "Shirley Jackson Case (1872–1947), The Historicity of Jesus: a Criticism of the Contention that Jesus Never Lived, a Statement of the Evidence for His Existence, an Estimate of His Relation to Christianity (1912) uses the Christ of Faith as the basis for his argumentation, maintaining the validity of the supernatural, miracles and resurrection", ". In the \"world-view in which natural law\" is \"dominant\" and \"reason and human experience have been made fundamental\" and replaced \"supernatural revelation\", the Gospels are no longer perceived in their authentic light – being \"reinterpreted...or else dismissed as utterly unhistorical.\" (Ch. 1)", "Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare (1856–1924), The historical Christ, or, An investigation of the views of Mr. J.M. Robertson, Dr. A. Drews, and Prof. W.B. Smith, (1914) reads the texts as showing a gradual deification of a man, pointing to an existing human source.", "Maurice Goguel (1880–1955), Jesus The Nazarene, Myth Or History? (1926) suggests that Christianity started as a mystery cult, with a hero of a recent date, a Jewish faith-healer who came to believe he was the Messiah, and got executed by Pilate. Paul is a confusing patchwork of ideas and remains unexplained.", "A.D. Howell Smith (b. 1880), Jesus Not A Myth (1942). Smith argues that the early Christian texts never call Jesus a God, and that the prediction that the Kingdom of God will happen during the lifetime of his listeners is a strong argument for the historicity of the preacher.", "Archibald Robertson (1886–1961), Jesus: Myth or History? (1946). Robertson's father (same name) was Principal of King's College, London and Bishop of Exeter. Robertson became a journalist/author. His book is an account of the public debate in the 1890–1940 period. It lists the key spokesmen, gives an analysis of their main arguments, and ends by seeking a compromise between both sides. Robertson pits two teams:", "– 11 \"historicists\": Frederick C. Conybeare, Thomas K. Cheyne, Paul W. Schmiedel, Alfred Loisy, Albert Schweitzer, Charles Guignebert, Rudolf Bultmann, Joseph Klausner, Robert Eisler, Maurice Goguel, A.D. Howell Smith;\n – against 8 \"mythicists\": Bruno Bauer, John M. Robertson, Thomas Whittaker, William B. Smith, Arthur Drews, Paul-Louis Couchoud, L. Gordon Rylands, Édouard Dujardin.", "\"Mythicism\"\nIn their books, A.D. Howell Smith (1942) and Archibald Robertson (1946) popularized the use of mythicist (L19, i.e. late 19th century, \"a student, interpreter, or creator of myths; also an adherent or student of mythicism), and mythicism (rare, M19, \"attributing an origin in myth to narratives of supernatural events\"; also \"the tendency to create myths\"). Both were adopted as a convenient shorthand for the \"denial of Jesus existence\", or the \"thesis of non-historicity\".", "For Drews, Jesus historicity is the thesis, always affirmed and demonstrated first, while Jesus historicity denial was the antithesis in a Hegelian sense, always coming in second position, after the positive thesis. Same thing with Schweitzer, who, in the rebuttals in the 2d edition of the Quest (Ch. 22 & 23), only speaks of Bestreiter der Geschichtlikchkeit Jesu, or Verneiner i.e. challengers, or deniers of the historicity of Jesus", ".e. challengers, or deniers of the historicity of Jesus. Jesus has to be phenomenologically defined, before his existence can be denied.", "Theologians claim that mythicism is a positive assertion, with the historicist only putting up a defense against the mythicists. For instance, Hoffmann decries Ehrman's book as \"entirely inadequate as a defense\".", "In fact, historicists exhibit vastly different constructions of the historical Jesus — to the point of creating a \"mess\". Schweitzer never attacks an abstract anonymous doctrine. As a historian, he always addresses the arguments of specific scholars and writers, from the platform of his own personal arguments, avoids weasel expressions and specifically \"names names\".", "\"Jesus Historicists\" vs \"Historicity Deniers\"\nWorld War II put a stop to the public debate initially set off by Arthur Drews, until George Albert Wells (b. 1926), a professor of German at Un. of London, reignited it in the 70s with a series of books directly influenced by his readings of Bruno Bauer, Kalthoff and Drews in their original German.", "A whole series of scholars have re-opened the debate by publishing major refutations of Drews's Christ Myth thesis, including Ian Wilson (1984), R.T. France (1986), Morton Smith (1986), Graham N. Stanton (1989), Robert Van Voorst (2000), James Beilby and Paul R. Eddy (2009), R. Joseph Hoffmann (1986 and 2010).", "Various conferences have been held in the US and Europe, notably by the Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion (2007), and the Center for Inquiry CFI (2010), with scholars from both sides, such as Robert M. Price making contributions.", "Major committees have been formed for communal examinations of the topics of historicity versus non-historicity, including:\nThe famous Jesus Seminar formed by Robert Funk in 1985 under the tutelage of the Westar Institute,\nThe Jesus Project (Dec. 2007-Oct. 2009), under the leadership of R. Joseph Hoffmann and Robert M. Price. Its goal was \"to take the theory [of the non-existence of Jesus] as a 'testable hypothesis' and use the best methods of critical inquiry to reach a probable conclusion.\"", "The Jesus Process, formed in May 2012 as another round of inquiry with a new cast.", "With the spread of the Internet, the old theological controversy that was raging 100 years ago has percolated down to the public forum and known a recrudescence, with a \"upsurge\" of the non-existence thesis. Both academic and independent scholars have ridden the new boom with publications all aimed at discussing the Christ Myth thesis and its aftermath, including major works by Robert M. Price (August 2011), Bart D. Ehrman (March 2012), Richard Carrier (April 2012), Thomas L", ". Price (August 2011), Bart D. Ehrman (March 2012), Richard Carrier (April 2012), Thomas L. Thompson and Thomas Verenna (July 2012), and Maurice Casey (August 2012).", "R. Joseph Hoffmann", "R. Joseph Hoffmann is a historian of Early Christianity. Educated by Catholic nuns, he has remained a sentimental defender of the Church, a vocal advocate of Jesus' historicity, and a standard-bearer in the campaign against Arthur Drews's non-historicity thesis. He participated in the Jesus Seminar and the aborted Jesus Project. Hoffmann also runs an Internet blog, the New Oxonian", ". Hoffmann also runs an Internet blog, the New Oxonian. Hoffmann is well known for his witty, highly erudite and often acerbic style, and his penchant for complicated and extreme declarations. In May 2012, Hoffmann presented the Jesus Process defined as yet another round on the popular theme of \"Consultation on the Historical Jesus\". An introductory manifesto for the new group has been outlined in \"Controversy, Mythicism, and the Historical Jesus\" of May 22, 2012.", "When listing the major refutations of the Christ Myth thesis (Note [3]), Hoffmann notes that the \"important studies\" are the five works by S. J. Case, F. C. Conybeare, Maurice Goguel, R. T. France, and Morton Smith. Hoffmann omits from that list many historically significant refutations such as Albert Schweitzer's critique of the Christ Myth in the added chapters 22 & 23 of the second edition of the Quest (1913, translated in 2001), or Robert Van Voorst's work.", "Hoffmann has systematically used the New Oxonian for striking rhetorical blows at Drews's non-historical thesis. He does not hesitate to impute to Drews \"a kind of proto-Nazi paganism\".", "[M]yth-theorists have normally held that the gospel writers... wrote fraudulent or consciously deceptive tales... The elimination of James as a \"prop\" for the historical Jesus has been a priority of the myth theorizers...[an] insupportable contention...[Drews is] [f]amous for his academic inexactness and sensationalism...with the glaring mistake...Despite the energy of the myth school...It remains a quaint, curious, interesting but finally unimpressive assessment of the evidence..", "...It remains a quaint, curious, interesting but finally unimpressive assessment of the evidence... an agenda-driven \"waste of time\"... a quicksand of denial and half-cooked conspiracy theories that take skepticism and suspicion to a new low. Like all failed hypotheses, it arrives at its premise by intuition, cherry picks its evidence... defends its \"conclusions\" by force majeure... a dogma in search of footnotes... its most ardent supporters... have been amateurs or dabblers in New Testament studies..", "... its most ardent supporters... have been amateurs or dabblers in New Testament studies... least equipped by training or inclination ...[The Christ Myth is] manically disorientated, [arguing] a kind of proto-Nazi paganism... Drews is significant largely because he created the flashpoints to which many mythicists return again and again...[Emphasis added]", "Hoffmann has declared that the non-historicity thesis should no longer be ignored, but must be confronted head-on: \"I have often made the claim that it has been largely theological interests since Strauss’s time that ruled the historicity question out of court.\" [Emphasis added.].", "Hoffmann has mentioned that Bart D. Ehrman's book, Did Jesus Exist?, is \"exceptionally disappointing and not an adequate rejoinder to the routinely absurd ideas of the Jesus-deniers. For that reason... I have had to abandon my indifference and get back into the fight—on the side of the son of man.\"", ".. I have had to abandon my indifference and get back into the fight—on the side of the son of man.\". Hoffmann has announced a major book, intended to become the master refutation of the Christ Myth thesis, in order to block the increase of its popularity, and to safeguard the integrity of New Testament studies (New Oxonian'', May 22, 2012)", "This essay is in part an attempt to clarify procedural issues relevant to what is sometimes called the \"Christ-myth\" or \"Non-historicity\" thesis—an argumentative approach to the New Testament based on the theory that the historical Jesus of Nazareth did not exist..", "...The failure of scholars to take the \"question of Jesus\" seriously has resulted in a slight increase in the popularity of the non-historicity thesis, a popularity that—in my view—now threatens to distract biblical studies from the serious business of illuminating the causes, context and development of early Christianity...It is a preface of sorts to a more ambitious project on the myth theory itself and what we can reliably know–if anything—about the historical Jesus. [Emphasis added]", "References\n\nExternal links \n\n \n\n1909 non-fiction books\nWorks about the Christ myth theory\nBooks about Jesus\nPhoenician mythology\nAncient Near East" ]

[ "Biomimetics or biomimicry is the emulation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems. The terms \"biomimetics\" and \"biomimicry\" are derived from (bios), life, and μίμησις (mīmēsis), imitation, from μιμεῖσθαι (mīmeisthai), to imitate, from μῖμος (mimos), actor. A closely related field is bionics.", "Nature has gone through evolution over the 3.8 billion years since life is estimated to have appeared on the Earth. It has evolved species with high performance using commonly found materials. Surfaces of solids interact with other surfaces and the environment and derive the properties of materials", ". Biological materials are highly organized from the molecular to the nano-, micro-, and macroscales, often in a hierarchical manner with intricate nanoarchitecture that ultimately makes up a myriad of different functional elements. Properties of materials and surfaces result from a complex interplay between surface structure and morphology and physical and chemical properties. Many materials, surfaces, and objects in general provide multifunctionality.", "Various materials, structures, and devices have been fabricated for commercial interest by engineers, material scientists, chemists, and biologists, and for beauty, structure, and design by artists and architects. Nature has solved engineering problems such as self-healing abilities, environmental exposure tolerance and resistance, hydrophobicity, self-assembly, and harnessing solar energy", ". Economic impact of bioinspired materials and surfaces is significant, on the order of several hundred billion dollars per year worldwide.", "History \nOne of the early examples of biomimicry was the study of birds to enable human flight. Although never successful in creating a \"flying machine\", Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was a keen observer of the anatomy and flight of birds, and made numerous notes and sketches on his observations as well as sketches of \"flying machines\". The Wright Brothers, who succeeded in flying the first heavier-than-air aircraft in 1903, allegedly derived inspiration from observations of pigeons in flight.", "During the 1950s the American biophysicist and polymath Otto Schmitt developed the concept of \"biomimetics\". During his doctoral research he developed the Schmitt trigger by studying the nerves in squid, attempting to engineer a device that replicated the biological system of nerve propagation. He continued to focus on devices that mimic natural systems and by 1957 he had perceived a converse to the standard view of biophysics at that time, a view he would come to call biomimetics.", "In 1960 Jack E. Steele coined a similar term, bionics, at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, where Otto Schmitt also worked. Steele defined bionics as \"the science of systems which have some function copied from nature, or which represent characteristics of natural systems or their analogues\". During a later meeting in 1963 Schmitt stated,", "In 1969, Schmitt used the term \"biomimetic\" in the title one of his papers, and by 1974 it had found its way into Webster's Dictionary. Bionics entered the same dictionary earlier in 1960 as \"a science concerned with the application of data about the functioning of biological systems to the solution of engineering problems\"", ". Bionic took on a different connotation when Martin Caidin referenced Jack Steele and his work in the novel Cyborg which later resulted in the 1974 television series The Six Million Dollar Man and its spin-offs. The term bionic then became associated with \"the use of electronically operated artificial body parts\" and \"having ordinary human powers increased by or as if by the aid of such devices\"", ". Because the term bionic took on the implication of supernatural strength, the scientific community in English speaking countries largely abandoned it.", "The term biomimicry appeared as early as 1982. Biomimicry was popularized by scientist and author Janine Benyus in her 1997 book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. Biomimicry is defined in the book as a \"new science that studies nature's models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs and processes to solve human problems\". Benyus suggests looking to Nature as a \"Model, Measure, and Mentor\" and emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry.", "One of the latest examples of biomimicry has been created by Johannes-Paul Fladerer and Ernst Kurzmann by the description of \"managemANT\". This term (a combination of the words \"management\" and \"ant\"), describes the usage of behavioural strategies of ants in economic and management strategies. The potential long-term impacts of biomimicry were quantified in a 2013 Fermanian Business & Economic Institute Report commissioned by the San Diego Zoo", ". The findings demonstrated the potential economic and environmental benefits of biomimicry, which can be further seen in Johannes-Paul Fladerer and Ernst Kurzmann's \"managemANT\" approach. This approach utilizes the behavioral strategies of ants in economic and management strategies.", "Bio-inspired technologies", "Biomimetics could in principle be applied in many fields. Because of the diversity and complexity of biological systems, the number of features that might be imitated is large. Biomimetic applications are at various stages of development from technologies that might become commercially usable to prototypes", ". Murray's law, which in conventional form determined the optimum diameter of blood vessels, has been re-derived to provide simple equations for the pipe or tube diameter which gives a minimum mass engineering system.", "Locomotion \n\nAircraft wing design and flight techniques are being inspired by birds and bats. The aerodynamics of streamlined design of improved Japanese high speed train Shinkansen 500 Series were modelled after the beak of Kingfisher bird.", "Biorobots based on the physiology and methods of locomotion of animals include BionicKangaroo which moves like a kangaroo, saving energy from one jump and transferring it to its next jump; Kamigami Robots, a children's toy, mimic cockroach locomotion to run quickly and efficiently over indoor and outdoor surfaces, and Pleobot, a shrimp-inspired robot to study metachronal swimming and the ecological impacts of this propulsive gait on the environment.\n\nBiomimetic flying robots (BFRs)", "BFRs take inspiration from flying mammals, birds, or insects. BFRs can have flapping wings, which generate the lift and thrust, or they can be propeller actuated. BFRs with flapping wings have increased stroke efficiencies, increased maneuverability, and reduced energy consumption in comparison to propeller actuated BFRs. Mammal and bird inspired BFRs share similar flight characteristics and design considerations", ". Mammal and bird inspired BFRs share similar flight characteristics and design considerations. For instance, both mammal and bird inspired BFRs minimize edge fluttering and pressure-induced wingtip curl by increasing the rigidity of the wing edge and wingtips. Mammal and insect inspired BFRs can be impact resistant, making them useful in cluttered environments.", "Mammal inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from bats, but the flying squirrel has also inspired a prototype. Examples of bat inspired BFRs include Bat Bot and the DALER. Mammal inspired BFRs can be designed to be multi-modal; therefore, they're capable of both flight and terrestrial movement. To reduce the impact of landing, shock absorbers can be implemented along the wings. Alternatively, the BFR can pitch up and increase the amount of drag it experiences", ". Alternatively, the BFR can pitch up and increase the amount of drag it experiences. By increasing the drag force, the BFR will decelerate and minimize the impact upon grounding. Different land gait patterns can also be implemented.", "Bird inspired BFRs can take inspiration from raptors, gulls, and everything in-between. Bird inspired BFRs can be feathered to increase the angle of attack range over which the prototype can operate before stalling. The wings of bird inspired BFRs allow for in-plane deformation, and the in-plane wing deformation can be adjusted to maximize flight efficiency depending on the flight gait. An example of a raptor inspired BFR is the prototype by Savastano et al", ". An example of a raptor inspired BFR is the prototype by Savastano et al. The prototype has fully deformable flapping wings and is capable of carrying a payload of up to 0.8 kg while performing a parabolic climb, steep descent, and rapid recovery. The gull inspired prototype by Grant et al. accurately mimics the elbow and wrist rotation of gulls, and they find that lift generation is maximized when the elbow and wrist deformations are opposite but equal.", "Insect inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from beetles or dragonflies. An example of a beetle inspired BFR is the prototype by Phan and Park, and a dragonfly inspired BFR is the prototype by Hu et al. The flapping frequency of insect inspired BFRs are much higher than those of other BFRs; this is because of the aerodynamics of insect flight. Insect inspired BFRs are much smaller than those inspired by mammals or birds, so they are more suitable for dense environments", ". The prototype by Phan and Park took inspiration from the rhinoceros beetle, so it can successfully continue flight even after a collision by deforming its hindwings.", "Biomimetic architecture \nLiving beings have adapted to a constantly changing environment during evolution through mutation, recombination, and selection. The core idea of the biomimetic philosophy is that nature's inhabitants including animals, plants, and microbes have the most experience in solving problems and have already found the most appropriate ways to last on planet Earth. Similarly, biomimetic architecture seeks solutions for building sustainability present in nature.", "The 21st century has seen a ubiquitous waste of energy due to inefficient building designs, in addition to the over-utilization of energy during the operational phase of its life cycle. In parallel, recent advancements in fabrication techniques, computational imaging, and simulation tools have opened up new possibilities to mimic nature across different architectural scales. As a result, there has been a rapid growth in devising innovative design approaches and solutions to counter energy problems", ". Biomimetic architecture is one of these multi-disciplinary approaches to sustainable design that follows a set of principles rather than stylistic codes, going beyond using nature as inspiration for the aesthetic components of built form but instead seeking to use nature to solve problems of the building's functioning and saving energy.", "Characteristics", "The term biomimetic architecture refers to the study and application of construction principles which are found in natural environments and species, and are translated into the design of sustainable solutions for architecture. Biomimetic architecture uses nature as a model, measure and mentor for providing architectural solutions across scales, which are inspired by natural organisms that have solved similar problems in nature", ". Using nature as a measure refers to using an ecological standard of measuring sustainability, and efficiency of man-made innovations, while the term mentor refers to learning from natural principles and using biology as an inspirational source.", "Biomorphic architecture, also referred to as bio-decoration, on the other hand, refers to the use of formal and geometric elements found in nature, as a source of inspiration for aesthetic properties in designed architecture, and may not necessarily have non-physical, or economic functions. A historic example of biomorphic architecture dates back to Egyptian, Greek and Roman cultures, using tree and plant forms in the ornamentation of structural columns.", "Procedures", "Within biomimetic architecture, two basic procedures can be identified, namely, the bottom-up approach (biology push) and top-down approach (technology pull). The boundary between the two approaches is blurry with the possibility of transition between the two, depending on each individual case", ". Biomimetic architecture is typically carried out in interdisciplinary teams in which biologists and other natural scientists work in collaboration with engineers, material scientists, architects, designers, mathematicians and computer scientists.", "In the bottom-up approach, the starting point is a new result from basic biological research promising for biomimetic implementation. For example, developing a biomimetic material system after the quantitative analysis of the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of a biological system.", "In the top-down approach, biomimetic innovations are sought for already existing developments that have been successfully established on the market. The cooperation focuses on the improvement or further development of an existing product.", "Examples", "Researchers studied the termite's ability to maintain virtually constant temperature and humidity in their termite mounds in Africa despite outside temperatures that vary from 1.5 °C to 40 °C (35 °F to 104 °F). Researchers initially scanned a termite mound and created 3-D images of the mound structure, which revealed construction that could influence human building design", ". The Eastgate Centre, a mid-rise office complex in Harare, Zimbabwe, stays cool via a passive cooling architecture that uses only 10% of the energy of a conventional building of the same size.", "Researchers in the Sapienza University of Rome were inspired by the natural ventilation in termite mounds and designed a double façade that significantly cuts down over lit areas in a building. Scientists have imitated the porous nature of mound walls by designing a facade with double panels that was able to reduce heat gained by radiation and increase heat loss by convection in cavity between the two panels. The overall cooling load on the building's energy consumption was reduced by 15%.", "A similar inspiration was drawn from the porous walls of termite mounds to design a naturally ventilated façade with a small ventilation gap. This design of façade is able to induce air flow due to the Venturi effect and continuously circulates rising air in the ventilation slot. Significant transfer of heat between the building's external wall surface and the air flowing over it was observed. The design is coupled with greening of the façade", ". The design is coupled with greening of the façade. Green wall facilitates additional natural cooling via evaporation, respiration and transpiration in plants. The damp plant substrate further support the cooling effect.", "Scientists in Shanghai University were able to replicate the complex microstructure of clay-made conduit network in the mound to mimic the excellent humidity control in mounds. They proposed a porous humidity control material (HCM) using sepiolite and calcium chloride with water vapor adsorption-desorption content at 550 grams per meter squared. Calcium chloride is a desiccant and improves the water vapor adsorption-desorption property of the Bio-HCM", ". The proposed bio-HCM has a regime of interfiber mesopores which acts as a mini reservoir. The flexural strength of the proposed material was estimated to be 10.3 MPa using computational simulations.", "In structural engineering, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL) has incorporated biomimetic characteristics in an adaptive deployable \"tensegrity\" bridge. The bridge can carry out self-diagnosis and self-repair. The arrangement of leaves on a plant has been adapted for better solar power collection.", "Analysis of the elastic deformation happening when a pollinator lands on the sheath-like perch part of the flower Strelitzia reginae (known as bird-of-paradise flower) has inspired architects and scientists from the University of Freiburg and University of Stuttgart to create hingeless shading systems that can react to their environment. These bio-inspired products are sold under the name Flectofin.", "Other hingeless bioinspired systems include Flectofold. Flectofold has been inspired from the trapping system developed by the carnivorous plant Aldrovanda vesiculosa.\n\nStructural materials \nThere is a great need for new structural materials that are light weight but offer exceptional combinations of stiffness, strength, and toughness.", "Such materials would need to be manufactured into bulk materials with complex shapes at high volume and low cost and would serve a variety of fields such as construction, transportation, energy storage and conversion. In a classic design problem, strength and toughness are more likely to be mutually exclusive i.e., strong materials are brittle and tough materials are weak", ".e., strong materials are brittle and tough materials are weak. However, natural materials with complex and hierarchical material gradients that span from nano- to macro-scales are both strong and tough. Generally, most natural materials utilize limited chemical components but complex material architectures that give rise to exceptional mechanical properties", ". Understanding the highly diverse and multi functional biological materials and discovering approaches to replicate such structures will lead to advanced and more efficient technologies. Bone, nacre (abalone shell), teeth, the dactyl clubs of stomatopod shrimps and bamboo are great examples of damage tolerant materials", ". The exceptional resistance to fracture of bone is due to complex deformation and toughening mechanisms that operate at spanning different size scales - nanoscale structure of protein molecules to macroscopic physiological scale. Nacre exhibits similar mechanical properties however with rather simpler structure. Nacre shows a brick and mortar like structure with thick mineral layer (0.2–0.9 μm) of closely packed aragonite structures and thin organic matrix (~20 nm)", ".2–0.9 μm) of closely packed aragonite structures and thin organic matrix (~20 nm). While thin films and micrometer sized samples that mimic these structures are already produced, successful production of bulk biomimetic structural materials is yet to be realized. However, numerous processing techniques have been proposed for producing nacre like materials.", "Biomorphic mineralization is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and structures resembling those of natural living organisms by using bio-structures as templates for mineralization. Compared to other methods of material production, biomorphic mineralization is facile, environmentally benign and economic.", "Freeze casting (Ice templating), an inexpensive method to mimic natural layered structures was employed by researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory to create alumina-Al-Si and IT HAP-epoxy layered composites that match the mechanical properties of bone with an equivalent mineral/ organic content. Various further studies also employed similar methods to produce high strength and high toughness composites involving a variety of constituent phases.", "Recent studies demonstrated production of cohesive and self supporting macroscopic tissue constructs that mimic living tissues by printing tens of thousands of heterologous picoliter droplets in software-defined, 3D millimeter-scale geometries. Efforts are also taken up to mimic the design of nacre in artificial composite materials using fused deposition modelling and the helicoidal structures of stomatopod clubs in the fabrication of high performance carbon fiber-epoxy composites.", "Various established and novel additive manufacturing technologies like PolyJet printing, direct ink writing, 3D magnetic printing, multi-material magnetically assisted 3D printing and magnetically-assisted slip casting have also been utilized to mimic the complex micro-scale architectures of natural materials and provide huge scope for future research.", "Spider silk is tougher than Kevlar used in bulletproof vests. Engineers could in principle use such a material, if it could be reengineered to have a long enough life, for parachute lines, suspension bridge cables, artificial ligaments for medicine, and other purposes. The self-sharpening teeth of many animals have been copied to make better cutting tools.\n\nNew ceramics that exhibit giant electret hysteresis have also been realized.", "New ceramics that exhibit giant electret hysteresis have also been realized.\n\nNeuronal computers \nNeuromorphic computers and sensors are electrical devices that copy the structure and function of biological neurons in order to compute. One example of this is the event camera in which only the\npixels that receive a new signal update to a new state. All other pixels do not update until a signal is received.", "Self healing-materials", "In some biological systems, self-healing occurs via chemical releases at the site of fracture, which initiate a systemic response to transport repairing agents to the fracture site. This promotes autonomic healing. To demonstrate the use of micro-vascular networks for autonomic healing, researchers developed a microvascular coating–substrate architecture that mimics human skin", ". Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogels that maintain the stability of an inverse opal structure and its resultant structural colors were developed. A self-repairing membrane inspired by rapid self-sealing processes in plants was developed for inflatable lightweight structures such as rubber boats or Tensairity constructions", ". The researchers applied a thin soft cellular polyurethane foam coating on the inside of a fabric substrate, which closes the crack if the membrane is punctured with a spike. Self-healing materials, polymers and composite materials capable of mending cracks have been produced based on biological materials.", "The self-healing properties may also be achieved by the breaking and reforming of hydrogen bonds upon cyclical stress of the material.\n\nSurfaces \nSurfaces that recreate properties of shark skin are intended to enable more efficient movement through water. Efforts have been made to produce fabric that emulates shark skin.\n\nSurface tension biomimetics are being researched for technologies such as hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings and microactuators.\n\nAdhesion", "Wet adhesion", "Some amphibians, such as tree and torrent frogs and arboreal salamanders, are able to attach to and move over wet or even flooded environments without falling. This kind of organisms have toe pads which are permanently wetted by mucus secreted from glands that open into the channels between epidermal cells. They attach to mating surfaces by wet adhesion and they are capable of climbing on wet rocks even when water is flowing over the surface", ". Tire treads have also been inspired by the toe pads of tree frogs. 3D printed hierarchical surface models, inspired from tree and torrent frogs toe pad design, have been observed to produce better wet traction than conventional tire design.", "Marine mussels can stick easily and efficiently to surfaces underwater under the harsh conditions of the ocean. Mussels use strong filaments to adhere to rocks in the inter-tidal zones of wave-swept beaches, preventing them from being swept away in strong sea currents. Mussel foot proteins attach the filaments to rocks, boats and practically any surface in nature including other mussels. These proteins contain a mix of amino acid residues which has been adapted specifically for adhesive purposes", ". Researchers from the University of California Santa Barbara borrowed and simplified chemistries that the mussel foot uses to overcome this engineering challenge of wet adhesion to create copolyampholytes, and one-component adhesive systems with potential for employment in nanofabrication protocols. Other research has proposed adhesive glue from mussels.", "Dry adhesion", "Leg attachment pads of several animals, including many insects (e.g. beetles and flies), spiders and lizards (e.g. geckos), are capable of attaching to a variety of surfaces and are used for locomotion, even on vertical walls or across ceilings. Attachment systems in these organisms have similar structures at their terminal elements of contact, known as setae. Such biological examples have offered inspiration in order to produce climbing robots, boots and tape", ". Synthetic setae have also been developed for the production of dry adhesives.", "Liquid repellency", "Superliquiphobicity refers to a remarkable surface property where a solid surface exhibits an extreme aversion to liquids, causing droplets to bead up and roll off almost instantaneously upon contact. This behavior arises from intricate surface textures and interactions at the nanoscale, effectively preventing liquids from wetting or adhering to the surface. The term \"superliquiphobic\" is derived from \"superhydrophobic,\" which describes surfaces highly resistant to water", ". Superliquiphobic surfaces go beyond water repellency and display repellent characteristics towards a wide range of liquids, including those with very low surface tension or containing surfactants.", "Superliquiphobicity, a remarkable phenomenon, emerges when a solid surface possesses minute roughness, forming interfaces with droplets through wetting while altering contact angles. This behavior hinges on the roughness factor (Rf), defining the ratio of solid-liquid area to its projection, influencing contact angles. On rough surfaces, non-wetting liquids give rise to composite solid-liquid-air interfaces, their contact angles determined by the distribution of wet and air-pocket areas", ". The achievement of superliquiphobicity involves increasing the fractional flat geometrical area (fLA) and Rf, leading to surfaces that actively repel liquids.", "The inspiration for crafting such surfaces draws from nature's ingenuity, prominently illustrated by the renowned \"lotus effect.\" Leaves of water-repellent plants, like the lotus, exhibit inherent hierarchical structures featuring nanoscale wax-coated formations. These structures lead to superhydrophobicity, where water droplets perch on trapped air bubbles, resulting in high contact angles and minimal contact angle hysteresis", ". This natural example guides the development of superliquiphobic surfaces, capitalizing on re-entrant geometries that can repel low surface tension liquids and achieve near-zero contact angles.", "Creating superliquiphobic surfaces involves pairing re-entrant geometries with low surface energy materials, such as fluorinated substances . These geometries include overhangs that widen beneath the surface, enabling repellency even for minimal contact angles. Researchers have successfully fabricated various re-entrant geometries, offering a pathway for practical applications in diverse fields", ". These surfaces find utility in self-cleaning, anti-icing, anti-fogging, antifouling, and more, presenting innovative solutions to challenges in biomedicine, desalination, and energy conversion.", "In essence, superliquiphobicity, inspired by natural models like the lotus leaf, capitalizes on re-entrant geometries and surface properties to create interfaces that actively repel liquids. These surfaces hold immense promise across a range of applications, promising enhanced functionality and performance in various technological and industrial contexts.\n\nOptics", "Optics \n\nBiomimetic materials are gaining increasing attention in the field of optics and photonics. There are still little known bioinspired or biomimetic products involving the photonic properties of plants or animals. However, understanding how nature designed such optical materials from biological resources is a current field of research.", "Inspiration from fruits and plants \nOne source of Biomimetic inspiration is from plants. Plants have proven to be concept generations for the following functions; re(action)-coupling, self (adaptability), self-repair, and energy-autonomy. As plants do not have a centralized decision making unit (i.e. a brain), most plants have a decentralized autonomous system in various organs and tissues of the plant. Therefore, they react to multiple stimulus such as light, heat, and humidity.", "One example, is the carnivores planet species the Dionaea Muscipula, Venus flytrap. For the last 25 years, there has been research focus on the motion principles of the plant to develop AVFT (artificial Venus flytrap robots). Through the movement during prey capture, the plant inspired soft robotic motion systems. The fast snap buckling (within 100-300 ms) of the trap closure movement is initiated when prey triggers the hairs of the plant within a certain time (twice within 20 s)", ". AVFT systems exist, in which the trap closure movements are actuated via magnetism, electricity, pressurized air, and temperature changes.", "Another example of mimicking plants, is the Pollia condensata, also known as the marble berry. The chiral self-assembly of cellulose inspired by the Pollia condensata berry has been exploited to make optically active films. Such films are made from cellulose which is a biodegradable and biobased resource obtained from wood or cotton. The structural colours can potentially be everlasting and have more vibrant colour than the ones obtained from chemical absorption of light", ". Pollia condensata is not the only fruit showing a structural coloured skin; iridescence is also found in berries of other species such as Margaritaria nobilis. These fruits show iridescent colors in the blue-green region of the visible spectrum which gives the fruit a strong metallic and shiny visual appearance. The structural colours come from the organisation of cellulose chains in the fruit's epicarp, a part of the fruit skin", ". Each cell of the epicarp is made of a multilayered envelope that behaves like a Bragg reflector. However, the light which is reflected from the skin of these fruits is not polarised unlike the one arising from man-made replicates obtained from the self-assembly of cellulose nanocrystals into helicoids, which only reflect left-handed circularly polarised light.", "The fruit of Elaeocarpus angustifolius also show structural colour that come arises from the presence of specialised cells called iridosomes which have layered structures. Similar iridosomes have also been found in Delarbrea michieana fruits.", "In plants, multi layer structures can be found either at the surface of the leaves (on top of the epidermis), such as in Selaginella willdenowii or within specialized intra-cellular organelles, the so-called iridoplasts, which are located inside the cells of the upper epidermis. For instance, the rain forest plants Begonia pavonina have iridoplasts located inside the epidermal cells.\n\nStructural colours have also been found in several algae, such as in the red alga Chondrus crispus (Irish Moss).", "Inspiration from animals \n\nStructural coloration produces the rainbow colours of soap bubbles, butterfly wings and many beetle scales. Phase-separation has been used to fabricate ultra-white scattering membranes from polymethylmethacrylate, mimicking the beetle Cyphochilus. LED lights can be designed to mimic the patterns of scales on fireflies' abdomens, improving their efficiency.", "Morpho butterfly wings are structurally coloured to produce a vibrant blue that does not vary with angle. This effect can be mimicked by a variety of technologies. Lotus Cars claim to have developed a paint that mimics the Morpho butterfly's structural blue colour. In 2007, Qualcomm commercialised an interferometric modulator display technology, \"Mirasol\", using Morpho-like optical interference", ". In 2010, the dressmaker Donna Sgro made a dress from Teijin Fibers' Morphotex, an undyed fabric woven from structurally coloured fibres, mimicking the microstructure of Morpho butterfly wing scales.", "Canon Inc.'s SubWavelength structure Coating uses wedge-shaped structures the size of the wavelength of visible light. The wedge-shaped structures cause a continuously changing refractive index as light travels through the coating, significantly reducing lens flare. This imitates the structure of a moth's eye. Notable figures such as the Wright Brothers and Leonardo da Vinci attempted to replicate the flight observed in birds", ". In an effort to reduce aircraft noise researchers have looked to the leading edge of owl feathers, which have an array of small finlets or rachis adapted to disperse aerodynamic pressure and provide nearly silent flight to the bird.", "Agricultural systems", "Holistic planned grazing, using fencing and/or herders, seeks to restore grasslands by carefully planning movements of large herds of livestock to mimic the vast herds found in nature. The natural system being mimicked and used as a template is grazing animals concentrated by pack predators that must move on after eating, trampling, and manuring an area, and returning only after it has fully recovered", ". Developed by Allan Savory, who in turn was inspired by the work of André Voisin, this method of grazing holds tremendous potential in building soil, increasing biodiversity, reversing desertification, and mitigating global warming, similar to what occurred during the past 40 million years as the expansion of grass-grazer ecosystems built deep grassland soils, sequestering carbon and cooling the planet.", "Permaculture is a set of design principles centered around whole systems thinking, simulating or directly utilizing the patterns and resilient features observed in natural ecosystems. It uses these principles in a growing number of fields from regenerative agriculture, rewilding, community, and organizational design and development.\n\nOther uses\n\nSome air conditioning systems use biomimicry in their fans to increase airflow while reducing power consumption.", "Technologists like Jas Johl have speculated that the functionality of vacuole cells could be used to design highly adaptable security systems. \"The functionality of a vacuole, a biological structure that guards and promotes growth, illuminates the value of adaptability as a guiding principle for security.\" The functions and significance of vacuoles are fractal in nature, the organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the requirements of the cell", ". Vacuoles not only isolate threats, contain what's necessary, export waste, maintain pressure—they also help the cell scale and grow. Johl argues these functions are necessary for any security system design. The 500 Series Shinkansen used biomimicry to reduce energy consumption and noise levels while increasing passenger comfort", ". With reference to space travel, NASA and other firms have sought to develop swarm-type space drones inspired by bee behavioural patterns, and oxtapod terrestrial drones designed with reference to desert spiders.", "Other technologies\n\nProtein folding has been used to control material formation for self-assembled functional nanostructures. Polar bear fur has inspired the design of thermal collectors and clothing. The light refractive properties of the moth's eye has been studied to reduce the reflectivity of solar panels.", "The Bombardier beetle's powerful repellent spray inspired a Swedish company to develop a \"micro mist\" spray technology, which is claimed to have a low carbon impact (compared to aerosol sprays). The beetle mixes chemicals and releases its spray via a steerable nozzle at the end of its abdomen, stinging and confusing the victim.", "Most viruses have an outer capsule 20 to 300 nm in diameter. Virus capsules are remarkably robust and capable of withstanding temperatures as high as 60 °C; they are stable across the pH range 2–10. Viral capsules can be used to create nano device components such as nanowires, nanotubes, and quantum dots", ". Tubular virus particles such as the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) can be used as templates to create nanofibers and nanotubes, since both the inner and outer layers of the virus are charged surfaces which can induce nucleation of crystal growth. This was demonstrated through the production of platinum and gold nanotubes using TMV as a template", ". Mineralized virus particles have been shown to withstand various pH values by mineralizing the viruses with different materials such as silicon, PbS, and CdS and could therefore serve as a useful carriers of material. A spherical plant virus called cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) has interesting expanding properties when exposed to environments of pH higher than 6.5. Above this pH, 60 independent pores with diameters about 2 nm begin to exchange substance with the environment", ". The structural transition of the viral capsid can be utilized in Biomorphic mineralization for selective uptake and deposition of minerals by controlling the solution pH. Possible applications include using the viral cage to produce uniformly shaped and sized quantum dot semiconductor nanoparticles through a series of pH washes. This is an alternative to the apoferritin cage technique currently used to synthesize uniform CdSe nanoparticles", ". Such materials could also be used for targeted drug delivery since particles release contents upon exposure to specific pH levels.", "See also \n\n Artificial photosynthesis\n Artificial enzyme\n \n Bio-inspired computing \n Bioinspiration & Biomimetics\n Biomimetic synthesis\n Carbon sequestration\n Reverse engineering\n Synthetic biology\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "Benyus, J. M. (2001). Along Came a Spider. Sierra, 86(4), 46-47.\n Hargroves, K. D. & Smith, M. H. (2006). Innovation inspired by nature Biomimicry. Ecos, (129), 27-28.\n Marshall, A. (2009). Wild Design: The Ecomimicry Project, North Atlantic Books: Berkeley.\n Passino, Kevin M. (2004). Biomimicry for Optimization, Control, and Automation. Springer.\n Pyper, W. (2006). Emulating nature: The rise of industrial ecology. Ecos, (129), 22-26.\n Smith, J. (2007). It's only natural. The Ecologist, 37(8), 52-55.", "Smith, J. (2007). It's only natural. The Ecologist, 37(8), 52-55.\n Thompson, D'Arcy W., On Growth and Form. Dover 1992 reprint of 1942 2nd ed. (1st ed., 1917).\n Vogel, S. (2000). Cats' Paws and Catapults: Mechanical Worlds of Nature and People. Norton.", "External links \n\n Biomimetics MIT\n Sex, Velcro and Biomimicry with Janine Benyus\n Janine Benyus: Biomimicry in Action from TED 2009\n Design by Nature - National Geographic\n Michael Pawlyn: Using nature's genius in architecture from TED 2010\n Robert Full shows how human engineers can learn from animals' tricks from TED 2002\n The Fast Draw: Biomimicry from CBS News", "Evolutionary biology\nBiotechnology\nBiomimetics\nBioinformatics\nBiological engineering\nBiophysics\nIndustrial ecology\nBionics\nWater conservation\nRenewable energy\nSustainable transport" ]

[ "The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place 4–7 June 1942, six months after the Empire of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The U.S. Navy under Admirals Chester W. Nimitz, Frank J. Fletcher, and Raymond A", ". The U.S. Navy under Admirals Chester W. Nimitz, Frank J. Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chūichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondō north of Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet", ". Military historian John Keegan called it \"the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare\", while naval historian Craig Symonds called it \"one of the most consequential naval engagements in world history, ranking alongside Salamis, Trafalgar, and Tsushima Strait, as both tactically decisive and strategically influential.\"", "In response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo, the Japanese leadership planned a \"barrier\" strategy to extend Japan's defensive perimeter. They hoped to lure the American aircraft carriers into a trap, clearing the seas for Japanese attacks on Midway, Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii. The plan was undermined by faulty Japanese anticipations of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Crucially, U.S", ". Crucially, U.S. cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned United States Navy to prepare its own ambush.", "Four Japanese and three American aircraft carriers participated in the battle. The Japanese fleet carriers—, , , and , part of the six-carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier—were sunk, as was the heavy cruiser . The United States lost the carrier and the destroyer , while the carriers and survived the battle fully intact.", "After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well-trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.", "Background\n\nAfter expanding the war in the Pacific to include western outposts, the Japanese Empire had attained its initial strategic goals quickly, taking British Hong Kong, the Philippines, British Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia). The Dutch East Indies, with its vital oil resources, was particularly important to Japan. Because of this, preliminary planning for the second phase of operations commenced as early as January 1942.", "Because of strategic disagreements between the Imperial Army (IJA) and Imperial Navy (IJN), and infighting between the Navy's Imperial General Headquarters and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's Combined Fleet, a follow-up strategy was not formed until April 1942. Yamamoto finally won the bureaucratic struggle with a thinly veiled threat to resign, after which his plan for the Central Pacific was adopted.", "Yamamoto's primary strategic goal was the elimination of America's carrier forces, which he regarded as the principal threat to the overall Pacific campaign. This concern was acutely heightened by the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942, in which 16 United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) B-25 Mitchell bombers launched from bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities", ". The raid, while militarily insignificant, was a shock to the Japanese and showed the existence of a gap in the defenses around the Japanese home islands as well as the vulnerability of Japanese territory to American bombers.", "This, and other successful hit-and-run raids by American carriers in the South Pacific, showed that they were still a threat, although seemingly reluctant to be drawn into an all-out battle. Yamamoto reasoned that another air attack on Naval Station Pearl Harbor would induce all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers", ". However, considering the increased strength of American land-based airpower on the Hawaiian Islands since the 7 December 1941 attack, he judged that it was too risky to attack Pearl Harbor directly.", "Instead, Yamamoto selected Midway, a tiny atoll at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, approximately from Oahu. This meant that Midway was outside the effective range of almost all the American aircraft stationed on the main Hawaiian Islands. Midway was not especially important in the larger scheme of Japan's intentions, but the Japanese felt the Americans would consider Midway a vital outpost of Pearl Harbor and would therefore be compelled to defend it vigorously. The U.S", ". The U.S. did consider Midway vital: after the battle, the establishment of a U.S. submarine base on Naval Air Facility Midway Island allowed submarines operating from Pearl Harbor to refuel and re-provision, extending their radius of operations by . In addition to serving as a seaplane base, Midway's airstrips also served as a forward staging point for bomber attacks on Wake Island.", "Yamamoto's plan", "Typical of Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto's battle plan for taking Midway (named Operation MI) was exceedingly complex. It required the careful and timely coordination of multiple battle groups over hundreds of miles of open sea. His design was also predicated on optimistic intelligence suggesting that and USS Hornet, forming Task Force 16, were the only carriers available to the Pacific Fleet", ". During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, had been sunk and suffered so much damage that the Japanese believed she too had been lost. However, following hasty repairs at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown sortied and ultimately played a critical role in the discovery and eventual destruction of the Japanese fleet carriers at Midway", ". Finally, much of Yamamoto's planning, coinciding with the general feeling among the Japanese leadership at the time, was based on a gross misjudgment of American morale which was believed to be debilitated from the string of Japanese victories in the preceding months.", "Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U.S. fleet into a fatally compromised situation. To this end, he dispersed his forces so that their full extent (particularly his battleships) would be concealed from the Americans prior to battle. Critically, Yamamoto's supporting battleships and cruisers trailed Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo's carrier force by several hundred miles. They were intended to come up and destroy whatever elements of the U.S", ". They were intended to come up and destroy whatever elements of the U.S. fleet might come to Midway's defense once Nagumo's carriers had weakened them sufficiently for a daylight gun battle. This tactic was doctrine in most major navies of the time.", "What Yamamoto did not know was that the U.S. had broken parts of the main Japanese naval code (dubbed JN-25 by the Americans), divulging many details of his plan to the enemy. His emphasis on dispersal also meant none of his formations was in a position to support the others", ". For instance, although Nagumo's carriers were expected to carry out strikes against Midway and bear the brunt of American counterattacks, the only warships in his fleet larger than the screening force of twelve destroyers were two Kongō-class fast battleships, two heavy cruisers, and one light cruiser. By contrast, Yamamoto and Kondo had between them two light carriers, five battleships, four heavy cruisers, and two light cruisers, none of which saw action at Midway.", "The light carriers of the trailing forces and Yamamoto's three battleships were unable to keep pace with the carriers of the Kidō Butai and so could not have sailed in company with them. The Kidō Butai would sail into range at best speed so as to increase the chance of surprise and would not have ships spread out across the ocean guiding the enemy toward it. If the other parts of the invasion force needed more defense, the Kidō Butai would make best speed to defend them", ". Hence the slower ships could not be with the Kidō Butai. The distance between Yamamoto and Kondo's forces and Nagumo's carriers had grave implications during the battle. The invaluable reconnaissance capability of the scout planes carried by the cruisers and carriers, as well as the additional anti-aircraft capability of the cruisers and the other two battleships of the Kongō-class in the trailing forces, were unavailable to Nagumo.", "Aleutian invasion", "In order to obtain support from the IJA for the Midway operation, the IJN agreed to support their invasion of the United States through the Aleutian Islands of Attu and Kiska, part of the organized incorporated Alaska Territory. The IJA occupied these islands to place the Japanese home islands out of range of U.S. land-based bombers in Alaska", ".S. land-based bombers in Alaska. Similarly, most Americans feared that the occupied islands would be used as bases for Japanese bombers to attack strategic targets and population centers along the West Coast of the United States.", "The Japanese operations in the Aleutians (Operation AL) removed yet more ships that could otherwise have augmented the force striking Midway. Whereas many earlier historical accounts considered the Aleutians operation as a feint to draw American forces away, according to the original Japanese battle plan, AL was intended to be launched simultaneously with the attack on Midway. A one-day delay in the sailing of Nagumo's task force resulted in Operation AL beginning a day before the Midway attack.\n\nPrelude", "Prelude\n\nAmerican reinforcements", "To do battle with an enemy expected to muster four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every available flight deck. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey's two-carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) task force at hand, though Halsey was stricken with shingles and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, Halsey's escort commander", ". Spruance, Halsey's escort commander. Nimitz also hurriedly recalled Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's task force, including the carrier Yorktown, from the South West Pacific Area.", "Despite estimates that Yorktown, damaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea, would require several months of repairs at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, her elevators were intact and her flight deck largely so. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked around the clock, and in 72 hours she was restored to a battle-ready state, judged good enough for two or three weeks of operations, as Nimitz required. Her flight deck was patched, and whole sections of internal frames were cut out and replaced", ". Her flight deck was patched, and whole sections of internal frames were cut out and replaced. Repairs continued even as she sortied, with work crews from the repair ship , herself damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier, still aboard.", "Yorktowns partially depleted air group was rebuilt using whatever planes and pilots could be found. Scouting Five (VS-5) was replaced with Bombing Three (VB-3) from . Torpedo Five (VT-5) was also replaced by Torpedo Three (VT-3). Fighting Three (VF-3) was reconstituted to replace VF-42 with sixteen pilots from VF-42 and eleven pilots from VF-3, with Lieutenant Commander John S. \"Jimmy\" Thach in command", ". \"Jimmy\" Thach in command. Some of the aircrew were inexperienced, which may have contributed to an accident in which Thach's executive officer Lieutenant Commander Donald Lovelace was killed. Despite efforts to get Saratoga (which had been undergoing repairs on the American West Coast) ready, the need to resupply and assemble sufficient escorts meant she was unable to reach Midway until after the battle.", "On Midway, by 4 June the U.S. Navy had stationed four squadrons of PBYs—31 aircraft in total—for long-range reconnaissance duties, and six brand-new Grumman TBF Avengers from Hornets VT-8. The Marine Corps stationed 19 Douglas SBD Dauntless, seven F4F-3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A Buffalos. The USAAF contributed a squadron of 17 B-17 Flying Fortresses and four Martin B-26 Marauders equipped with torpedoes: in total 126 aircraft", ". Although the F2As and SB2Us were already obsolete, they were the only aircraft available to the Marine Corps at the time.", "Japanese shortcomings", "During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, the Japanese light carrier had been sunk, while the fleet carrier had been severely damaged by three bomb hits and was in drydock for months of repair. Although the fleet carrier escaped the battle undamaged, she had lost almost half her air group and was in port at the Kure Naval District, Hiroshima, awaiting replacement planes and pilots", ". That there were none immediately available is attributable to the failure of the IJN crew training program which already showed signs of being unable to replace losses. In desperation, instructors from the Yokosuka Air Corps were relieved of their duties to serve as pilots.", "Historians Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully believe that by combining the surviving aircraft and pilots from Shōkaku and Zuikaku, it is likely that Zuikaku could have been equipped with almost a full composite air group. They also note, however, that doing so would have violated Japanese carrier doctrine, which stressed that carriers and their air groups must train as a single unit. (In contrast, American air squadrons were considered interchangeable between carriers allowing for more flexibility", ".) In any case, the Japanese apparently made no serious attempt to get Zuikaku ready for the forthcoming battle.", "Thus, Carrier Division 5, consisting of the two most advanced aircraft carriers of the Kido Butai, was not available which meant that Vice-Admiral Nagumo had only two-thirds of the fleet carriers at his disposal: and forming Carrier Division 1 and and making up Carrier Division 2. This was partly due to fatigue; Japanese carriers had been constantly on operations since 7 December 1941 including raids on Darwin and Colombo", ". Nonetheless, the First Carrier Strike Force sailed with 248 available aircraft on the four carriers (60 on Akagi, 74 on Kaga (B5N2 squadron oversized), 57 on Hiryū and 57 on Sōryū).", "The main Japanese carrier-borne strike aircraft were the Aichi D3A1 \"Val\" dive bomber and the Nakajima B5N2 \"Kate\", which was used either as a torpedo bomber or as a level bomber. The main carrier fighter was the fast and highly maneuverable Mitsubishi A6M Zero. For a variety of reasons, production of the \"Val\" had been drastically reduced, while that of the \"Kate\" had been stopped completely and, as a consequence, there were none available to replace losses", ". In addition, many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operational since late November 1941 and, although they were well-maintained, many were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable. These factors meant all carriers of the Kidō Butai had fewer aircraft than their normal complement, with few spare aircraft or parts stored in the carriers' hangars.", "In addition, Nagumo's carrier force suffered from several defensive deficiencies which gave it, in Mark Peattie's words, a glass jaw': it could throw a punch but couldn't take one.\" Japanese carrier anti-aircraft guns and associated fire control systems had several design and configuration changes deficiencies which limited their effectiveness. The IJN's fleet combat air patrol (CAP) consisted of too few fighter aircraft and was hampered by an inadequate early warning system, including a lack of radar", ". Poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP. The carriers' escorting warships were deployed as visual scouts in a ring at long range, not as close anti-aircraft escorts, as they lacked training, doctrine, and sufficient anti-aircraft guns.", "Japanese strategic scouting arrangements prior to the battle were also in disarray. A picket line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position (partly because of Yamamoto's haste), which let the American carriers reach their assembly point northeast of Midway (known as \"Point Luck\") without being detected", ". A second attempt at reconnaissance, using four-engine H8K \"Emily\" flying boats to scout Pearl Harbor prior to the battle and detect whether the American carriers were present, part of Operation K, was thwarted when Japanese submarines assigned to refuel the search aircraft discovered that the intended refueling point—a hitherto deserted bay off French Frigate Shoals—was now occupied by American warships because the Japanese had carried out an identical mission in March", ". Thus, Japan was deprived of any knowledge concerning the movements of the American carriers immediately before the battle.", "Japanese radio intercepts did notice an increase in both American submarine activity and message traffic. This information was in Yamamoto's hands prior to the battle. Japanese plans were not changed; Yamamoto, at sea in , assumed Nagumo had received the same signal from Tokyo and did not communicate with him by radio, so as not to reveal his position. These messages were, contrary to earlier historical accounts, also received by Nagumo before the battle began", ". For reasons that remain unclear, Nagumo did not alter his plans or take additional precautions.", "U.S. code-breaking", "Nimitz had one critical advantage: U.S. cryptanalysts had partially broken the Japanese Navy's JN-25b code. Since early 1942, the U.S. had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective \"AF", ".S. had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective \"AF.\" It was initially not known where \"AF\" was, but Commander Joseph Rochefort and his team at Station HYPO were able to confirm that it was Midway: Captain Wilfred Holmes devised a ruse of telling the base at Midway (by secure undersea communications cable) to broadcast an uncoded radio message stating that Midway's water purification system had broken down", ". Within 24 hours, the code breakers picked up a Japanese message that \"AF was short on water.\" No Japanese radio operators who intercepted the message seemed concerned that the Americans were broadcasting uncoded that a major naval installation close to the Japanese was having a water shortage, which Japanese intelligence might have suspected as deception. HYPO was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to provide Nimitz with a complete IJN order of battle.", "Japan had a new codebook, but its introduction had been delayed, enabling HYPO to read messages for several crucial days; the new code, which took several days to be cracked, came into use on 24 May, but the important breaks had already been made. As a result, the Americans entered the battle with a good picture of where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would appear", ". Nimitz knew that the Japanese had negated their numerical advantage by dividing their ships into four separate task groups, so widely separated that they were essentially unable to support each other. This dispersal resulted in few fast ships being available to escort the Carrier Striking Force, thus reducing the number of anti-aircraft guns protecting the carriers. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, gave the U.S", ".S. rough parity with Yamamoto's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained largely unaware of their opponent's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began.", "Battle\n\nInitial air attacks\n\nAt about 09:00 on 3 June, Ensign Jack Reid, piloting a PBY from U.S. Navy patrol squadron VP-44, spotted the Japanese Occupation Force to the west-southwest of Midway. He mistakenly reported this group as the Main Force. Nine B-17s took off from Midway at 12:30 for the first air attack. Three hours later, they found Tanaka's transport group to the west.", "Harassed by heavy anti-aircraft fire, they dropped their bombs. Although their crews reported hitting four ships, none of the bombs actually hit anything and no significant damage was inflicted. Early the following morning, the Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru sustained the first hit when a torpedo from an attacking PBY struck her around 01:00. This was the only successful air-launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle.", "At 04:30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his initial attack on Midway, consisting of 36 D3As and 36 B5Ns, escorted by 36 Zero fighters. At the same time, he launched his seven search aircraft (2 B5Ns from Akagi and Kaga; 4 Aichi E13A \"Jakes\" from the heavy cruiser and Chikuma; and 1 short range Nakajima E8N \"Dave\" from the battleship Haruna; an eighth aircraft from launched 30 minutes late)", ". Japanese reconnaissance arrangements were flimsy, with too few aircraft to adequately cover the assigned search areas, laboring under poor weather conditions to the northeast and east of the task force. As Nagumo's bombers and fighters were taking off, 11 PBYs were leaving Midway to run their search patterns. At 05:34, a PBY reported sighting two Japanese carriers and another spotted the inbound airstrike 10 minutes later.", "Midway's radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles, and interceptors were scrambled. Unescorted bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carriers, their fighter escorts remaining behind to defend Midway. At 06:20, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway-based Marine fighters led by Major Floyd B. Parks, which included six F4F Wildcats and 20 F2As, intercepted the Japanese and suffered heavy losses, though they managed to destroy four B5Ns and one Zero", ". Within the first few minutes, two F4Fs and 13 F2As were destroyed, while most of the surviving U.S. planes were damaged, with only two remaining airworthy. American anti-aircraft fire was intense and accurate, destroying three Japanese aircraft and damaging many more.", "Of the 108 Japanese aircraft involved in this attack, 11 were destroyed (including three that ditched), 14 were heavily damaged, and 29 were damaged to some degree. The initial Japanese attack did not succeed in neutralizing Midway: American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force, and most of Midway's land-based defenses similarly remained intact", ". Japanese pilots reported to Nagumo that a second aerial attack on Midway's defenses would be necessary if troops were to go ashore by 7 June.", "Having taken off prior to the Japanese attack, American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier force. These included six Grumman Avengers, detached to Midway from Hornets VT-8 (Midway was the combat debut of both VT-8 and the Avenger); Marine Scout-Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB-241), consisting of 11 SB2U-3s and 16 SBDs, plus four USAAF B-26s of the 18th Reconnaissance and 69th Bomb Squadrons armed with torpedoes, and 15 B-17s of the 31st, 72nd, and 431st Bomb Squadrons", ". The Japanese repelled these attacks and the attacking force, losing only three Zero fighters while destroying five Avengers, two SB2Us, eight SBDs, and two B-26s. Among the dead was Major Lofton R. Henderson of VMSB-241, killed while leading his inexperienced SBD squadron into action. The main airfield at Guadalcanal was named after him in August 1942.", "One B-26, piloted by Lieutenant James Muri, after dropping his torpedo and searching for a safer escape route, flew directly down the length of Akagi while being fired upon by fighters and anti-aircraft fire, which had to hold their fire to avoid hitting their own flagship. As it flew down the length of the ship, the B-26 strafed Akagi, killing two men", ". As it flew down the length of the ship, the B-26 strafed Akagi, killing two men. Another B-26, piloted by Lieutenant Herbert Mayes, did not pull out of its run after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, and instead headed directly for Akagis bridge. Either attempting a suicide ramming or out of control, the plane narrowly missed the bridge and crashed into the sea", ". This experience may well have contributed to Nagumo's determination to launch another attack on Midway in direct violation of Yamamoto's order to keep the reserve strike force armed for anti-ship operations.", "While the air strikes from Midway were going on, the American submarine , commanded by Lieutenant Commander William Brockman, found herself near the Japanese fleet, attracting attention from the escorts. Around 08:20, she made an unsuccessful torpedo attack on a battleship and then had to dive to evade the escorts. At 09:10, she launched a torpedo at a cruiser and again had to dive to evade the escorts, with destroyer Arashi spending considerable time chasing Nautilus.\n\nNagumo's dilemma", "Nagumo's dilemma\n\nIn accordance with Yamamoto's orders for Operation MI, Nagumo had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These comprised two squadrons each of dive bombers and torpedo bombers. The dive bombers were as yet unarmed (this was doctrinal: dive bombers were to be armed on the flight deck). The torpedo bombers were armed with torpedoes should any American warships be located.", "At 07:15, Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with contact-fused general-purpose bombs for use against land targets. This was a result of the attacks from Midway, as well as the morning flight leader's recommendation of a second strike. Re-arming had been underway for about 30 minutes when, at 07:40, the delayed scout plane from Tone signaled that it had sighted a sizable American naval force to the east, but neglected to specify its composition", ". Later evidence suggests Nagumo did not receive the sighting report until 08:00.", "Nagumo quickly reversed his order to re-arm the bombers with general-purpose bombs and demanded that the scout plane ascertain the composition of the American force. Another 20–40 minutes elapsed before Tones scout finally radioed the presence of a single carrier in the American force. This was one of the carriers from Task Force 16. The other carrier was not sighted.", "Nagumo was now in a quandary. Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, leading Carrier Division 2 (Hiryū and Sōryū), recommended that Nagumo strike immediately with the forces at hand: 16 D3A1 dive bombers on Sōryū and 18 on Hiryū, and half the ready cover patrol aircraft. Nagumo's opportunity to hit the American ships was now limited by the imminent return of his Midway strike force. The returning strike force needed to land promptly or it would have to ditch into the sea", ". The returning strike force needed to land promptly or it would have to ditch into the sea. Because of the constant flight deck activity associated with combat air patrol operations during the preceding hour, the Japanese never had an opportunity to position (\"spot\") their reserve planes on the flight deck for launch.", "The few aircraft on the Japanese flight decks at the time of the attack were either defensive fighters or, in the case of Sōryū, fighters being spotted to augment the combat air patrol. Spotting his flight decks and launching aircraft would have required at least 30 minutes", ". Spotting his flight decks and launching aircraft would have required at least 30 minutes. Furthermore, by spotting and launching immediately, Nagumo would be committing some of his reserves to battle without proper anti-ship armament, and likely without fighter escort; indeed, he had just witnessed how easily the unescorted American bombers had been shot down.", "Japanese naval doctrine preferred the launching of fully constituted strikes rather than piecemeal attacks. Without confirmation of whether the American force included carriers (not received until 08:20), Nagumo's reaction was doctrinaire. In addition, the arrival of another land-based American air strike at 07:53 gave weight to the need to attack the island again", ". In the end, Nagumo decided to wait for his first strike force to land, and then launch the reserve, which would by then be properly armed with torpedoes.", "Had Nagumo instead launched the available aircraft around 07:45 and risked the ditching of Tomonaga's aircraft, they would have formed a powerful and well-balanced force with the potential to sink two American carriers. Furthermore, fueled and armed aircraft inside the ships presented a significant additional hazard in terms of damage to the carriers in an event of attack, and keeping them on the decks was much more dangerous than getting them airborne", ". Whatever the case, at that point there was no way to stop the American strike against him, since Fletcher's carriers had launched their planes beginning at 07:00 (with Enterprise and Hornet having completed launching by 07:55, but Yorktown not until 09:08), so the aircraft that would deliver the crushing blow were already on their way. Even if Nagumo had not strictly followed carrier doctrine, he could not have prevented the launch of the American attack.", "Attacks on the Japanese fleet\n\nThe Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Fletcher, in overall command aboard Yorktown, and benefiting from PBY sighting reports from the early morning, ordered Spruance to launch against the Japanese as soon as was practical, while initially holding Yorktown in reserve in case any other Japanese carriers were found.", "Spruance judged that, though the range was extreme, a strike could succeed and gave the order to launch the attack. He then left Halsey's Chief of Staff, Captain Miles Browning, to work out the details and oversee the launch. The carriers had to launch into the wind, so the light southeasterly breeze would require them to steam away from the Japanese at high speed. Browning, therefore, suggested a launch time of 07:00, giving the carriers an hour to close on the Japanese at", ". This would place them at about from the Japanese fleet, assuming it did not change course. The first plane took off from Spruance's carriers Enterprise and Hornet a few minutes after 07:00. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed suit at 08:00 from Yorktown.", "Fletcher, along with Yorktowns commanding officer, Captain Elliott Buckmaster, and their staffs, had acquired the first-hand experience needed in organizing and launching a full strike against an enemy force in the Coral Sea, but there was no time to pass these lessons on to Enterprise, commanded by Captain George Murray, and Hornet, commanded by Captain Marc Mitscher, which were tasked with launching the first strike", ". Spruance ordered the striking aircraft to proceed to target immediately rather than waste time waiting for the strike force to assemble, since neutralizing enemy carriers was the key to the survival of his own task force.", "While the Japanese were able to launch 108 aircraft in just seven minutes, it took Enterprise and Hornet over an hour to launch 117. Spruance judged that the need to throw something at the enemy as soon as possible was greater than the need to coordinate the attack by aircraft of different types and speeds (fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers). Accordingly, American squadrons were launched piecemeal and proceeded to the target in several different groups", ". It was accepted that the lack of coordination would diminish the impact of the American attacks and increase their casualties, but Spruance calculated that this was worthwhile, since keeping the Japanese under aerial attack impaired their ability to launch a counterstrike (Japanese tactics preferred fully constituted attacks), and he gambled that he would find Nagumo with his flight decks at their most vulnerable.", "American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target, despite the positions they had been given. The strike from Hornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, followed an incorrect heading of 265 degrees rather than the 240 degrees indicated by the contact report. As a result, Air Group Eight's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers. Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8, from Hornet), led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron, broke formation from Ring and followed the correct heading", ". Waldron, broke formation from Ring and followed the correct heading. The 10 F4Fs from Hornet ran out of fuel and had to ditch.", "Waldron's squadron sighted the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09:20, followed at 09:40 by VF-6 from Enterprise, whose Wildcat fighter escorts lost contact, ran low on fuel, and had to turn back. Without fighter escort, all 15 TBD Devastators of VT-8 were shot down without being able to inflict any damage. Ensign George H. Gay, Jr. was the only survivor of the 30 aircrews of VT-8. He completed his torpedo attack on the carrier Sōryū before he was shot down, but Sōryū evaded his torpedo", ". Meanwhile, VT-6, led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene E. Lindsey lost 9 of its 14 Devastators (one ditched later), and 10 of 12 Devastators from Yorktowns VT-3 (who attacked at 10:10) were shot down with no hits to show for their effort, thanks in part to the abysmal performance of their unimproved Mark 13 torpedoes. Midway was the last time the TBD Devastator was used in combat.", "The Japanese combat air patrol, flying Zeros, made short work of the unescorted, slow, under-armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get within a few ship-lengths range of their targets before dropping their torpedoes—close enough to be able to strafe the enemy ships and force the Japanese carriers to make sharp evasive maneuvers—but all of their torpedoes either missed or failed to explode", ". The performance of American torpedoes in the early months of the war was extremely poor, as shot after shot missed by running directly under the target (deeper than intended), prematurely exploded, or hit targets (sometimes with an audible clang) and failed to explode at all. Remarkably, senior Navy and Bureau of Ordnance officers never questioned why half a dozen torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no results.", "Despite their failure to score any hits, the American torpedo attacks achieved three important results. First, they kept the Japanese carriers off balance and unable to prepare and launch their own counterstrike. Second, the poor control of the Japanese CAP meant they were out of position for subsequent attacks. Third, many of the Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel", ". Third, many of the Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel. The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by VT-3 from Yorktown, led by Lieutenant Commander Lance Edward Massey at 10:00 very quickly drew the majority of the Japanese CAP to the southeast quadrant of the fleet. Better discipline and the employment of a greater number of Zeros for the CAP might have enabled Nagumo to prevent (or at least mitigate) the damage caused by the coming American attacks.", "By chance, at the same time VT-3 was sighted by the Japanese, three squadrons of SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown were approaching from the southwest and northeast. The Yorktown squadron (VB-3) had flown just behind VT-3 but elected to attack from a different course. The two squadrons from Enterprise (VB-6 and VS-6) were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. Air Group Commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr", ". Air Group Commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr. decided to continue the search and by good fortune spotted the wake of the Japanese destroyer , steaming at full speed to rejoin Nagumo's carriers after having unsuccessfully depth-charged U.S. submarine , which had unsuccessfully attacked the battleship . Some bombers were lost from fuel exhaustion before the attack commenced.", "McClusky's decision to continue the search and his judgment, in the opinion of Admiral Chester Nimitz, \"decided the fate of our carrier task force and our forces at Midway ...\" All three American dive-bomber squadrons (VB-6, VS-6, and VB-3) arrived almost simultaneously at the perfect time, locations and altitudes to attack", ". Most of the Japanese CAP was directing its attention to the torpedo planes of VT-3 and was out of position; meanwhile, armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses snaked across the decks as refueling operations were hastily being completed, and the repeated change of ordnance meant that bombs and torpedoes were stacked around the hangars, rather than stowed safely in the magazines, making the Japanese carriers extraordinarily vulnerable.", "Kaga", "Beginning at 10:22, the two squadrons of Enterprises air group split up with the intention of sending one squadron each to attack Kaga and Akagi. A miscommunication caused both of the squadrons to dive at Kaga. Recognizing the error, Lieutenant Richard Halsey Best and his two wingmen were able to pull out of their dives and, after judging that Kaga was doomed, headed north to attack Akagi", ". Coming under an onslaught of bombs from almost two full squadrons, Kaga sustained three to five direct hits, which caused heavy damage and started multiple fires. One of the bombs landed on or right in front of the bridge, killing Captain Jisaku Okada and most of the ship's senior officers. Lieutenant Clarence E. Dickinson, part of McClusky's group, recalled:", "Akagi\nSeveral minutes later, Best and his two wingmen dove on Akagi. Mitsuo Fuchida, the Japanese aviator who had led the attack on Pearl Harbor, was on Akagi when it was hit, and described the attack:", "Although Akagi sustained only one direct hit (almost certainly dropped by Lieutenant Best), it proved to be a fatal blow: the bomb struck the edge of the mid-ship deck elevator and penetrated to the upper hangar deck, where it exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft in the vicinity. Nagumo's chief of staff, Ryūnosuke Kusaka, recorded \"a terrific fire ... bodies all over the place ... Planes stood tail up, belching livid flames and jet-black smoke, making it impossible to bring the fires under control", ".\" Another bomb exploded underwater very close astern; the resulting geyser bent the flight deck upward \"in grotesque configurations\" and caused crucial rudder damage.", "Sōryū\nSimultaneously, Yorktowns VB-3, commanded by Lieutenant Max Leslie, went for Sōryū, scoring at least three hits and causing extensive damage. Gasoline ignited, creating an inferno, while stacked bombs and ammunition detonated. VT-3 targeted Hiryū, which was hemmed in by Sōryū, Kaga, and Akagi, but achieved no hits.", "Within six minutes, Sōryū and Kaga were ablaze from stem to stern, as fires spread through the ships. Akagi, having been struck by only one bomb, took longer to burn, but the resulting fires quickly expanded and proved impossible to extinguish; she too was eventually consumed by flames and had to be abandoned. The shell-shocked Nagumo was reluctant to leave the Akagi. Kusaka was able to persuade him. At 10:46, Nagumo transferred his flag to the light cruiser", ". Kusaka was able to persuade him. At 10:46, Nagumo transferred his flag to the light cruiser . All three carriers remained temporarily afloat, as none had suffered damage below the waterline, other than the rudder damage to Akagi caused by the near miss close astern. Despite initial hopes that Akagi could be saved or at least towed back to Japan, all three carriers were eventually abandoned and scuttled", ". While Kaga was burning, Nautilus showed up again and launched three torpedoes at her, scoring one dud hit. The Kaga was later sunk by the Japanese destroyer Hagikaze.", "Japanese counterattacks", "Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier, wasted little time in counterattacking. Hiryūs first attack wave, consisting of 18 D3As and 6 Zeros, followed the retreating American aircraft and attacked the first carrier they encountered, Yorktown, hitting her with three bombs, which blew a hole in the deck, snuffed out all but one of her boilers, and destroyed one anti-aircraft mount. The damage forced Fletcher to move his command staff to the heavy cruiser", ". The damage forced Fletcher to move his command staff to the heavy cruiser . Damage control parties were able to temporarily patch the flight deck and restore power to several boilers within an hour, giving her a speed of and enabling her to resume air operations. Yorktown hoisted a flag signal to indicate a speed of 5 knots. Captain Buckmaster had his signalmen hoist a huge new (10 feet wide and 15 feet long) American flag from the foremast", ". Thirteen D3As and three Zeros were lost in this attack (two Zeros turned back early after they were damaged attacking some of Enterprises SBDs returning from their attack on the Japanese carriers).", "Approximately one hour later, Hiryū's second attack wave, consisting of ten B5Ns and six escorting Zeros, arrived over Yorktown; the repair efforts had been so effective that the Japanese pilots assumed that Yorktown must be a different, undamaged carrier. They attacked, crippling Yorktown with two torpedoes; she lost all power and developed a 23-degree list to port. Five B5Ns and two Zeros were shot down in this attack.", "News of the two strikes, with the mistaken reports that each had sunk an American carrier, greatly improved Japanese morale. The few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū. Despite the heavy losses, the Japanese believed that they could scrape together enough aircraft for one more strike against what they believed to be the only remaining American carrier.\n\nAmerican counterattack\n\nHiryū", "Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū, prompting Enterprise to launch a final strike of 24 dive bombers (including six SBDs from VS-6, four SBDs from VB-6, and 14 SBDs from Yorktowns VB-3). Despite Hiryū being defended by a strong cover of more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise and orphaned Yorktown aircraft launched from Enterprise was successful: four bombs (possibly five) hit Hiryū, leaving her ablaze and unable to operate aircraft", ". Hornets strike, launched late because of a communications error, concentrated on the remaining escort ships but failed to score any hits. Enterprise dive bomber Dusty Kleiss struck Hiryū on the bow, essentially crippling her.", "After futile attempts at controlling the blaze, most of the crew remaining on Hiryū were evacuated, and the remainder of the fleet continued sailing northeast in an attempt to intercept the American carriers. Despite a scuttling attempt by a Japanese destroyer that hit her with a torpedo and then departed quickly, Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours. She was discovered early the next morning by an aircraft from the escort carrier , prompting hopes she could be saved or towed back to Japan", ". Soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Yamaguchi, together with the ship's captain, , chose to go down with the ship, costing Japan perhaps its best carrier officer. One young sailor reportedly tried to go down with the ship with the officers but was denied.", "As darkness fell, both sides took stock and made tentative plans for continuing the action. Fletcher, obliged to abandon the derelict Yorktown and feeling he could not adequately command from a cruiser, ceded operational command to Spruance. Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but he was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained and was determined to safeguard both Midway and his carriers", ". To aid his aviators, who had launched at extreme range, he had continued to close with Nagumo during the day and persisted as night fell.", "Finally, fearing a possible night encounter with Japanese surface forces and believing Yamamoto still intended to invade (based in part on a misleading contact report from the submarine ) Spruance changed course and withdrew to the east, turning back west towards the enemy at midnight. For his part, Yamamoto initially decided to continue the engagement and sent his remaining surface forces searching eastward for the American carriers", ". Simultaneously, he detached a cruiser raiding force to bombard the island. The Japanese surface forces failed to make contact with the Americans because Spruance had decided to briefly withdraw eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a general withdrawal to the west. It was fortunate for the U.S", ". It was fortunate for the U.S. that Spruance did not pursue, for had he come in contact with Yamamoto's heavy ships, including , in the dark, considering the Japanese Navy's superiority in night-attack tactics at the time, there is a very high probability his cruisers would have been overwhelmed and his carriers sunk.", "Spruance failed to regain contact with Yamamoto's forces on 5 June, despite extensive searches. Towards the end of the day, he launched a search-and-destroy mission to seek out any remnants of Nagumo's carrier force. This late afternoon strike narrowly missed detecting Yamamoto's main body and failed to score hits on a straggling Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall, prompting Spruance to order Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings.", "At 02:15 on 5 June Commander John Murphy's Tambor, lying west of Midway, made the second of the submarine force's two major contributions to the battle's outcome, although its impact was heavily blunted by Murphy. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy nor his executive officer, Edward Spruance (son of Admiral Spruance), could identify them", ". Uncertain of whether they were friendly and unwilling to approach any closer to verify their heading or type, Murphy decided to send a vague report of \"four large ships\" to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet. This report was passed on by English to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance", ". This report was passed on by English to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. Spruance, a former submarine commander, was \"understandably furious\" at the vagueness of Murphy's report, as it provided him with little more than suspicion and no concrete information on which to make his preparations", ". Unaware of the exact location of Yamamoto's \"Main Body\" (a persistent problem since the time PBYs had first sighted the Japanese), Spruance was forced to assume the \"four large ships\" reported by Tambor represented the main invasion force and so he moved to block it, while staying northeast of Midway.", "In reality, the ships sighted by Tambor were the detachment of four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bombard Midway. At 02:55 these ships received Yamamoto's order to retire and changed course to comply. At about the same time as this change of course, Tambor was sighted and during maneuvers designed to avoid a submarine attack, the heavy cruisers and collided, inflicting serious damage on Mogamis bow. The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to to keep pace", ". The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to to keep pace. Only at 04:12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was hazardous and he dived to approach for an attack. The attack was unsuccessful, and around 06:00 he finally reported two westbound s before diving again and playing no further role in the battle", ". Limping along on a straight course at 12 knots—roughly one-third their top speed—Mogami and Mikuma had been almost perfect targets for a submarine attack", ". As soon as Tambor returned to port, Spruance had Murphy relieved of duty and reassigned to a shore station, citing his confusing contact report, poor torpedo shooting during his attack run, and general lack of aggression, especially as compared to Nautilus, the oldest of the 12 boats at Midway and the only one which had successfully placed a torpedo on target (albeit a dud).", "Over the next two days, several strikes were launched against the stragglers, first from Midway, then from Spruance's carriers. Mikuma was eventually sunk by Dauntlesses, while Mogami survived further severe damage to return home for repairs. The destroyers and were also bombed and strafed during the last of these attacks. Captain Richard E. Fleming, a U.S. Marine Corps aviator, was killed while executing a glide bomb run on Mikuma and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.", "Meanwhile, salvage efforts on Yorktown were encouraging, and she was taken in tow by fleet tug . In the late afternoon of 6 June the , which had managed to slip through the cordon of destroyers (possibly because of the large amount of debris in the water), fired a salvo of torpedoes, two of which struck Yorktown. There were few casualties aboard since most of the crew had already been evacuated, but a third torpedo from this salvo struck the destroyer , which had been providing auxiliary power to Yorktown", ". Hammann broke in two and sank with the loss of 80 lives, mostly because her own depth charges exploded. With further salvage efforts deemed hopeless, the remaining repair crews were evacuated from Yorktown. Throughout the night of 6 June and into the morning of 7 June, Yorktown remained afloat; but by 05:30 on 7 June observers noted that her list was rapidly increasing to port. Shortly afterward, the ship turned onto her port side revealing the torpedo hole in her starboard bilge", ". At 07:01, the ship rolled upside-down and slowly sank, stern first.", "Japanese and U.S. casualties\nSBD pilot Norman \"Dusty\" Kleiss, who scored three hits on Japanese ships during the Battle of Midway (aircraft carriers Kaga and Hiryū and heavy cruiser Mikuma), wrote: \"From the experience in the Marshalls, at Wake and at Marcus, I thought our fleet learned its lessons. We could not send TBDs into action unless they had adequate smoke protection and torpedoes that exploded more than 10 percent of the time.\"", "By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were: Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811; Hiryū: 392 (including Yamaguchi who chose to go down with his ship); Soryū: 711 (including Captain Yanagimoto, who chose to remain on board); a total of 2,181. The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths.", "In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) were both damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone (2). Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties.", "At the end of the battle, the U.S. lost the carrier Yorktown and the destroyer Hammann. 307 Americans had been killed, including Major General Clarence L. Tinker, Commander, 7th Air Force, who personally led a bomber strike from Hawaii against the retreating Japanese forces on 7 June. He was killed when his aircraft crashed near Midway Island.\n\nAftermath", "After winning a clear victory, and as pursuit became too hazardous near Wake Island, American forces retired. Spruance once again withdrew to the east to refuel his destroyers and rendezvous with the carrier Saratoga, which was ferrying much-needed replacement aircraft. Fletcher transferred his flag to Saratoga on the afternoon of 8 June and resumed command of the carrier force", ". For the remainder of that day and then 9 June, Fletcher continued to launch search missions from the three carriers to ensure the Japanese were no longer advancing on Midway. Late on 10 June a decision was made to leave the area, and the American carriers eventually returned to Pearl Harbor.", "Historian Samuel E. Morison noted in 1949 that Spruance was subjected to much criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, thus allowing their surface fleet to escape. Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance pressed on, he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruisers would have been overwhelmed by Yamamoto's powerful surface units, including Yamato. Furthermore, the American air groups had suffered considerable losses, including most of their torpedo bombers", ". This made it unlikely that they would be effective in an airstrike against the Japanese battleships, even if they had managed to catch them during the daytime. Also, Spruance's destroyers were critically low on fuel.", "On 10 June the Imperial Japanese Navy conveyed to the military liaison conference an incomplete picture of the results of the battle. Nagumo's detailed battle report was submitted to the high command on 15 June. It was intended only for the highest echelons in the Japanese Navy and government and was guarded closely throughout the war", ". In it, one of the more striking revelations is the comment on Mobile Force Commander Nagumo's estimates: \"The enemy is not aware of our plans (we were not discovered until early in the morning of the 5th at the earliest).\" In reality, the whole operation had been compromised from the beginning by American code-breaking efforts.", "The Japanese public and much of the military command structure were kept in the dark about the extent of the defeat: Japanese news announced a great victory. Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy command staff were accurately informed of the carrier and personnel losses. Consequently, even the Imperial Japanese Army continued to believe, for at least a short time, that the fleet was in good condition.", "On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were immediately transferred to naval hospitals; most were classified as \"secret patients\", placed in isolation wards and quarantined from other patients and their own families to keep this major defeat secret. The remaining officers and men were quickly dispersed to other units of the fleet and, without being allowed to see family or friends, were shipped to units in the South Pacific, where the majority died in battle", ". None of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet were penalized, and Nagumo was later placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force. A possible reason Nagumo was not relieved of command was that he reported two American carriers had been sunk; not one actually sunk.", "As a result of the defeat, new procedures were adopted whereby more Japanese aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck rather than in the hangars, and the practice of draining all unused fuel lines was adopted. The new carriers being built were redesigned to incorporate only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment", ". More carrier crew members were trained in damage-control and firefighting techniques, although the losses of the Shōkaku, , and especially later in the war suggest that there were still problems in this area.", "Replacement pilots were pushed through an abbreviated training regimen in order to meet the short-term needs of the fleet. This led to a sharp decline in the quality of the aviators produced. These inexperienced pilots were fed into front-line units, while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were forced to share an increased workload as conditions grew more desperate, with few being given a chance to rest in rear areas or in the home islands", ". As a result, Japanese naval air groups as a whole progressively deteriorated during the war while their American adversaries continued to improve.", "American prisoners", "Three U.S. airmen were captured during the battle: Ensign Wesley Osmus, a pilot from Yorktown; Ensign Frank O'Flaherty, a pilot from Enterprise; and Aviation Machinist's Mate Bruno Peter Gaido, O'Flaherty's radioman-gunner. Osmus was held on Arashi; O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiser Nagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary); O'Flaherty and Gaido were interrogated and then killed by being tied to water-filled kerosene cans and thrown overboard to drown", ". Osmus was slated for the same fate; however, he resisted and was murdered on the Arashi with a fire axe, and his body was thrown overboard. The report filed by Nagumo tersely states that Osmus, \"... died on 6 June and was buried at sea\"; O'Flaherty and Gaido's fates were not mentioned in Nagumo's report. The execution of Osmus in this manner was apparently ordered by Arashis captain, Watanabe Yasumasa", ". The execution of Osmus in this manner was apparently ordered by Arashis captain, Watanabe Yasumasa. Yasumasa died when the destroyer sank in December 1943, but had he survived he would have likely been tried as a war criminal.", "Japanese prisoners\n\nTwo enlisted men from Mikuma were rescued from a life raft on 9 June by and taken to Pearl Harbor. After receiving medical care, at least one of these sailors cooperated during interrogation and provided intelligence. Another 35 crewmen from Hiryū were taken from a lifeboat by on 19 June after being spotted by an American search plane. They were taken to Midway and then transferred to Pearl Harbor on .\n\nImpact", "The Battle of Midway has often been called \"the turning point of the Pacific\". It was the Allies' first major naval victory against the Japanese. Had Japan won the battle as thoroughly as the U.S. did, it might have been able to conquer Midway Island. Saratoga would have been the only American carrier in the Pacific, as no new ones were completed before the end of 1942. While the U.S", ". While the U.S. would probably not have sought peace with Japan as Yamamoto hoped, his country might have revived Operation FS to invade and occupy Fiji and Samoa; attacked Australia, Alaska, and Ceylon; or even attempted to occupy Hawaii.", "Although the Japanese continued to try to secure more territory, and the U.S. did not move from a state of naval parity to one of supremacy until after several more months of hard combat, Midway allowed the Allies to switch to the strategic initiative, paving the way for the landings on Guadalcanal and the prolonged attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign. Midway allowed this to occur before the first of the new Essex-class fleet carriers became available at the end of 1942", ". The Guadalcanal campaign is also regarded by some as a turning point in the Pacific War.", "Some authors have stated that heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy. Parshall and Tully have stated that the heavy losses in veteran aircrew (110, just under 25% of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers) were not crippling to the Japanese naval air corps as a whole; the Japanese navy had 2,000 carrier-qualified aircrews at the start of the Pacific War", ". The loss of four large fleet carriers and over 40% of the carriers' highly trained aircraft mechanics and technicians, plus the essential flight-deck crews and armorers, and the loss of organizational knowledge embodied in such highly trained crews, were still heavy blows to the Japanese carrier fleet", ". A few months after Midway, the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service sustained similar casualty rates in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, and it was these battles, combined with the constant attrition of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which were the catalyst for the sharp downward spiral in operational capability.", "After the battle, Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the only large carriers of the original Pearl Harbor strike force still afloat. Of Japan's other carriers, Taihō, which was not commissioned until early 1944, would be the only fleet carrier worth teaming with Shōkaku and Zuikaku; and were light carriers, while and , although technically classified as fleet carriers, were second-rate ships of comparatively limited effectiveness. In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S", ". In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. By 1942 the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding program mandated by the Second Vinson Act of 1938.", "Both the United States and Japan accelerated the training of aircrew, but the United States had a more effective pilot rotation system, which meant that more veterans survived and went on to training or command billets, where they were able to pass on lessons they had learned in combat to trainees, instead of remaining in combat, where errors were more likely to be fatal", ". By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, the Japanese had nearly rebuilt their carrier forces in terms of numbers, but their planes, many of which were obsolete, were largely flown by inexperienced and poorly trained pilots.", "Midway showed the worth of pre-war naval cryptanalysis and intelligence-gathering. These efforts continued and were expanded throughout the war in both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Successes were numerous and significant. For instance, cryptanalysis made possible the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto's airplane in 1943.\n\nThe Battle of Midway also caused the plan of Japan and Nazi Germany to meet up in the Indian subcontinent to be abandoned.", "The Battle of Midway redefined the central importance of air superiority for the remainder of the war when the Japanese suddenly lost their four main aircraft carriers and were forced to return home. Without any form of air superiority, the Japanese never again launched a major offensive in the Pacific.", "Discovery of sunken vessels", "Because of the extreme depth of the ocean in the area of the battle (more than ), researching the battlefield has presented extraordinary difficulties. On 19 May 1998, Robert Ballard and a team of scientists and Midway veterans from both sides located and photographed Yorktown, which was located deep. The ship was remarkably intact for a vessel that had sunk in 1942; much of the original equipment and even the original paint scheme were still visible", ". Ballard's subsequent search for the Japanese carriers was unsuccessful.", "In September 1999, a joint expedition between Nauticos Corp. and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office searched for the Japanese aircraft carriers. Using advanced renavigation techniques in conjunction with the ship's log of the submarine USS Nautilus, the expedition located a large piece of wreckage, subsequently identified as having come from the upper hangar deck of Kaga.", "The crew of the research vessel RV Petrel, in conjunction with the U.S. Navy, announced on 18 October 2019 that it had found the Japanese carrier Kaga lying beneath the waves. The crew of Petrel confirmed the discovery of another Japanese carrier, the Akagi, on 21 October 2019. The Akagi was found in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument resting in nearly of water.\n\nRemembrances", "Remembrances\n\nChicago Municipal Airport, important to the war effort in World War II, was renamed Chicago Midway International Airport (or simply Midway Airport) in 1949 in honor of the battle. Henderson Field in Guadalcanal was named in honor of United States Marine Corps Major Lofton Henderson, who was the first Marine aviator to perish during the battle.", "Escort carrier USS Midway (CVE-63) was commissioned on 17 August 1943. She was renamed St. Lo on 10 October 1944 to clear the name Midway for a large fleet aircraft carrier, , which was commissioned on 10 September 1945, eight days after the Japanese surrender, and is now docked in San Diego, California, as the USS Midway Museum.", "On 13 September 2000 Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt designated the lands and waters of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge as the Battle of Midway National Memorial. Tinker Air Force Base outside Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, is named in honor of Major General Clarence L. Tinker, Commander 7th Air Force, who personally led a bomber strike from Hawaii against the retreating Japanese forces on 7 June.", "John Ford directed two films about the events: the 18-minute 1942 Movietone News documentary (released by the War Activities Committee) The Battle of Midway, which received the 1942 Academy Award for Best Documentary; and the eight-minute documentary Torpedo Squadron 8, which describes the heroism of Torpedo Squadron 8 of the . Ford, who was a Navy Reserve Commander at the time, was present at Midway Atoll's power plant on Sand Island during the Japanese attack and filmed it", ". He received combat wounds from enemy fire in his arm during the filming.", "See also\n\nFirst Bombardment of Midway, a 7 December 1941 attack on Midway by two Japanese destroyers\nImperial Japanese Navy in World War II\nPacific Theater aircraft carrier operations during World War II\n Midway (1976)\n Dauntless: The Battle of Midway (2019)\n Midway (2019)\n\nFootnotes\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n A Japanese account; numerous assertions in this work have been challenged by more recent sources.\n\n First-hand account by Japanese captain, often inaccurate", "First-hand account by Japanese captain, often inaccurate\n\n Significant section on Midway\n An account of blunders that led to the near-total destruction of the American torpedo squadrons, and of what the author calls a cover-up by naval officers after the battle\n\n Detailed study of battle, from planning to the effects on World War II\n\nExternal links", "Detailed study of battle, from planning to the effects on World War II\n\nExternal links\n\nBattle of Midway main topic page at the Naval History and Heritage Command\nBattle of Midway (1942)U.S. Navy propaganda film directed by John Ford. \nVictory At Sea: Midway Is East (1952)Episode 4 from a 26-episode series about naval combat during World War II\nDestination Point Luck: Voices From Midway (2008)U.S. Navy Interviews of Battle of Midway Veterans", "History of Midway Atoll\nPacific theatre of World War II\nHistory of cryptography\nImperial Japanese Navy Air Service\nNaval aviation operations and battles\nWorld War II aerial operations and battles of the Pacific theatre\nNaval battles of World War II involving Japan\nNaval battles of World War II involving the United States\nUnited States Marine Corps in World War II\nUnited States naval aviation\n1942 in the United States\n1942 in Japan\nJune 1942 events\nJapan–United States military relations" ]

[ "The Los Angeles Railway (also known as Yellow Cars, LARy and later Los Angeles Transit Lines) was a system of streetcars that operated in Central Los Angeles and surrounding neighborhoods between 1895 and 1963. The system provided frequent local services which complemented the Pacific Electric \"Red Car\" system's largely commuter-based interurban routes. The company carried many more passengers than the Red Cars, which served a larger and sparser area of Los Angeles.", "Cars operated on narrow gauge tracks, and shared dual gauge trackage with the Pacific Electric system on Main Street in downtown Los Angeles (directly in front of the 6th and Main terminal), on 4th Street, and along Hawthorne Boulevard south of Downtown Los Angeles toward the cities of Hawthorne, Gardena and Torrance.\n\nHistory\n\nNon-Electric Predecessors", "The earliest streetcars in Los Angeles were horse-propelled. The earliest horsecar railway, the Spring and Sixth Street Railroad was built in 1874 by Robert M. Widney, and ran from the Plaza area to Sixth and Pearl (Figueroa) Street; not much later, this line would be extended northeast to East Los Angeles (today’s Lincoln Park)", ". A more ambitious horse-driven line was the Main Street and Agricultural Park Railroad, which ran from the Plaza area, south on Main Street, to Washington Gardens and then to Agricultural (Exposition) Park.", "Transportation technology progressed, and Los Angeles acquired significant investments in cable technology. The first cable car system to open in Los Angeles was the Second Street Cable Railway. Opened in 1885, it ran west from Second and Spring Streets out First Street to Texas Street (Belmont Avenue).", "Each of these early railroads were built to further the sale of real estate that was considered too far away from the downtown area.", "The Los Angeles Cable Railway (later named the Pacific Cable Railway, and incorporated in Illinois) owned many exclusive franchises (agreements with the city to use public streets for transportation purposes) and by 1889 had constructed four major cable lines crisscrossing the growing downtown area, from Jefferson and Grand to East Los Angeles (Lincoln Heights), and from Westlake Park to Boyle Heights.", "Though considered the latest word in cable railway technology, construction was expensive, legal and operating problems plagued the system, and a rising new electric railway technology threatened to make the system obsolete.\n\nPredecessor: Electric Railways", "Predecessor: Electric Railways\n\nThe first electric railway in Los Angeles was built in 1887 to facilitate the sales of a real estate tract on Pico Street. The Los Angeles Electric Railway used the early Daft overhead system with a crude electric car and trailers. Though the real estate venture was successful, after an explosion in the power station, the Pico Street electric line closed, seemingly for good.", "Development of an effective electric transportation system based on the new Sprague-based technology began in earnest with the arrival in Los Angeles of Moses Sherman, his brother-in-law Eli P. Clark and San Francisco investors late in 1890. Sherman, originally a teacher from Vermont, had moved to the Arizona territory in 1874 where he was involved in business and civic affairs, real estate, and street railways", ". Clark, too, came from the Arizona territory, and was similarly involved in business and civic affairs.", "Sherman became interested in opportunities in Los Angeles after vacationing there in early 1890. He joined the efforts of a group attempting to resurrect the Second Street Cable Railway, but persuaded them to electrify the line instead. He acquired the line in October, 1890 and renamed it The Belt Line Railroad Company.", "Sherman created an Arizona corporation called The Los Angeles Consolidated Electric Railway Company (LACE) on November 12, 1890 with Sherman as President and Clark as General Manager. Future mayor Frederick Eaton was chosen as Chief Engineer. The firm was incorporated in Arizona because Arizona incorporation held certain advantages over incorporating in California.", "In the autumn of 1890, the legislature passed the so-called 5-block law, which enabled a street railway company to use another company's rails for up to five city blocks. This would help Sherman immensely with his plans for LACE, but later would be used against him.", "Sherman and Clark began work immediately. In 1891 alone, they accomplished the following:\nAfter using the Pico Street facilities for a short time, they constructed a new power house, car house and shops at the intersection of Central Avenue and Wilde Street, east of the business district.\nPurchased the Depot Line on May 8, which ran from Second and Spring Streets to the Santa Fe Depot and to the Southern Pacific depot.", "Opened a line from Second and Spring Streets, past Crown Hill, to Westlake Park on July 1, replacing the Second Street Cable line.\nAcquired the Los Angeles and Vernon Street Railway, whose horsecar line ran down Central Avenue to Slauson, then connected to the Santa Fe Ballona branch. They opened it as an electric line on September 16. \nBuilt a new line to serve the University of Southern California and Agricultural Park; the new University line opened November 12.", "Opened the Maple Avenue Line in November and the newly rebuilt and re-electrified Pico Street line on December 31.", "By the end of 1891, the railway had five electric lines running, all which used a 3-foot 6-inch gauge, which matched the gauge used by the cable lines: Crown Hill, University, Maple Avenue, Central Avenue and Pico Street.\n\nPacific Railway’s problems were such that the company was thrown into receivership in 1891, with James F. Crank appointed as receiver.", "In 1892, Sherman and Clark electrified the Depot Line, and opened it on August 1. They extended the Crown Hill line east to the Santa Fe La Grande station, and also connected to the Southern Pacific Arcade station on Central. They also started a line to East Los Angeles (Eastlake Park) in 1892, laying track on North Spring and North Broadway Streets. They were forced to build a bridge over the Los Angeles River and Santa Fe rails, which postponed the opening of the line until September 26, 1893.", "The growth of the electric lines put severe pressure on the Pacific Cable Railway. The two rail companies began negotiations to possibly combine in August, 1892, but foreclosure and sale was their only option. On October 4, 1893, the sale of the Pacific Cable Railway was completed, and LACE acquired all of the assets, including their cable and horsecar lines.", "LACE was now the largest street railway operator in Los Angeles, owning about 90% of all lines.By the end of 1893, they had 14 lines, with a total of 38.325 route-miles of electric lines including Crown Hill, Central Avenue, University, Maple Avenue, Pico Street, Depot, and East Los Angeles: 20.5 miles of cable lines, including Boyle Heights/Westlake Park, and East Los Angeles/Grand Avenue, and 9.09 miles of horsecar lines, including West Ninth Street, Washington Boulevard, and North Main Street", ". With a total of 68 miles of track, they owned 80% of the track age in Los Angeles.", "Then things began to get more “complicated”. Sherman and Clark faced difficulties and distractions. A national depression, begun in 1893, affected Los Angeles as well. As patronage declined, Sherman and Clark cut service on the system.", "In 1894, a direct competitor to LACE arrived. William S. Hook, a banker and railroad executive from Illinois, incorporated a new electric street railway company, the Los Angeles Traction Company, and secured a franchise for a line headquartered at Georgia Street and 12th Street, which was destined to provide stiff competition to LACE. Hook’s first line opened in February, 1896.", "Finally, in 1894, Sherman and Clark began an inter-urban line between LA and Pasadena, The Los Angeles and Pasadena Railway, and acquired all the street railways in Pasadena. \n\nIn 1894, Sherman and Clark began an inter-urban line between LA and Pasadena, The Los Angeles and Pasadena Railway, and acquired all the street railways in Pasadena.\n\n1895 Creation of Los Angeles Railway", "In April, 1894 LACE missed a scheduled bond payment. The bondholders, unhappy with Sherman and Clark's management and their attention to their new interurban railway, secured control of the railway. Sherman managed to retain 49% of the outstanding stock, but he and Clark no longer had any management responsibilities", ". The bondholders created a new corporation called the Los Angeles Railway (LARy) and March 23, 1895 LARy acquired all of LACE’s assets, except for the Los Angeles and Pacific Railway and the Pasadena street railways. The new management purchased new cars and began converting all the existing horsecar and cable lines to electricity, a task completed by June, 1896.", "1898 Purchase by Huntington Syndicate\n\nThe system was purchased by a syndicate led by railroad and real estate tycoon Henry E. Huntington in 1898. At its height, the system contained over 20 streetcar lines and 1,250 streetcars, most running through the core of Los Angeles and serving such neighborhoods as Crenshaw, West Adams, Leimert Park, Exposition Park, Echo Park, Westlake, Hancock Park, Vernon, Boyle Heights and Lincoln Heights.\n\n1944 Purchase by American City Lines", "The system was sold in 1944 by Huntington's estate to American City Lines, Inc., of Chicago, a subsidiary of National City Lines, a holding company that was purchasing transit systems across the country. The sale was announced December 5, 1944, but the purchase price was not disclosed", ". The sale was announced December 5, 1944, but the purchase price was not disclosed. National City Lines, along with its investors that included Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California (now Chevron Corporation) and General Motors, were later convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of buses and related products to local transit companies controlled by National City Lines and other companies in what became known as the General Motors streetcar conspiracy", ". National City Lines purchased Key System, which operated the streetcar system in Oakland, California, the following year.", "The company was renamed as Los Angeles Transit Lines. The new company introduced 40 new ACF-Brill trolley buses which had originally been intended for the Key System, which was being converted to buses by National City Lines in late 1948.\n\nMany lines were converted to buses in the late 1940s and early 1950s.", "Public ownership and finale\nThe last remaining lines were taken over by the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority (a predecessor to the current agency, The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro)) along with the remains of the Pacific Electric Railway in 1958. The agency removed the remaining five streetcar lines (J, P, R, S and V) and two trolley bus lines (2 and 3), replacing electric service with diesel buses after March 31, 1963.\n\nList of routes", "A Line – Mid City to Echo Park; by way of Adams Boulevard, Kensington Street, Venice Boulevard, Broadway, Temple Street, Edgeware Road, and Douglas Street.\nB Line – Nevin to City Terrace; by way of Ascot Avenue, Hooper Avenue, 12th Street, Main Street, Brooklyn Avenue, Evergreen Avenue, Wabash Avenue, and City Terrace Drive.\nD Line – Westlake to Skid Row; by way of Bonnie Brae Street, 3rd Street, Alvarado Street, 6th Street, and 5th Street.", "F Line – Athens to Boyle Heights; by way of Vermont Avenue, Hoover Street, Santa Barbara Avenue, Grand Avenue, Jefferson Boulevard, Main Street, 3rd Street, 4th Place, 4th Street, and Fresno Street.\nG Line – Nevin to South Park; by way of McKinley Avenue, Jefferson Boulevard, Griffith Avenue, Washington Boulevard, and Main Street.", "H Line – South Los Angeles to East Hollywood; by way of San Pedro Street, 7th Street, Broadway, 6th Street, Rampart Boulevard, Beverly Boulevard, Heliotrope Drive, and Melrose Avenue.\nI Line - \nJ Line – Jefferson Park to Huntington Park; by way of Jefferson Boulevard, Central Avenue, Vernon Avenue, and Pacific Boulevard.\nK Line - Nevin to South Park; by way of Naomi Avenue and Olympic Boulevard.", "K Line - Nevin to South Park; by way of Naomi Avenue and Olympic Boulevard.\nL Line – East Hollywood to Mid-City; by way of Lexington Avenue, Madison Avenue, Temple Street, Broadway, and Olympic Boulevard.\nN Line – Koreatown to South Park; by way of 8th Street and 9th Street.\nO Line – South Los Angeles to Lincoln Heights; by way of Main Street.\nP Line – Mid-City to City Terrace; by way of Pico Boulevard, Main Street, 1st Street, Gage Avenue, Hammel Street, and Record Avenue.", "R Line – Hancock Park to East Los Angeles; by way of 3rd Street, Vermont Avenue, 7th Street, Boyle Avenue, and Whittier Boulevard.\nS Line – Watts to East Hollywood; by way of Central Avenue, Florence Avenue, Avalon Boulevard, Vernon Avenue, Vermont Street, 3rd Street, and Western Avenue.\nU Line – Nevin to West Adams; by way of Central Avenue, Jefferson Boulevard, Vermont Street, and 27th Street.\nV Line – Nevin to East Hollywood; by way of Santa Fe Avenue, 7th Street, and Vermont Street.", "V Line – Nevin to East Hollywood; by way of Santa Fe Avenue, 7th Street, and Vermont Street.\nW Line – Mid-City to Highland Park; by way of Washington Boulevard, Figueroa Street, 6th Street, Broadway, Avenue 20, Figueroa Street, and York Boulevard.\n2 Line – Rampart area of Echo Park to Montecito Heights; by way of Belmont Avenue, Loma Drive, 3rd Street, Flower Street, 5th Street, Broadway, Pasadena Avenue, Avenue 26, and Griffin Avenue.", "3 Line – Skid Row to Hollywood; by way of 5th Street, 6th Street, private ROW, 3rd Street, and Larchmont Boulevard.", "5 Line – Hawthorne to Eagle Rock; by way of Hawthorne Boulevard, Market Street (Inglewood), private ROW paralleling Redondo Boulevard (later Florence Avenue), Crenshaw Boulevard, Leimert Boulevard (dedicated tracks in center divider), Santa Barbara Avenue, Grand Avenue, Jefferson Boulevard, Main Street, Broadway, Pasadena Avenue, Avenue 20, Figueroa Street, Cypress Avenue, Eagle Rock Boulevard, and Colorado Boulevard.", "7 Line – South Los Angeles to Los Angeles Plaza Historic District; by way of Broadway, Main Street, and Spring Street.\n8 Line – Leimert Park to Los Angeles Plaza Historic District; by way of 54th Street, Broadway, Main Street, and Spring Street.\n9 Line – Leimert Park to the Wholesale District, by way of 48th Street, Hoover Street, Grand Avenue, Pico Boulevard, Broadway, and 2nd Street.", "10 Line – Leimert Park to Lincoln Heights; by way of Vernon Avenue, Dalton Avenue, Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard, Grand, Pico Boulevard, Broadway, and Lincoln Park Avenue.", "Rolling stock\n\nHistorian Jim Walker notes that there were three major classifications of LARy cars: the Huntington Standards, the all-steel cars, and the streamliners. All were built to run on narrow-gauge tracks spaced 3’ 6” apart. The type numbers referred to below were created by LARy in 1920 to categorize their cars; there were many sub-categories (e.g., B-2, H-3, K-4, etc.) not recorded here.\n\nThe Standards", "The Huntington Standard (Type B) was numerically LARy’s largest, with an eventual count of 747 cars. Designed in 1901-1902 by LARy engineers and originally 38’ long, these wooden “California Cars” had open sections on both ends and an enclosed center section, but their most distinctive feature was the five-window front, with two elegant curved corner windows", ". These cars seemed to dominate the Southern California landscape in the eyes of the world, to a large extent because they were featured in many early movies. The Standards were either rebuilt from older cars or were purchased from manufacturers between 1902 and 1912.", "Pay-As-You-Enter (PAYE) Standard - Beginning in 1910, Standards were lengthened to 44 feet and modified into a PAYE format. Each end of the original cars were lengthened and an additional entrance door was added so the conductor could collect fares without having to roam through the car.", "Center-entrance Cars (Type C), also called “sowbellies”, were modified older Standards with a low-step center entrance and exit to accommodate the “hobble skirt” craze of the early teens. Beginning in 1913, 107 older Standards were converted and 76 new cars were purchased from the St. Louis Car Company, but the conversions were stopped in 1914 because of a Jitney-caused drop in patronage and the eventual end of the hobble-skirt fashion", ". One significant drawback to this design was that they could not be converted to one-man operation.", "Over the years, less major variations in Type B car designs included different lengths, different seat arrangements, various center section window formats, mesh safety gates vs panels, modifications for cars that made longer runs, and modifications for one-man or two-man operation.\n\nOlder Type B cars began to be scrapped beginning in the 1930s, and the last of these iconic cars operated through 1952.\n\nThe All-Steel Cars", "All-Steel Cars (Type H) were configured very similar to the Type B cars with open ends and a closed center section. After the disastrous Pacific Electric wreck at Vineyard in July, 1913, the drawbacks of high-speed wooden cars led companies to turn to steel construction. From November, 1921 through early 1924, LARy received 250 of these cars from the St. Louis Car Company", ". Louis Car Company. The cars were capable of running in multiple-unit trains for use on heavier lines and were assigned to the Grand Avenue-Moneta line and the S line. The use of multiple-unit operation was stopped in 1930, when reduced patronage due to the depression made the use of trains unnecessary. These cars were updated to accommodate one-operator, two-operator operation between 1934 and 1936", ". These cars were updated to accommodate one-operator, two-operator operation between 1934 and 1936. In 1955, due to the abandonment of many rail lines, many of the units were sold to National Metals for scrapping. In 1956, 41 Type H-4 cars were sent to Seoul and Pusan, South Korea as part of an aid program.", "LARy also built 50 wood copies (designated Type K) of these steel cars in their own shops between 1923 and 1925. These were initially used on the E (later 5) line; during 1930, they were transferred to the W line. As with other cars, in between 1936 and 1938, many cars were updated to accommodate one-operator, two-operator operation. Almost all of these two car types were scrapped after the abandonment of rail lines in 1955.\n\nThe Streamliners", "LARy introduced the Streamliners (Type P) in 1937. The streamlined Presidential Conference Car, or PCC, developed by the industry as a hoped-for savior, were the very latest in transit engineering: modern, comfortable, sleek, and smooth-running . The city celebrated the arrival of these modern cars by creating Transportation Week, where the first car was unveiled by young actress Shirley Temple. LARy only received 65 from the St", ". LARy only received 65 from the St. Louis Car Company, and successor Los Angeles Transit Lines (LATL) ordered 60 more which were placed in service in 1948 on the most popular lines. The PCC cars were used until final abandonment in 1963.", "Other Passenger Car Types\n\nIn addition to these three major categories, LARy had a variety of other cars.", "Shorties or Maggies (Type A) - When the Huntington/Hellman syndicate acquired LARy, the line had a large variety of existing wooden cars. The group of short (35’ 5”), wooden cars, which were later designated ‘’’Type A’’’, were either Pullman cars purchased in 1896 or assorted city cars received from Pacific Electric, in 1910. Most of these cars ran on lighter-used lines due to their smaller capacity. Because many had magnetic brakes they were dubbed “Maggies”", ". Because many had magnetic brakes they were dubbed “Maggies”. Of the eventual 74 short cars, many were converted to other configurations between 1910 and 1923. Twenty-eight were lengthened and converted to Type B Huntington Standards and twenty-two were converted to Type C center-entrance cars. After sixteen more were converted to arch-roof cars by 1923, there were only eight of the short versions remaining, which were retired in 1939, after the I line was abandoned.", "Arch-Roof cars (Type F) - In 1922 fifteen of the short cars were converted into Pay-as-you-enter cars with walkover seats throughout and a distinctive arched roof. Initially used on the 5 line as two-man cars, after World War II, LATL rebuilt them for one-man operation in 1948 and they were used until 1954.", "Birney Safety Cars (Type G) - In 1919, LARy purchased seventy of these lightweight single-truck cars in response to the California Railroad Commission’s 1919 report which recommended 400 of them to bolster the company’s financial situation. These light cars needed only a single operator, consumed less electricity, and produced less wear on the tracks, which did result in reduced costs", ". First deployed in September, 1920 on lighter lines, their slow, rough ride, hard seats, and lack of open sections made the cars unpopular with riders. All were placed in storage by 1928, but a dozen were used during World War II. After the war, LATL used them on shuttle lines until they were abandoned in 1946.", "Funeral Cars (Type D and Type E) - LARy created two unique Funeral cars to serve the areas cemeteries. The first, a smaller car was rebuilt from a passenger car in 1909 and called “Paraiso”, but was converted again to a passenger car in 1911 when a new, larger car, named “Descanso”, was created. The larger Descanso was used until 1922, when it, too, was rebuilt as a passenger car, and the original, smaller car was re-rebuilt and named “Descanso”", ". The second Descanso was later donated to the Railroad Boosters.", "Experimental cars (Type L and Type M) - LARy purchased two special cars for possible future use. Type L was a low-floor, all-steel car delivered in March, 1925, and Type M, two Peterr Witt pay-as-you-pass cars with front entrances and center exits were delivered in March, 1930. The Depression prevented additional purchases, and by the time there was any opportunity to buy new cars, the new PCC car had been developed.", "Trolley Coaches - LARy had ordered a Twin Coach demonstrator trolley coach in 1937, to test its feasibility, but at that time didn’t order more. After 1945, LATL transferred 40 ACF Brill trolley coaches from the Oakland Key System to Los Angeles for use on the new Trolley Coach line 3 (converted from parts of rail lines D, U, and 3). Additional Brill coaches were purchased, and were used to convert rail line B to Trolley Coach line 2 in 1948. The two trolley coach lines ran until 1963.", "Work and Miscellaneous Cars\n\nLARy had almost 150 work and maintenance cars designed to carry out a variety of tasks on the railway. This included pay and money cars, various specialized repair cars, fuel cars, locomotives and lighter-duty power cars, cranes, material haulers and flat cars, rail grinders, tower cars for overhead maintenance, maintenance-of-way cars for heavy construction, and emergency cars (wreckers).", "Colors\nThe railway was well known for its distinctive yellow streetcars. Initially cars had a two-tone yellow paint scheme with a lighter shade for the roof. Under NCL a three-color \"fruit salad\" scheme was adopted, with a yellow body, a white roof, and a sea-foam green midsection.\n\nFacilities\n\nShops", "Original Shops - When the Huntington syndicate acquired the Los Angeles Railway system in 1898, its headquarters was the former property of the old cable car company at Central Avenue and Wilde Streets, just east of downtown. The facility featured a car house, a power house, and a maintenance and repair shop. A new, larger facility at Central Avenue and 6th Street was completed in August, 1899, and included car houses capable of storing 211 cars, a power house and shops", ". Huntington planned on increasing the number of routes and cars considerably and began planning larger facilities.", "Pacific Electric Shops – The new Pacific Electric shops were completed in 1902 at 7th and Central streets. LARy and the Pacific Electric shared them until July, 1903, when the expansion of both systems forced LARy to return to its original 6th and Central property.", "South Park Shops – Huntington had acquired a parcel of land south of the city, on the blocks encompassed by 53rd St, 55th St, South Park Ave (now Avalon Boulevard) and San Pedro Street in late 1901 for the planned larger maintenance and repair facilities. Construction of the South Park Shops began In August, 1903. The initial effort, estimated to cost $300,000, focused on the northernmost block. A large car house was completed in 1904", ". A large car house was completed in 1904. The shop facility was completed in 1906 and included a machine shop, electrical shop, carpentry shop, a blacksmith, electrical and motor repair shops, wheel and truck repair facilities, a parts store room, and painting facilities. From 1910 through 1926, new shops were built on the southern half of the property, including a large paint shop, a new mill, a fender shop and a large storage facility", ". In 1946, the old shops were closed by new owners, Los Angeles Transit Lines, who used the southern half of the property for maintenance and repairs. The shop was used into the 1990s for bus maintenance and repair.", "Vernon Street Yard - In addition to shops for car maintenance and repair, LARy also had a 44-acre facility for maintenance-of-way operations at the Vernon Street yards, located off of Pacific Boulevard in Vernon. The facility opened in 1910 when the line to Huntington Park was completed and included everything needed for the track department and its activities", ". Facilities included carpentry, machine and other shops, parts storage, offices, the employee ball park, and cottages for the families of Mexicans employed at the yard. The yard was closed in 1946 by LATL, who opened a new Way and Structures facility in the 2 ½-acre Pepper Street yards in the rear of Division 3.", "Divisions\n\nCar houses and their related buildings were known by the numbers of their operating divisions, with five separate locations created through 1912. Each division had offices and at least one car house, where the active streetcars were stored when not in use.", "Division 1 was located at 6th Street and Central Avenue, east of downtown. It originally included a power house, car house, headquarters, and shops, and was the first sizeable operating base for streetcars in the city. A new, larger car house was completed in November, 1899. Over 200 cars could be stored in the car houses at this facility. Streetcars ran from here until 1949. Trolley coaches were stored, maintained and painted here from 1947 to 1963", ". Trolley coaches were stored, maintained and painted here from 1947 to 1963. There is still a bus garage at the location, at MTA Division 1.", "Division 2 car house opened in February, 1904, at the 54th and San Pedro Street property capable of storing 200 cars. Division 2 closed in 1932, due to decreasing rail patronage and the presence of other, more convenient, car houses throughout the city. \n \nDivision 3, at 28th and Idell streets, northeast of the city, opened in February, 1907, and as of 1923 held 231 cars. LATL converted one of the car barns to bus maintenance in 1945. Used for bus storage today.", "LARy’s Division 4 was originally the headquarters of the Los Angeles Traction (LAT) Company. When the great merger was completed in late 1910, LARy acquired a number of new lines and cars and the 1896 LAT car house and other facilities between Georgia Street and 12th Street. After the car house was removed in 1925, the area was open storage, encompassing almost a whole city block. After LAMTA purchased the system, it renamed the facility Division 20", ". After LAMTA purchased the system, it renamed the facility Division 20. The only division that operated streetcars after 1955 (it was closed in 1963), it never housed buses; the Los Angeles Convention Center was built there as part of an urban renewal project.", "In January 1913, another large car house, Division 5, opened, this time southwest of downtown at 54th and Arlington. Though capable of holding 300 cars, as of 1923, it held 169 cars. By 1955, the property was entirely bus. Today the location is a bus garage, MTA’s Division 5.\n\nIn addition to the divisions, LARy had two bus garages.", "In addition to the divisions, LARy had two bus garages.\n\nThe 16th Street Garage, at 16th Street, east of San Pedro Street, also called the Coach Division, was originally used to house LARy’s tower trucks and trouble wagons, but was converted later to a motor vehicle garage, and was expanded in 1925 to house LARY’s own motor coaches. In 1927 a repair shop was added to the property. Today this operates as MTA’s Division 2.", "In addition to the 16th Street Garage, the Los Angeles Motor Bus Company (Later Motor Transit Company), which was 50% owned by LARy, had a garage at Virgil and Santa Monica Boulevard.\n\nAdministrative and operational departments", "Administrative and operational departments\n\nOnce the Huntington Pacific Electric Building was completed at in January 1905, at 6th and Main streets, both PE and LARy moved their offices there. But once the Great Merger was complete in late 1910, the PE Railway saw the need to use the entire building, and LARy began planning for their own office building.", "In May, 1921, the ten-story Los Angeles Railway building was completed at 11th Street and Broadway, and all offices were moved here, occupying mainly the sixth through tenth floors, with the remaining floors devoted to tenants.", "In 1946, LATL moved many operations functions to the divisions, and much of the LARy building was leased to other tenants. It later housed the administrative offices for the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority, and until 1976, it was the headquarters for the Southern California Rapid Transit District.\n\nElectricity", "Electricity\n\nHuntington and Hellman had ambitious plans to expand the Los Angeles Railway, and to plan and construct an interurban electric railway, incorporated in November 1901 as the Pacific Electric Railway. In order to do this, new sources of electricity would be needed to power the new lines.", "Early streetcar power systems generated 500- to 600-volt direct current (DC) which was transmitted to the copper overhead wires via feeder cables. But direct current had a limit of how far it could be transmitted at full power, resulting in line loss which led streetcars to run slower the farther they got from the power house (such as episodes reported by the Los Angeles Times in August 1902", ". Larger systems generated or purchased high-voltage alternating current (AC), which could be transmitted over longer distances to a substation, which used a (Transformer|transformer]] to drop the current to a voltage that motor-generator sets could use to generate the 600 volts DC required by the streetcars.", "Sherman and Clark’s original 1891 plant at the company’s Central Avenue and Wilde Street facility generated direct current by utilizing five pairs of two oil-fired Sterling boilers to power a variety of steam engines, which in turn drove a several 550-volt generators which generated 5,000 horsepower (hp). In August, 1902, a second power plant was built as part of the expansion of the Central Avenue facility, which then encompassed a large property at Sixth and Central (later called Division One)", ". This new steam power station adjoined the 1891 power station, and was also capable of generating 5000 hp.", "In mid-1898, The Los Angeles Railway power station was connected to power generated from a hydroelectric plant that had been created by William G. Kerckhoff and Allan C. Balch’s San Gabriel Electric Company. Located near Azusa at the mouth of the San Gabriel Canyon, the Azusa plant transmitted 15,000 KW AC power 23 miles via power lines to their downtown Los Angeles substation. From there, the power was converted to 500 volts DC and was sent to the LARy power house, and ultimately to the streetcars.", "On March 6, 1902, Huntington’s group and Kerckhoff and his investors formed the Pacific Power and Light Company (PL&P), first, to supply power for the expanding electric railways, and second, to sell excess to parts of Los Angeles County. The Huntington group owned 51% of the stock, held in the name of the Los Angeles Railway", ". The Huntington group owned 51% of the stock, held in the name of the Los Angeles Railway. Capitalized at ten million dollars, the new company absorbed the San Gabriel Electric Company, the Sierra Power Company, and the Kern River Company, the latter which had been working on a hydroelectric power plant 11 miles south of Kernville.", "LARy then began constructing substations which would convert the higher-voltage AC power to the 600 volts required by the motors used on the cars. The first substation was built near Agricultural Park. Two more were quickly constructed and opened in June, 1903, one near Westlake Park and the other at the Los Angeles Plaza. Each substation was fed by 15,000-volt transmission lines, which were connected to transformers that transformed the power to 2,200-volts", ". The resulting power was fed to motor-generator sets which produced the 500-volts direct current, which was fed to the overhead via feeder lines. At its peak, LARy had 16 substations which distributed electricity to all their lines.", "Electricity from PL&P’s completed Kern River Company’s hydroelectric project reached Los Angeles in December, 1905. With a generating capacity of 17,500 KW, its output was transmitted over 123 miles to a receiving station in Los Angeles, which then distributed the power to its primary customers, the electric railways.", "Earlier that same year, Huntington acquired the Redondo Land and Improvement Company and the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway, an electric railway that operated from Los Angeles, through Rosecrans and Gardena, to Redondo Beach with an eye toward developing the town as a resort and a port for lumber deliveries", ". PL&P began construction on a steam plant nearby in December, 1906, which opened in March, 1908, generating 25,000 kw for the LARy, the Pacific Electric, the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway and other railways and areas.", "After the 1910 agreement between Huntington and the SP, in which Huntington’s interests in the Pacific Electric were turned over to the Southern Pacific, and SP’s interest in the LARy was acquired by Huntington, Huntington had a much larger LARy. gained the Pacific Electric’s former city routes, the former LA Traction Company’s lines, and LA and Redondo Railway’s the lines north of 116th Street, totaling 122 additional miles of track. The system now had 345 miles of track", ". The system now had 345 miles of track. These changes, along with the prospect of supplying power to the larger PE Railway underscored the need to create even more power. The cost of electricity generated at the efficient Redondo steam plant was 4 cents per kilowatt-hour, whereas power generated by hydro power cost less than one-tenth of one cent per kilowatt-hour", ". In order to build these new projects, Huntington organized a new Pacific Light and Power Company, capitalized at 40 million dollars, in early 1910. This new company enlarged the Redondo Beach plant in December, 1910, adding two 12,000 KW generators.", "The new PL&P began its most ambitious project, a large hydroelectric system on the San Joaquin River called Big Creek. In November, 1910, Huntington hired the engineering firm Stone and Webster to oversee what would be the first phase of the Big Creek project. After two years of construction on the South Fork of the San Joaquin River, and the expenditure of 13", ".9 million dollars, the Borel station of the Big Creek project began generating 60,000 KW of electricity to Los Angeles in December, 1913, which enabled Huntington close the remaining steam plants, though the Redondo plant was kept as a standby.", "In 1917, after Huntington had begun to concentrate more on his legacy art and book collections, he sold his interest in PL&P to Southern California Edison, but not without negotiating a contract for the company to continue to furnish power to LARy and the Pacific Electric Railway.", "See also\n Angels Flight, funicular railway\n Historic Downtown Los Angeles Streetcar, proposed restoration of some streetcar service\n Plaza Substation\n Los Angeles Pacific Railroad\n List of funicular railways\n San Diego Electric Railway\n Southern California Rapid Transit District\n Streetcars in Los Angeles\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links", "Restoration of Historic Streetcar Service in Downtown Los Angeles Current MTA efforts to restore the streetcars downtown\ngoLAstreetcar An initiative to bring streetcar services back to downtown Los Angeles\nLos Angeles Railway gallery by Metro Transportation Library and Archive\nLos Angeles Transit Lines Training Film From YouTube\nOrange Empire Railway Museum official website\nwetzel/pery.htm Tours in a Bygone Era", "Orange Empire Railway Museum official website\nwetzel/pery.htm Tours in a Bygone Era\nElectric Railway Historical Society list of ninety seven Ira Swett Interurban Press releases, including coverage of Los Angeles Railway.", "Defunct California railroads\nPublic transportation in Los Angeles County, California\nDefunct public transport operators in the United States\nElectric railways in California\nPassenger rail transportation in California\nStreetcars in California\nTransportation in Los Angeles\nTransportation companies based in California\n3 ft 6 in gauge railways in the United States\nNarrow gauge railroads in California\nHistory of Los Angeles\nRailway lines opened in 1901\nRailway lines closed in 1963", "History of Los Angeles\nRailway lines opened in 1901\nRailway lines closed in 1963\n1901 establishments in California\n1963 disestablishments in California\nLos Angeles\n600 V DC railway electrification" ]

[ "William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the late 19th century, one of the most influential philosophers of the United States, and the \"Father of American psychology.\"", "Along with Charles Sanders Peirce, James established the philosophical school known as pragmatism, and is also cited as one of the founders of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology analysis, published in 2002, ranked James as the 14th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century. A survey published in American Psychologist in 1991 ranked James's reputation in second place, after Wilhelm Wundt, who is widely regarded as the founder of experimental psychology", ". James also developed the philosophical perspective known as radical empiricism. James's work has influenced philosophers and academics such as Émile Durkheim, W. E. B. Du Bois, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, Richard Rorty, and Marilynne Robinson.", "Born into a wealthy family, James was the son of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James Sr. and the brother of both the prominent novelist Henry James and the diarist Alice James. James trained as a physician and taught anatomy at Harvard, but never practiced medicine. Instead, he pursued his interests in psychology and then philosophy. He wrote widely on many topics, including epistemology, education, metaphysics, psychology, religion, and mysticism", ". Among his most influential books are The Principles of Psychology, a groundbreaking text in the field of psychology; Essays in Radical Empiricism, an important text in philosophy; and The Varieties of Religious Experience, an investigation of different forms of religious experience, including theories on mind-cure.", "Early life \n\nWilliam James was born at the Astor House in New York City on January 11, 1842. He was the son of Henry James Sr., a noted and independently wealthy Swedenborgian theologian well acquainted with the literary and intellectual elites of his day. The intellectual brilliance of the James family milieu and the remarkable epistolary talents of several of its members have made them a subject of continuing interest to historians, biographers, and critics.", "William James received an eclectic trans-Atlantic education, developing fluency in both German and French. Education in the James household encouraged cosmopolitanism. The family made two trips to Europe while William James was still a child, setting a pattern that resulted in thirteen more European journeys during his life", ". James wished to pursue painting, his early artistic bent led to an apprenticeship in the studio of William Morris Hunt in Newport, Rhode Island, but his father urged him to become a physician instead. Since this did not align with James's interests, he stated that he wanted to specialize in physiology. Once he figured this was also not what he wanted to do, he then announced he was going to specialize in the nervous system and psychology", ". James then switched in 1861 to scientific studies at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard College.", "In his early adulthood, James suffered from a variety of physical ailments, including those of the eyes, back, stomach, and skin. He was also tone deaf.", "He was subject to a variety of psychological symptoms which were diagnosed at the time as neurasthenia, and which included periods of depression during which he contemplated suicide for months on end. Two younger brothers, Garth Wilkinson (Wilkie) and Robertson (Bob), fought in the Civil War. James himself was an advocate of peace. He suggested that instead of youth serving in the military that they serve the public in a term of service, \"to get the childishness knocked out of them", ".\" The other three siblings (William, Henry, and Alice James) all suffered from periods of invalidism.", "He took up medical studies at Harvard Medical School in 1864 (according to his brother Henry James, the author). He took a break in the spring of 1865 to join naturalist Louis Agassiz on a scientific expedition up the Amazon River, but aborted his trip after eight months, as he suffered bouts of severe seasickness and mild smallpox. His studies were interrupted once again due to illness in April 1867", ". His studies were interrupted once again due to illness in April 1867. He traveled to Germany in search of a cure and remained there until November 1868; at that time he was 26 years old. During this period, he began to publish; reviews of his works appeared in literary periodicals such as the North American Review.", "James finally earned his MD degree in June 1869 but he never practiced medicine. What he called his \"soul-sickness\" would only be resolved in 1872, after an extended period of philosophical searching. He married Alice Gibbens in 1878. In 1882 he joined the Theosophical Society.", "James's time in Germany proved intellectually fertile, helping him find that his true interests lay not in medicine but in philosophy and psychology. Later, in 1902 he would write: \"I originally studied medicine in order to be a physiologist, but I drifted into psychology and philosophy from a sort of fatality. I never had any philosophic instruction, the first lecture on psychology I ever heard being the first I ever gave\".", "Career \nJames interacted with a wide array of writers and scholars throughout his life, including his godfather Ralph Waldo Emerson, his godson William James Sidis, as well as Charles Sanders Peirce, Bertrand Russell, Josiah Royce, Ernst Mach, John Dewey, Macedonio Fernández, Walter Lippmann, Mark Twain, Horatio Alger, G. Stanley Hall, Henri Bergson, Carl Jung, Jane Addams and Sigmund Freud.", "James spent almost all of his academic career at Harvard. He was appointed instructor in physiology for the spring 1873 term, instructor in anatomy and physiology in 1873, assistant professor of psychology in 1876, assistant professor of philosophy in 1881, full professor in 1885, endowed chair in psychology in 1889, return to philosophy in 1897, and emeritus professor of philosophy in 1907.", "James studied medicine, physiology, and biology, and began to teach in those subjects, but was drawn to the scientific study of the human mind at a time when psychology was constituting itself as a science. James's acquaintance with the work of figures like Hermann Helmholtz in Germany and Pierre Janet in France facilitated his introduction of courses in scientific psychology at Harvard University. He taught his first experimental psychology course at Harvard in the 1875–1876 academic year.", "During his Harvard years, James joined in philosophical discussions and debates with Charles Peirce, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Chauncey Wright that evolved into a lively group informally known as The Metaphysical Club in 1872. Louis Menand (2001) suggested that this Club provided a foundation for American intellectual thought for decades to come. James joined the Anti-Imperialist League in 1898, in opposition to the United States annexation of the Philippines.", "Among James's students at Harvard University were Boris Sidis, Theodore Roosevelt, George Santayana, W. E. B. Du Bois, G. Stanley Hall, Ralph Barton Perry, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Morris Raphael Cohen, Walter Lippmann, Alain Locke, C. I. Lewis, and Mary Whiton Calkins. Antiquarian bookseller Gabriel Wells tutored under him at Harvard in the late 1890s.", "His students enjoyed his brilliance and his manner of teaching was free of personal arrogance. They remember him for his kindness and humble attitude. His respectful attitude towards them speaks well of his character.", "Following his January 1907 retirement from Harvard, James continued to write and lecture, publishing Pragmatism, A Pluralistic Universe, and The Meaning of Truth. James was increasingly afflicted with cardiac pain during his last years. It worsened in 1909 while he worked on a philosophy text (unfinished but posthumously published as Some Problems in Philosophy). He sailed to Europe in the spring of 1910 to take experimental treatments which proved unsuccessful, and returned home on August 18", ". His heart failed on August 26, 1910, at his home in Chocorua, New Hampshire.", "He was buried in the family plot in Cambridge Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "He was one of the strongest proponents of the school of functionalism in psychology and of pragmatism in philosophy. He was a founder of the American Society for Psychical Research, as well as a champion of alternative approaches to healing. In 1884 and 1885 he became president of the British Society for Psychical Research for which he wrote in Mind and in the Psychological Review.\nHe challenged his professional colleagues not to let a narrow mindset prevent an honest appraisal of those beliefs.", "In an empirical study by Haggbloom et al. using six criteria such as citations and recognition, James was found to be the 14th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century.", "Family \nWilliam James was the son of Henry James (Senior) of Albany, and Mary Robertson Walsh. He had four siblings: Henry (the novelist), Garth Wilkinson, Robertson, and Alice.\nWilliam became engaged to Alice Howe Gibbens on May 10, 1878; they were married on July 10. They had 5 children: Henry (May 18, 1879 – 1947), William (June 17, 1882 – 1961), Herman (1884, died in infancy), Margaret (March 1887 – 1950) and Alexander (December 22, 1890 – 1946).", "Most of William James's ancestors arrived in America from Scotland or Ireland in the 18th century. Many of them settled in eastern New York or New Jersey. All of James's ancestors were Protestant, well educated, and of character. Within their communities, they worked as farmers, merchants, and traders who were all heavily involved with their church. The last ancestor to arrive in America was William James's paternal grandfather also named William James", ". He came to America from Ballyjamesduff, County Cavan, Ireland in 1789 when he was 18 years old. There is suspicion that he fled to America because his family tried to force him into the ministry. After traveling to America with no money left, he found a job at a store as a clerk. After continuously working, he was able to own the store himself. As he traveled west to find more job opportunities, he was involved in various jobs such as the salt industry and the Erie Canal project", ". After being a significant worker in the Erie Canal project and helping Albany become a major center of trade, he then became the first Vice-President of the Albany Savings Bank. William James (grandfather) went from being a poor Irish immigrant to one of the richest men in New York. After his death, his son Henry James inherited his fortune and lived in Europe and the United States searching for the meaning of life.", "Of James' five children, two -- Margaret and Alexander -- are known to have had children. Alexander's descendants are still living.\n\nWritings \nWilliam James wrote voluminously throughout his life. A non-exhaustive bibliography of his writings, compiled by John McDermott, is 47 pages long.", "He gained widespread recognition with his monumental The Principles of Psychology (1890), totaling twelve hundred pages in two volumes, which took twelve years to complete. Psychology: The Briefer Course, was an 1892 abridgement designed as a less rigorous introduction to the field. These works criticized both the English associationist school and the Hegelianism of his day as competing dogmatisms of little explanatory value, and sought to re-conceive the human mind as inherently purposive and selective.", "President Jimmy Carter's Moral Equivalent of War Speech, on April 17, 1977, equating the United States' 1970s energy crisis, oil crisis and the changes and sacrifices Carter's proposed plans would require with the \"moral equivalent of war,\" may have borrowed its title, much of its theme and the memorable phrase from James's classic essay \"The Moral Equivalent of War\" derived from his last speech, delivered at Stanford University in 1906, and published in 1910", ", delivered at Stanford University in 1906, and published in 1910, in which \"James considered one of the classic problems of politics: how to sustain political unity and civic virtue in the absence of war or a credible threat", "...\" and which \"...sounds a rallying cry for service in the interests of the individual and the nation.\"", "In simple terms, his philosophy and writings can be understood as an emphasis on \"fruits over roots,\" a reflection of his pragmatist tendency to focus on the practical consequences of ideas rather than become mired in unproductive metaphysical arguments or fruitless attempts to ground truth in abstract ways. Ever the empiricist, James believes we are better off evaluating the fruitfulness of ideas by testing them in the common ground of lived experience.", "James was remembered as one of America's representative thinkers, psychologist, and philosopher. William James was also one of the most influential writers on religion, psychical research, and self-help. He was told to have a few disciples that followed his writing since they were inspired and enriched by his research.\n\nEpistemology", "James defined true beliefs as those that prove useful to the believer. His pragmatic theory of truth was a synthesis of correspondence theory of truth and coherence theory of truth, with an added dimension. Truth is verifiable to the extent that thoughts and statements correspond with actual things, as well as the extent to which they \"hang together,\" or cohere, as pieces of a puzzle might fit together; these are in turn verified by the observed results of the application of an idea to actual practice.", "James held a world view in line with pragmatism, declaring that the value of any truth was utterly dependent upon its use to the person who held it. Additional tenets of James's pragmatism include the view that the world is a mosaic of diverse experiences that can only be properly interpreted and understood through an application of 'radical empiricism", ".' Radical empiricism, not related to the everyday scientific empiricism, asserts that the world and experience can never be halted for an entirely objective analysis; the mind of the observer and the act of observation affect any empirical approach to truth. The mind, its experiences, and nature are inseparable. James's emphasis on diversity as the default human condition—over and against duality, especially Hegelian dialectical duality—has maintained a strong influence in American culture", ". James's description of the mind-world connection, which he described in terms of a 'stream of consciousness,' had a direct and significant impact on avant-garde and modernist literature and art, notably in the case of James Joyce.", "In \"What Pragmatism Means\" (1906), James writes that the central point of his own doctrine of truth is, in brief:", "Truths emerge from facts, but they dip forward into facts again and add to them; which facts again create or reveal new truth (the word is indifferent) and so on indefinitely. The 'facts' themselves meanwhile are not true. They simply are. Truth is the function of the beliefs that start and terminate among them.Richard Rorty made the contested claim that James did not mean to give a theory of truth with this statement and that we should not regard it as such", ". However, other pragmatism scholars such as Susan Haack and Howard Mounce do not share Rorty's instrumentalist interpretation of James.", "In The Meaning of Truth (1909), James seems to speak of truth in relativistic terms, in reference to critics of pragmatism: \"The critic's trouble … seems to come from his taking the word 'true' irrelatively, whereas the pragmatist always means 'true for him who experiences the workings.'\"\nHowever, James responded to critics accusing him of relativism, skepticism, or agnosticism, and of believing only in relative truths. To the contrary, he supported an epistemological realism position.", "Pragmatism and \"cash value\"", "Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that seeks to both define truth and resolve metaphysical issues. William James demonstrates an application of his method in the form of a simple story: A live squirrel supposed to be clinging on one side of a tree-trunk; while over against the tree's opposite side a human being was imagined to stand", ". This human witness tries to get sight of the squirrel by moving rapidly round the tree, but no matter how fast he goes, the squirrel moves as fast in the opposite direction, and always keeps the tree between himself and the man, so that never a glimpse of him is caught. The resultant metaphysical problem now is this: Does the man go round the squirrel or not?James solves the issue by making a distinction between practical meaning. That is, the distinction between meanings of \"round", ". That is, the distinction between meanings of \"round.\" Round in the sense that the man occupies the space north, east, south, and west of the squirrel; and round in the sense that the man occupies the space facing the squirrel's belly, back and sides. Depending on what the debaters meant by \"going round,\" the answer would be clear", ". Depending on what the debaters meant by \"going round,\" the answer would be clear. From this example James derives the definition of the pragmatic method: to settle metaphysical disputes, one must simply make a distinction of practical consequences between notions, then, the answer is either clear, or the \"dispute is idle.\"", "Both James and his colleague, Charles Sanders Peirce, coined the term \"cash value\":", "When he said that the whole meaning of a (clear) conception consists in the entire set of its practical consequences, he had in mind that a meaningful conception must have some sort of experiential \"cash value,\" must somehow be capable of being related to some sort of collection of possible empirical observations under specifiable conditions.A statement's truthfulness is verifiable through its correspondence to reality, and its observable effects of putting the idea to practice", ". For example, James extends his Pragmatism to the hypothesis of God: \"On pragmatic principles, if the hypothesis of God works satisfactorily in the widest sense of the word, it is true. … The problem is to build it out and determine it so that it will combine satisfactorily with all the other working truths.\"", "From this, we also know that \"new\" truths must also correspond to already existent truths as well.", "From the introduction by Bruce Kuklick (1981, p. xiv) to James's Pragmatism:", "James went on to apply the pragmatic method to the epistemological problem of truth. He would seek the meaning of \"true\" by examining how the idea functioned in our lives. A belief was true, he said, if it worked for all of us, and guided us expeditiously through our semihospitable world. James was anxious to uncover what true beliefs amounted to in human life, what their \"cash value\" was, and what consequences they led to", ". A belief was not a mental entity which somehow mysteriously corresponded to an external reality if the belief were true. Beliefs were ways of acting with reference to a precarious environment, and to say they were true was to say they were efficacious in this environment. In this sense the pragmatic theory of truth applied Darwinian ideas in philosophy; it made survival the test of intellectual as well as biological fitness.", "James's book of lectures on pragmatism is arguably the most influential book of American philosophy. The lectures inside depict his position on the subject. In his sixth lecture, he begins by defining truth as \"agreement with reality.\" With this, James warns that there will be disagreements between pragmatics and intellectualists over the concepts of \"agreement\" and \"reality\", the last reasoning before thoughts settle and become autonomous for us", ". However, he contrasts this by supporting a more practical interpretation that: a true idea or belief is one that we can blend with our thinking so that it can be justified through experiences.", "Whereby the agreement of truths with \"reality\" results in useful outcomes, \"the 'reality' with which truths must agree has three dimensions:\"\n\n \"matters of fact;\"\n \"relations of ideas;\" and\n \"the entire set of other truths to which we are committed.\"", "According to James's pragmatic approach to belief, knowledge is commonly viewed as a justified and true belief. James will accept a view if its conception of truth is analyzed and justified through interpretation, pragmatically. As a matter of fact, James's whole philosophy is of productive beliefs.", "Belief in anything involves conceiving of how it is real, but disbelief is the result when we dismiss something because it contradicts another thing we think of as real. In his \"Sentiment of Rationality\", saying that crucial beliefs are not known is to doubt their truth, even if it seems possible. James names four \"postulates of rationality\" as valuable but unknowable: God, immorality, freedom, and moral duty.", "In contrast, the weak side to pragmatism is that the best justification for a claim is whether it works. However, a claim that does not have outcomes cannot be justified, or unjustified, because it will not make a difference.", "When James moves on to then state that pragmatism's goal is ultimately \"to try to interpret each notion by tracing its respective practical consequences,\" he does not clarify what he means by \"practical consequences.\"\nOn the other hand, his friend, colleague, and another key founder in establishing pragmatist beliefs, Charles S. Peirce, dives deeper in defining these consequences. For Peirce, \"the consequences we are concerned with are general and intelligible.\"", "He further explains this in his 1878 paper \"How to Make Ideas Clear,\" when he introduces a maxim that allows one to interpret consequences as grades of clarity and conception.", "Describing how everything is derived from perception, Peirce uses the example of the doctrine of transubstantiation to show exactly how he defines practical consequences. Protestants interpret the bread and wine of the Eucharist is flesh and blood in only a subjective sense, while Catholics would label them as actual, and divinely mystical properties of flesh via the \"body, blood, soul, and divinity\", even with the physical properties remaining as bread and wine in appearance", ". But to everyone, there can be no knowledge of the wine and bread of the Eucharist unless it is established that either wine and bread possesses certain properties or that anything that is interpreted as the blood and body of Christ is the blood and body of Christ. With this Peirce declares that \"our action has exclusive reference to what affects the senses,\" and that we can mean nothing by transubstantiation than \"what has certain effects, direct or indirect, upon our senses.\"", "In this sense, James's pragmatic influencer Peirce establishes that what counts as a practical consequence or effect is what can affect one's senses and what is comprehendible and fathomable in the natural world.", "Yet James never \"[works] out his understanding of 'practical consequences' as fully as Peirce did,\" nor does he limit these consequences to the senses like Peirce. It then raises the question: what does it mean to be practical? Whether James means the greatest number of positive consequences (in light of utilitarianism), a consequence that considers other perspectives (like his compromise of the tender and tough ways of thinking),", "or a completely different take altogether, it is unclear to truly tell what consequence truly fits the pragmatic standard, and what doesn't. The closest James is able to get in explaining this idea is by telling his audience to weigh the difference it would \"practically make to anyone\" if one opinion over the other were true, and although he attempts to clarify it, he never specifies nor establishes the method in which one would weigh the difference between one opinion over the other", ". Thus, the flaw in his argument appears in that it is difficult to fathom how he would determine these practical consequences, which he continually refers to throughout his work, to be measured or interpreted.", "Will to believe doctrine", "In William James's 1896 lecture titled \"The Will to Believe\", James defends the right to violate the principle of evidentialism in order to justify hypothesis venturing. This idea foresaw 20th century objections to evidentialism and sought to ground justified belief in an unwavering principle that would prove more beneficial. Through his philosophy of pragmatism William James justifies religious beliefs by using the results of his hypothetical venturing as evidence to support the hypothesis's truth", ". Therefore, this doctrine allows one to assume belief in a god and prove its existence by what the belief brings to one's life.", "This was criticized by advocates of skepticism rationality, like Bertrand Russell in Free Thought and Official Propaganda and Alfred Henry Lloyd with The Will to Doubt", ". Both argued that one must always adhere to fallibilism, recognizing of all human knowledge that \"None of our beliefs are quite true; all have at least a penumbra of vagueness and error,\" and that the only means of progressing ever-closer to the truth is to never assume certainty, but always examine all sides and try to reach a conclusion objectively.", "Free will", "In his search for truth and assorted principles of psychology, William James developed his two-stage model of free will. In his model, he tries to explain how it is people come to the making of a decision and what factors are involved in it. He firstly defines our basic ability to choose as free will. Then he specifies our two factors as chance and choice", ". Then he specifies our two factors as chance and choice. \"James's two-stage model effectively separates chance (the in-deterministic free element) from choice (an arguably determinate decision that follows causally from one's character, values, and especially feelings and desires at the moment of decision).\"", "James argues that the question of free will revolves around \"chance.\" The idea of chance is that some events are possibilities, things that could happen but are not guaranteed", ". Chance is a neutral term (it is, in this case, neither inherently positive nor \"intrinsically irrational and preposterous,\" connotations it usually has); the only information it gives about the events to which it applies is that they are disconnected from other things – they are \"not controlled, secured, or necessitated by other things\" before they happen.", "Chance is made possible regarding our actions because our amount of effort is subject to change. If the amount of effort we put into something is predetermined, our actions are predetermined.", "Free will in relation to effort also balances \"ideals and propensities—the things you see as best versus the things that are easiest to do\". Without effort, \"the propensity is stronger than the ideal.\" To act according to your ideals, you must resist the things that are easiest, and this can only be done with effort.\nJames states that the free will question is therefore simple: \"it relates solely to the amount of effort of attention or consent which we can at any time put forth.\"", "Chance is the 'free element,' that part of the model we have no control over. James says that in the sequence of the model, chance comes before choice. In the moment of decision we are given the chance to make a decision and then the choice is what we do (or do not do) regarding the decision.", "When it comes to choice, James says we make a choice based on different experiences. It comes from our own past experiences, the observations of others, or: A supply of ideas of the various movements that are … left in the memory by experiences of their involuntary performance is thus the first prerequisite of the voluntary life", ".What James describes is that once you've made a decision in the past, the experience is stockpiled into your memory where it can be referenced the next time a decision must be made and will be drawn from as a positive solution. However, in his development of the design, James also struggled with being able to prove that free will is actually free or predetermined.", "People can make judgements of regret, moral approval and moral disapproval, and if those are absent, then that means our will is predetermined. An example of this is \"James says the problem is a very 'personal' one and that he cannot personally conceive of the universe as a place where murder must happen.\"", "Essentially, if there were no regrets or judgments then all the bad stuff would not be considered bad, only as predetermined because there are no options of 'good' and 'bad'. \"The free will option is pragmatically truer because it better accommodates the judgments of regret and morality.\" Overall, James uses this line of reasoning to prove that our will is indeed free: because of our morality codes, and the conceivable alternate universes where a decision has been regarded different from what we chose.", "In \"The Will to Believe\", James simply asserted that his will was free. As his first act of freedom, he said, he chose to believe his will was free. He was encouraged to do this by reading Charles Renouvier, whose work convinced James to convert from monism to pluralism. In his diary entry of April 30, 1870, James wrote:", "I think that yesterday was a crisis in my life. I finished the first part of Renouvier's second Essais and see no reason why his definition of free will—\"the sustaining of a thought because I choose to when I might have other thoughts\"—need be the definition of an illusion. At any rate, I will assume for the present—until next year—that it is no illusion. My first act of free will shall be to believe in free will.", "In 1884, James set the terms for all future discussions of determinism and compatibilism in the free will debates with his lecture to Harvard Divinity School students published as \"The Dilemma of Determinism\".\nIn this talk he defined the common terms hard determinism and soft determinism (now more commonly called compatibilism).", "Old-fashioned determinism was what we may call hard determinism. It did not shrink from such words as fatality, bondage of the will, necessitation, and the like. Nowadays, we have a soft determinism which abhors harsh words, and, repudiating fatality, necessity, and even predetermination, says that its real name is freedom; for freedom is only necessity understood, and bondage to the highest is identical with true freedom.", "James called compatibilism a \"quagmire of evasion,\" just as the ideas of Thomas Hobbes and David Hume—that free will was simply freedom from external coercion—were called a \"wretched subterfuge\" by Immanuel Kant.", "Indeterminism is \"the belief in freedom [which] holds that there is some degree of possibility that is not necessitated by the rest of reality.\"", "The word \"some\" in this definition is crucial in James's argument because it leaves room for a higher power, as it does not require that all events be random. Specifically, indeterminism does not say that no events are guaranteed or connected to previous events; instead, it says that some events are not guaranteed – some events are up to chance", ". In James's model of free will, choice is deterministic, determined by the person making it, and it \"follows casually from one's character, values, and especially feelings and desires at the moment of decision.\"", "Chance, on the other hand, is indeterministic, and pertains to possibilities that could happen but are not guaranteed. James described chance as neither hard nor soft determinism, but \"indeterminism\":", "The stronghold of the determinist argument is the antipathy to the idea of chance ... This notion of alternative possibility, this admission that any one of several things may come to pass is, after all, only a roundabout name for chance.\n\nJames asked the students to consider his choice for walking home from Lowell Lecture Hall after his talk:", "What is meant by saying that my choice of which way to walk home after the lecture is ambiguous and matter of chance? ... It means that both Divinity Avenue and Oxford Street are called but only one, and that one either one, shall be chosen.", "With this simple example, James laid out a two-stage decision process with chance in a present time of random alternatives, leading to a choice of one possibility that transforms an ambiguous future into a simple unalterable past. James's two-stage model separates chance (undetermined alternative possibilities) from choice (the free action of the individual, on which randomness has no effect). Subsequent thinkers using this model include Henri Poincaré, Arthur Holly Compton, and Karl Popper.", "Philosophy of religion", "James did important work in philosophy of religion. In his Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh he provided a wide-ranging account of The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) and interpreted them according to his pragmatic leanings. Some of the important claims he makes in this regard:\n Religious genius (experience) should be the primary topic in the study of religion, rather than religious institutions—since institutions are merely the social descendant of genius.", "The intense, even pathological varieties of experience (religious or otherwise) should be sought by psychologists, because they represent the closest thing to a microscope of the mind—that is, they show us in drastically enlarged form the normal processes of things.\n In order to usefully interpret the realm of common, shared experience and history, we must each make certain \"over-beliefs\" in things which, while they cannot be proven on the basis of experience, help us to live fuller and better lives.", "A variety of characteristics can be seen within a single individual. There are subconscious elements that compose the scattered fragments of a personality. This is the reflection of a greater dissociation which is the separation between science and religion.\n Religious Mysticism is only one half of mysticism, the other half is composed of the insane and both of these are co-located in the 'great subliminal or transmarginal region'.", "James investigated mystical experiences throughout his life, leading him to experiment with chloral hydrate (1870), amyl nitrite (1875), nitrous oxide (1882), and peyote (1896). James claimed that it was only when he was under the influence of nitrous oxide that he was able to understand Hegel.", "He concluded that while the revelations of the mystic hold true, they hold true only for the mystic; for others, they are certainly ideas to be considered, but can hold no claim to truth without personal experience of such. American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia classes him as one of several figures who \"took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world.\"", "Mysticism \nWilliam James provided a description of the mystical experience, in his famous collection of lectures published in 1902 as The Varieties of Religious Experience.\nThese criteria are as follows\n Passivity – a feeling of being grasped and held by a superior power not under your own control.\n Ineffability – no adequate way to use human language to describe the experience.\n Noetic – universal truths revealed that are unable to be acquired anywhere else.", "Noetic – universal truths revealed that are unable to be acquired anywhere else.\n Transient – the mystical experience is only a temporary experience.", "James's preference was to focus on human experience, leading to his research of the subconscious. This was the entryway for the awakening transformation of mystical states. Mystical states represent the peak of religious experience. This helped open James's inner process to self-discovery.\n\nInstincts", "Like Sigmund Freud, James was influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. At the core of James's theory of psychology, as defined in The Principles of Psychology (1890), was a system of \"instincts\". James wrote that humans had many instincts, even more than other animals. These instincts, he said, could be overridden by experience and by each other, as many of the instincts were actually in conflict with each other.", "In the 1920s, however, psychology turned away from evolutionary theory and embraced radical behaviorism.", "Theory of emotion \nJames is one of the two namesakes of the James–Lange theory of emotion, which he formulated independently of Carl Lange in the 1880s. The theory holds that emotion is the mind's perception of physiological conditions that result from some stimulus. In James's oft-cited example, it is not that we see a bear, fear it, and run; we see a bear and run; consequently, we fear the bear. Our mind's perception of the higher adrenaline level, heartbeat, etc. is the emotion.", "This way of thinking about emotion has great consequences for the philosophy of aesthetics as well as to the philosophy and practice of education. Here is a passage from his work, The Principles of Psychology, that spells out those consequences:\n\nThe theory of emotion was also independently developed in Italy by the anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi.", "William James' bear \nFrom Joseph LeDoux's description of William James' Emotion:\nWhy do we run away if we notice that we are in danger? Because we are afraid of what will happen if we don't. This obvious answer to a seemingly trivial question has been the central concern of a century-old debate about the nature of our emotions.It all began in 1884 when William James published an article titled \"What Is an Emotion?\"", "The article appeared in a philosophy journal called Mind, as there were no psychology journals yet. It was important, not because it definitively answered the question it raised, but because of the way in which James phrased his response. He conceived of an emotion in terms of a sequence of events that starts with the occurrence of an arousing stimulus (the sympathetic nervous system or the parasympathetic nervous system); and ends with a passionate feeling, a conscious emotional experience", ". A major goal of emotion research is still to elucidate this stimulus-to-feeling sequence—to figure out what processes come between the stimulus and the feeling.", "James set out to answer his question by asking another: do we run from a bear because we are afraid or are we afraid because we run? He proposed that the obvious answer, that we run because we are afraid, was wrong, and instead argued that we are afraid because we run:", "Our natural way of thinking about … emotions is that the mental perception of some fact excites the mental affection called emotion, and that this latter state of mind gives rise to the bodily expression. My theory, on the contrary, is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion (called 'feeling' by Damasio).", "The essence of James's proposal was simple. It was premised on the fact that emotions are often accompanied by bodily responses (racing heart, tight stomach, sweaty palms, tense muscles, and so on; sympathetic nervous system) and that we can sense what is going on inside our body much the same as we can sense what is going on in the outside world", ". According to James, emotions feel different from other states of mind because they have these bodily responses that give rise to internal sensations, and different emotions feel different from one another because they are accompanied by different bodily responses and sensations. For example, when we see James's bear, we run away", ". For example, when we see James's bear, we run away. During this act of escape, the body goes through a physiological upheaval: blood pressure rises, heart rate increases, pupils dilate, palms sweat, muscles contract in certain ways (evolutionary, innate defense mechanisms). Other kinds of emotional situations will result in different bodily upheavals", ". Other kinds of emotional situations will result in different bodily upheavals. In each case, the physiological responses return to the brain in the form of bodily sensations, and the unique pattern of sensory feedback gives each emotion its unique quality. Fear feels different from anger or love because it has a different physiological signature (the parasympathetic nervous system for love)", ". The mental aspect of emotion, the feeling, is a slave to its physiology, not vice versa: we do not tremble because we are afraid or cry because we feel sad; we are afraid because we tremble and are sad because we cry.", "Philosophy of history \nOne of the long-standing schisms in the philosophy of history concerns the role of individuals in social change.", "One faction sees individuals (as seen in Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities and Thomas Carlyle's The French Revolution, A History) as the motive power of history, and the broader society as the page on which they write their acts. The other sees society as moving according to holistic principles or laws, and sees individuals as its more-or-less willing pawns. In 1880, James waded into this controversy with \"Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment\", an essay published in the Atlantic Monthly", ". He took Carlyle's side, but without Carlyle's one-sided emphasis on the political/military sphere, upon heroes as the founders or overthrowers of states and empires.", "A philosopher, according to James, must accept geniuses as a given entity the same way as a biologist accepts as an entity Darwin's \"spontaneous variations\". The role of an individual will depend on the degree of its conformity with the social environment, epoch, moment, etc.", "James introduces a notion of receptivities of the moment", ". The societal mutations from generation to generation are determined (directly or indirectly) mainly by the acts or examples of individuals whose genius was so adapted to the receptivities of the moment or whose accidental position of authority was so critical that they became ferments, initiators of movements, setters of precedent or fashion, centers of corruption, or destroyers of other persons, whose gifts, had they had free play, would have led society in another direction.", "View on Social Darwinism \n\nWhile James accepted Darwin's theories of biological evolution, he regarded Social Darwinism as propagated by philosophers such as Herbert Spencer as a sham. He was highly skeptical of applying Darwin's formula of natural selection to human societies in a way that put the Anglo-Saxons on top of the chain. James' rejection of Social Darwinism was a minority opinion at Harvard in the 1870s and 1880s.\n\nView on spiritualism and associationism", "James studied closely the schools of thought known as associationism and spiritualism. The view of an associationist is that each experience that one has leads to another, creating a chain of events. The association does not tie together two ideas, but rather physical objects.", "This association occurs on an atomic level. Small physical changes occur in the brain which eventually form complex ideas or associations. Thoughts are formed as these complex ideas work together and lead to new experiences. Isaac Newton and David Hartley both were precursors to this school of thought, proposing such ideas as \"physical vibrations in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves are the basis of all sensations, all ideas, and all motions …\"", "James disagreed with associationism in that he believed it to be too simple. He referred to associationism as \"psychology without a soul\"\nbecause there is nothing from within creating ideas; they just arise by associating objects with one another.", "On the other hand, a spiritualist believes that mental events are attributed to the soul. Whereas in associationism, ideas and behaviors are separate, in spiritualism, they are connected. Spiritualism encompasses the term innatism, which suggests that ideas cause behavior. Ideas of past behavior influence the way a person will act in the future; these ideas are all tied together by the soul", ". Therefore, an inner soul causes one to have a thought, which leads them to perform a behavior, and memory of past behaviors determine how one will act in the future.", "James had a strong opinion about these schools of thought. He was, by nature, a pragmatist and thus took the view that one should use whatever parts of theories make the most sense and can be proven. Therefore, he recommended breaking apart spiritualism and associationism and using the parts of them that make the most sense. James believed that each person has a soul, which exists in a spiritual universe, and leads a person to perform the behaviors they do in the physical world", ". James was influenced by Emanuel Swedenborg, who first introduced him to this idea. James stated that, although it does appear that humans use associations to move from one event to the next, this cannot be done without this soul tying everything together. For, after an association has been made, it is the person who decides which part of it to focus on, and therefore determines in which direction following associations will lead", ". Associationism is too simple in that it does not account for decision-making of future behaviors, and memory of what worked well and what did not. Spiritualism, however, does not demonstrate actual physical representations for how associations occur. James combined the views of spiritualism and associationism to create his own way of thinking. James discussed tender-minded thinkers as religious, optimistic, dogmatic, and monistic", ". James discussed tender-minded thinkers as religious, optimistic, dogmatic, and monistic. Tough-minded thinkers were irreligious, pessimistic, pluralists, and skeptical. Healthy-minded individuals were seen as natural believers by having faith in God and universal order. People who focused on human miseries and suffering were noted as sick souls.", "James was a founding member and vice president of the American Society for Psychical Research.\nThe lending of his name made Leonora Piper a famous medium. In 1885, the year after the death of his young son, James had his first sitting with Piper at the suggestion of his mother-in-law.", "He was soon convinced that Piper knew things she could only have discovered by supernatural means. He expressed his belief in Piper by saying, \"If you wish to upset the law that all crows are black, it is enough if you prove that one crow is white. My white crow is Mrs. Piper.\"", "However, James did not believe that Piper was in contact with spirits. After evaluating sixty-nine reports of Piper's mediumship he considered the hypothesis of telepathy as well as Piper obtaining information about her sitters by natural means such as her memory recalling information. According to James the \"spirit-control\" hypothesis of her mediumship was incoherent, irrelevant and in cases demonstrably false.", "James held séances with Piper and was impressed by some of the details he was given; however, according to Massimo Polidoro a maid in the household of James was friendly with a maid in Piper's house and this may have been a source of information that Piper used for private details about James.", "Bibliographers Frederick Burkhardt and Fredson Bowers who compiled the works of James wrote \"It is thus possible that Mrs. Piper's knowledge of the James family was acquired from the gossip of servants and that the whole mystery rests on the failure of the people upstairs to realize that servants [downstairs] also have ears.\"", "James was convinced that the \"future will corroborate\" the existence of telepathy.\nPsychologists such as James McKeen Cattell and Edward B. Titchener took issue with James's support for psychical research and considered his statements unscientific.\nCattell in a letter to James wrote that the \"Society for Psychical Research is doing much to injure psychology\".", "James' theory of the self", "James' theory of the self divided a person's mental picture of self into two categories: the \"Me\" and the \"I\". The \"Me\" can be thought of as a separate object or individual a person refers to when describing their personal experiences; while the \"I\" is the self that knows who they are and what they have done in their life. Both concepts are depicted in the statement; \"I know it was me who ate the cookie.\" He called the \"Me\" part of self the \"empirical me\" and the \"I\" part \"the pure Ego\"", ".\" He called the \"Me\" part of self the \"empirical me\" and the \"I\" part \"the pure Ego\". For James, the \"I\" part of self was the thinking self, which could not be further divided. He linked this part of the self to the soul of a person, or what is now thought of as the mind. Educational theorists have been inspired in various ways by James's theory of self, and have developed various applications to curricular and pedagogical theory and practice.", "James further divided the \"Me\" part of self into: a material, a social, and a spiritual self, as below.", "Material self \nThe material self consists of things that belong to a person or entities that a person belongs to. Thus, things like the body, family, clothes, money, and such make up the material self. For James, the core of the material self was the body.", "Second to the body, James felt a person's clothes were important to the material self. He believed a person's clothes were one way they expressed who they felt they were; or clothes were a way to show status, thus contributing to forming and maintaining one's self-image. Money and family are critical parts of the material self. James felt that if one lost a family member, a part of who they are was lost also. Money figured in one's material self in a similar way", ". Money figured in one's material self in a similar way. If a person had significant money then lost it, who they were as a person changed as well.", "Social self", "Our social selves are who we are in a given social situation. For James, people change how they act depending on the social situation that they are in. James believed that people had as many social selves as they did social situations they participated in. For example, a person may act in a different way at work when compared to how that same person may act when they are out with a group of friends. James also believed that in a given social group, an individual's social self may be divided even further", ". An example of this would be, in the social context of an individual's work environment, the difference in behavior when that individual is interacting with their boss versus their behavior when interacting with a co-worker.", "Spiritual self", "For James, the spiritual self was who we are at our core. It is more concrete or permanent than the other two selves. The spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. Aspects of a spiritual self include things like personality, core values, and conscience that do not typically change throughout an individual's lifetime. The spiritual self involves introspection, or looking inward to deeper spiritual, moral, or intellectual questions without the influence of objective thoughts", ". For James, achieving a high level of understanding of who we are at our core, or understanding our spiritual selves is more rewarding than satisfying the needs of the social and material selves.", "Pure ego \nWhat James refers to as the \"I\" self. For James, the pure ego is what provides the thread of continuity between our past, present, and future selves. The pure ego's perception of consistent individual identity arises from a continuous stream of consciousness.\nJames believed that the pure ego was similar to what we think of as the soul, or the mind. The pure ego was not a substance and therefore could not be examined by science.", "Notable works \n The Principles of Psychology, 2 vols. (1890), Dover Publications 1950, vol. 1: , vol. 2: \n Psychology (Briefer Course) (1892), University of Notre Dame Press 1985: , Dover Publications 2001: \n Is Life Worth Living? (1895), the seminal lecture delivered at Harvard on April 15, 1895\n The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (1897)\n Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897)", "Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897)\n The Will to Believe, Human Immortality (1956) Dover Publications, \n Talks to Teachers on Psychology: and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals (1899), Dover Publications 2001: , IndyPublish.com 2005: \n The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature (1902), \n Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907), Hackett Publishing 1981: , Dover 1995:", "A Pluralistic Universe (1909), Hibbert Lectures, University of Nebraska Press 1996: \n The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to \"Pragmatism\" (1909), Prometheus Books, 1997: \n Some Problems of Philosophy: A Beginning of an Introduction to Philosophy (1911), University of Nebraska Press 1996: \n Memories and Studies (1911), Reprint Services Corp: 1992: \n Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912), Dover Publications 2003,", "Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912), Dover Publications 2003, \n critical edition, Frederick Burkhardt and Fredson Bowers, editors. Harvard University Press 1976: (includes commentary, notes, enumerated emendations, appendices with English translation of \"La Notion de Conscience\")\n Letters of William James, 2 vols. (1920)\n Collected Essays and Reviews (1920)", "Letters of William James, 2 vols. (1920)\n Collected Essays and Reviews (1920)\n Ralph Barton Perry, The Thought and Character of William James, 2 vols. (1935), Vanderbilt University Press 1996 reprint: (contains some 500 letters by William James not found in the earlier edition of the Letters of William James)\n William James on Psychical Research (1960)\n The Correspondence of William James, 12 vols. (1992–2004) University of Virginia Press, \n \"The Dilemma of Determinism\"", "\"The Dilemma of Determinism\"\n William James on Habit, Will, Truth, and the Meaning of Life, James Sloan Allen, ed. Frederic C. Beil, Publisher,", "Collections \n William James: Writings 1878–1899 (1992). Library of America, 1212 p., \nPsychology: Briefer Course (rev. and condensed Principles of Psychology), The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy, Talks to Teachers and Students, Essays (nine others)\n William James: Writings 1902–1910 (1987). Library of America, 1379 p., \nThe Varieties of Religious Experience, Pragmatism, A Pluralistic Universe, The Meaning of Truth, Some Problems of Philosophy, Essays", "The Writings of William James: A Comprehensive Edition (1978). University of Chicago Press, 912 pp., \nPragmatism, Essays in Radical Empiricism, and A Pluralistic Universe complete; plus selections from other works\n In 1975, Harvard University Press began publication of a standard edition of The Works of William James.", "See also \n\n \"The Moral Philosopher and the Moral Life\"\n Psychology of religion\n American philosophy\n List of American philosophers\n William James Lectures\n William James Society\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources \n Essays Philosophical and Psychological in Honor of William James, by his Colleagues at Columbia University (London, 1908)", "Further reading \n James Sloan Allen, ed., William James on Habit, Will, Truth, and the Meaning of Life (2014). Frederic C. Beil, Publisher, \n Margo Bistis, \"Remnant of the Future: William James' Automated Utopia\", in Norman M. Klein and Margo Bistis, The Imaginary 20th Century (Karlsruhe: ZKM, 2016).\n Émile Boutroux, William James (New York, 1912)\n Werner Bloch, Der Pragmatismus von James und Schiller nebst Exkursen über Weltanschauung und über die Hypothese (Leipzig, 1913)", "K. A. Busch, William James als Religionsphilosoph (Göttingen, 1911)\n Jacques Barzun. A Stroll with William James (1983). Harper and Row: \n Deborah Blum. Ghost Hunters: William James and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life After Death (2006). Penguin Press, \n Wesley Cooper. The Unity of William James's Thought (2002). Vanderbilt University Press, \n Howard M. Feinstein. Becoming William James (1984). Cornell University Press, \n Théodore Flournoy, La Philosophie de William James (Saint-Blaise, 1911)", "Théodore Flournoy, La Philosophie de William James (Saint-Blaise, 1911)\n Sergio Franzese, The Ethics of Energy. William James's Moral Philosophy in Focus, Ontos Verlag, 2008\n Sergio Franzese & Felicitas Krämer (eds.), Fringes of Religious Experience. Cross-perspectives on William James's Varieties of Religious Experience, Frankfurt / Lancaster, ontos verlag, Process Thought XII, 2007", "Peter Hare, Michel Weber, James K. Swindler, Oana-Maria Pastae, Cerasel Cuteanu (eds.), International Perspectives on Pragmatism, Newcastle upon Tyne, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009\n James Huneker, \"A Philosophy for Philistines\" in his The Pathos of Distance (New York, 1913)\n Henry James, A Small Boy and Others (1913) and Notes of a Son and Brother (1914)\n Amy Kittelstrom, The Religion of Democracy: Seven Liberals and the American Moral Tradition. New York: Penguin, 2015.", "H. V. Knox, Philosophy of William James (London, 1914)\n R. W. B. Lewis The Jameses: A Family Narrative (1991) Farrar, Straus & Giroux\n Louis Menand. The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (2001). Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, .\n Ménard, Analyse et critique des principes de la psychologie de W. James (Paris, 1911) analyzes the lives and relationship between James, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., Charles Sanders Peirce, and John Dewey.", "Gerald E. Myers. William James: His Life and Thought (1986). Yale University Press, 2001, paperback: . Focuses on his psychology; includes 230 pages of notes.\n Giuseppe Sergi L'origine dei fenomeni psichici e loro significazione biologica, Milano, Fratelli Dumolard, 1885.\n Giuseppe Sergi Principi di Psicologie: Dolore e Piacere; Storia Naturale dei Sentimenti, Milano, Fratelli Dumolard, 1894.\n James Pawelski. The Dynamic Individualism of William James (2007). SUNY press, .", "James Pawelski. The Dynamic Individualism of William James (2007). SUNY press, .\n R. B. Perry, Present Philosophical Tendencies (New York, 1912)\n Robert D. Richardson. William James: In the Maelstrom of American Modernism (2006). Houghton Mifflin, \n Robert D. Richardson, ed. The Heart of William James (2010). Harvard U. Press, \n Jane Roberts. The Afterdeath Journal of an American Philosopher: The View of William James (1978. Prentice-Hall. .)", "Barbara Ross, chapter \"William James: A Prime Mover of the Psychoanalytic Movement in America\", in Psychoanalysis, Psychotherapy, and the New England Medical Scene: 1894-1944 (Science History Publications, New York, 1978) ISBN 9780882021690 \n Josiah Royce, William James and Other Essays on the Philosophy of Life (New York, 1911)", "Josiah Royce, William James and Other Essays on the Philosophy of Life (New York, 1911)\n J. Michael Tilley, \"William James: Living Forward and the Development of Radical Empiricism,\" In Kierkegaard's Influence on Philosophy: Anglophone Philosophy, edited by Jon Stewart, 2012, Ashgate Publishing, 87–98.\n Linda Simon. Genuine Reality: A Life of William James (1998). Harcourt Brace & Company, \n Michel Weber. Whitehead's Pancreativism. Jamesian Applications. Ontos Verlag, 2011,", "Michel Weber. Whitehead's Pancreativism. Jamesian Applications. Ontos Verlag, 2011, \n Michel Weber, \"On Religiousness and Religion. Huxley's Reading of Whitehead's Religion in the Making in the Light of James' Varieties of Religious Experience\", Jerome Meckier and Bernfried Nugel (eds.), Aldous Huxley Annual. A Journal of Twentieth-Century Thought and Beyond, Volume 5, Münster, LIT Verlag, March 2005, pp. 117–32.", "Michel Weber, \"James's Mystical Body in the Light of the Transmarginal Field of Consciousness\", in Sergio Franzese & Felicitas Krämer (eds.), Fringes of Religious Experience. Cross-perspectives on William James's Varieties of Religious Experience, Frankfurt / Lancaster, Ontos Verlag, Process Thought XII, 2007, pp. 7–37.\n Richard Wiseman (2012). Rip it Up: The Radically New Approach to Changing Your Life. London, UK: Macmillan", "External links", "Works by William James at Project Gutenberg\n \n \n William James Society\n Emory University: William James – major collection of essays and works online\n William James correspondence from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society\n Harvard University: Life is in the Transitions: William James, 1842–1910 – online exhibition from Houghton Library\n Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: William James\n William James on Information Philosopher", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: William James\n William James on Information Philosopher\n Booknotes interview with Linda Simon on Genuine Reality: A Life of William James, June 7, 1998\n William James: Looking for a Way Out\n New York Times obituary", "1842 births\n1910 deaths\n19th-century American philosophers\n19th-century American writers\n19th-century psychologists\n20th-century American philosophers\n20th-century American writers\n20th-century American psychologists\nAmerican philosophy academics\nAmerican religion academics\nAnalytic philosophers\nAmerican consciousness researchers and theorists\nAmerican educational psychologists\nEpistemologists\nExistentialists\nFunctionalist psychologists\nHarvard Medical School alumni", "Epistemologists\nExistentialists\nFunctionalist psychologists\nHarvard Medical School alumni\nHarvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni\nHarvard University Department of Philosophy faculty\nHarvard University Department of Psychology faculty\nMetaphysicians\nMysticism scholars\nNew Thought people\nOntologists\nAmerican parapsychologists\nPeople from Staten Island\nPhilosophers from New York (state)\nPhilosophers of history\nPhilosophers of science\nPhilosophers of mind", "Philosophers of history\nPhilosophers of science\nPhilosophers of mind\nPhilosophers of religion\nPhilosophers of war\nPragmatists\nPresidents of the American Psychological Association\nPsychedelic drug researchers\nPsychologists of religion\nSocial philosophers\nCorresponding Fellows of the British Academy\nPhilosophers of death\nMembers of the American Academy of Arts and Letters" ]

[ "The Moscow Gold (), or alternatively Gold of the Republic (), was 510 tonnes of gold, corresponding to 72.6% of the total gold reserves of the Bank of Spain, that were transferred from their original location in Madrid to the Soviet Union a few months after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. This transfer was made by order of the government of the Second Spanish Republic, presided over by Francisco Largo Caballero, through the initiative of his Minister of Finance, Juan Negrín", ". The term also encompasses the subsequent issues relating with the gold's sale to the USSR and the use of the funds obtained. The remaining quarter of the Bank's gold reserves, 193 tonnes, was transported and exchanged into currency in France, an operation which is also known by analogy as the \"Paris Gold\".", "Since the world now was aware of the existence of a large mass of gold in Moscow, the term \"Moscow Gold\" would eventually be popularized for any Russian funding worldwide.", "Since the 1970s the specific episode in Spanish history has been the focus of many essays and works of literature, many relying on information from official documents and records of the time. It has also been the source of strong controversy and historical debate, especially in Spain", ". It has also been the source of strong controversy and historical debate, especially in Spain. Disagreements are centred on the political interpretation of its motivations, on its supposed usage, its effects on the development of the conflict, its subsequent influence on the exiled Government of the Republic and on the diplomatic relations between the Francoist government and the Soviet Union.", "Background\n\nHistorical context", "The Spanish Civil War began on July 19, 1936, after a half-failed coup d'état against the government of the Second Spanish Republic by certain factions of the Spanish Army left approximately a third of the country under the control of the rebel forces. The rebels (also known as the Nationalists) under the leadership of a junta (Generals Emilio Mola, José Sanjurjo and Francisco Franco) established negotiations with Italy and Germany in order to seek material support for the war effort", ". The Republic also established similar negotiations for the same purpose with France. These initiatives led to the progressive internationalization of the conflict, as the lack of military equipment on both sides necessary to continue the war effort became apparent.", "At the start of the Spanish Civil War, the political climate in France was uncertain, with a government dominated by a Popular Front which included in its majority the centrist Radical Party. Despite French Prime Minister Léon Blum's support for military intervention in favour of the Republic, combined with the support of the French Communist Party, the Radical Party was opposed and threatened to remove their support for Blum's government", ". The United Kingdom equally subscribed to such a view, warning of the risk of obstructing the policy of appeasement of the Conservative politician Stanley Baldwin. Thus, the French government approved on July 25, 1936, a measure prohibiting the sending of any supplies from France to either of the belligerent sides", ". On the same day in which the policy of non-intervention of the Western democracies was confirmed, Adolf Hitler gave his consent for the sending of a first shipment of aeroplanes, crew and technical personnel to the Nationalist side in Morocco. Shortly after, Benito Mussolini approved the shipment of a load of cargo aeroplanes and other supplies that would be later used to transport the Nationalist troops stationed in Africa to the Nationalist-controlled city of Seville on July 29.", "On August 1, 1936 the French government forwarded a proposal to the international community for the adoption of a \"Non-Intervention Agreement in Spain\". The British government stated its support for the proposal on August 7. The Soviet Union, Portugal, Italy and the Third Reich also initially subscribed to the agreement, participating in the Non-Intervention Committee, established on September 9. However, the latter three nations maintained their material and logistical support to the Nationalist side", ". The Republican government also managed to acquire supplies from Mexico and the black market.", "During the months of August and September 1936 Nationalist forces gained important military victories, consolidating the Portuguese border after the Battle of Badajoz on August 14 and closing the Basque-French border after taking control of Irun on September 14. These advances coincided with the progressive shift in Soviet policy towards active intervention", ". These advances coincided with the progressive shift in Soviet policy towards active intervention. The Soviet Union moved to establish diplomatic relations with the Spanish Republic, and appointed its first ambassador to Spain, Marcel Rosenberg (former Soviet representative to the League of Nations), on August 21.", "Towards the end of September 1936, communist parties of different countries received instructions from the Comintern and from Moscow for the recruitment and organization of the International Brigades, which would enter active combat during the month of November. Meanwhile, the successful conclusion of the Siege of the Alcázar on September 27 in favour of the Nationalist side allowed the forces of General José Enrique Varela to concentrate their efforts on the Siege of Madrid.", "Throughout the month of October 1936, the Soviet Union shipped material aid to the new Popular Front Republican government led by Prime Minister Francisco Largo Caballero, which included two communist ministers. These actions were then defended by the Soviet ambassador to the United Kingdom, Ivan Maisky, before the Non-Intervention Committee on October 23, by denouncing the aid previously sent by Italy and Germany to Nationalist forces, which also constituted a violation of the Non-Intervention Agreement.", "Status of the gold reserves and the Bank", "In May 1936, shortly before the start of the Civil War, the Spanish gold reserves had been recorded as being the fourth largest in the world. They had been accumulated primarily during World War I, in which Spain had remained neutral", ". They had been accumulated primarily during World War I, in which Spain had remained neutral. It is known, thanks to the records and historical documentation of the Bank of Spain, that the reserves in question were, since 1931, located mainly in the central headquarters of the Bank of Spain in Madrid, though some parts were located in various provincial delegations of the Bank of Spain and other minor deposits in Paris", ". The reserves consisted mostly of Spanish and foreign coins; the fraction of antique gold was less than 0.01% of the total reserves. The amount of gold bullion was insignificant, as the reserves included only 64 ingots.", "The value of the reserves was known at the time by various official publications. The New York Times reported on August 7, 1936, that the Spanish gold reserves in Madrid were worth 718 million U.S. dollars (equivalent to $ billion in ). Such figures corresponded to 635 tonnes of fine gold, or 20.42 million troy ounces", ". Such figures corresponded to 635 tonnes of fine gold, or 20.42 million troy ounces. According to the statistics of the Bank of Spain as published in the official Spanish government newspaper on July 1, the existent gold reserves on June 30, 1936, three weeks before the start of the conflict, reached a value of 5,240 million Spanish pesetas. Viñas calculated that the US$718 million of 1936 were equivalent, adjusted for inflation indexes, to US$9,725 million in 2005", ". In comparison, the Spanish gold reserves available in September of the same year were worth US$7,509 million.", "In 1782, the Bank of Spain was established as a joint stock company (as its French and English counterparts) with a capital of 177 million Spanish pesetas, which was distributed among 354,000 nominative shares of 500 pesetas each. Despite not being a state-owned bank, the institution was subject to the control of both the government, which had the power to appoint the Bank's governor, and the Ministry of Finance, which appointed various members of the Bank's General Council.", "The Law of Banking Ordination () of December 29, 1921, alternatively called Cambó Law (, named after Minister of Finance Francesc Cambó), attempted for the first time to organize the relations within the Bank of Spain as a central bank and as a private bank. The law also regulated the conditions under which the gold reserves could be mobilized by the Bank, which required the preceptive approval of the Council of Ministers", ". The Cambó Law stipulated that the Government had the power to approach the entity and solicit the selling of the Bank's gold reserves exclusively to influence the exchange rate of the Spanish peseta and to \"exercise an interventionist action in the international exchange and in the regularity of the monetary market\", in which case the Bank of Spain would participate in such action with a quantity of gold equal to that dictated by the Treasury.", "Historians have questioned the legality of the gold's movement", ". While authors such as Pío Moa considered that the transfer of gold from the Bank of Spain clearly violated the Law, in the view of Ángel Viñas the implementation of the Cambó Law was strictly followed, based on the testimonies of the last pre-1931 Minister of Finance, Juan Ventosa y Calvell, who before the outbreak of the Civil War judged the application of the current law to be too orthodox, and viewed it as limiting the possibilities of economic growth of the country", ". According to Viñas, the exceptional situation created by the Civil War caused the change in attitude by the Government with respect to the Cambó Law, which moved on to exercise the necessary measures to carry out a \"partial undercover nationalization\" of the Bank of Spain.", "The intentions of the Republican Government to place in the Bank's management individuals loyal to the Republic were solidified through the Decree of August 4, 1936, which removed Pedro Pan Gómez from the office of First Deputy Governor in favour of Julio Carabias, a move which 10 days later was followed by the removal from office of various council members and high executives. After the transfer of gold to the Soviet Union on November 21, the modification of the General Council was decreed", ". The Council underwent new modifications until December 24, 1937, when nine council members were substituted for institutional representatives.", "Paris gold", "With the beginning of the Civil War, the Nationalists began to organize their own government machinery, considering those institutions that remained under the control of the Republican government in Madrid as illegitimate and illegal. As such, a parallel central bank, headquartered in Burgos, was formed. Both Republican and Nationalist banks claimed to be the legitimate Bank of Spain, both domestically and internationally", ". The central headquarters of the Bank of Spain in Madrid, and thus its gold reserves, as well as its most important provincial delegations, were kept under the control of the Republican government, while the Nationalists gained control of the provincial delegations within their territory, including Burgos.", "On July 26, the newly formed Government of Prime Minister José Giral announced the sending of part of the gold reserves to France. Nationalist authorities, informed by their contacts in France and in Republican territory of the Republican government's intentions, affirmed that such usage of the gold was in violation of the aforementioned Cambó Law, and therefore considered such actions illegal", ". Nationalist authorities emitted a decree on August 25 declaring the credit operations of the Republican government null and void:", "Vincent Auriol, French Minister of Finance, and Émile Labeyrie, Governor of the Bank of France, agreed to allow these operations to continue, both because of their antifascist convictions and to strengthen France's own gold reserves and promote the stability of the French franc. The creation of the Non-Intervention Committee did not obstruct the sending of gold to France, and the government of Prime Minister Largo Caballero, formed in September of the same year, continued the former Government's policy", ". French and British governments disregarded the complaints of Nationalist authorities about the allegedly unlawful use of the gold.", "By March 1937, 174 tonnes of fine gold (193 tonnes of crude gold) had been sent to the Bank of France, an amount equivalent to 27.4% of the total Spanish reserves. In exchange, the Republican Ministry of Finance received 3,922 million francs (approximately US$196 million), which were used to purchase military materials and provisions. It is known that additional gold, silver and jewellery were smuggled into French territory", ". It is known that additional gold, silver and jewellery were smuggled into French territory. These transactions were justified by the Republican government on August 30, in view of the gravity of the situation following the military insurrection, in order to \"be able to respond in the extent and intensity necessary to crush the despicable rebellion\".", "During the last year of the Civil War, 40.2 tonnes of gold deposited in Mont de Marsan were judicially retained, and finally handed over to the Francoist government at the conclusion of the war. This became the only successful claim on the Bank of Spain's gold reserves.\n\nFrom Madrid to Moscow", "From Madrid to Moscow\n\nThe transfer order and its motivations \nOn September 13, 1936, the confidential decree from the Ministry of Finance which authorized the transportation of the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain was signed, on the initiative of Minister of Finance of the time, Juan Negrín. The decree also called for the Government to eventually answer for their actions to the Cortes Generales (Spain's legislative body), a clause that was never fulfilled:", "The decree was also signed by the President of the Republic of the time, Manuel Azaña, who would later affirm that the final destination of the reserves was unknown to him. According to Largo Caballero, Azaña was informed afterwards about this decision due to his emotional state and his reserved character towards the operation:", "Many authors, such as Viñas, have pointed out that the decision to transfer the gold reserves outside of Madrid was motivated by the rapid advance of the Army of Africa (commanded by Nationalist General Francisco Franco) which, since its landing on the Spanish mainland, had incessantly marched forward towards the capital", ". At the time the decision was taken, the Army of Africa was stationed only 116 kilometres from Madrid, and the efforts made up to that point to halt its advance had not been even partially successful", ". However, Nationalist forces would not arrive at Madrid until two months later; not because of Republican resistance, but because of Francisco Franco, who decided to deviate his course to aid Nationalist sympathizers in the Siege of Toledo in a highly prestigious operation that consolidated Franco's political position and allowed him to be named Head of State by the Nationalist side on September 29, 1936", ". Madrid withstood the Nationalist offensive until the end of the war, and the Republican government did not relocate to Valencia until November 6.", "One of the main protagonists in these events, Prime Minister Largo Caballero, argued that the transfer of the gold reserves was necessary because of the Non-Intervention Pact and the defection of democratic states previously favourable towards the Republic, which left Madrid under threat from the Nationalist forces.\n\nHowever, Luis Araquistáin, member of the same political party as Largo Caballero, attributed the events to Soviet constraint.", "The intentions of the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI, Iberian Anarchist Federation) of assaulting the vaults of the Bank of Spain to transfer the gold reserves to Barcelona, the main bastion of the FAI, were also discussed. The anarchists intended not only to protect the gold reserves, but to buy war supplies on their own account", ". This plan would have been prepared by Diego Abad de Santillán, one of the most fervent adversaries of Negrín; however, this is considered inaccurate by the libertarian historian Francisco Olaya Morales, who argues that the gold reserves were transferred to Cartagena not for security purposes, but because of a preconceived intention to send the gold to Moscow.", "While the majority of historians consider Minister of Finance Negrín the primary actor of the transfer (either by his own initiative or by the manipulation of the Soviets, depending on different interpretations), it is not clear who first had the idea of sending the reserves outside of Spain", ". The British historian Antony Beevor cites versions that attribute to the Soviet agent Arthur Stashevski the suggestion to Negrín of establishing a \"gold account\" in Moscow, due to the threat posed on Madrid by Nationalist forces and the need to purchase matériel and raw materials", ". Beevor also cites Gabriel Jackson and Víctor Alba, who in their book Juan Negrín, attribute the idea to Negrín himself, arguing that the idea took the Soviets by surprise and that Negrín had to carefully explain his plan to the Soviet ambassador", ". His friend, Mariano Ansó, defended him by affirming that he \"could not have been and was not the author of the transfer of Spanish gold to Russia; at most, he was a cooperative of minor importance of the Spanish Lenin [Largo Caballero] and his counsellors, at the head of which was Luis Araquistáin.\" According to Martín Aceña, it was Stashevski who proposed the deposit of the gold reserves in Moscow", ". Walter Krivitsky, General of the Red Army and responsible for military intelligence in Western Europe at the time, who later fled to the United States, stated that when Stalin decided to intervene in Spain, he wanted to ensure that there was enough gold so as to pay for the Soviet Union's aid to the Republic.", "In any case, it was not until the following day, September 14, that the Council of the Bank of Spain (very reduced after the start of the war) was informed of the Government's decision to appropriate the gold and transfer it. Given that the transfer of the gold had commenced hours before the beginning of the session, the Council was unable to prevent such a decision", ". Nevertheless, the only two stockholder representatives of the Bank of Spain that had not allied themselves with the Nationalists (José Álvarez Guerra and Lorenzo Martínez Fresneda), submitted their resignation", ". Martínez Fresneda protested, arguing that the transfer was illegal, since the gold was of the exclusive property of the Bank of Spain, and thus neither the State nor the Government could take hold of it; he also pointed out that the gold guaranteed by law the convertibility of Bank notes, and should therefore remain in the security vaults of the Bank:", "Transport of the gold to Cartagena \n\nLess than 24 hours after the signing of the decree, on the morning of September 14, 1936, members of the Spanish Carabineers and various militiamen, sent by the Ministry of Finance, walked into the Bank of Spain. The appropriation operation was led by the Treasury Director-General and future Minister of Finance under the government of Juan Negrín, Francisco Méndez Aspe. He was accompanied by Captain Julio López Masegosa and 50 or 60 metallurgists and locksmiths.", "The vaults where the reserves were kept were opened, and during numerous days Government agents extracted all the gold there deposited. The gold was placed in wooden boxes, and transported in trucks to the Atocha railway station, from where it was then transported to Cartagena", ". The city of Cartagena was chosen because, in the words of historian Angel Viñas, \"it was an important naval station, adequately supplied and defended, somewhat distanced from the theatre of military operations and from which the possibility of transporting the reserves through a maritime route somewhere else was available.\"", "The gold was heavily escorted and was transported via railway, according to witnesses of the events. A few days after the extraction of the gold from the Bank of Spain, Bank functionaries retrieved the Bank's silver, valued at a total of 656,708,702.59 Spanish pesetas of the time, which was later sold to the United States and France between June 1938 and July 1939 for a sum slightly more than 20 million U.S. dollars of the time (a portion of the silver was confiscated by French authorities).", "With the gold reserves stored hundreds of kilometres away from the fighting fronts, it seemed that the mandate of the confidential decree of September 13 had been fulfilled. The Nationalists, when informed of the movement of the gold, protested against the events. However, on October 15, Negrín and Largo Caballero decided to transfer the gold from Cartagena to Russia.", "On October 20, the director of the NKVD in Spain, Alexander Orlov, received a ciphered telegram from Stalin, ordering him to organize the shipment of the gold to the USSR, and he agreed on the preparations with Negrín. Orlov responded that he would carry out the operation with the Soviet tankmen that had just arrived in Spain. In his later statement to a United States Senate Subcommittee, he declared the following:", "On October 22, 1936, Francisco Méndez Aspe, Director-General of the Treasury and Negrín's \"right hand\" man, came to Cartagena and ordered the nocturnal extraction of the majority of gold-containing boxes, of an approximate weight of seventy-five kilograms each, which were transported in trucks and loaded onto the vessels Kine, Kursk, Neva and Volgoles. According to Orlov:", "The gold took three nights to be loaded, and on October 25 the four vessels set out en route to Odessa, a Soviet port in the Black Sea. Four Spaniards who were charged with guarding the keys to the security vaults of the Bank of Spain accompanied the expedition. Out of the 10,000 boxes, corresponding to approximately 560 tonnes of gold, only 7,800 were taken to Odessa, corresponding to 510 tonnes. Orlov declared that 7,900 boxes of gold were transported, while Méndez Aspe stated there were only 7,800", ". The final receipt showed 7,800, and it is not known whether Orlov's declaration was an error or if the 100 boxes of gold disappeared.", "The travel and its reception in Moscow \nThe convoy set sail for the USSR, arriving at the port of Odessa on November 2 — the Kursk, however, would arrive several days later because of technical problems. One of Walter Krivitsky's collaborators, General of the State Political Directorate, described the scene at the Soviet port as follows:", "The gold, protected by the 173rd regiment of the NKVD, was immediately moved to the State Depository for Valuables (Goskhran), in Moscow, where it was received as a deposit according to a protocol, dated November 5, by which a reception commission was established. The gold arrived at the Soviet capital a day before the 19th anniversary of the October Revolution", ". The gold arrived at the Soviet capital a day before the 19th anniversary of the October Revolution. According to Orlov, Joseph Stalin celebrated the arrival of the gold with a banquet attended by members of the politburo, in which he was famously quoted as saying, \"The Spaniards will never see their gold again, just as they don't see their ears,\" an expression based on a Russian proverb.", "The gold was stored in the Goskhran under military vigilance, and the remaining boxes of gold carried by the Kursk arrived between November 9 and 10. Shortly after, a recount on the total deposits was carried out; initial estimates suggested that the recount would take a year to complete, and despite it having been done with the utmost care, the recount was finalized in less than two months, having begun on December 5, 1936, and completed on January 24, 1937", ". 15,571 sacks of gold were opened, and 16 different types of gold coins were found inside: pounds sterling (sovereigns or half sovereigns) (70% of the total), Spanish pesetas, French francs, Louis, German marks, Belgian francs, Italian lire, Portuguese escudos, Russian rubles, Austrian schillings, Dutch guilders, Swiss francs, Mexican pesos, Argentine pesos, Chilean pesos, and an extraordinary amount of U.S. dollars. The total deposit was constituted of 509,287.183 kilograms of gold coins and 792", ".S. dollars. The total deposit was constituted of 509,287.183 kilograms of gold coins and 792.346 kilograms of gold in the form of ingots: thus, a total of 510,079,529.30 grams of crude gold, which at an average of .900 millesimal fineness, was equivalent to 460,568,245.59 grams of fine gold (approximately 14,807,363.8 troy ounces). This amount of gold was valued at 1,592,851,910 gold-pesetas (518 million U.S. dollars)", ". This amount of gold was valued at 1,592,851,910 gold-pesetas (518 million U.S. dollars). Additionally, the numismatic value of the coins was much higher than the amount of gold they contained, but the Soviets disregarded this when calculating its value. The Soviets did, however, scrupulously examine all coins to identify those that were fake, defective, or did not contain enough gold. The Soviets never explained what was done with the rare or antique coins, but it is doubtful that they were melted", ". Burnett Bolloten suggests that it is possible that all coins with numismatic value were separated with the intention of gradually selling them on the international market.", "On February 5, 1937 the Spanish ambassador and the Soviet representatives G. F. Grinko, Commissar of Finance, and N. N. Krestinsky, Commissar of Foreign Affairs, signed the final reception act on the deposit of Spanish gold, a document written in French and Russian", ". Paragraph 2, section 4 of the document stipulated that the Spanish government retained the right of re-exporting or utilizing the gold, and the last clause of the document indicated that the Soviet Union would not be held responsible for the utilization of the gold by Spanish authorities", ". Said clause established that \"if the Government of the Republic ordered the exportation of the gold received as a deposit by the USSR, or utilized said gold in any other way, the responsibility assumed by the People's Commissariat of Finance would automatically be reduced, in whole or in part in proportion to the actions taken by the Government of the Spanish Republic\"", ". It was thus clear that the gold reserves deposited in Moscow could be freely employed by the Republic, exporting it or alienating it, and Soviet authorities assumed no responsibility. It is worth noting that the USSR granted the ownership of the gold to the Government of the Republic, instead of to the Bank of Spain, its legal owner.", "When, on January 15, 1937, the newspaper of the CNT Solidaridad Obrera denounced the \"absurd idea of sending the gold reserves abroad\", the government agency Cosmos published a semi-official note (January 20), affirming that the reserves were still in Spain. Not long after, the disputes between the socialist and communist dominated Republican government and the anarchist organizations and the POUM would result in the violent clashes of May 1937, ending in an anarchist defeat.", "Those involved in the events were soon removed from the scene. Stashevski and the Soviet ambassador to Spain, Rosenberg, were executed in 1937 and 1938. Orlov, fearing for his life, fled in 1938 to the United States upon receiving a telegram from Stalin. The Soviet Commissars of Finance, Grinko, Krestinsky, Margoulis and Kagan, were executed on May 15, 1938 or disappeared in varying ways, accused of being part of the anti-Soviet \"Trotskyist-rightist bloc\"", ". Grinko was accused of making \"efforts to undermine the financial power of the USSR.\" The four Spanish functionaries sent to supervise the operation were retained by Stalin until October 1938, when they were permitted to leave the Soviet Union for Stockholm, Buenos Aires, Washington and México City, respectively. The Spanish ambassador, Marcelino Pascua, was transferred to Paris.", "Use of the deposit", "Negrín signed 19 consecutive sell orders between February 19, 1937 and April 28, 1938, directed to the successive People's Commissioner of Finance: G. F. Grinko (until May 1937), V. Tchoula (until September 1937) and A. Zverev (until the end of the war). In them, the value of an ounce of gold troy was converted into pounds sterling, U.S dollars or French francs according to the exchange rate at the London Stock Exchange", ".S dollars or French francs according to the exchange rate at the London Stock Exchange. According to Martín Aceña, 415 tonnes of crude gold (374 tonnes of fine gold) were sold in 1937, then between January and April 1938 another 58 (52) were sold, and out of the remaining gold, 35 (31) tonnes were separated from the original deposit to constitute a second deposit that guaranteed a credit of 70 million U.S. dollars. Thus, by August 1938 a remaining 2 tonnes were still available", ".S. dollars. Thus, by August 1938 a remaining 2 tonnes were still available. The Republic obtained from the selling of the gold a total of 469.8 million U.S. dollars, 131.6 of which remained within the USSR to pay for various purchases and expenses. The Soviets kept 2.1% of the funds in the form of commissions and brokerage, and kept an additional 1.2% in the form of transport, deposit, melting, and refining expenses: in total, slightly less than 3.3%, approximately 14.5 million U.S. dollars", ".3%, approximately 14.5 million U.S. dollars. The remaining 72%, 338.5 million U.S. dollars' worth, was transferred to the Banque Commerciale pour L'Europe du Nord, or Eurobank, in Paris, the Soviet financial organization in France, property of the Gosbank, the national bank of the Soviet Union. From Paris, agents of the Treasury and diplomatic representatives paid for the purchase of matériel acquired in Brussels, Prague, Warsaw, New York and Mexico, among others.", "With the Spanish gold deposited in Moscow, the Soviets immediately demanded from the Republican government payment for the first deliveries of war supplies, which had apparently arrived as a gift to combat international fascism. Stashevski demanded from Negrín US$51 million in accumulated debt and expenses for the transport of the gold from Cartagena to Moscow", ". On the Nationalist side, German and Italian aid also had to be compensated; however, the Germans and Italians allowed Franco to satisfy his debt once the war came to an end. Authors such as Francisco Olaya Morales, and Ángel Viñas criticized the actions and behaviour of the Soviets.", "Historians that have had access to the \"Negrín dossier\" believe that the Soviets did not abuse their position nor did they defraud the Spanish in their financial transactions. Nevertheless, in the words of María Ángeles Pons: \"nothing did the Republicans obtain for free from their Russian friends\", as all types of expenses and services had been charged to the Government of the Republic", ". However, authors such as Gerald Howson believe in the existence of a Soviet fraud in the management of the deposit in Moscow, claiming that Stalin intentionally inflated the price of the matériel sold to the Republic by manipulating the exchange of Russian rubles to U.S. dollars and of U.S. dollars to Spanish pesetas, raising the international exchange rates up to 30% and 40% respectively.", "The increased power of the communists at the time, taking advantage of the political pressure that the Soviet Union could exert having control of the gold, is occasionally mentioned among scholars. According to José Giral, even though the payments for arms and weapons had been fulfilled, the Soviet Union would not send any supplies if the government of the Republic \"did not agree to first appoint important communists to police and military positions.\"", "Ángel Viñas reached the conclusion that the gold deposits were exhausted less than a year before the end of the Civil War, being spent entirely on payment for matériel (including the costs of the operation). However, authors such as Martín Aceña and Olaya Morales criticize Viñas's hypothetical models, which in their opinion lack the evidence to fully validate them, therefore it is impossible for the time being to affirm whether Viñas's conclusion is accurate or not", ". If, in fact, the gold deposits were entirely sold to the Soviet Union, the fate of all the funds generated by the selling of the gold and transferred to the Banque Commerciale de l'Europe du Nord in Paris, remains uncertain, as no documents have been found, neither Soviet nor Spanish, in reference to such operations. According to Martín Aceña, \"the investigation on the gold has not been fully closed.\" In any case, with the gold depleted, the scarce credit of the Republican Ministry of Finance vanished.", "Monetary consequences", "The withdrawal of the Bank of Spain's gold reserves to Moscow has been pointed out to be one of the main causes of the Spanish monetary crisis of 1937. While the gold became in practice an excellent source of funding, its usage dealt a hard blow against the coined and printed currency of the country. Nationalist efforts to expose the exportation of the gold put the government's financial credibility in question, and caused general mistrust among the public", ". A decree issued by the Ministry of Finance on October 3, 1936, obliging Spaniards to yield all the gold they possessed, caused widespread alarm. Even though the government denied in January 1937 that it had deposited the gold reserves abroad (vide supra), it was forced to acknowledge that it had made various payments with such gold.", "Lacking a gold reserve to back up the Republican banknotes, and already suffering from significant devaluation, the Government of the Republic began to issue increasing quantities of banknotes with no backing in gold or silver, thereby increasing the overall paper money in circulation. By April 30, 1938, the number of new banknotes in circulation in Republican-controlled areas was calculated to be 12,754 million pesetas, an increment of 265", ".8% with respect to the 3,486 million of July 17, 1936; by then 2,650 million were in circulation in the Nationalist-controlled territory, in contrast to the approximately 2,000 million of July 1936. These actions caused massive inflation, and led to the amassment of precious metals by the population. While prices increased by 40% in the Nationalist areas, they skyrocketed by up to 1500% in the Republican-controlled areas. Metallic coins began to disappear and were replaced by paper or cardboard circles", ". Metallic coins began to disappear and were replaced by paper or cardboard circles. Transactions with Republican banknotes became undesirable, as such notes were already highly devalued, and it was further known that, if Franco were to win the War, those banknotes would lose their full value, since they were all newly-issued series placed in circulation from the start of the War (June 1936) onwards", ". The State was unable to effectively respond to the lack of metallic currency, causing town halls and other local institutions to print their own provisional bonds, some of which were rejected in neighbouring municipalities.", "Propaganda from the Nationalist side contended that such inflation had been premeditated and artificially created.\n\nThe Republican Government blamed the ills of the economy on the free market, and proposed as its salvation the nationalization of all prices and other changes on the economy in general. A report presented to the plenary session of the Communist Party of March 1937 by José Díaz Ramos openly reflected the position of the party:", "On the international scene, the perception that the Republic was experiencing revolutionary anti-capitalist movement began to arise, favoured by the testimony of Spanish businessmen, such as ex-Minister of the Monarchy and active Nationalist supporter Francesc Cambó, an individual of great influence in the financial world", ". Logically, upon having their interests and properties threatened, the financial world, both Spanish and international, positioned itself unequivocally in favour of the Nationalists (as exemplified by the support of Juan March, Ford and Texas Oil to the Nationalist side, or their facilities to obtain credits), thus accelerating the decline in the international value of the Republican peseta.", "Cold War", "Republican division in exile", "In the last months of the Civil War, a bitter division was formed among Republicans between those who advocated for uniting the Civil War with the imminent Second World War and those wanting to put an end to the conflict by negotiating with the Nationalists", ". Negrín, at the time Prime Minister and a supporter of continuing the war, had the sole support of the Spanish Communist Party (PCE); all other parties, including practicality the totality of his own, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), opposed him", ". Indalecio Prieto had publicly separated himself from Negrín in August 1937, after his departure from the Government, where he had been Minister of Defence; in a meeting with PSOE's central committee, he violently accused Negrín of ceding to communist pressure to remove him from the government. Since the Autumn of 1938, the antagonism between communists and socialists resulted in violent clashes.", "This divide resulted in the coup d'état of Colonel Segismundo Casado in March 1939, actively supported from within the PSOE. The provisional government established thereafter expelled the communists and Negrín supporters from the Republican government, instigated the flight of Negrín from Spain and precipitated the end of the Civil War after attempting to negotiate peace with Franco, who only accepted an unconditional surrender", ". Accused of being a mere marionette of the communists and of having led the Republic to disaster, the issue of the \"Moscow gold\" was one of the arguments used against Negrín in the controversies that followed.", "After the end of the war, the PSOE initiated a slow reconstruction in exile. The party formed around the ideological leadership of Indalecio Prieto from his refuge in Mexico, where party supporters of Negrín had been excluded. The exiled PSOE grouped the leaders of the three political leanings that had divided socialism during the conflict, Julián Besteiro, Indalecio Prieto and Largo Caballero, clearly aligned with an anti-communist and anti-Negrín orientation.", "Among the exiled, in particular among the dissidents of the PCE, it was affirmed that since the end of the war the gold, or at least part of it, had not been converted into currency to purchase weapons for the Republic, criticizing the opacity of the Negrín administration, that retained all related documentation and refused to give account to the Government in exile", ". The criticisms of Francisco Largo Caballero, one of the main figures involved, were especially prominent, which, according to Ángel Viñas, constitute \"one of the myths that have blackened the figure of Negrín.\"", "In January 1955, during the high point of McCarthyism, the American magazine Time reported on the accusations of Indalecio Prieto and other exiled Republicans in Mexico towards Juan Negrín and his \"complicity\" with the Soviets in the \"long-buried story of the gold hoard\"", ". These circumstances were used by the Francoist government, through its embassies in the United States, France and the United Kingdom, to relaunch its diplomatic conflict with the Soviet Union and expressly accuse the USSR of selling the Spanish gold in the European market, even though Time questioned the feasibility of sustaining said accusations", ". The Francoist government had been informed in 1938 that the reserves had been exhausted and converted into currency, but persisted in demanding the reimbursement of the gold deposit:", "The Negrín dossier \nThe accounting registries of the operation, known as the \"Negrín dossier\", have allowed researchers to reconstruct the events after the reception of the Spanish gold reserves in Moscow, when the Soviets melted the coins and transformed them into low gold alloy bars, and in return provisioned the bank accounts of the Republic's Ministry of Finance abroad.", "Juan Negrín died in Paris towards the end of 1956, and his son Rómulo Negrín, following the instructions of his father, handed over the so-called \"Negrín dossier\" to the legal counsel of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Antonio Melchor de las Heras, \"to facilitate the exercise of the actions that may correspond to the Spanish State [...] to obtain the devolution of the cited gold to Spain\", according to the testimony of the consul at Paris, Enrique Pérez Hernández", ". The negotiations with the Francoist government had been initiated by the ex-Minister of Justice and friend of Negrín, Mariano Ansó, by request of Negrín himself, who considered that the documents were the property of the Spanish government", ". A document dated from December 14, 1956, written and signed by Ansó and forwarded by Negrín's son expressed \"the deep preoccupation [of Negrín] for the interests of Spain against those of the USSR\" and his fear of \"the defencelessness to which Spain was being reduced by being deprived of all justificatory documentation of its rights, in a forced transaction, proceeding, perhaps, from the most vast and important operation carried out by two countries", ".\" After enumerating other various issues that \"weighed down the spirit of Mr. Negrín\", among them the Soviet retention of \"important and numerous units of the Spanish merchant fleet\", according to Ansó, Negrín held that \"in a subsequent account liquidation between Spain and the USSR, his duty as a Spaniard obliged him to an unconditional support of the interest of the nation.\"", "The dossier, an incomplete series of documents related to the deposit and administration of the gold of the Bank of Spain, was sent to Alberto Martín Artajo, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and was forwarded to the Lieutenant Governor of the Bank of Spain, Jesús Rodríguez Salmones, who, without inspecting the papers, ordered them to be stored in the security vaults of the institution", ". Even though the transfer was made with strict discretion, as Negrín had intended for it to remain an absolute secret, the events soon came into public domain, which instigated passionate controversies. In January 1957, Franco sent a diplomatic commission to Moscow, officially to discuss the repatriation of Spaniards — however, it was suspected that the commission's actual goal was the opening of negotiations for the return of the gold, in light of the documentary evidence uncovered by the Negrín dossier.", "The same documentation that Negrín had refused to give to the exiled Republican government for over 15 years was willingly handed over to the Francoist authorities. The President of the exiled Republican government, Félix Gordón Ordás, wrote on January 8, 1957:", "In April 1957, Time reported that the Soviet government, through Radio Moscow as well as Pravda, assured the Francoist government that the gold reserves deposited in Moscow had been used in their totality by the Republican government to \"make payments abroad\", and were thus \"soon all gone\". The Mundo Obrero newspaper published on May 15 of the same year the following article:", "The note did not include any evidence and contradicted statements issued by prominent members of the Republican government. For example, Negrín had affirmed to José Giral in 1938 that two-thirds of the gold deposited in Moscow was still available. Also, since the statements issued were not part of an official notice, the Soviet government could distance itself from what had been affirmed if it were to be deemed appropriate", ". Indalecio Prieto regarded the declarations of Pravda as false, enumerated the expenses of the Spanish funds in the benefit of the French Communist Party and affirmed:", "Historiography and myth", "Pablo Martín Aceña, Francisco Olaya Morales and Ángel Viñas have been among the most distinguished researchers on the topic, the last one being the first to gain access to the documentation of the Bank of Spain", ". At an international level, Gerald Howson and Daniel Kowalsky have had direct access to the documents of the archives of the Soviet Union opened to researchers during the 1990s, focusing their investigations on the relations between the Soviet Union and the Spanish Republic, and the deliveries of military material.", "Even though the decision to use the gold reserves has not given rise to much debate or interest among historians, its final destination continues to be a motive for controversy", ". Authors like Viñas, Ricardo Miralles or Enrique Moradiellos defend Negrín, both as head of the Ministry of Finance and as Prime Minister (Viñas considers him \"the great Republican statesman during the Civil War\") and view that the sending of the gold to the USSR had a political, economic and operative rationale accepted by the Republican government", ". It was, according to the aforementioned, the only viable option faced with the Nationalist advance and the non-intervention of the Western democracies, making the survival of the Republic possible in an adverse international context. For these authors, without the selling of the reserves, there would not have been the slightest possibility of military resistance", ". On the other hand, Martín Aceña viewed the sending of the gold as a mistake that cost the Republic its financial capability: the USSR was a distant country, of opaque bureaucracy and financial functioning foreign to international norms and guarantees, in such respect that it would have been logical to send the gold to capitalistic countries such as France or the United States", ". With respect to Olaya Morales, exiled anarchist during the Francoist regime, in all of his works he described the administration of Negrín as criminal and denies the arguments and theories of Ángel Viñas, considering the \"gold issue\" a gigantic fraud and one of the most important factors in the Republican defeat.", "Authors like Fernando García de Cortázar, Pío Moa or Alberto Reig Tapia have defined the Spanish episode of the Moscow Gold as mythical, used to justify the disastrous situation of post-war Spain.", "See also \n Flight of the Norwegian National Treasury\n Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War\n Francoist Spain\n Nazi gold\n Operation Fish\n Romanian Treasure, the Romanian gold reserves sent (alongside other valuable objects) to Russia for safekeeping during World War I, but never returned.\n Yamashita's gold\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography", "Bibliography \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nSpanish Civil War\n1936 in Spain\nGold\nGovernment finances in the Soviet Union\nForeign trade of the Soviet Union\nSoviet Union–Spain relations\nWeapons trade\nGold in the Soviet Union" ]

[ "Women's reproductive health in the United States refers to the set of physical, mental, and social issues related to the health of women in the United States. It includes the rights of women in the United States to adequate sexual health, available contraception methods, and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases. The prevalence of women's health issues in American culture is inspired by second-wave feminism in the United States", ". As a result of this movement, women of the United States began to question the largely male-dominated health care system and demanded a right to information on issues regarding their physiology and anatomy. The U.S. government has made significant strides to propose solutions, like creating the Women's Health Initiative through the Office of Research on Women's Health in 1991", ". However, many issues still exist related to the accessibility of reproductive healthcare as well as the stigma and controversy attached to sexual health, contraception, and sexually transmitted diseases.", "Sexual health\nThe Department of Health and Human Services has developed a definition for sexual health in the United States based on the World Health Organization’s definition of sexual health.", "“Sexual health is a state of well-being in relation to sexuality across the life span that involves physical, emotional, mental, social and spiritual dimensions. Sexual health is an intrinsic element of human health and is based on positive, equitable, and respectful approach to sexuality, relationships, and reproduction, that is free of coercion, fear, discrimination, stigma, shame, and violence.", "The United States government recognizes that gender is a factor which plays a significant role in sexual health.", "With this being said, there is a war on women's rights in the United States. It is based on politics in the United States and for candidates to be able to get votes or funding for certain area agendas. With this being said, one of the first pushes with making laws tighter for agendas would be the law in Louisiana. This allowed women who have had abortions in the past to be able to sue the doctor who did the procedure for up to ten years past the abortion date", ". The law stated that they could sue for damages not only done to the women, but also to the emotional damages of the fetus. This was a political move that has gotten the ball rolling for more states to put laws into place against abortions or for abortions depending on the political agenda they are pushing in each state.", "Race and reproductive health", "In the United States, reproductive health disparities exist between white and minority women. Historical abuses and experimentation on Black women by medical professionals has led to greater distrust of the medical community. Additionally, current racial biases held by medical personnel affect medical care of Black and minority women. Compared to white women, the rate of HIV infection is disproportionately high in Black and Hispanic women. These groups account for 75% of infection among women", ". These groups account for 75% of infection among women. There is also a gap in contraceptive use between white and Black women. These disparities are partly due to lack of health insurance and financial costs. Comprehensive gynecological care can also help reduce the rates of HIV in minority women and increase contraceptive use. The lack of reproductive health is a contributing factor in higher rates of maternal mortality in the United States among minority women, especially among Black women", ". Black women are 3.3 times more likely than white women to die from pregnancy-related causes. This is partly due to lack of insurance before pregnancy and higher rates of chronic conditions, such as obesity and diabetes. Furthermore, there are disparities in the use and success of ART among racial and socio-economic groups given the high costs, limited access, and varied utilization. A review of all U.S", ". A review of all U.S. studies that considered race and ethnicity when reporting success rates for ART, found white women consistently had the highest success rates, followed by Hispanic and Asian women, and African American women.", "Contraception", "The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has identified national reproductive health goals including reducing the level of unintended pregnancy. Out of all the pregnancies reported in the United States, half are unplanned. Of the 62 million women in the U.S. who are able to have children, seven out of ten of these women are sexually active but do not want to become pregnant. Contraception is a major issue of women’s reproductive health", ". Contraception is a major issue of women’s reproductive health. 86% of sexually active women practice some form of contraception and 30% of these women use a hormonal form of contraception. Women in the U.S. have more freedoms in deciding their use of contraceptives among other global nations, comparatively.", "The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has significant pull over the decision-making process women must make when choosing different types of contraception. Women of the U.S. still rely on their healthcare providers for the majority of information they receive about contraceptive use. In order to help healthcare providers provide appropriate family planning care, the CDC published the US Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2010", ". The CDC lists methods of birth control under two categories: reversible and permanent.", "Reversible methods of birth control\n Copper T intrauterine device (IUD) or levonorgestrel intrauterine system (LNG IUD)\n Hormonal methods\n Implant\n Injection\n Combined oral contraceptives\n Progestin-only pill\n Patch\n Hormonal vaginal contraceptive ring\n Emergency contraception\n Barrier methods\n Diaphragm or cervical cap\n Male condom\n Female condom\n Spermicides\n Fertility awareness-based methods\n Family planning\n Fertility awareness\n Abstinence", "Permanent methods of birth control\n Female sterilization\n Transcervical sterilization", "Hormonal contraception", "Hormonal contraception is the most popular method of contraception among women in the United States. Women under the age of thirty more commonly use hormonal oral contraception as their preferred method. Hormonal contraceptives can be almost 100% effective when used perfectly, but in most cases it is used imperfectly. Oral hormonal contraceptives have an 8% failure rate", ". Oral hormonal contraceptives have an 8% failure rate. The popularity of oral hormonal contraceptives among women changes over the course of a year with 32% of women deciding to discontinue use of an oral hormonal contraceptive after one year of typical use.", "Intrauterine contraception", "A large stigma exists among women on the topic of using an intrauterine device (IUD) as a form of contraception. The two types of IUDs that exist for current contraceptive use are Copper T 380A and levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system or Mirena. IUDs are underutilized by women in the United States with only 2% of women using IUD as an effective contraception. The effectiveness of a contraceptive is described in terms of perfect use and typical use", ". The effectiveness of a contraceptive is described in terms of perfect use and typical use. An IUD is different than most forms of contraception, as it is 100% effective in both cases of use. It is not possible to use IUDs improperly or inconsistently because they must be inserted inside of the uterus. Women in the United States have many fears about the use of IUDs, making them a less popular form of contraception. For many women in the U.S", ". For many women in the U.S., IUDs are only an option when other traditional contraception methods have been used (hormonal birth control, barrier methods, etc.) or when a woman has already had children. The fear surrounding use of an IUD stems from a lack of proper education on all available contraception options available to women in the U.S.", ".S.. Women have cited being afraid of the quality of the device itself, placing the device inside their bodies voluntarily, and the time required to hold the device in place. There is a lack of knowledge about female anatomy and pregnancy prevention, even among women of the United States.", "Fertility awareness based models", "Fertility awareness based methods consist of non-hormonal or invasive contraceptive methods. These take the form of only having sex when a woman isn’t fertile, thus avoiding having sex during ovulation. Women can monitor her menstrual cycle pattern using calendar-based methods or symptoms-based methods. The most effective calendar-based method is the Standard Days Method, a method in which the woman doesn’t have sexual intercourse on days 8-19 of her cycle", ". One symptoms-based method is the TwoDay Method, a method where the woman checks for secretions twice a day and if she has had vaginal secretions that day or the day prior, she can potentially get pregnant. A second symptoms-based method is the Sympto-thermal method, which combines a woman’s observations of her vaginal secretions with the use of an electric hormonal fertility monitor which detects urine hormones", ". One benefit of using fertility awareness based method is that there are no side effects or health issues as no drugs or implants are used.", "Reproductive mental health", "Women’s reproductive mental health focuses on mental health issues that are experienced on account of or exacerbated by transitions in female reproductive cycles. This field is a subset of women's mental health, which includes mental health issues faced by women at all points in their life. Reproductive mental health specifically focuses on reproductive transitions in female life. These include puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, infertility, perimenopause and menopause, abortion, and more", ". These transitions, brought on by hormonal changes, can trigger emotional and physical symptoms in some women. While the severity ranges from person to person, it was reported that over 75% of women with regular menstrual cycles report unpleasant physical or psychological symptoms, premenstrually. Reproductive psychiatry is the subset that is focused on treating these issues", ". Reproductive psychiatry is the subset that is focused on treating these issues. These clinicians are trained experts in the diagnosis and treatment of mood and anxiety symptoms that occur throughout these cycles in female reproduction. This field is growing as the current gap in mental health specifically focused on women and their reproductive cycles is realised and people see how impactful studying these issues can be.", "Sexual health and contraception", "Sexual health includes sexual development and reproductive health, the ability to have strong interpersonal relationships, appreciate one’s body, interact appropriately with both genders, and express love, affection, and intimacy in ways consistent with one’s own values. Sexual health also includes intercourse that is “consensual, non-exploitative, honest, pleasurable, and protected against unintended pregnancy and STDs” according to the 2008 World Health Organization (WHO) consensus statement", ". For most young people, sexual interest begins at the time of puberty and there is evidence that those who get sexual health information from their parents are more likely to initiate sexual activity later than those who get it from their peers although some young people prefer to get information from professionals.", "Contraception is used to prevent pregnancy. It is the means by which people can family plan so that they have their optimal number of children with their desired spacing. According to WHO, contraceptives help lower maternal ill-health and the number of deaths related to pregnancy. It also reduces unsafe abortions and reduces HIV transmission between the mother and children", ". It also reduces unsafe abortions and reduces HIV transmission between the mother and children. According to the CDC, couples need to consider safety, effectiveness, availability, and acceptability when choosing their form of contraception. Some forms of contraception like the use of male condoms also help lessen the transmission of HIV and other STDs while other forms of contraception like intra-uterine devices (IUDs) do not.", "Intra-uterine devices (IUDs) are a reversible form of contraception and includes the placing of a small T shaped device made of copper inside the uterus. It releases a small amount of progestin each day so that the woman does not get pregnant. It can stay from 3–6 years and has a very low risk rate", ". It can stay from 3–6 years and has a very low risk rate. Hormonal methods of contraception include an arm implant that releases progestin and can be used for around five years, an injection once in three months, combined oral contraceptives, progestin only pill, patch, and hormonal vaginal contraceptive ring. Barrier methods include a diaphragm or cervical cap, sponge, male and female condoms, and spermicides", ". Emergency contraception is not to be used regularly and prevents pregnancy after sexual intercourse. It includes a copper IUD and emergency contraceptive pills. Finally, permanent methods of contraception are female sterilization called tying tubes and male sterilization called a vasectomy.", "Birth control", "Birth control (BC) pills are oral hormonal pills that prevent a woman’s ovaries from releasing eggs during ovulation. The side effects of birth control pills include acne, bleeding or spotting between periods, bloating, high blood pressure, depression, fatigue, dizziness, fluid retention, headache, increased appetite, insomnia, melasma, mood swings, nausea, breast pain and tenderness, vomiting, and weight gain", ". Health risks associated with BC include blood clots, gallbladder disease, heart attack, high blood pressure, liver cancer, and stroke although these are very uncommon according to Planned Parenthood. Estrogen containing pills also increase the likelihood of venous thrombosis compared to only progestin containing pills. They increase the risk from 2 to 10 venous thrombotic events per 10,000 women-years to 7 to 10 venous thrombotic events per 10,000 women-years.", "Birth control can also affect mental health and there is recent evidence of a correlation between birth control use and mood disorders. Some studies have found correlations between use of BC and lifetime diagnoses of depression in adolescents. The mood effects are thought to be due to the reaction between estrogen and progestin and other mood-related neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine", ". Studies have found that hormonal contraceptive users had higher rates of depression, anxiety, fatigue, neurotic symptoms, sexual disturbances, compulsion, anger, and negative menstrual effects.  For women with preexisting mental health conditions, it is advisable to talk to a psychiatrist before taking BC pills. Women may also benefit by speaking to a counselor.", "Abortion", "The link between abortion and mental health has become a controversial and political issue in the US. Some people claim that abortion causes mental health issues while others agree there is no scientific evidence to back up this claim. The term “post-abortion syndrome” was coined to refer negative psychological impacts following an abortion", ". The symptoms are based on post traumatic stress disorder; however, this diagnosis is not recognised by the American Psychological Association and is not included in the DSM. This disorder was pushed by pro-life movements and Crisis Pregnancy Centres, which were designed to talk women out of having abortions. There have been lots of studies conducted to examine the link between mental health and abortion", ". There have been lots of studies conducted to examine the link between mental health and abortion. Many of these studies are very limited, and do not account for the impact of confounding variables, one of the biggest being pre-existing mental health issues prior to getting an abortion. One systematic review found a clear trend linking the highest quality studies with results that showed a neutral link, and the most flawed studied finding a link between abortion and negative mental health impacts", ". These findings are common amongst investigations that have gone back and looked through previous findings and analysed their methods and conclusions.", "The Turnaway study was the first study to rigorously examine the effects of women being denied an abortion. Participants included nearly 100 women seeking abortions from 30 facilities across the country. Interviews were conducted over a 5 year period, and compared women who did receive a wanted abortion to those turned away because they passed the facilities gestational age limit. This study did not find any correlation between having an abortion and negative mental health impacts", ". In fact, it found that 95% of women report that the decision was the correct one for them over 5 years after the procedure. This study also showed the clear negative impacts of being denied a wanted abortion on women’s general health and trajectory of life", ". Some of these negative impacts include being more likely to stay with abusive partners, being more likely to suffer anxiety and loss of self esteem, as well as serious implications for the children born of unwanted pregnancies and the existing children in the family, if any.", "Postpartum period \nThe postpartum period has one of the highest rates of mental health issues associated with it, with 85% of women experiencing a mood disturbance. The current three categories of postpartum disorders include the postpartum blues, postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis.", "Most women experience what has been named the postpartum blues, which is usually considered to be more mild and shorter lived than other disorders associated with the postpartum period. During the postpartum blues an individual may experience anxiety, irritability and mood swings. The postpartum blues are considered to be a relatively common and normal side effect of giving birth, especially in western countries where there is a lack of general community and familial support", ". The stress of delivery combined with changes in hormone levels is thought to contribute to the postpartum blues many people face after childbirth. It is thought that the postpartum blues are relatively common; however, if they last for more than 2 weeks individuals might be at risk for more severe postpartum disorders.", "Postpartum depression (PDD) is a psychiatric disorder observed in the postpartum period. PDD can occur at any point after delivery but most commonly it onset 2–3 months after childbirth. PDD is nearly indistinguishable from regular depression; however, in PDD the negative thoughts and feelings are primarily centered on the newborn. PDD symptoms include feeling of guilt and incompetence, low mood, fatigue, poor concentration, anxiety and suicidal ideation", ". Hormone changes, marital dissatisfaction, and inadequate social support are all factors that contribute to experiences of PPD. Those with a history of mental health issues, such as major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, are the most vulnerable to developing PDD after childbirth.", "Postpartum psychosis (PP) is the most rare and severe disorder that can occur in the postpartum period. The development of PP is very abrupt and is usually observed within at least the first two weeks after childbirth, and symptoms can start as early as 24–48 hours after giving birth. Severe mood swings, as seen in bipolar disorder,  are usually observed, as well as erratic behavior, confusion and delusional beliefs about the newborn", ". Auditory hallucinations can also occur in which the mother is instructed to harm herself or her child. Those with PP are at risk for suicide and potentially infanticide and must be treated in a hospital. There are resources available for PP survivors as well as those suffering from PP.", "Other postpartum disorders include postpartum OCD, specific anxiety disorders, and postpartum PTSD. Postpartum OCD is characterized by obsessive thoughts and compulsions surrounding the health safety of the newborn as well as intrusive thoughts about harming the child. It is also thought that 5.6% of women show symptoms of postpartum PTSD, which can be characterized by flashbacks to childbirth, nightmares and tension and can occur when pregnant again", ". Maternity neurosis is another potential issue associated with the postpartum period, in which mothers are excessively anxious and worried about the health and safety of their child.", "Perimenopause and menopause", "Perimenopause is when a woman’s monthly menstruation begins to decrease in her late 40s and early 50s. Perimenopause increases the risk of symptoms affecting mental health and can exacerbate previously diagnosed mental illnesses. The greatest evidence is for the recurrence and existence of depression. Studies also found that women with bipolar disorder were more likely to have depressive episodes during perimenopause. Perimenopause is also when women are at an increased risk for schizophrenia", ". Perimenopause is also when women are at an increased risk for schizophrenia. Some women also show increased anxiety symptoms.", "Menopause is when a woman’s period stops and is unable to get pregnant naturally. This happens when a woman’s ovaries age and are no longer able to make hormones necessary for reproduction. During menopause, the incidence of depression doubles. There is some evidence that women are more likely to have panic attacks during menopause. However, there is some difficulty differentiating panic attacks from hot flashes which are a common symptom of menopause. Many women also experience sleeping problems", ". Many women also experience sleeping problems. Treatment options include antidepressants if diagnosed with depression. Other options that help are eating a balanced diet, exercising and practicing yoga.", "Inequalities in mental healthcare", "Not only are there gender disparities when it comes to mental health issues - women being twice as likely than men to suffer from mental illness, but there are also inequalities between white women and women of color when it comes to accessing mental health treatments. In 2017, women of color reported feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness and sadness almost twice as often as white women did", ". It is more likely that people of color and women of color specifically will be misdiagnosed and prescribed antipsychotics at higher rates, because of the racism and the implicit bias in the US healthcare system The stigma women of color face also adds to this inequality, with the idea of the “strong black women'' creating barriers for many that would benefit from mental health treatments", ". Asian Americans also face barriers, and are shown to be three times less likely to seek mental health treatment than their white counterparts in the U.S. Another factor that adds to the inequalities in mental health care is the lack of POC providers. APA data published in 2020 showed that less than 5% of mental healthcare providers were black, 4% are Asian American and 4% are Hispanic and only 2% of psychiatrists are black. The racial profiles of providers does not match the racial diversity of the U.S", ". The racial profiles of providers does not match the racial diversity of the U.S. which adds to the inequality and bias people of color and especially women of color can face when attempting to get mental health assistance.", "Reproductive problems", "Pregnancy complications in women with PCOS", "One in ten women of childbearing age in the U.S. are affected by Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Women with this condition are at a higher risk of experiencing complications during pregnancy. PCOS is a medical condition consisting of hyperandrogegism, ovarian dysfunction and polycystic ovarian morphology (PCOM). The hormonal imbalance caused by PCOS can cause the egg to not properly develop or be released as would otherwise normally occur during ovulation in a healthy menstrual cycle", ". In the past, research of PCOS has been focused on diagnostics, symptoms, and effects such as infertility. Very little research has been done concerning complications than can result when a woman with PCOS conceives. This is a very important condition to address as it can have major financial impacts on the lives of those diagnosed with PCOS. Currently, in the U.S", ". Currently, in the U.S. it can cost the healthcare system nearly four million dollar to treat women with PCOS, due to the many other conditions that PCOS can cause including: cardiovascular disease; pregnancy-induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia; miscarriage; infertility; and type 2 diabetes mellitus. There has also been some research conducted concerning the outcomes of the health of offspring born to mothers with PCOS", ". The results have proved inclusive, but they are thought to be at an increased risk of developing cardiovascular dysfunction and endocrine dysfunction.", "Assisted reproductive technology", "Infertility is an increasingly common issue among women of reproductive age. The CDC estimates 6% of women between the ages of 15 and 44 in the U.S. cannot get pregnant after one year of trying. Along with medicine and surgery, one growing treatment for infertility is assisted reproductive technology (ART). ART describes any method in which both eggs and embryos are manipulated outside the woman’s body, of which in vitro fertilization (IVF) is the most common type. In 2015, 1.7% of all live births in the U", ". In 2015, 1.7% of all live births in the U.S. were the result of ART. While this method of conception is becoming more common, it is still a highly complex and debated issue. ART has been associated with many adverse health outcomes including an increased risk of birth defects, and a 1.71 increased risk of preeclampsia among women. Success rates for ART are improving yet vary significantly and are particularly dependent on age", ". Success rates for ART are improving yet vary significantly and are particularly dependent on age. For instance, for women younger than 35 the average success rate of ART in 2015 was 31% compared to 16% for those aged 38–40, and 3% for those over 44 years of age.", "Infertility, pregnancy loss, birth trauma, and delivery of offspring", "Several effects of infertility, pregnancy loss, birth trauma, and delivery of offspring lead to a wide range of major health issues in women. In the US about 1 in 5 (19%) are unable to get pregnant after one year of trying to get pregnant. A qualitative study in Iran assessed the emotional-psychological consequences of infertility and concluded that it created psychological distress and caused depression in a subset of the women", ". A more quantitative study conducted by Penn University linked the association between infertility and mortality. The study revealed that women with a history of infertility have a 20 percent increased risk of cancer-related mortality, including increased risk of death from breast cancer and diabetes. pregnancy loss or miscarriages can also lead to increased risks of psychological and/or physical health problems", ". Miscarriages can create a greater risk of high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes. About 3% also suffer from infections after a miscarriage. Depression and Anxiety disorders are the main mental health issues that arise after a pregnancy loss. In the case of a birth, certain traumas can occur. Some women who experience traumatic events during pregnancy develop postnatal post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which is considered a type of anxiety disorder", ". In the case of a relatively normal delivery of offspring other health issues can arise. About 16% of pregnancies in 2019 had hypertensive disorders. Overall pregnancy mortality has been increasing over time and pregnancy-related mortality ratios for black women were more than three times higher than for white women. The top 5 causes of pregnancy death include cardiovascular conditions (16.2%), infection or sepsis  (13.9%),cardiomyopathy (12.5%),hemorrhage (11.0%), thrombotic pulmonary or other embolism (9", ".9%),cardiomyopathy (12.5%),hemorrhage (11.0%), thrombotic pulmonary or other embolism (9.4%). Overall pregnancy loss, trauma, delivery, and infertility can have a wide range of psychological and physiological major problems.", "Sexually transmitted diseases", "A health objective of the United States government through The United States Public Health Service is to reduce the number of cases of sexually transmitted diseases from the 1980s to today. The Centers for Disease Control is responsible for many studies on the topic of STDs as well as the effect of STDs on women and girls. STDs are defined by the CDC as “infections you can get from having sex with someone who has an infection”", ". There are more than twenty types of identifiable STDs caused by bacteria, parasites, or viruses. Within one year in the United States there are an estimated 12 million cases of sexually transmitted diseases that occur. Of those 12 million cases there are 1.5 million cases of gonorrhea, 500,000 cases of genital herpes, and 110,000 cases of syphilis. Both women and men in the United States are affected by the STD epidemic. However, women have a stronger negative health reaction to some STDs than men", ". However, women have a stronger negative health reaction to some STDs than men. The negative health effects of STDs for women can include pelvic inflammatory disease (PIV), ectopic pregnancy, chronic pelvic pain, infertility, fetal and perinatal infections, complications to pregnancy, fetal loss, cervical cancer, and increased risk of tubal pregnancy, intrauterine growth retardation and preterm delivery. Women in the U.S. are less likely to seek out treatment for STDs for a variety of reasons", ". Women in the U.S. are less likely to seek out treatment for STDs for a variety of reasons. Some STDs appear asymptomatic in women therefore women are less likely to seek out treatment for STDs than men. Like most health topics, there is a gap that exists in understanding the pathology of diseases in women versus men. Women receive less than adequate information about the prevalence of STDs as well as the symptoms of STDs.", "As with contraception in the U.S., a stigma exists which prevents women from learning about all possible STDs and their treatment. A study by the Journal of Women’s Health identified STDs as a topic women would rather not talk about. Women, with their partners, do not commonly discuss STDs as well. The stigma surrounding STDs in the U.S. prevents women from discussing the topic even among healthcare provides, close friends, partners, and family", ". Younger women do not understand the risk that STDs can pose to them. For example, Chlamydia is one of the most common STDs affecting women and men in the United States. Women do not follow the recommendation that people should be screened for Chlamydia at least once per year. Most women do not even know any information about Chlamydia as an STD besides the fact that it is curable.", "STD screening is most effective for identifying STDs in women, but is commonly underutilized by women in the U.S. Healthcare access and access to family planning clinics increases the probability that women will seek out and utilize STD screening. Screening is a form of testing healthy versus symptomatic people against traditional symptoms of STDs to determine STD prevalence", ". The Planned Parenthood Federation of America has available clinics across the United States for the purpose of screening for STDs as well as other family planning services. Planned Parenthood suggests that sexually active women screen for STDs at least annually. A study by the Journal for Women’s Health identified a need for a knowledge campaign on STD screening targeting sexually active young women.", "Resources\n\nWomen's rights in the United States\nReproductive rights\nWomen's health in the United States" ]

[ "The Assyrian independence movement is a political movement and ethno-nationalist desire of ethnic Assyrians to live in their indigenous Assyrian homeland in northern Mesopotamia under the self-governance of an Assyrian State.", "The tumultuous history of the traditional Assyrian homeland and surrounding regions, as well as the Partition of the Ottoman Empire, led to the emergence of modern Assyrian nationalism. To this respect, Assyrian independence movement is a \"catch-all\" term of the collective efforts of proponents of Assyrian nationalism in the context of the modern nation state", ". As a result of genocide and war, the Assyrians were reduced to a minority population in their indigenous homeland, resulting in political autonomy being unattainable due to the security risks, and the rise of the movement for Assyrian independence as it exists today.", "The territory that forms the Assyrian homeland is, similarly to the rest of Mesopotamia, currently divided between present-day Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria. The efforts are specifically in the regions where larger concentrations still exist, and not the Assyrian homeland in its entirety, those regions with large concentrations being Erbil, and the Duhok Governorate in Iraq, the latter two being located in the Iraqi Kurdistan region and the Al-Hasakah Governorate in Syria", ". Mosul and the Nineveh Governorate had a sizable Assyrian presence prior to the takeover and forced expulsion of the Assyrian population by the Islamic State in 2014.", "In his 53 years as Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East, Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII petitioned the League of Nations, and then the United Nations for an Assyrian Homeland before stepping down as Patriarch in 1973. The assassination of Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII in 1975 was a demoralizing moment to Assyrian freedom fighters, as he was a significant spiritual and temporal leader.", "The independence movement is active both within the homeland and throughout the global diaspora, with much resistance from the local Middle Eastern states and regions, as well as the Kurdish. The movement has spanned centuries, with the initial conceptualization of modern Assyrian statehood occurring in the 19th century with the waning of the Ottoman Empire and rise of European control of the region, notably by the British and Russian Empires, as well as the French Republic.", "There have been many hindrances to the movement, including events such as the Assyrian genocide, Simele massacre, internal conflicts over naming disputes and Assyrian churches, portrayals in media, and Arabization, Kurdification, and Turkification policies. Most recently, the primary problem for them has been ISIS, which took over and expelled a massive portion of the population from the Nineveh Plains in Northern Iraq. The Assyrian Aid Society of America has requested that the U.S", ". The Assyrian Aid Society of America has requested that the U.S. government designate these actions as a genocide against Assyrians in these regions.", "Austen Henry Layard, the British Empire's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century, stated that the Assyrians had survived the Arab, Mongol, and Kurdish conquests in the mountains of Hakkari and northern Mesopotamia, where they had fought to maintain their independence in the nineteenth century.", "In 2016, the Iraqi Parliament voted against a new Christian province in Nineveh Plains, which was a stated political objective of all major Assyrian political groups and institutions. Assyrians, including the leader of the Assyrian Christian party Bet al-Nahrain, Romio Hakkari, protested the Iraqi parliament's decision and stated \"We do not want to be part of the possible Sunni (Arab) autonomous region in Iraq\".\n\nWorld War I\n\nIn Turkey", "Assyrians primarily lived in the provinces of Hakkari, Şırnak, and Mardin in southeastern Turkey, in an area which was once a part of ancient Assyria. These areas also had sizable Kurdish and Armenian populations", ". These areas also had sizable Kurdish and Armenian populations. Starting in the nineteenth century, the Armenians, Greeks and Assyrians of eastern Anatolia, including the Hakkari mountains in Van province, were the subject of forced relocations and executions, a possible cause being religious persecution of the ancient indigenous pre Islamic and pre Turkic Christian communities of Anatolia.", "The Hakkari region was the main center of Assyrian population in early 20th century. According to the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, there were 18,000 Assyrians in Van Vilayet, 15,000 in Bitlis Vilayet and 25,000 in Diyarbekir Vilayet in 1912/1913. In 1914, Young Turks with the aid of the Kurds and other Muslim ethnic groups, began to systemically target the ancient indigenous Christian communities of Asia Minor, primarily composed of Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks and to a small degree Georgians", ". Events such as the Assyrian genocide, Greek genocide and Armenian genocide followed, as did the similarly motivated Great Famine of Mount Lebanon which targeted Maronite Christians. In the beginning, key Assyrian nationalist leaders and religious figures were wiped out of communities, followed by the systematic massacre and ethnic cleansing by the Turks, Arabs, Kurds, Chechens and Circassians of hundreds of thousands of unarmed men, women and children.", "At the outset of World War I, almost one half of the Assyrian population lived in what is today South eastern Turkey with the remainder living over the borders in what is now northern Iraq, north east Syria and north west Iran. The Young Turks, an ultra-nationalist Turkish group, took control of the Ottoman Empire only five years before the beginning of World War I", ". The Ottomans planned to join the side of the Central Powers (Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria) and join them in dividing up the British, Russian and French empires in Asia. In 1914, knowing that it was heading into the war, the Ottoman government passed a law that required the conscription of all young males into the Ottoman army to support the war effort. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I in October 1914 by bombarding Russian ports on the Black Sea.", "In late 1914 and 1915, the Ottoman Empire under the Young Turk regime declared a holy war on the British, French and Russian Empires.", "Ottoman Turkish army and allied Kurdish, Turcoman, Circassian and Chechen militias proceeded to massacre tens of thousands of Assyrians in the Hakkari mountains of ancient Assyria (upper Mesopotamia, present-day southeastern Turkey) due to Russia's massacres and hostilities towards Muslim populations in northern Iran (including but not limited to Azeris, Kurds, and Iranians) in 1911 and onwards", ". Following the unprovoked massacres of tens of thousands of unarmed Assyrian civilians by the Ottoman Turkish Army and their allies, the Patriarch of the Assyrians, Mar Shimun XIX Benjamin, declared war on the Ottomans on behalf of the Assyrian nation. The Assyrian army under General Dawid, the patriarch's brother, led the Assyrians in a successful breaking of an encircling Ottoman army maneuver, and across the Persian border onto the plains of Urmia.", "Assyrian volunteers", "In April 1915 the Assyrian nation, led by its main tribal chiefs of Bit-Jilu, Bit-Bazi, Bit-Tyari, Bit-Tkhuma, Bit-Shamasha, Bit-Eshtazin, Bit-Nochiya and Bit-Diz \"took arms against the Turks at the request of the Russians and British.\" Over the summer of 1915 they successfully held off the far larger Ottoman army and 10,000 Kurdish militia and tribal forces fighting with the Ottomans", ". The Ottomans, unable to break the Assyrians, then brought in heavy artillery and ammunition that, together with an overwhelming advantage in numbers and supplies, eventually overwhelmed the lightly armed and outnumbered Assyrians. The Russian Army Corps had promised reinforcements, which came too late, leading most of the population of the tribes and districts of JILU, Baz, Tyari, Tkhuma, Tergawar, Mergawar, Bohtan, Barwari, Amadia and Seert to be massacred, including women, children and the elderly", ". Churches and monasteries were destroyed or converted into Mosques, livestock and possessions were stolen by the Turks and Kurds, who then occupied the emptied Assyrian towns, villages and farmsteads. Survivors of fighting age joined the Assyrians of northwest Persia, northern Iraq and northeast Syria, including those from Salamas and Urmia to form an Assyrian army, and had a real prospect of fighting with the Russians to evict the Ottoman forces from Persia, and historic Assyria", ". The Assyrians, under such leaders as Agha Petros and Malik Khoshaba, scored a number of victories over the Ottoman and Kurdish forces despite overwhelming odds during this period, until the Russian Revolution of 1917 dissolved the Russian army.", "Lacking allies except the British some miles away in Mesopotamia, the Assyrians planned to follow the Russian lines to the Caucasus, but the Allies (including British, French, and Russian diplomats) urged Mar Shimoun and the Assyrian army to defend the Allied-Ottoman front lines, and enjoy autonomy and independence in the post-war period as their reward.", "An Assyrian nation under British and Russian protection was promised the Assyrians first by Russian officers, and later confirmed by Captain Gracey of the British Intelligence Service. Based on these representations, the Assyrians of Hakkari, under their Mar Shimun XIX Benjamin and the Assyrian tribal chiefs \"decided to side with the Allies, first with Christian Russia, and next with the British, in the hope that they might secure after the victory, a self-government for the Assyrians", ".\" The French also joined the alliance with the Assyrians, offering them 20,000 rifles, and the Assyrian army grew to 20,000 men co-led by Agha Petrus Elia of the Bit-Bazi tribe, and Malik Khoshaba of the Bit-Tiyari tribe, according to Joseph Naayem (a key witness, whose account on the atrocities was prefaced by Lord James Bryce).", "Assyrian resistance in Tur Abdin", "The Assyrian Syriac Christians of Diyarbekir Vilayet made significant resistance. Their strongest stand was at the villages of Azakh, Iwardo, and Basibrin. For month, Kurdish tribes and Turkish soldiers commanded by Ömer Naci Bey were unable to subdue the mostly Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholic Assyrian villagers who were joined by Armenian and other Assyrian refugees from surrounding villages", ". The leaders of the Azakh fedayeen swore We all have to die sometime, do not die in shame and humiliation and lived up to their fighting words.", "Also in April, Kurdish and Turkish troops surrounded the village of Tel Mozilt and imprisoned 475 men (among them, Reverend Gabrial, the famous red-bearded priest). The following morning, the prisoners were taken out in rows of four and shot. Arguments rose between the Kurds and the Ottoman officials on what to do with the women and orphans left behind", ". At about this time, in Seert the Turks and Kurds \"assembled all the children of from six to fifteen years and carried them off to the headquarters of the police. There they carried out mass infanticide, leading the poor little things to the top of a mountain known as Ras-el Hadjar and cut their throats one by one, throwing their bodies into an abyss.", "In October 1914, 71 unarmed Assyrian males of Gawar were arrested and taken to the local government centre in Bashkale and killed in cold blood.", "Also in April, Kurdish troops surrounded the village of Tel Mozilt and imprisoned 475 men (among them, Reverend Gabrial, the famous red-bearded priest). The following morning, the prisoners were taken out in rows of four and shot. Arguments rose between the Kurds and the Ottoman officials on what to do with the women and orphans left behind. At about this time, in Seert the Turks and Kurds \"assembled all the children of from six to fifteen years and carried them off to the headquarters of the police", ". There they led the poor little things to the top of a mountain known as Ras-el Hadjar and cut their throats one by one, throwing their bodies into an abyss, according to Joseph Naayem.", "In April 1915, Ottoman Troops invaded Gawar, a region of Hakkari, and massacred the entire population.", "In late 1915, Cevdet Bey, Military Governor of Van Province, upon entering Siirt (or Seert) with 8,000 soldiers whom he himself ordered the massacre of almost 20,000 Assyrian civilians in at least 30 villages. Cevdet is reported to have held a meeting in February 1915 at which he said, \"We have cleansed the Armenian and Assyrian Christians from Azerbaijan, and we will do the same in Van\"", ". The following is a list documenting the villages that were attacked by Cevdet's soldiers and the estimated number of Assyrian deaths:", "Ain-Dare – 200\n Archkanes – 500\n Artoull (Altahtanie) – 500\n Artoun (Alfokanie) – 1000\n Bekend – 500\n Benkof – 200\n Berke – 500\n Charnakh – 200\n Dehok – 500\n Der-Chemch – 200\n Der-Mar-Yacoub – 500\n Der-Maze-n – 300\n Derr-Rabban – 300\n Galwaye – 500\n Goredi – SW\n Guedianes – 500\n Hadide – 1000\n Hartevena – 200\n Ketmes – 1000\n Mar-Chmoune – 300\n Mar-Gourya – 1000\n Piros – 1000\n Redwan – 500\n Sadagh – 2000\n Sairt – 2000\n Tellimchar – 1500\n Teln,evro – 500\n Tentas – 500", "The village of Sairt/Seert, was populated by Assyrians and Armenians. Seert was the seat of an Assyrian Archbishop of the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Assyrian orientalist Addai Scher who was helped by local Kurds to flee but was eventually murdered by Ottoman soldiers. On March 3, 1918, the Ottoman army led by Kurdish chieftain Simko Shikak, assassinated Mar Shimun XIX Benyamin, one of the Assyrians leaders at that time", ". The Assyrian leader Malik Khoshaba attacked Simko and sacked his citadel in revenge, however the Kurdish chieftain himself managed to flee.", "The Assyrian National Council stated in a December 4, 1922, memorandum that the total death toll was unknown, but it estimated that about 275,000 Assyrians died between 1914 and 1918. The Times of London was perhaps the first widely respected publication to document the fact that 250,000 Assyrians eventually died in the Ottoman genocide of Christians, a figure which many journalists and scholars have subsequently accepted....", "As the Earl of Listowel, speaking in the House of Lords on 28 November 1933, stated, the Assyrians fought on our side during the war, and made enormous sacrifices, having lost altogether by the end of the War about two-thirds of their total number..... About half of the Assyrian nation died of murder, disease, or exposure as refugees during the war, according to the head of the Anglican Church, which had a mission to the Assyrians.", "Scholars have placed the number of Assyrian victims at 250,000 to 500,000.", "Contemporary sources usually speak of the events in terms of an Assyrian genocide, along with the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide and Great Famine of Mount Lebanon by the Ottoman Empire. For example, the International Association of Genocide Scholars reached a consensus that \"the Ottoman campaign against Christian minorities of the Empire between 1914 and 1923 constituted a genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, Pontian and Anatolian Greeks and Maronites", ".\" After this resolution, the Dictionary of Genocide co-authored by eminent genocide scholar Samuel Totten, an expert on Holocaust education and the genocide in Darfur, contained an entry on the \"Assyrian genocide.\"[18] The president of Genocide Watch, Gregory Stanton, endorsed the \"repudiation by the world's leading genocide scholars of the Turkish government's ninety year denial of the Ottoman Empire's genocides against its Christian populations, including Assyrians, Greeks, and Armenians.\"", "The death toll of the Assyrian genocide in Turkey alone was approximately 250,000, according to contemporary and more recent sources. \"In 1918, according to the Los Angeles Times, Ambassador Morgenthau confirmed that the Ottoman Empire had 'massacred fully 2,000,000 men, women, and children – Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians; fully 1,500,000 Armenians.' \" With 250,000 Greeks among the dead, that makes Ambassador Morgenthau's estimate of Assyrian deaths about 250,000", ". The Assyro-Chaldean National Council stated in a December 4, 1922, memorandum that the total death toll is unknown, but it estimates that about 275,000 Assyrians died between 1914 and 1918.", "Assyrian rebellion\n\nThe Assyrian rebellion was an uprising by the Assyrians in Hakkari that began on the 3rd of September 1924 and ended on the 28th of September. The Assyrians of Tyari and Tkhuma returned to their ancestral land in Hakkari in 1922, shortly after World War I without permission from the Turkish government. This led to clashes between the Assyrians and the Turkish army with their Kurdish allies that grew into a rebellion in 1924, it ended with the Assyrians being forced to retreat to Iraq.", "In Persia", "The Ottoman forces threatened Urmia and northwestern Persia after the Russian Revolution (1917) in October 1917. The Assyrians, led by Assyrian general Agha Petros held them off until June 1918, however their Armenian allies resistance broke and vastly outnumbered, out gunned and cut off from lines of supply, they were again encircled and had no choice but to break through the Ottoman forces to their British allies across the border in Mesopotamia", ". Up to 100,000 Assyrians left Persia in 1918, but around half died of Turkish, Kurdish and Arab massacres and related outbreaks of starvation and disease. About 80 percent of Assyrian clergy and spiritual leaders had perished, threatening the nation's ability to survive as a unit.", "Hannibal Travis, assistant professor of law at Florida International University, wrote in the peer-reviewed journal Genocide Studies and Prevention that the Assyrian city of Urmia was \"completely wiped out, the inhabitants massacred,\" with 200 surrounding villages ravaged, 200,000 of Assyrian dead, and hundreds of thousands more Assyrians starving to death in exile from their agricultural lands", ". The Associated Press reported that in the vicinity of Urmia, Turkish regular troops and Kurds are persecuting and massacring Assyrian Christians. The victims included 800 massacred near Urmia, and 2,000 dead from disease. Two hundred Assyrians were burned to death inside a church, and the Russians had discovered more than 700 bodies of massacre victims in the village of Hafdewan outside Urmia, mostly naked and mutilated, some with gunshot wounds, others decapitated, and still others carved to pieces", ". Other leading British and American newspapers corroborated these accounts of the Assyrian genocide. The New York Times reported on 11 October that 12,000 Assyrian Christians had died of massacre, hunger, or disease; thousands of girls as young as seven had been raped in sex attacks, or forcibly converted to Islam; Christian villages had been destroyed, and three-fourths of these Christian villages were burned to the ground.", "In Iraq\nIn Iraq, the Assyrians joined the Kurds and Arabs in celebrating the Ottoman defeat, and joining the levies of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia.", "Up to 1921 the Levies had consisted of Arabs, Kurds, Turkomans. Now that Iraq Army was to be formed, the Arabs would be required to join it rather than to go to Levies. It was decided to enlist Assyrians in the Levies", ". It was decided to enlist Assyrians in the Levies. In July 1922 Orders were issued in which no more Arabs were to be enlisted as they were required to join the new Iraqi Army, those serving could not re-engage, A 1922 Treaty between Great Britain and Iraq allowed for the continued existence of the Levies as \"local forces of the Imperial garrison\" and that its members were \"members of the British Forces who are inhabitants of Iraq\"", ". By 1923 the ethnic composition of the Iraq Levies was half Assyrian and half Kurd, plus an attached battalion of Marsh Arabs and a few Turkomans. The original Levies were not Assyrians until 1928 when the Levies became entirely Assyrian.", "As a high British official in Mesopotamia wrote in 1933: \"As they became more disciplined they rendered excellent service; during the Arab rebellion of 1920 they displayed, under conditions of the greatest trial, steadfast loyalty to their British officers.\"\n\nIn 1931 Assyrian Levies and Iraqi Army units were patrolling Barzan district. Government troops implied government control, which Shaykh Ahmad still wanted to avoid.", "On October 23, 1931, the Catholicos of the Church of the East, Mar Shimun XXI Eshai, and the maliks of the Jilu, Baz, Tkhuma, and Upper Tiyari tribes wrote to the Chairman of the Mandates Commission of the League of Nations to request resettlement out of Iraq, to French Syria or any other country in the League that would accept them as refugees. The Patriarch wrote that: \"The Assyrian Nation which is temporarily living in Iraq, ..", ". The Patriarch wrote that: \"The Assyrian Nation which is temporarily living in Iraq, ... have unanimously held a Conference with me in Mosul on the 20th October 1931. At this Conference were present the temporal and spiritual leaders of the Assyrian Nation in its entirely as it will be observed from the document quoted above bearing the leaders' signatures.\" He goes on to say that at the conference, \"it was unanimously decided by all those present that it is quite impossible for us to live in Iraq", ".\" He added that \"together with the undermentioned signatories being the responsible leaders of the Assyrian Nation\" wanted to inform the League that the Assyrians, \"which in past centuries numbered millions but reduced to a very small number due to repeated persecutions and massacres that faced us, ... have been able to preserve our Language and Faith up to the present time.\" He concludes that \"WE ARE POSITIVELY SURE THAT IF WE REMAIN IN IRAQ, we shall be exterminated in the course of few years.\"", "On June 1, 1932, the Assyrian Levies presented a signed memorial to their commanding officer stating that \"all the men had decided to cease serving as from 1st July.\" The reason was Britain had \"failed adequately to ensure the future of the Assyrian nation after the termination of their mandate over Iraq.\"", "They had dug trenches and were determined on destroying the Assyrians and taking their properties and possessions. Assyrians painfully remembered the massacre of 1933 in Simele and the surrounding villages and pledged \"Never Again!\". They remembered the raping and pillaging of defenseless Assyrian villagers.", "In early 1933, the American representative in Iraq, Paul Knabenshue, described public animosity towards the Assyrians as reaching a 'fever' pitch. With Iraq's independence, the new Assyrian spiritual-temporal leader, Shimun XXI Eshai, demanded that the Assyrians be given autonomy within Iraq, seeking support from Britain. He pressed his case before the League of Nations in 1932", ". He pressed his case before the League of Nations in 1932. His followers planned to resign from the Assyrian Levies (a levy under the command of the British, serving British interests), and to re-group as a militia and concentrate in the north, creating a de facto Assyrian enclave. In June 1933, the Patriarch was invited to Baghdad for negotiations with Hikmat Sulayman's government and was detained there after refusing to relinquish temporal authority", ". Mar Shimun would eventually be exiled to Cyprus, thus forcing the head of the Assyrian Church of the East to be located in Chicago up until 2015, when it was moved to Erbil.", "In early August 1933, the chiefs of the Tkhuma Tribe and the Tiyari led more than 1,000 Assyrians who had been refused asylum in Syria in crossing the border to return to their villages in Northern Iraq, where their wives and children had remained. The French, who at the time were controlling Syria, had notified the Iraqis that the Assyrians were not armed; but while the Iraqi soldiers were disarming those whose arms had been returned, shots were fired resulting in 30 Iraqi and Assyrian casualties", ". Anti-Assyrian and Anti-British xenophobia, apparent throughout the crisis, accelerated. Reports circulated of Assyrian mutilation of Iraqi soldiers (later proven to be false). In Baghdad, the government panicked, fearing disaster as the Assyrians presented a formidable fighting force that could provoke a general uprising in the north", ". The government unleashed Kurdish irregulars who killed some 120 inhabitants of two Assyrian villages in the week of August 2 to August 9 (with most of the massacre occurring on August 7). Then on August 11, Kurdish general Bakr Sidqi (who had clashed with Assyrians before) led a march to what was then one of the most heavily inhabited Assyrian area in Iraq, the Simele district.", "The Assyrian population of the district of Simele was indiscriminately massacred; men women, and children. In one room alone, eighty one Assyrians of Baz tribe were massacred. Religious leaders were prime targets; eight Assyrian priests were killed during the massacre, including one beheaded and another burned alive. Girls were raped and women violated and made to march naked before the Muslim army commanders. Holy books were used as fuel for burning girls. Children were run over by military cars", ". Holy books were used as fuel for burning girls. Children were run over by military cars. Pregnant women were bayoneted. Children were flung in the air and pierced with bayonets.", "Back in the city of Nohadra, 600 Assyrians were killed by Sidqi's men.\n\nIn the end, around 65 Assyrian villages were targeted in the Mosul and Dohuk districts.\n\nThe Semele or Simele massacre was the systematic targeting of Assyrians of Northern Iraq in August 1933. This included not only the massacre of Simele, but also the killing spree that continued among 63 Assyrian villages in the Dohuk and Mosul districts that led to the deaths of an estimated 3,000 innocent Assyrians.", "The Simele massacre of the Assyrian people is often regarded as a phase of the Assyrian genocide beginning in August 1914 in the early days of what became World War I. \n\nToday, most of these villages are inhabited by Kurds. The main campaign lasted until August 16, but violent raids on Assyrians were being reported up to the end of the month. After the campaign, Badr Sidqi was invited to Baghdad for a victory rally. The campaign resulted in one third of the Assyrian population of Iraq fleeing to Syria.", "Immediately after the massacre and the shutting down of the Assyrian uprising, the Iraqi government demanded a conscription bill. Non-Assyrian Iraqi tribesmen offered to serve in the Iraqi army, to counter the Assyrians. In late August, the government of Mosul demanded that the central government 'ruthlessly' stamp out the rebellion, and that it eliminate all foreign influence in Iraqi affairs, and that the government take immediate steps to enact a law for compulsory military service", ". The next week, 49 Kurdish tribal chieftains joined in a pro-conscription telegram to the government, expressing thanks for punishing the 'Assyrian insurgents', stating that a \"nation can be proud of itself only through its power, and since evidence of this power is the army,\" they requested compulsory military service. Rashid Ali presented the bill to the parliament. His government fell before it was legislated and Jamil Midfai's government enacted conscription in January 1934.", "The massacre would eventually lead to 15,000 Assyrians leaving the Nineveh Plains for neighboring French Mandate of Syria, and create 35 new villages on the banks of the Khabur River.", "Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term genocide, was directly influenced by the story of this massacre. The Simele massacre inspired Lemkin to create the concept of \"Genocide\". In 1933, Lemkin made a presentation to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a crime against international law", ". The concept of the crime, which later evolved into the idea of genocide, was based the Simele massacre, the Armenian genocide and the Jewish Holocaust.", "Conferences and treaties\nAfter siding with the Allies of World War I, the Assyrians were promised an independent state of their own. This promise, however, was not kept.\n\nParis Peace Conference, 1919\nIn 1919, the Syriac Orthodox Bishop Afram I Barsoum (later Patriarch of Antioch) wrote a letter on behalf of the Assyrians to the League of Nations. (See the original letter and a revised clearer version .)", "In the letter the bishop wrote that 180,000 Assyrians had been massacred by the Turks. He also said that the Assyrian people were against the proposed autonomy of the Kurds. The letter convinced France to allow Assyrian representation during the upcoming peace conference.\n\nThree Assyrian groups were scheduled to participate in the Peace Conference: Assyrian delegates from the United States, Iraq and Iran.", "The Assyrian group from Iran arrived in France first. The British, having no authority in Iran and fearing the presence of a group which it could not control, forced the Iranian Assyrian delegation to leave Paris and not participate.", "Then the Assyrian delegates from the United States arrived. Their demands included the establishment of an Assyrian independent territory which would include Northern Beth Nahrain, beginning at the Little Zab Diyar Bakir and extending to the Armenian mountains, and that the territory would be under the protection of the great powers.\n\nU.S. delegate Rev. Joel E. Werda in his petition concluded;", "U.S. delegate Rev. Joel E. Werda in his petition concluded;\n\nGreat Britain and the U.S. delegates denied this petition, explaining that the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had strong reservations concerning any plans to divide Turkey. The American Assyrian delegation returned from the conference empty handed.", "The Assyrian delegates from Iraq, after many delays by the British authorities, were approved to travel to Paris on July 21 on one condition: that they pass through London, England first. Surma Khanim, the head of the delegation was kept in London until the conference of France finished its deliberations", ". His demands had been to allow the Assyrians to return to Hakkâri, that they be accorded equal rights, that all Assyrian prisoners be released, and that the individuals responsible for the atrocities committed against the Assyrians be punished.", "Treaty of Sèvres, 1920", "The Treaty of Sèvres, signed on August 10, 1920, between the Allies and Turkey, laid the foundations for the new Turkish frontier after World War I. Assyrians were not permitted by Great Britain to participate in these deliberations under the rule that the Assyrians were not an equal power with the rest of the participants", ". However, the Assyrian issue was discussed and the plan was to contain full safeguards for the protection of the Assyro-Chaldeans and other racial or religious minorities under articles 62, 63, 140, 141, 142, 147, 148, 149, and 150. As a result of this treaty, Mosul (Nineveh) was given to Iraq while France was guaranteed 25% of Mosul's oil production.", "Article 62 of the Treaty states:\n\nTreaty of Lausanne, 1923", "The Treaty of Lausanne, signed on July 24, 1923, between the Allied powers and Turkey, was composed after Turkey requested that the issue of Mosul (Nineveh) be re-examined. Assyrians once again were not allowed to participate as Great Britain interfered, but they were promised again that their rights would be protected. It is worth mentioning that Agha Petros, General of the Assyrian Army, attended the opening ceremonies", ". The United States stood with Great Britain in these deliberations, the latter promising 20% of the oil industry business be awarded to American companies. Turkey lost its appeal to win Mosul back based on Great Britain's claims that the region would be saved for the future settlement of the Kurdish and Assyrian people, but no final agreement was reached.", "Article 39 of the treaty states:", "Constantinople Conference, 1924\nThe Constantinople Conference was between Great Britain and Turkey, May 21, 1924.\nThe Assyrians were told that Britain was \"fighting\" their case for them and that there was no need for them to attend. A letter on behalf of the Assyrians and their settlement was written under the direction of Sir Henry Conway Dobbs, the British High Commissioner in Iraq, under \"Statement of Proposals for the Settlement of the Assyrian People in Iraq\", in that regard.", "The government of Turkey claimed Mosul as part of Turkey, and Fet'hi Beg declared that the Assyrians, whom he referred to as Nestorians, are welcome to live in their previous lands in Turkey where they would find freedom. Sir Percy Cox stated that Mosul belonged to Iraq and that the Christian Assyrians needed protection from Turkey.\n\nThis was part of his statement:", "This was part of his statement:\n\nUltimately, no agreement was reached. Turkey then massed its troops on the border to occupy the Mosul Province by force. The Assyrian Levy Force of 2,000 was sent north to protect Iraq since the Iraqi army at this time was unfit to undertake such a task. The Assyrian force was largely responsible for the annexation of Mosul to Iraq rather than to Turkey, as an official of the League of Nations stated.\n\nInterwar period (1925–1939)", "Interwar period (1925–1939)\n\nRecommendation of the League of Nations\nOn June 16, 1925, the Commission presented its findings. It recommended that the Assyrian people receive full protection if they were to return to Turkey, that they be given their freedom, and that they receive reimbursements for all their losses during World War I. The Commission further recommended the Patriarch, Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII, be given full authority over his people.", "These recommendations were not approved. It was finally decided that the issue be referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague, an integral part of the charter of the League of Nations. This court was later replaced by the International Court of Justice after the birth of the United Nations.", "The Hague September", "In 1925 the Permanent Court of International Justice took over the disputed border line issue and, in December 1925, adopted a resolution which refused the idea of the Assyrian's return to Hakkâri and gave that region to Turkey, while giving Mosul to Iraq and settling on a border line almost matching the same status quo line which was called the Brussels Line. Further, it recommended the continuation of the British mandate on Iraq for another 25 years to safeguard the Assyrian interests.", "Assyrian human rights\nOn November 11, 1927, the Assyrians continued to protest their mistreatment and sent letters to the League of Nations, requesting a report from both the governments of Britain and Iraq concerning the situation. The Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague did not accept the reports of Britain and Iraq and requested that both countries fulfill their obligations towards the Assyrians.", "British treaties and Assyrian petitions\nBritain dropped the earlier established recommendations by the Mandate Commission on the grounds that those recommendations should be directed to the Turkish Government and not the Iraqi Government, Assyrians from the Hakkâri and Tur Abdin originally, escaped and have no intentions of returning to Turkey. Hence, they should occupy the land the Iraqi government has provided for them.", "Several treaties were signed and ratified between Britain and Iraq in the next two years in what seemed to be Britain's preparations to clear the way for Iraq to enter the League of Nations.", "Three petitions were received by the Mandate Commission stressing the fears of the Assyrians regarding the termination of the Mandate; they were dated in September 1931; October 20, 1931; and October 23, 1931. One was rejected by Sir Francis Humphrys on the grounds that it was submitted by a person not qualified to represent the Assyrians. Humphrys still pledged the moral responsibility of Great Britain to the future attitude of the Iraqi government.", "The October 23, 1931, petition was submitted by Shimun XXI Eshai, in Mosul, asking for permission to allow the Assyrians to leave Iraq before the end of the Mandate, stating that it would be impossible for the Assyrians to live in Iraq. This decision was reached at with the agreement of all the Assyrian leaders and when responses to this petition were delayed, the Assyrians decided to take action and planned for a general 'cessation of service' by all the Levies.", "The Mandate Commission reviewed the Assyrian petition and was still not satisfied with Britain's and Iraq's assurances of protection of minorities. Worth mentioning here that Sir Humphrys was accused by his own fellow British officials to fabricate lies in regards to the Iraqi government's sentiments about the Assyrians.", "The Mandate Commission gave its recommendations, stating that they are concerned about the Christians, and accordingly, average people were given the right to submit any petitions to the League of Nations, directly, in the future.", "In partial compliance with requests of the petition, the Iraqi government set up a further land-finding committee. It discovered but little land both cultivable and available. In fact, they found malaria-ridden, swampy lands, and recommended expenditure on an irrigation scheme to produce more. Hundreds upon hundreds of Assyrians died with malaria in those lands.", "The Council of the League of Nations accepted the recommendations and Iraq issued a declaration guaranteeing the protection of minorities on May 30, 1932.\n\nAccordingly, Iraq was accepted into the League of Nations on October 3, 1932.\n\nMassacre of Assyrians in Iraq", "Massacre of Assyrians in Iraq\n\nThe Assyrian national question was taken to Geneva by the Assyrian Patriarch Shimun XXI Eshai again when he addressed the Permanent Mandate Commission meeting and urged the council to fulfill its obligations toward the Assyrian Nation. The League yet again granted the Assyrians their rights of homogenous community in Iraq with a local autonomy.\n\nMar Eshai Shimum was quoted in the meeting:", "Mar Eshai Shimum was quoted in the meeting:\n\nAfter the establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, an Assyrian uprising followed through the following year, anyone refusing to sign a declaration of loyalty to King Faisal and agreeing not to thwart the scheme of the League of Nations for the settlement of the Assyrians, was deported by the order of the government on August 18, 1933, and deprived of Iraqi nationality.\n\nThe failed uprising led to the massacre of 3,000 Assyrians throughout northern Iraq.", "The failed uprising led to the massacre of 3,000 Assyrians throughout northern Iraq.\n\nThe largest massacre was in the village of Simele. Eyewitnesses wrote numerous books about the events.", "The Levies, alarmed by this and the imminent withdrawal of British troops, decided upon a concentration of all Assyrians in the Amadia area for security. All Assyrian officers jointly presented a manifesto on July 16 to the commanding officer requesting discharge within 30 days. The other ranks also followed the lead of their officers. The British feared if this were allowed to happen they would lose all authority in Iraq. To buy time, they decided to allow discharge over a four-month period", ". To buy time, they decided to allow discharge over a four-month period. A British battalion was flown in from Egypt when discharges commenced. After negotiations with Assyrian leaders, the Levies withdrew their request and the British battalion was withdrawn. In all, 296 were discharged. No Iraqi was held responsible for the massacre. A large number of Assyrians began to flee Iraq and find safety in Syria, under French control at the time", ". The transport and machine gun Assyrian companies ceased to exist as separate units, both being divided between the two Assyrian battalions. Kirkuk was occupied by a platoon from the 2nd battalion to guard the wireless and other RAF stores.", "Due to the events of 1933, Assyrians mark August 7 as their martyrs day.", "Mar Eshai Shimun in Geneva with Yousuf Malik\nAfter the Simele massacre, the Council of the League of Nations was absolutely sure that the Assyrian issue was still an unsolved problem. The Assyrian Patriarch requested the League to form an Assyrian and Kurdish enclave in the north of the province of Mosul under a special administration. The Patriarch reminded the Council about the plan originally suggested by Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Minister, on December 17, 1919.", "In Iraq, Rashid Ali al-Kaylani, the Iraqi Prime Minister, announced that the Assyrians should find a new home outside Iraq and promised that the Iraqi government was willing to make very generous contributions to cover any expenses of such settlement. On October 13, 1933, the League of Nations appointed a committee of six of its members to look into this possibility.", "On October 24, the Assyrians submitted another petition by Yousuf Malik, an Assyrian Nationalist from Iraq who was exiled to Lebanon and who moved between Cyprus, Beirut and Damascus exposing what was going on inside Iraq and the British games. This petition gives the details of many cases of oppression against the Assyrians in Iraq, details on hardships from government officials, and the facts about the Simele massacre.", "From October 1933 to June 1935, the committee of six looked into many options. They covered Brazil, British Guiana, Niger, however, all failed. A further suggestion that the British Red Cross might send a relief party to Mosul was also objected to, apparently on the grounds that this would discourage the activities of the Iraqi Crescent, which has not carried out any relief work among the Assyrians", ". In September 1935, the plan of settling of some of the Assyrians in the Khabour and Ghab areas in Syria was approved. History shows that the plan was never followed up so it too has failed.", "Things did not change for the Assyrians in Iraq until the outbreak of World War II, when the Iraqis revolted under Rashid Ali al-Kaylani who sided himself with Germany and wanted to force the British out of Iraq completely. The faith of the British existence in Iraq hanged in the hands of the 1500 Assyrian Levies' ability to hold the British Air Force Base in Habbaniya against the rebels of over 60,000 Arab tribesmen and regular troops who surrounded the base.", "The Battle of Habbaniya is well described in the book, The Golden Carpet by Somerset de Chair, a British intelligence officer serving in Iraq during World War II.\n\nAssyrian resistance during World War II\nThe British and Soviet Allies used the Iraq Levies, many of whom were Assyrians, to resist German efforts to gain a foothold in West Asia. The Iraq Levies distinguished themselves in May 1941 during the Anglo-Iraqi War.", "In the early days of World War II, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani came to power as Prime Minister of Iraq. As one of his first acts, he sent an Iraqi artillery force to confront the RAF base situated in Habbaniya, RAF Habbaniya. By the end of April, the Iraqi armed forces were situated in strong positions on the escarpment above the base and a siege began.", "Amin al-Husseini ( 1895/1897 – July 4, 1974), was the choice of the Nazis and Italian fascists to make inroads into the Middle East, including Iraq. A veteran of the Ottoman army, from 1921 to 1948 he was the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem.", "As early as 1920, al-Husseini was active in both opposing the British in order to secure the independence of Palestine as an Arab state and opposing Jewish immigration and the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. His oppositional role peaked during the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine. In 1937, wanted by the British, he fled Palestine and took refuge successively in Lebanon, Iraq, Italy and finally Nazi Germany where he met Adolf Hitler in 1941", ". He asked Germany to oppose, as part of the Arab struggle for independence, the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine.", "al-Husseini was still in the Kingdom of Iraq when, on 1 April 1941, pro-German Rashid Ali and his pro-German \"Golden Square\" supporters staged a coup d'etat. The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état caused the pro-British Regent Abdul Ilah to flee and the pro-British Prime Minister Taha al-Hashimi to resign. From his base in Iraq, al-Husseini issued a fatwa for a holy war against Britain in May", ". From his base in Iraq, al-Husseini issued a fatwa for a holy war against Britain in May. Less than days later, the Rashid Ali government collapsed, Regent Abdul Ilah returned, and British troops occupied the country.", "Iraq had been a major supplier of petroleum to the Allied war effort and represented an important landbridge between British forces in Egypt and India. To secure Iraq, Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered General Archibald Wavell to protect the air base at Habbaniya.\n\nDuring 1940/41 Iraq joined the Axis powers and the Battle of Habbaniya took place. At Habbaniya, the besieging Iraqis demanded the cessation of all training activities and of all flights in and out of the base.", "The commander at RAF Habbaniya, Air Vice-Marshal Harry George Smart, responded to the Iraqi demands by launching a pre-emptive strike against the Iraqi forces overlooking the air base. During the Rashid Ali rebellion in 1941 the base was besieged by the Iraqi Army encamped on the overlooking plateau. The subsequent arrival of a relief column (Kingcol), part of Habforce sent from Palestine, then a British mandate, combined with the Habbaniya units to force the rebel forces to retreat to Baghdad", ". The Levies then recruited an additional 11,000 men, mostly Assyrians but also some Kurd and Yezidi.", "The siege was lifted by the units based at Habbaniya, including pilots from the training school, a battalion of the King's Own Royal Regiment flown in at the last moment, Number 1 Armoured Car Company RAF, and the RAF's Iraq Levies. This action initiated the Anglo-Iraqi War. Within a week, the Iraqis abandoned the escarpment. By mid-May, British forces from Habbaniya had moved on to Fallujah and, after overcoming Iraqi resistance there, moved on to Baghdad", ". On 29 May, fearing a British onslaught, Gaylani fled to Persia. As a result, al-Husseini fled to Persia where he was granted legation asylum first by the Empire of Japan and then by Fascist Italy.", "By 1942, the Iraq Levies consisted of a Headquarters, a Depot, Specialist Assyrian companies, 40 service companies and the 1st Parachute Company, which consisted of 75% Assyrian and 25% Kurd. The new Iraq Levies disciplinary code was based largely on the Indian Army Act. The Levies had 22 Assyrian companies, 5 Mixed Assyrian/Yizidi companies, 10 Kurdish companies, 4 Gulf Arab companies and 3 Baluchi companies. Eleven Assyrian companies served in World War II-era Palestine and another four served in Cyprus", ". Eleven Assyrian companies served in World War II-era Palestine and another four served in Cyprus. The Parachute Company was attached to the Royal Marine Commando and were active in both Albania and Greece. The Iraq Levies was renamed the Royal Air Force Levies.", "In 1945 after the Second World War 1945– the Iraq Levies were reduced to 60 British officers and 1,900 other ranks and the RAF Regiment took over command of the Levies. In 1946 the Iraq Levies battalions were redesignated as Wings and Squadrons to conform to the RAF Regiment procedure.\n\nAfter World War II\n\nMar Eshai Shimun at the United Nations\n The United Nations was born in San Francisco (replacing the League of Nations).", "The Assyrian Patriarch, Shimun XXI Eshai, was there to present the Assyrian petition to the new world body of peace and was accompanied by two members of the Assyrian National Federation. In this petition the Assyrian tragedy was explained from World War I until the end of World War II.", "Several petitions from the Patriarch in 1945 and 1946 were sent to the Secretary General of the United Nations to look into the Assyrian National Question. A letter from the UN General Secretary # 1100-1-4/MEJ dated Oct. 7, 1946 was received by Mar Shimun stating that he had referred the Patriarch's petition to the Commission on Human Rights.", "Petition to the UN General Secretary about Assyrian Massacres in Iran\nA petition concerning the Assyrian massacres in Iran was filed again by Shimun XXI Eshai, Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East. Mar Eshai struggled for over a half century at the League of Nations, then the United Nations. None of his petitions were taken seriously.\n\nAssyrians in the Republic of Iraq (1958–2003)", "Assyrians in the Republic of Iraq (1958–2003)\n\nInspired by Gamal Abdel Nasser, officers from the Nineteenth Brigade known as \"Free Officers\", under the leadership of Brigadier Abdul-Karim Qassem and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif, overthrew the Hashimite monarchy on July 14, 1958.", "The overthrow of Iraq's monarchy instilled new hope for the Assyrian cause. However, this hope was short-lived. Qassem was assassinated in February 1963, throwing Iraq into a period of political uncertainty. Out of the chaos emerged the Ba'ath Party who promptly took control of Iraq's government.", "The Ba'ath brought promise to Iraq and the Assyrian cause when the new government recognized the cultural rights of Syriac-speaking citizens (Assyrians, Chaldeans and members of the East Syrian Church) in 1972. Syriac was to be the language used at all primary schools where the majority of pupils spoke that language in addition to Arabic. Syriac was also to be taught at intermediate and secondary schools where the majority of students spoke that language in addition to Arabic", ". Special programs in Syriac were to be broadcast on public radio and television and three Syriac-language magazines were to be published. An association of Syriac-speaking authors and writers was also established.", "Still, no autonomy was granted to the Assyrians. However, movements towards autonomy and independence remained active. In 1968, a new Assyrian flag was introduced and adopted by the Assyrian Congress in Tehran. In 1977, the Assyrian Provisional Government, headquartered from the Assyrian diaspora in the United States in Chicago, chartered a constitution for an autonomous Assyrian state. The Assyrians now had their goal set and would maintain it.", "However, when Saddam Hussein rose to power, things began to change for the Assyrians in Iraq. Assyrians were deprived of their cultural and national rights while at the same time the Ba'athist regime tried to co-opt their history. The 1972 proclamation was reversed and Hussein began a strict campaign of Arabization on any non-Arabs in Iraq, including Assyrians as well as other groups such as Kurds, Iraqi Turkmen, and Armenians", ". During the Iran–Iraq War, many Assyrians were recruited to the armies of both sides. This resulted in Assyrians in Iraq killing Assyrians in Iran. It was estimated that 60,000 Assyrians were killed during the conflict.", "When Hussein first assumed power, the Assyrian population in Iraq numbered 2 million to 2.5 million. Due to both persecution by his regime and subsequent emigration to Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon, that number began to decline drastically.\n\nPost-Ba'thist Iraq (2003–present)", "Post-Ba'thist Iraq (2003–present)\n\nWith the fall of Saddam Hussein and the 2003 invasion of Iraq, no reliable census figures exist on the Assyrians in Iraq (as they do not for Kurds or Iraqi Turkmen), though the number of Assyrians is estimated to be approximately 800,000.", "The Assyrian Democratic Movement (or ADM) was one of the smaller political parties that emerged in the social chaos of the occupation. Its officials say that while members of the ADM also took part in the liberation of the key oil cities of Kirkuk and Mosul in the north, the Assyrians were not invited to join the steering committee that was charged with defining Iraq's future", ". The ethnic make-up of the Iraq Interim Governing Council briefly (September 2003 – June 2004) guided Iraq after the invasion included a single Assyrian Christian, Younadem Kana, a leader of the Assyrian Democratic Movement and an opponent of Saddam Hussein since 1979.", "Assyrian Convention Addresses Assyrian Autonomy\nThe panel discussion entitled \"Focus on Iraq\" on August 30 featured Assyrian politicians and activist from Iraq and the U.S., which was held in Chicago.", "Mr. Willis Fautre's (from Human Rights Without Frontiers) model, two overlapping forms of federalism are envisioned. First, the nation would have separate administrative \"regions\", each with its own parliament; a form of territorial federalism. Each community (Assyrians, Turkmen, Arabs, and Kurds) would also have their own parliament representing their communities throughout the country; a form of community federalism", ". The community parliament would have full autonomy in religion, culture, schools, agriculture, energy, and protection of monuments. The unity of the federal government would be guaranteed by a bicameral system with a House of Representatives elected directly by the people and a Senate appointed by the various communities. For legislation affecting linguistic, cultural, or religious rights, both houses of parliament would have to pass the bill", ". In addition, though, in the community-based Senate, a super-majority (e.g. 2/3) vote would be needed in addition to a simple majority of every represented community. In such a way, each community would enjoy virtual veto power in matters of language, culture, and religion.", "The proposal for an Assyrian self-administered zone established in the environs of Mosul, extending to Dohuk in the north and Fesh Khabur to the northwest has gained increasing appeal among Assyrian activists, intellectuals, and political leaders", ". The current political challenges facing Assyrians in the newly developing Iraq include rising Islamic pressure, gross under representation of Assyrians, and a sometimes callous misrepresentation of Assyrians simply as a Christian minority without reference to the Assyrian political, cultural, and nationalist platform. As Mr. Jatou reflected, the increasing Islamic fervor as well as other challenges in Iraq necessitate the establishment of an administrative area for Assyrians and Yezidis.", "Current situation\nThe first of the many church bombings that were to come occurred on the morning of August 4, 2003, that left 19 worshippers dead.\n\nAs the attacks on Assyrians continue to escalate, with the 20th church bombed and the death toll of the Assyrians climbing in 2004, demands by Assyrian politicians for an autonomous safe haven reached at an all-time high. A meeting took place in the British House of Commons to discuss the subject.", "A meeting was organized by the Labour MP Stephen Pound, in conjunction with the Assyrian Democratic Movement and the Jubilee Campaign, a Christian human-rights group. Pound's demands were: \n Support an autonomous administrative region as a safe haven\n Support the infrastructure of the region\n Oppose \"the active and passive ethnic cleansing\" of \"the only indigenous people of Iraq\"\n\nPound argued \"the fate of the Chaldo-Assyrians in Iraq will define the socio-political structure of the Middle East.\"", "The then Prime Minister of Iraq, Iyad Allawi, said he was considering the plan, but nothing resulted as he lost his position in the January 2005 elections.", "On November 30, 2005, Iraq's Foreign Minister, Hoshiyar Zebari, supported the idea of an Assyrian administrative region by saying \"They (Assyrians) are free to organize a province or regional government. It should not be just because we have Kurdistan, but should be organized around an area. If they can do it in three provinces or even one it should and can be done.\"", "In the same weekend, a further five Assyrian churches were bombed in Iraq. By the end of 2004, an estimated 40,000 Assyrians and other Christians had fled Iraq since the beginning of the war.\n\nAustralia's Labor Party member Chris Bowen spoke about the possibility of autonomy for the Assyrians numerous times in the Parliament during 2005.", "On February 24, 2006, Minister of Human Rights in Kurdistan, Dr. Mohammad Ihsan, stated \"We don't mind Iraqi Christians concentrating anywhere they wish, and establishing a new province for themselves in the Nineveh plain, and bringing together Iraqi Christians from all over the world and their return to their houses and towns.\"", "On March 18, 2007, it was reported that Muslims were forcing the Christian Assyrians in the Dora Neighborhood of Baghdad to Pay the jizya, the 'Protection Tax' demanded from Christians and Jews by the Qur'an and Islamic law.\n\nOn May 9, 2007, Catholicos Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East, Mar Dinkha IV dispatched a letter to President George W. Bush pleading for immediate protection of the Christians of Iraq.", "The following week a group of armed Muslims set fire to St. George Assyrian Church in the Dora neighborhood of Baghdad. The group of men poured gasoline on the church and set it on fire. This is the same church that was bombed in the first of a wave of bombings of Assyrian churches. When St. George was bombed in 2004, the church Cross was not damaged; the bombers tore the cross down with their hands after the bombing.", "European support", "The National Democrats in Sweden were supporters of ethnopluralism, and support the foundation of an Assyrian state. After visiting the Assyrians in northern Iraq, Dutch Parliament member Joel Voordewind of the Christian Union party asked the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs Verhagen to increase the pressure on the Central Government of Baghdad through the European Union in order to execute a plan for an Assyrian police force for the protection of their towns and villages in the Nineveh plains.", "US Support\n\nIn September 2016, a bipartisan resolution was introduced into the US House of Representatives to support the creation of a permanent safe haven for persecuted minorities, including Christians, Yazidis, and Shiite Turkmen, that would be centered on the traditional Assyrian homeland in the Nineveh Plain. The legislation was introduced by Rep. Jeff Fortenberry (R-NE), and it had 11 co-sponsors from Democrats and Republicans. It was referred to the House Foreign Affairs Committee", "Assyrian Christian Police Force\nDuring recent kidnappings and murders of Assyrian Bishops and priests in the North Iraqi region, Assyrians have demonstrated worldwide in the thousands in demanding protection for their villages and the Nineveh Plains region, which Assyrians hope will become an autonomous area under the control of the Assyrians and minorities in the North.", "A $4 million measure will fund a 711-man local police force for the Nineveh Plain. It is part of a $30 million emergency relief package for the predominantly Christian region submitted to Congress last month by Rep. Mark Kirk, R-Ill., and Rep. Frank Wolf, R-Va.\n\nIn April 2008, the initial complement of 711 policemen were called up and began training. Another 4000 policemen will be needed to fully secure the region and establish checkpoints on all highways and roads leading into the villages.", "See also\nAssyrian homeland\nAssyrian genocide\nSimele massacre\nAssyrian nationalism\nProposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq\nAssyrian people\nAssyrian diaspora\nList of Assyrian tribes\nAssyrian flag\nHistory of the Assyrian people\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nPrimary sources\n\n \n \n \n \n Ismet Inönü, Cable sent from Ismet Inönü, head of the Turkish delegation in Lausanne, to the Turkish government. Cable No. 353, January 15, 1923. See the original Ottoman text in atour.com .\n\nSecondary sources", "Secondary sources\n\n .\n .\n .\n .\n .\n .\n .\n .\n\nExternal links\nAtour: The State of Assyria – the oldest Christians in the Middle East and the national struggle for their Assyrian homeland and statehood.\nAssyria Council of Europe (ACE)\nIraq Sustainable Democracy Project\n\nAssyrian nationalism\nAssyrian genocide\nAssyrian irredentism\nSeparatism in Iran\nSeparatism in Iraq\nSeparatism in Syria\nIndependence movements\nMiddle East\nindependence" ]

[ "The Second Battle of Szolnok was a battle in the Hungarian war of Independence of 1848-1849, fought on 5 March 1849 between the two divisions of the revolutionary Hungarian army led by Major-General János Damjanich and Major-General Károly Vécsey against the brigades of the Austrian Empire led by Major General Leopold Edler von Karger and General Ferenc Ottinger. The Hungarians won the battle and drove out the Austrian troops from the city, causing them heavy losses", ". This victory gave a moral boost to the Hungarians and shook the overconfidence of the Austrian main commander Field Marshal Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz who reported after the Battle of Kápolna from 26 to 27 February, that he scattered them and destroyed the rebellious hordes, and that he will capture the nest of the rebellion, Debrecen in a few days.", "Bacground", "After General Mór Perczel achieved a victory on 22 January 1849 in the First Battle of Szolnok, the Hungarian troops withdrew on 27 January from Szolnok., and the Austrian I. Corps reoccupied it on 28 January. Szolnok was entered by the reinforced Gramont Brigade (about 4,800 men and 12 guns), and almost immediately he began to fortify the town. Together with individuals from the local population, and the surrounding settlements, forced by the Austrians to work, the K.u.K", ".u.K. sappers first restored the railway line and the burnt pile bridge then began to reinforce the bridgehead with ramparts. By the second half of February 1849, the bridge rampart was completed, and on the right bank of the Tisza, several fortified gun emplacements were built, from which the causeway leading to the bridge could be cross-fired. Although the idea of completely surrounding the city with ramparts existed, this was not done due to lack of time", ". Only a fortified gun emplacement was built on the chapel hill at the northern edge of the suburb of Szentgyörgy (St. John).", "The Imperial garrison stationed in the town, in case of an enemy attack, had to be supported by the Austrian troops placed along the Pest-Szolnok railway line, Abony, and Cegléd area, especially the Ottinger cavalry brigade which was in Abony. However, Major General Franz Gramont was of the opinion on 31 January that as long as the bridge at Cibakháza was in Hungarian hands, the Hungarians could cross and attack the garrison from Szolnok from the flank at any time", ". And since the cavalry led by Major General Ferenc Ottinger could hardly arrive in time, so in the case of a retreat Szolnok's garrison brigade could easily lose its baggage, ammunition, and supplies. On 24 February, the Imperial Brigade led by Ottinger tried to capture the Hungarian bridgehead from Cibakháza, in order to prevent the Hungarians from crossing the river by destroying it", ". For the operation, he committed 3-3 companies of the 6th and 7th Infantry Regiments, 3 Battalion, 3rd Infantry Regiment, 16th Congreve Rocket Battery, 5th Cavalry Battery, and 1st Twelve Pounder Battery. The Imperial artillery was unable to outgun the Hungarian artillery, which fired accurately from a covered position, and after a while the Imperial artillery run out of ammunition", ". Ottinger tried to resolve the problem by personally leading his infantry columns against the bridge, but they were broken up by the grapeshots fired by the Hungarian artillery turned back. The Honvéds repulsed the attack brilliantly. Despite this, there were no major changes in the Imperial positions; only that at the end of February Gramont's troops were replaced at Szolnok by Major General Leopold Edler von Karger's brigade (about 4600 men and 15 guns).", "By early March, there were increasing signs that a Hungarian attack was imminent. On 3 March, a small attack hit the bridgehead, while a Hungarian squad damaged the railway line between Szolnok and Abony, and there were reports of Hungarian troop concentrations. Nevertheless, the Imperial commanders were apparently confident that the garrison could hold until reinforcements arrived.", "According to the decision of the military council of 2 January 1849, the Hungarian troops evacuated the Délvidék (Southern Region of Hungary) in the second half of January, and the two Hungarian corps from there headed north. Major General Károly Vécsey's troops of Bácska left a relatively large force in the Szeged area, so this corps was reduced to a division-sized force. On 9 February 1849 they were already in Szentes, on 12 February they arrived in Törökszentmiklós", ". On 9 February 1849 they were already in Szentes, on 12 February they arrived in Törökszentmiklós. In the two weeks that followed, however, this division remained inactive because it had not received any orders. Major-General János Damjanich's army from Bánság arrived in Arad at the end of January, and from there he sent reinforcements to General Józef Bem in Transylvania, so this army corps was also reduced to a division-sized force", ". His troops left Arad on 4 February for Szentes via Tótkomlós and Orosháza and then stayed between Szentes and Csongrád for two weeks. On 9 February, the Serbs attacked Szeged, and Lajos Kossuth ordered Damjanich to send a brigade to defend the threatened city. This was no longer necessary after the Hungarian victory at Szeged on 11 February. The division was already at Cibakháza on 24 February.", "But the new commander-in-chief, Lieutenant General Henryk Dembiński, probably planned the decisive attack on the Upper Tisza region, on the Eger-Gyöngyös-Hatvan route, so he only intended to defend the Szolnok-Cibakháza area", ". Therefore, in the first half of February the II Corps led by Major General Mihály Répássy, then from mid-February the 6th (Bácska) Division led by Count Károly Vécsey (about 6400 men and 21 guns) was only tasked with reconnaissance and the defense of the Cibakháza bridgehead, which they successfully accomplished. The situation changed on 25 February, when the vanguard of János Damjanich's 8th (Bánság) Division (about 5600 men and 20 guns) arrived at Cibakháza.", "Along the Central Tisza, given the importance of local conditions, two smaller army groupings almost arbitrarily stood face to face. On the Hungarian side was Vécsey's (6th) division at Törökszentmiklós, Damjanic's (8th) division with the main force around Cibakháza, and a smaller detachment at Szentes; there was also the Mesterházy detachment at Cibakháza.", "The different units of the Austrian I Corps, which had to defend the Pest-Szolnok line and to keep an eye on the middle Tisza region, were positioned as follows: the Karger Brigade was at Szolnok, Ottinger's cavalry brigade at Abony, 1 company at Nagykőrös; the rest of the corps, together with the Pálffy Brigade, which had just arrived from Mohács on the Danube, was stationed partly at Pest, partly at Cegléd and its surroundings.", "As by this time Dembiński had already learned that there was a considerable K.u.K. force moving in the direction of the planned main attack, he ordered Damjanich in a letter sent from Eger at 11 a.m. on 26 February to occupy Szolnok starting from Cibakháza and to damage the railway line. He also warned him to secure his left flank and under no circumstances to allow the enemy's large numbers of cavalry to cut his line of retreat to the bridgehead", ". The bridgehead at Szolnok was the only one in the hands of the imperial troops, so its, at least temporary, capture could have been a major advantage. He also promised Damjanich also the help of Vécsey, to whom he sent a similar letter the same day. The Polish lieutenant-general hoped that this action would force the imperials to redeploy forces further south from the main direction of the planned Hungarian attack before the decisive battle and that this would make it easier to defeat them", ". But the Battle of Kápolna, which began at half past one in the afternoon on 26 February - two days earlier than Dembiński had expected - thwarted his calculations", ". As to the reason why Dembiński delayed so long in ordering the operation in Szolnok, historian József Bánlaky thinks that the reason may be that the commander-in-chief did not see the matter as urgent, since it is known that he did not expect the clash of the main forces to take place by the 26th, and he wanted to wait for Damjanich's report on the preparedness of his army units for the operation.", "Prelude", "After prior consultation, the planned attack finally took place on 3 March. A Hungarian Jäger squad moved forward at dawn from Cibakháza on wagons, damaging the railway line between Szolnok and Abony. However, the attack failed, as the left of the two columns of the main force (about 7000 men and 23 guns), led by Damjanich from Cibakháza and reinforced by Vécsey's troops, got lost in the wilderness and did not arrive at Vezseny, the designated meeting point. So the General was forced to call off the attack", ". So the General was forced to call off the attack. In the meantime, Vécsey's vanguard attacked the Imperial outpost in front of the bridgehead at Szolnok at dawn, but as the main Hungarian forces did not arrive, he finally broke off the battle and retreated to Törökszentmiklós. Damjanich set the date for the next attack for 5 March", ". Damjanich set the date for the next attack for 5 March. Since Dembiński's orders, received on 3 March, had already informed Vécsey that the I Corps under Colonel György Klapka was also on its way to Szolnok, he decided to send additional reinforcements to Damjanich that day. He informed the general already on 3 March through a letter and indicated that the troops he had sent would join the 8th Division in the area of Tiszavárkony. At the same time, he suggested that the raid should take place at 4 a.m", ". At the same time, he suggested that the raid should take place at 4 a.m., as it was reported that the entire garrison of the K.u.K. garrison was on alert every day between 5 and 9 a.m. Finally, on 4 March, Vécsey sent his sappers to the Vezseny area to prepare the crossing there and informed Damjanich about this. On the same day, he also informed Colonel György Klapka of the attack, which was to begin at half past four in the morning on 5 March, and asked his troops to advance towards Szolnok in support.", "On the evening of 4 March, Vécsey sent troops to reinforce Damjanich towards Várkony and Vezseny and ordered the remaining units to be ready to march by 2 a.m. on 5 March. The 6th Division, which departed from Törökszentmiklós in the greatest silence, picked up its vanguards at Szajol, and reached its planned starting position in the fog around 4 a.m", ".m. The vanguard of the I Corps, the brigade led by Major Bátori-Sulcz (about 2300-2400 men and 6-8 guns) was hurrying, but the exhausted troops, who had been marching on muddy roads for two days without rest, reached Törökszentmiklós only at dawn on the 5th, around 6 a.m. Even though the commander Bátori-Sulcz, had rushed ahead to inform Vécsey of the expected arrival time of his troops, the brigade still had a good two-hour march to Szolnok in the snowfall", ". Thus, Vécsey's division with its remaining troops, about 2900-3000 men and 12 guns, waited for the arrival of Damjanich's (and Bátori-Sulcz's) troops.", "The plan for the capture of Szolnok was drawn up by Lieutenant-Colonel Kleinheinz. The plan was for Damjanich's division to attack the enemy from the flank, cut off the retreat of the imperial forces towards Cegléd and try to push them in the Zagyva stream. Meanwhile, the Vécsey Division launches the main attack from Szandaszőlős, from the direction of the Tisza bridge, against the bridgehead on opposite bank in Szolnok", ". According to the plan, Vécsey had to start the attack in order to attract the attention of the Imperial troops and thus enable Damjanich to surround the enemy. At the same time, a detachment consisting of the 28th Honvéd Battalion, 2 hussar companies, and 8 cannons was to be sent to Csongrád to organize and support, after crossing the Tisza, a popular uprising there.", "Damjanich at Cibakháza ordered to prepare for the march on 4 March at 4 p.m., and his troops began the crossing to the right bank's bridgehead that evening, half an hour after the last patrol of the imperials had left the area. After this was completed, the division - this time in a single column - marched along the right bank of the Tisza towards Szolnok; the Polish Uhlans formed the vanguard", ". To defend the bridgehead, Mesterházy's volunteer and national guard troops were left behind with the Hajdú half-battery. The column advanced in silence at night, without once encountering the Imperial outposts, to Várkony, where it camped and rested, and waited for the Knezić Brigade, which crossed the Tisza at Várkony and Vezseny on ferries and boats. After their arrival, the strength of the reinforced 8th Division increased to about 9,000 men and 26 guns", ". At the end of the rest, the column continued northwards, and a company of the 2nd Hussar Regiment (probably the 1st Colonel) company was detached to damage the railway again between Szolnok and Abony. However, this operation failed. After a while the commander of the unit, Captain Count Alexander Wartensleben, left the company behind, claiming that he want to reconnoiter, led a patrol of 8 hussars towards Abony, where he left his men and went to the Austrian outposts and surrendered", ". Therefore, the company returned, without finishing its mission, to the column which approached the town of Szolnok in the foggy dawn around 6 a.m., an hour and a half later than the previously agreed attack time (half past 4). Wartensleben's purpose in giving himself up was of course to inform General Ferenc Ottinger of the Hungarian attack, but by this time (8 o'clock) Karger had already informed him of it by sending an envoy with locomotive on the railroad.", "The division then moved into battle formation, and here too the waiting began. The two Hungarian commanders were probably waiting for each other, Damjanich for Vécsey to attack the bridgehead and Vécsey for Damjanich to launch the main attack.", "In the meantime, however, the Croatian Ban's Hussar platoon (fighting on the Austrian side), which was probably securing the Szentjános suburb south of the Szolnok railway line, became suspicious of the noise coming from the south-southwest, and the Imperial Hussar patrol sent out to reconnoiter, in the heavy fog almost immediately ran into the 3rd Battalion of the 19th Regiment of the Hungarian Infantry on the Hungarian right flank, who fired at them", ". The Royal Cavalry quickly retreated, then, having evacuated the suburb, withdrew to the southwestern edge of Szolnok; their commander immediately reported the incident to Major-General Karger, who alerted the garrison at half past 6. The three cannon shots, which sounded the alarm, were fired by the 5th half Infantry battery at the Tisza Bridge.", "Karger was informed of the enemy's concentration of troops near Cibakháza, and of their foreseeable intention to attack, by the cavalry company sent to Nagykőrös quite early, on 3 March. This makes it hard to understand why the Austrian general did not take the necessary precautionary measures, furthermore, why he neglected the reconnoitering after receiving the information about the probability of an imminent Hungarian attack", ". As a result of Karger's negligence the Hungarian attack literally took him by surprise.", "Karger, who had a quick breakfast, and Brigade Staff Officer Captain Friedrich Semetkowski probably did not initially consider the situation too serious.\n\nOpposing forces\n\n73,5 infantry companies, 18,5 cavalry companies, 47(49) cannons.\nTotal: 14,483 soldiers", "73,5 infantry companies, 18,5 cavalry companies, 47(49) cannons.\nTotal: 14,483 soldiers\n\nThe Hartlieb division had in total 48 infantry companies, 21 cavalry companies, 48 cannons.\nTotal: 10,755 soldiers. But in the ensuing battle will only participate only 24 infantry companies, 23 cavalry companies, 3039 horses, in total 7233 soldiers and 18 cannons.", "The battle orders of the two armies\nAt this time Szolnok was adequately secured by the bridgehead on the left bank of the Tisza, from which the road leading to it, which was cut by a marshy tributary leading between the meanders of the Tisza could be easily observed, but there was a greater threat from the south, from the direction of Cibakháza, where the bridge over the Tisza, which the Austrians, in the battle of Cibakháza, failed to destroy, was in Hungarian hands.", "The city was secured from the north, east, and south by the Tisza, the Zagyva, and the well-built bridgehead and gun emplacements; while from the southwest and west, although the planned entrenchments were still only on the drawing board, the defense was not completely hopeless. On the Szentjános chapel hill near the Tisza, an enclosed gun emplacement for a half battery had been built, while the railway station, the cemetery, and the railway embankment lying west to it, were very suitable for defense", ". The town itself was surrounded to the west by a wet, marshy area - the former so-called \"Tófenék\" (Lake bottom) and its watercourses - and the densely built-up areas were surrounded by a wide and deep inland drainage ditch formed from the former moats stretching from the Tisza to the Zagyva, with only two large stone bridges (and probably several smaller temporary passages) leading through it", ". That is why the Karger apparently thought of defending the city first: although he regrouped most of his troops to the southwest, he still had significant units in the city. The imperial main forces, however, did not build their defences on the aforementioned defendable places (the railway station, the cemetery, and the railway embankment) but were positioned south of the railway, on the northern, higher edge of a flatter area, with their left flank leaning on the Tisza", ". According to Austrian sources, the deployment of the troops took a long time, and then the brigade was positioned at the angle formed by the railway embankment and the Tisza; the bridgehead was occupied by one and a half infantry company and 4 cannons, and the railway station by four companies; at the exit of the bridge on the right bank of the Tisza, 1 1/2 companies of sappers were stationed, and finally, the extreme right flank was formed by 6 companies of cavalry", ", and finally, the extreme right flank was formed by 6 companies of cavalry, stationed near the railway station; the remainder of the troops defended the town itself", ". The detailed set-up of the defense troops is as follows.", "On Szolnok's southeastern exit, along the right bank of the Tisza, Karger's troops were deployed as it follows. On the left, the 3rd Battalion of the 3rd Infantry Regiment (13-16th Companies) and the 1st squadron of the 5th Kaiserjäger Battalion (the 1st company, and half of the 2nd company), in the center was the 2nd battalion of the 7th Border Guard Infantry Regiment (the 7th-8th and the 11th-12. companies) and the 3rd battalion of the 11th Border Guard Infantry Regiment (13.-16th companies; 3", ". companies) and the 3rd battalion of the 11th Border Guard Infantry Regiment (13.-16th companies; 3.5 companies in total), while the 3rd Dragoon Regiment (Major's Squadron and one company of the Lieutenant-Colonel's Squadron) was in the right flank in the first line and the Ban's Hussars (Colonel's Squadron) in the second line. In front of the left wing, in the ditch of the St", ". In front of the left wing, in the ditch of the St. John's Chapel Hill, the 1st twelve-pounder half-battery (2 guns), and in the center the 5th six-pounder infantry half-battery (3 guns) and the 1st six-pounder cavalry battery (6 guns) were positioned. The infantry deployed in company columns (formed by half squadrons) secured by skirmisher lines, while the cavalry formed up in squadrons, one behind the other", ". The bridgehead was defended by 3 platoons of the 18th Company of the 3rd Infantry Regiment and 2 platoons of the 2nd Company of the 5th Kaiserjäger Battalion, plus the other half of the 5th Six Pounder Infantry Battery (3 guns). The gun emplacement in the fort probably contained a 12-pounder gun, and the dismantled bridge over the Zagyva River, which was leading to the eastern bank, was secured by the 4th Platoon of the 18th Company", ". At the northern bridgehead of the Tisza bridge stood the 7th and half of the 16th company of the K.u.K. sappers. The entrances to the town at the bank of the Tisza were probably covered by a platoon of the 1st company of the Lieutenant-Colonel's Squadron of the Ban's Hussar Regiment, and along the Zagyva, at another dismantled bridge was a platoon of the Lieutenant-Colonel's Squadron of Dragoons", ". The other entrances to the city and the bridges of the drainage ditch were probably defended by the rest of the infantry (2.5 companies of the 7th and 11th Border Guard Infantry Regiments), while the 17th Company of the 3rd Infantry Regiment guarded the ammunition and baggage", ". 3 platoons of the other company of the Lieutenant Colonel's Squadron of the Dragoons (and probably 3 platoons of the 1st company of the Lieutenant Colonel’ Squadron of the Ban's Hussars) remained in the center of the town as a standby reserve. In any case, the mobilization went smoothly: within a quarter of an hour, or at most a half an hour after the alarm was sounded, all units were in their designated positions.", "The Hungarian troops, deployed about 1500 paces from the railway line, on the higher southern edge of the flatter area mentioned above, were deployed as follows: the right wing and the rights side of the center were formed by the reinforced and reorganized brigade led by Lieutenant Colonel Józef Wysocki, while the left side of the center and the left wing was formed by the brigade led by Colonel József Nagysándor", ". In the first line, on the right flank, along the Tisza, was the 3rd Battalion of the 19th Infantry Regiment, in the center the 3rd Honvéd Battalion, the 1st Battalion of the Polish Legion, the 9th Honvéd Battalion and the Jägers (2 companies), while in the second line was the 3rd Battalion of the 60th Infantry Regiment, the 28th Honvéd Battalion and a half sapper company. On the left flank was the 2nd Hussar Regiment, with the 1st Uhlan Squadron of the Polish Legion in front of it as a vanguard", ". In front of the right wing was probably the 11th six-pounder half infantry battery (4 guns), in the center the 4th six-pounder infantry battery (8 guns), while on the left wing, the 8th six-pounder cavalry battery (8 guns) and half of the 1st six-pounder cavalry battery (3 guns) were positioned", ". The reserve brigade led by Lieutenant Colonel Károly Knezić (the 3rd Battalion of the 34th Infantry Regiment, the 65th Honvéd Battalion, the 2nd Major's Squadron of the 3rd Hussars Regiment, the other half of the 1st Six Pounder Cavalry Battery (3 guns) and the other half of the sapper company led by Captain Balázs Dullesko) was behind the center and the right flank. The infantry was deployed in squadron columns and the cavalry in squadrons", ". The infantry was deployed in squadron columns and the cavalry in squadrons. In the meantime, around 7 o'clock, Vécsey's troops also advanced to the bridgehead, then took up their positions. The front line was formed by the 6th Honvéd Battalion and the 3rd Battalion of the 52nd Infantry Regiment, the two wings by the Lieutenant-Colonel and 1st Major's squadron of the 3rd Hussars Regiment. The 5th Six Pounder Infantry Battery (6 guns) was probably deployed in front of them", ". The 5th Six Pounder Infantry Battery (6 guns) was probably deployed in front of them. The reserve consisted of the 3rd Cavalry Battery (6 guns), the Hajdú Volunteer Cavalry Squadron, and the Pották sapper company from Szeged.", "Battle", "The Hungarian attack", "Damjanich, who stood probably at the meeting point of the left wing and the center, although he had a great desire to attack with his troops, still waited to give the order, since Vécsey still had not started the attack against the bridgehead, as it was agreed in the battle plan", ". His uncertainty may have been increased by the fact that this was the first time he was leading a corps-sized force into an open battle, while his troops were to engage for the first time the regular troops of the Habsburg imperial army. Until then they fought only against the Serbian insurgents from southern Hungary. Meanwhile, the fog had almost completely lifted, and Karger, who was at the first line of the imperial forces, saw only now the overwhelming force he was facing", ". Therefore, at about 7:30, he sent his own aide-de-camp to Ottinger in Abony on the train kept on standby, and probably at that time he ordered the evacuation of the town. Damjanich immediately understood the significance of the departure of the train and gave the order of firing to the artillery, which now began the battle", ". On the other hand, he knew that the reinforcements sent by Ottinger would not arrive for another 3–4 hours, and until then the fate of the Hungarian attack was likely to be decided anyway, but still, this encouraged him, even more, to launch the attack as quickly as possible", ". In the artillery duel that began, the Imperial artillery was at a disadvantage from the start against its twice superior opponent, not only because of its numerical superiority but also because the Hungarian artillery fired very quickly and accurate. Although some of their shells and shrapnel exploded too high, the Hungarian artillerymen shot with the solid cannonballs very effectively against the artillery and the infantry deployed behind it", ". Within a short time, the 1st Cavalry Battery of the Imperial Army lost 5 horses, the 5th Infantry half Battery lost 6 horses, as well as several guns and cannoneers were hit. However, the most serious situation was on the Imperial right flank, where there was no battery for covering, so the Hungarian cavalry artillery could fire almost unhindered at the opposing Austrian cavalry", ". Karger, sensing a problem, had earlier tried to help by bringing the seven-pounder howitzer of the half infantry battery from the bridgehead and then sending the dragoon squadron from the standby reserve to the right flank; but these did not improve the situation very much. The weakness of the enemy flank was noticed also by Damjanich, as well as the fact that the longer Hungarian front due to its numerical superiority, offered an opportunity to bypass the imperial order of battle", ". He, therefore, sent a cavalry column and some cavalry artillery to the flank of the Imperial Cavalry, which, after arriving on the spot, brought the Dragoons and the Ban's Hussars under a flanking fire. The imperial cavalry, caught in the crossfire, could not stay in place for long: so, under cover of a company and the fire of the howitzer, it retreated to the other side of the railway embankment.", "At about the same time as the opening of the artillery fire, Damjanich also ordered the advance of the infantry of the centre and the right flank. Two platoons of each column formed skirmisher lines, and then the battalions, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Wysocki, moved forward, descending into the flatter ground. On the right flank, probably the squadron from the edge of the 3rd Battalion of the 19th Infantry Regiment turned east and occupied the Szentjános (St", ". John) suburb without resistance, then advanced along the river bank towards the north. The Imperial Artillery tried to break the attack: the batteries fired at all the battalions marching in the front line. The commander of the advancing 3rd Honvéd Battalion (wearing as a distinctive sign of their extraordinary courage white feathers on their hats, thus called the \"White Feathered Battalion\") advancing in the front, seeing that the Austrian artillery is shooting at them, ordered, \"pull aside\"", ". But the drummer of the battalion, who, before the battle lined up twice at the morning brandy distribution, and because of this his courage was aroused, shouted back to his commander, I do not retreat, I sound the attack; whereupon the battalion advanced with leveled bayonets. Therefore, he attracted the attention of both batteries of the Imperial Center and lost 52 men in the crossfire", ". Behind the skirmish lines, the 9th Honvéd Battalion, the 1st Polish Battalion, and the 3/19rd Battalion were also hit (the latter losing 15 men). In the attack, the Hungarian battalions tried to compete with each other. The attacking battalions hit hard by the enemy artillery, regrouped, then made minor direction changes, advancing under the cover of certain relief elevations, but their advance did not stop", ". In the meantime, the squadron from the edge of the 3/19rd Battalion led by Captain Pál Horváth, which was moving on the bank of the Tisza hidden from the eyes of the enemy, tried to storm the Austrian 12-pound half-battery from the Szentjános Chapel Hill, which was shooting at their advancing battalion, but they were attacked by the 16th Company of the 3rd imperial Infantry Regiment from here, together with half of the 1st Company of the 5th Kaiserjäger Battalion sent to help", ", together with half of the 1st Company of the 5th Kaiserjäger Battalion sent to help, thus the Austrians repulsed the bayonet charge, and bought time to withdraw the half-battery", ". However, the front line of the Imperial Battalion became so stretched that the unit's commander Lieutenant Colonel Adolph Schön feared that the enemy column estimated to be two battalions strong (4 companies of the 3/19 Battalion led by Major Károly Leiningen-Westerburg and probably the 3/60 Battalion behind him), would break through their defenses. But then one of Karger's adjutants arrived with orders for the troops to retreat back into the town and hold it until the bridgehead could be evacuated", ". Lieutenant-Colonel Schön, therefore, retreated with his own battalion and the Kaiserjägers under cover of the skirmish lines into the town.", "With the retreat of the two wings, the imperial troops from the center, which had held their ground the longest, could not resist any longer. All the more so as the Hungarian skirmish lines were already in range, and the columns behind them started to storm. The 3rd Battalion of the 11th Border Guard Infantry Regiment followed the example of the cavalry, which had disappeared from the right flank, and retreated first to the inner and then to the other side of the railway embankment", ". They were followed by the heavily damaged 5th half Infantry battery, which for the time being had taken up a new firing position to the left of the train station, in line with it, with some of the Kaiserjägers covering it", ". The 1st Cavalry Battery and the 2nd Battalion of the 7th Border Guard Infantry Regiment behind it, which had held their position until the end, were then caught in the flanking fire of the Hungarian cavalry artillery advancing on the left, while they continued to be fired at from the front", ". The imperial cavalry battery, which lost a total of 12 horses and several pieces of artillery, after the advancing Hungarians of the 3rd Honvéd Battalion started to fire on its handling personnel, immediately retreated behind the railway embankment, while one half a company of the border guards occupied the cemetery and a half and the other half took a position in the railway station as skirmishers to cover the retreat of the bulk", ". These with the 5th Infantry battery held up the Hungarian and Polish skirmish lines for a while, but on the right, after the retreat of the Imperial Kaiserjägers, Leiningen's column pushed towards the town in the open field, and on the left flank Nagysándor with the Hungarian cavalry and cavalry artillery crossed the railway embankment and again encircled his weaker Imperial opponent, defending the railway embankment line. At one point, the 3rd (White Feathered) Battalion put an enemy battery to flight", ". At one point, the 3rd (White Feathered) Battalion put an enemy battery to flight. In Leiningen's words, he put it this way in his memoirs: ‘’But the 3rd Battalion under the gallant Major Bobich stormed the battery from the front, and, despite their most terrible grapeshot fire, chased it off and broke into the town", ".' Always trying to compete with the White Feathered Battalion in terms of heroic deeds on the battlefield, the 9th (Red Hatted) Honvéd Battalion, envious of the glory of the 3rd, directly attacked an enemy cavalry squadron and routed it. Seeing this, Damjanich was so impressed that he shouted: \"Even Napoleon's soldiers did this only once!\" With this - after just over half an hour of fighting - the battle on the Hungarian left flank was essentially decided: the general Austrian retreat had begun.", "At the same time as the artillery duel that started on the right bank, Vécsey's artillery also started firing on the bridgehead: the four cannons of the infantry battery directly hit the imperial troops from the trench, while the two howitzers set up further away, probably due to the limited space, “flooded” the area behind the ramparts with grenades and shrapnel shells", ". The two six-pounder guns of the 5th infantry battery in the trenches could not successfully return the fire for a long time, so here the commander of the Imperial defending force, Captain Eduard Ghilain, ordered their withdrawal from the bridgehead relatively soon. On the Hungarian side, the Bátori-Schulz brigade arrived at about 8 o'clock, positioning itself behind the 6th Division, in the cover of the embankment road", ". Vécsey's aide-de-camp, Major Julian Przyjemski, then sent the 6th Honvéd Battalion and the 3rd Battalion of the 52nd Infantry Regiment to attack the entrenchments, with Bátori's three Honvéd battalions in support", ". At the beginning of the Hungarian attack, Ghilain withdrew the barely one and ¼ companies of the Imperial line and Kaiserjäger infantry from the bridge to the right bank, while sending half of the 7th sapper company to destroy the bridge, while the other half were aligned into a skirmish line on the river's bank and tried to prevent the Hungarian troops from crossing with rifle fire. Half of the 16th sapper company was in reserve", ". Half of the 16th sapper company was in reserve. The sappers had managed to pick up about 11 planks from the bridge, but then the fire of the Hungarian infantry's skirmish lines, which had taken possession of the bridgehead, prevented them from continuing their work; in vain did Ghilain send the carpenters of the other half of the 7th Sappers' company to help the sapper squad. However, the Hungarian troops were prevented from crossing, so preparations could begin to burn the nearer side of the bridge.", "The Austrian retreat", "In the meantime, on the right bank, the retreat of the main forces of the imperial army towards the city continued. The artillery batteries of the imperial artillery, taking turns, took up position from time to time with the cavalry in cover, and tried to slow down the advance of the Hungarian troops with their fire; while the bulk of the imperial infantry retreated towards Szolnok under cover of the skirmish lines", ". After the Hungarian advance cut the main road from Szolnok to Abony, the only way to retreat from the town was the road to the northwest, towards Zagyvarékas", ". Karger therefore probably withdrew his troops to the following defensive position to cover the road: the Ban's Hussars (which were probably joined by the 3rd platoon of the 1st Lieutenant Colonel's company, which had been left till then behind in the town) were moved to the northern side of the marshy area formed by the \"Lake Bottom\" and its watercourses", ". At the same level with them, but on the southern side, on and around the small hill marked by the chapel of Saint Anne, the bulk of the artillery of the Imperial Army (the 1st Cavalry battery, four guns of the 5th Infantry battery and two guns of the 1st 12th Half Battery) was deployed, covered by two squadrons of the 3rd Dragoons (the latter probably joined by the platoon dispatched earlier) and the Lieutenant-Colonel's Platoon of the Ban's Hussars", ". This detachment effectively blocked the crossing between the marshy areas and the waste-water disposal ditch, thus covering the only stone bridge on the road to the north-west across the ditch", ". The 3/11 and 2/7 Imperial Frontier Guard battalions, which were retreating through the farmyards surrounding the town from the west, were probably ordered to hold the north-western part of Szolnok along the ditch; while the 3/3 Imperial Line Regiment Battalion and the Kaiserjägers, retreating directly into the town, were to hold its southern part, together with the stone bridge crossed by the main road leading towards the west to Abony", ". From Szolnok, it is likely that first the baggage and equipment wagons, the ambulance carts of the medics, the vehicles transporting the materials for military bridges of the sappers, and then the ammunition wagons would have had to leave, followed by the infantry and artillery stationed first at the Tisza bridgehead and then those who were in other parts of the city. The rear guard would have been provided by the Imperial Cavalry and artillery.", "The advancing Hungarian troops followed the retreating opponent and essentially took the new order of battle adapting to this situation. On the left flank, Nagysándor probably sent the Colonel's Squadron of the 2nd Hussar Regiment and half of the 1st Cavalry Battery under Lieutenant Tóth against the Ban's Hussars, while the bulk of the cavalry and the 8th Cavalry Battery advanced towards the chapel", ". Wysocki halted the left flank of the center (the jägers, the 9th and 28th Honvéd Battalions, and the 1st Polish Battalion) for a while (probably to avoid congestion), then he tried to catch up with the right flank of the cavalry by moving left through the serried fields. They were probably followed by the 4th and 11th Half Infantry Battery. Meanwhile, the 3rd Battalion tried to enter the city from the west, while the 3/19th and the 3/60th Battalions from the southwest", ". The Hungarian infantry invading Szolnok had to reach the bridge over the Tisza as soon as possible so that the enemy could not destroy it and Vécsey's troops could cross it and join the forces on the right bank as quickly as possible. In the end, Damjanich sent his reserve cavalry and cavalry artillery to the left flank and his infantry to support the right flank and take the city.", "However, the imperials did not manage to conduct the retreat in an orderly manner. The main reason for this was that the brigade had a large number of wagons and carriages, approximately 150, which had to cross the only stone bridge over the inland water drainage ditch to get out of the town towards Zagyvarékas and then they could only proceed on the main road at first because of the swampy terrain", ". This created huge congestion, first in the area of the bridge and then in the surrounding streets, even though the Brigade's General Officer was personally directing the crossing. Then panic broke out because of the approach of the Hungarian troops, which could only be stopped by the deployment of the 3rd Infantry Company 18th from the bridgehead, and the passing of the wagons could be kept in a more or less orderly manner.", "The second reason was that the commanders of the Imperial Infantry wanted to avoid at all costs the Hungarians' attempts to cut off the possibility of retreat, so they did not take up the fight at the ditch's line, but quickly retreated back to the town. Thus, the pursuing Hungarian troops took possession of the ditch's crossings with relatively little resistance and entered Szolnok, where the real fighting began", ". The battle was fought mainly by the reinforced skirmisher lines, from behind which the infantry masses sometimes counter-attacked with bayonet charges. The task of the imperial troops was made easier by the fact that during the pursuit the Hungarian infantry's order of battle was broken up, so they could not attack in closed ranks; but at the same time, it was made more difficult by the fact that some of the local population actually joined the fighting, by supporting the Hungarians", ". The inhabitants of the town shot from their windows in the retreating imperial soldiers, as the Austrian accounts point out about the battle", ". In the northern part of the town, the 3/11 imperial Border Guard Battalion marched relatively quickly through the city and crossed the stone bridge, but the 2/7th Border Guard Battalion and the 1st squadron of the 5th Kaiserjäger Battalion, which was retreating towards there from the south, showed a staunch resistance slowing down the advance of the Hungarian 3rd (White Feathered) Battalion and the 3/60th, and probably the 3/34th line regiment Battalions, which came from reserve", ". This was further complicated by the fact that Lieutenant Colonel Schön, who took over command of the southern part of the town, sent the two six-pounder guns (and probably a 12-pounder cannon withdrawn from the fortress) that had been there at the Tisza bridgehead, accompanied by half a company of Imperial Kaiserjägers and a few platoons of border guards, to the northern part of Szolnok, and that the border guard platoons that had been protecting the city's entrances to the eastern streets", ", left their positions, and they mostly rejoined their retreating regular units", ". From the three incoming guns and the Kaiserjägers, Karger improvised another defense on the outskirts of the town to protect the stone bridge over the ditch.", "Meanwhile, in the south, the 3/19th line Regiment battalion under Leiningen captured, without resistance, the stone bridge over the ditch, with the road leading to the west, and then, entering the town, they ran into the defense of four companies of the 3/3rd line Regiment Battalion in the area of the Franciscan monastery", ". Leiningen, sent a squadron of his battalion, probably led by Captain Pál Horváth, to encircle the Imperial troops in a side street, and another squadron to the Tisza's bank for a similar purpose, and tried to advance with the main force from the front. Fighting ferociously, the K.u.K. troops slowly retreated towards the bridgehead; one of their counter-attacks almost killing Leiningen himself", ". For the second time, Lieutenant-Colonel Schön's Imperial Battalion blocked the Hungarian advance on the main street at the level of the salt depots, but as their right flank was outflanked by Horváth's detachment, Schön decided to break through northwards, which he did successfully", ". However, he apparently did not inform, about his retreat, Captain Ghilain, whose troops, while holding up Vécsey's advance and trying to burn the bridge, noticed that a Hungarian infantry squad had appeared on the right bank of the Tisza. Ghilain then turned the bulk of his troops against them and drove them back with a bayonet charge as far as the salt depots; here, however, he ran into the main force of the 65th Honvéd Battalion, which was approaching from the reserve along the riverbank", ". A detachment of the imperial sappers then took shelter in one of the salt stores and opened fire from there, while the others defended themselves on the shore. In the meantime, however, Horváth's detachment reached and captured the northern bridgehead of the Tisza bridge, thus putting the Imperial troops in a position of encirclement", ". Ghilain and his men then broke through northwards; soon the squad trapped in the warehouse (which had been set on fire by the Honvéds) followed them, pursued by the Hungarian 65th battalion. The southern part of the town and the Tisza bridge was thus taken (essentially intact) by the Hungarian troops", ". Vécsey's infantry immediately started to cross on the beams, while the Hungarian troops started to replace the planks the Austrian sappers had picked up, so that the artillery and cavalry could cross the Tisza. Meanwhile, Leiningen's battalion also turned north and, together with the 65th Honvéd Battalion, began clearing the eastern half of the town of the fragments of the retreating imperial troops (mainly the rearguard) which could not follow the retreating main troops.", "Outside the town, at the chapel of St. Anne, the 12th Imperial Battery and the 8 cannons of the Hungarian artillery, together with the cavalry units which were covering them, were engaged in a ferocious duel", ". The problems of the Imperial side were increased, however, by the appearance on the right of the Hungarian cavalry of a Hungarian infantry column (Jägers, the 1st Polish Battalion, the 9th and 28th Honvéd Battalions) through the stack-yards, forcing them to redirect the fire of the 12-pounder half battery towards the Hungarian column", ". The main problem, however, was that the imperial batteries, which had been firing almost continuously since the beginning of the battle, were slowly running out of ammunition, and as the ammunition supply wagons were stuck in the \"traffic jam\" at the bridge over the ditch, they could not be refilled. So they had to be withdrawn battery by battery from the firing line behind the cavalry, gradually moved behind the already crossed Imperial troops on the Zagyvarékas road, and sent towards this locality", ". This process must have been noticed by Captain Władisław Poniński, commander of the 1st Company of the 1st Polish Uhlans Regiment, who asked Colonel Ágoston Pikéty, commander of the 2nd Hussars Regiment, for permission to attack", ". As it was not customary to attack heavy cavalry from the front with light cavalry, Pikéty was not in favor of the idea, but at the urging of the Polish officer he finally gave permission to attack, with the words If you will not stand still, go, in the name of the three devils", "! Apart from the well-known audacity of the Poles, Poniński's attack may have been inspired by the fact that his Uhlans, attacking in a closed order with their long pikes, had a much better chance of breaking through the line of the imperial dragoons than the Hussars", ".", "After the 8th Cavalry battery had ceased fire, the Poles moved forward. In order to intercept the attack and allow the artillery to retreat, Lieutenant-Colonel Josef Regelsberg also launched an attack with his dragoons. However, the line of the Lieutenant-Colonel's Squadron under his personal command - despite of their rifle fire - was broken by the Uhlans, who attacked with greater momentum in a closed order", ". But after that, the Poles were outnumbered, surrounded, and, no longer having the advantage of their pikes in close combat, suffered heavy losses. However, they were soon rescued by a company (probably the 2nd) of the 2nd Hussar Regiment's Lieutenant-Colonel's squadron led by Vice-Captain Aurél Mukits, which had been covering the 8th Cavalry Battery, and together they routed the Imperial Cavalry", ". The Major's Squadron of the Dragoons, led by Major Prokop Dobrzonsky (Dobrženský), also on the attack, fared even worse", ". While their attack was just starting, the 2nd Major Division of the 3rd Hussar Regiment from the reserve arrived on the right flank of the Hungarian cavalry with the other half of the 1st Cavalry battery, and after a lightning-fast unlimbering of the half-battery led by Lieutenant Schiedebaum, he shot grapeshots into the approaching dragoons, thus breaking their ranks, and causing them disarray", ". The disoriented Dragoons were then attacked by the 1st Major's Squadron of the 2nd Hussar Regiment led by Captain Teodor Rudzinsky, who, with the order \"Cut the officers!\", encircled the enemy from the right and drove them back to the line of the 5th imperial Infantry battery and the 1st 12th half Infantry battery", ". The scattered imperial cavalrymen, artillerymen, and charioteers managed to prevent the breakthrough in hand-to-hand combat and salvage the batteries' ammunition but suffered significant losses in personnel, and a total of 5 ammunition wagons were captured by the Hussars. Meanwhile, on the other side too, the fight was decided", ". Meanwhile, on the other side too, the fight was decided. The 3rd Hussar Regiment's 1st Company of the 2nd Major's Squadron (perhaps its 2nd wing ) led by First Lieutenant János Melczer, which until then had probably been covering half of the 1st Cavalry battery, also received permission to charge", ". Melczer cut through the still-fighting troops and got into the flank of the 1st Imperial Cavalry Regiment, then after scattering the Ban's hussar platoon, which served as cover, he threw himself on the battery with his hussars and captured two guns. First Lieutenant Arthur Bylandt managed only to send the other half of his battery to the rear. Then, in pursuit of the fleeing dragoons, Poniński arrived with a platoon of Uhlans, as well as a section of Mukits's hussars", ". Together they broke the resistance, causing the loss of two-thirds of the 1st Cavalry battery's personnel, as well as a total of three guns, five ammunition wagons, and two other carriages. The rest of the escaping artillery and Dragoons joined the main body of the brigade at the bridge, while the rest of them probably pushed themselves to the other bank through the marsh", ". Thus the organized resistance of the imperial troops collapsed here, and the way was opened for the Hungarian cavalry to the northern bridgehead of the stone bridge over the ditch.", "In the foreground of this bridge, the improvised imperial half battery, which was then already being covered by the squadrons of the 18th company of the K.u.K. 3. regiment, successfully prevented for the time being the Hungarian infantry's attack from the direction of the town. Thanks to this, most of the carriages and cannons crossed the bridge", ". Thanks to this, most of the carriages and cannons crossed the bridge. At the same time, Karger was able to send the 17th Company of the 3rd Line Infantry Regiment, followed by the 1st Squadron of the 5th Kaiserjägers and the 2/7 Border Guard Battalion across the river, followed probably by himself. The 3rd Honvéd Battalion did not continue its frontal attack but probably tried to get in the flank of the Imperial half battery from the left, by marching through the side streets along the ditch", ". In the meantime, however, four companies of the 3/3 Line Regiment Battalion of the Imperial Army arrived at the bridgehead, followed by the sappers in a rather disorganized state, as well as the first refugees from the chapel, announcing the breakthrough of the Hungarian cavalry. Panic broke out again and order was completely disrupted", ". Panic broke out again and order was completely disrupted. Although some of the baggage and ammunition were still on the eastern bank, Lieutenant-Colonel Schön sent his battalion, which had just been regrouped, to cross the bridge and the ditch beside it to the other bank. His example was followed by the 18th company and by the sappers. Upon this the K.u.K", ". His example was followed by the 18th company and by the sappers. Upon this the K.u.K. half-battery also limbered, and together with the baggage wagons and the ammunition supply tried to reach the crossing to squeeze through, but only one of the six-pounder guns succeeded", ". Because meanwhile, from the southeast, Leiningen with his troops were approaching the bridgehead and prepared to attack, assembling a mixed detachment (from the soldiers of the 3/19th Line Battalion and the 65th Honvéd Battalion) in order to succeed. The Major sent a small squad of soldiers under cover between the houses near the bridge, who opened fire, killing the horses of the carriage that was crossing, and blocking the traffic", ". Then the troops themselves went on a bayonet charge and, overcoming the remaining resistance, captured the bridge. The two guns trapped on the eastern bank (the 12-pounder of which probably fell into the ditch), part of the ammunition, and the rest of the baggage became the prey of Leiningen's infantry. The momentum of the Hungarian attack was such powerful that many imperial soldiers were pushed to the waters, killing dozens of enemy soldiers", ". Thirty to forty boats filled with fleeing soldiers sunk into the Zagyva. The soldiers from these boats drowned in the river, being dragged down by their heavy equipment.", "Meanwhile, the K.u.K. Brigade started to retreat towards Zagyvarékas and Abony. The vanguard and the baggage cover were provided by the Ban's hussars, while the imperial infantry provided the rear guard. They protected the scattered units of the Imperial Artillery and the Dragoon Cavalry which just arrived. Smaller, disorganized Hussar squads were already attacking some of the Imperial Infantry between the marshy area and the trench, but they were relatively easily repulsed by the massed troops", ". A squadron of Hussars temporarily captured a six-pounder cannon moving away from the bridge, but the 18th Company of the 3rd K.u.K. line Regiment counterattacked and recaptured it. In the meantime, Nagysándor launched the attack of his hitherto reserve cavalry, the 2nd Major's Squadrons of the 2nd of the 3rd Hussars Regiments. By this time, the Imperial main column had crossed the marshy area and reached a well-walkable terrain; except for the Imperial \"rearguard's rearguard\", i.e. the sappers", ".e. the sappers. They had been attacked by the 2nd Major Squadron of the 2nd Hussar Regiment, led probably by Major Ernst Hügel, and a platoon of Polish Uhlans already on the eastern bank of the ditch, and before they could form a shooting mass, so the Hungarian cavalry dispersed this unit, causing them heavy losses, pushing them into the marsh", ". The pursuit also continued in the open field: the squadrons of the 2nd Hussar Regiment, the 2nd Major's Squadron of the 3rd Hussar Regiment, and the Polish Uhlans continuously attacked the retreating infantry from three directions, which (lacking organized cavalry and artillery cover) tried to defend themselves with rifle fire. But the situation changed when the Hungarian cavalry batteries arrived and opened fire on the retreating imperial infantry.", "Panic broke out in the ranks of the Imperial 11/3rd Border Guard Battalion after the first shells hit them and despite the best efforts of Major Eugen Lazić, part of the battalion routed. Although initially the K.u.K. baggage was sent to the north, to the so-called \"Mill Corner\", to cross the Zagyva and turn westwards, leaving the road to Zagyvarékas on the south side of the river open for the troops, this could not be accomplished because of the earlier demolition of the bridge there", ". Thus, the Imperial train was forced to turn back to the southern road, which only added to the confusion among the Imperial troops.", "In the same way, the ranks of the 3/3rd Line Infantry Regiment Battalion, which had already been retreating in several separate squads, began to disintegrate; only the 1st Division of the 5th Imperial Kaiserjägers and the 2/7 Border Guard Battalion were able to maintain their closed formation", ". It was only a matter of time, however, before the well-functioning Hungarian artillery would disperse them, so that the cavalry could launch an all-out charge, which would have led to the complete destruction of the still combat-ready units of the Imperial Brigade covering the routing soldiers", ". But then the Hungarian pursuit was suddenly interrupted, and only the half of the 1st Cavalry Regiment led by Lieutenant Tóth continued to follow the retreating rearguard of the imperial army towards the nearby forest. It was no \"miracle\": the Imperial cavalry brigade led by General Ferenc Ottinger Guard arrived in front of Szolnok.", "Ottinger arrives", "Ottinger was informed at Abony at around 8 a.m. by Karger's assistant officer, sent with the train, that Hungarian troops had crossed the Tisza at Cibakháza and Tiszaföldvár and were advancing from Tószeg towards Szolnok. He immediately alerted his brigade and sent Karger's aide-de-camp to Cegléd to inform also Lieutenant-General Hartlieb of the Hungarian attack", ". Around half past eight Ottinger's brigade (5 companies of the 6th Cuirassier Regiment, 6 companies of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment, the 5th Cavalry Battery, and half of the 1st twelve-pounder Battery; in total about 1400 men and 9 guns) departed towards Szolnok; leaving the 3rd Squadron of the 3/11 Border Guard Battalion, stationed here, to defend Abony", ". Since he believed that Karger could hold Szolnok with his reinforced brigade until he arrived, he did not head straight for the city, but south of the railway line, on the road to Tószeg, in order to threaten the retreat of the attacking Hungarian army by getting to its left side", ". When they were half an hour from Tószeg, Ottinger and his escort rode towards Szolnok, hearing the increasing sound of cannon roar, where he could first notice that the firing line of the Hungarian artillery was already visible on the northern side of the railway", ". Then, climbing on the top of a small hill on the south side of the railway, he was shocked to see that the fighting was already north-west of the town and that Karger's brigade, strongly pressed by the Hungarians from three directions, was retreating towards Zagyvarékas. Ottinger, therefore, decided to turn his brigade to the left and cross the railway embankment at the railway guard's station, about 3000 paces from Szolnok, and take up a position on the Szolnok-Abony road towards the town", ". This would presumably draw the attention of the Hungarian troops and thus help Karger's troops to retreat.", "The appearance of the Imperial Cavalry south of the railway was noticed by the Hungarian side. Since Damjanich's cavalry, part of his infantry and artillery was in pursuit of Karger's brigade, and the rest of his infantry was still regrouping at Szolnok, it was up to Vécsey's troops to hold off the newly arrived Austrian forces", ". As the repair of the Tisza bridge had meanwhile been completed, the major-general moved his cavalry and artillery to the town, then hurried with his own troops towards the western edge of the city, while he left two battalions of Bátori-Schulz's infantry to secure Szolnok and guard the prisoners and booty. The rest of the brigade remained on the left bank of the Tisza. In front of the town, on both sides of the Szolnok-Abony road, the division took up battle positions", ". The 3rd Cavalry Battery and the Lieutenant-Colonel's and the 1st Major's Squadrons of the 3rd Hussar Regiment were in the first line, while the 3/52 Line Regiment, the 5th Infantry Battery, and the 6th Honvéd Battalion were in the second line. The Hajdú Volunteer Cavalry Squadron with 2 guns of the infantry battery probably defended the railway line on the left flank of the second line; later the 1st Uhlan Company of the Polish Legion also arrived there", ". The right flank of Vécsey's infantry was then gradually joined by Damjanich's battalions and infantry batteries, which had been turned back from the pursuit and those stationed in the city, and took up battle formation in front of Szolnok.", "Ottinger sent the 5th Cavalry Battery, probably under the cover of the 2nd Lieutenant-Colonel's Company of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment, across the northern side of the railway embankment to draw on themselves the attention of the Hungarian artillery that was opening fire, and then under its fire cover he started to lead the rest of his troops across the embankment. Probably the first who crossed over to the other side, and unlimbered on the main road, was the 1st K.u.K", ".u.K. twelve-pounder half-battery escorted by a wing of the 2nd Major's Company of the 6th Cuirassier Regiment. Vécsey tried to take advantage of this moment (when most of the Imperial Heavy Cavalry was still on the other side of the embankment) and sent two squadrons of the 3rd Hussars Regiment to attack the Imperial batteries. Although the wet terrain slowed down the attack somewhat, both squadrons reached the enemy despite the fire of the imperial batteries", ". However, the 2nd Lieutenant-Colonel's Company of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment managed to hold off the attacking Hussar squadron before the 5th Cavalry Battery, and after the arrival of the Major's Company and part of the 2nd Regimental Company of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment, they together drove back the enemy", ". On the other side, the 1st imperial 12-pounder half-battery was not so lucky: the attacking squadron of the 3rd Hussars Regiment first pushed back half of the 2nd Major's Company of the 6th Cuirassier Regiment, then broke into the battery's position and, despite the best efforts of the Cavalry artillerymen, captured a 12-pounder gun and three ammunition wagons", ". But the incoming Colonel's Squadron of the 6th Cuirassier Regiment managed to recover the cannon, and after the arrival of the Major's Squadron and the 2nd Colonel's Company of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment, the overwhelming superiority of the Austrian riders drove the Hussars back, causing them heavy losses. The three ammunition wagons were again in the hands of the imperials.", "After the Hungarian attack was repulsed, the entire imperial cavalry brigade was able to deploy on both sides of the road and for the time being the two sides were content with a mutual cannonade. It remained like this until another Hungarian cavalry column (the 1st Major's Squadron of the 2nd Hussar Regiment, probably the 8th Cavalry Battery, and another Hussar squadron) started to approach from the side", ". Ottinger then felt that he had given Karger enough time to retreat, and as he did not want to be flanked, he ordered a gradual retreat, which he carried out squadron by squadron. This was not easy either, as in one place in the rear of the brigade the muddy, uneven terrain reduced the passable terrain to practically the road; in addition, the four ammunition carriages of the retreating Austrian artillery were so sunk in the mud that they could not be moved", ". Ottinger left behind the Lieutenant-colonel's squadron of the 6th Cuirassier Regiment and a squadron of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment of the Imperial Army to cover their withdrawal, which repulsed the first attack attempt of two squadrons of the 3rd Hussar Regiment which was pursuing the retreating Imperial Brigade", ". But when the Hardegg Cuirassiers also retreated to the other side of the ravine, and the 1st Major's Squadron of the 2nd Hussar Regiment arrived on the Hungarian side, the new Hungarian attack was crowned with success: the Lieutenant Colonel's Squadron of the 6th Cuirassier Regiment was forced to retreat, and the four ammunition wagons (one of the 5th Cavalry Battery and three of the 1st twelve-pounder Battery) were captured by the Hussars", ". With that - at around 11 o'clock - the battle was essentially over. Ottinger retreated to Abony with his cavalry, where he took up position in order of battle in front of the town until dark, and the Hungarian troops remained in their positions for about an hour, then, after the outposts had been installed, they set up camp in Szolnok and around the town.", "In the meantime, during the morning, Karger's aide-de-camp arrived in Cegléd to the division commander Lieutenant General Karl Hartlieb and informed him of the events and Ottinger's orders. Hartlieb sounded the alarm, and at about 10 a.m", ". Hartlieb sounded the alarm, and at about 10 a.m. with the reinforced imperial Gramont brigade (the Imperial 3/1 battalion and the 2/8 Border Guard Battalion, the Bittermann Grenadier Battalion, a company of the Major's Squadron of the Ban's Hussars Regiment, the 6th Infantry Battery, the 2nd twelve-pounder Battery and half of the 16th Congreve Rocket Battery; in all, about 2,900 men and 15 guns) he departed towards Törtel, leaving Major General Daniel Rastić with the remaining troops to defend Cegléd", ". He informed the Commandment of the Imperial I. Corps about his measures. Since, in the same way as Ottinger, Hartlieb also assumed that Karger would be able to hold Szolnok enough, he also planned to advance towards Tószeg, in order to join Ottinger's right flank and threaten the enemy's retreat. On his arrival at Törtel, however, it turned out that Karger's aide-de-camp, whom the lieutenant-general had sent after Ottinger to inform him about his plan, had returned without accomplishing his mission", ". The patrols sent out by him could not obtain any meaningful information about Ottinger's troops or the enemy. Because of his weak cavalry, Hartlieb did not risk a further advance, so he and his troops set off towards Abony, where he arrived at 5 p.m. Around 1 p.m. also arrived here from Tápiószele a part of the Bellegarde cavalry brigade (about 1000 men and 6 guns), which formed the vanguard of the II. Corps", ". Corps. The 5,600 men and 30 guns thus available seemed sufficient to hold back a possible further Hungarian attack, so Hartlieb began here that evening and during the night to reorganize the fleeing units of the Karger Brigade, which started to arrive. It is somewhat odd that both General Ottinger and Hartlieb, instead of trying to take the shortest route to help their stranded comrade, Karger, thought of such a time-consuming operation, i.e. the circumvention of the enemy.", "Aftermath", "Opinions differ on the Austrian losses. According to historian Krisztián Kemény, based on the final Austrian casualty report of 22 March 1849, the Austrian losses were 545 men killed, wounded, and prisoners; in addition, 311 horses, 5 guns, 25 ammunition wagons and two other carriages with equipment, 12 wagons with baggage and other equipment, and two wagons with the treasury of the troops", ". According to Róbert Hermann, there were 33 dead, 23 wounded, 404 (260-500) missing, and prisoners, while about another 218 is not known if they were dead, wounded, or missing, for a total of 678 human losses. To these were added 220 horses and 5 (11) guns lost", ". To these were added 220 horses and 5 (11) guns lost. According to historian Jószef Bánlaky, 227 men in the 3rd Battalion of Archduke Charles' Regiment, 222 men in the 3rd Battalion of the 2nd Bács Regiment, 108 men in the 2 Battalion of the Bród Border Guard Regiment, 19 men in the 5th Battalion of the 5th Kaiserjäger Regiment, 97 men and 92 horses in the Franz Joseph Dragoons; a total of 673 men and 92 horses", ". Although they were high, the casualties among the sappers, artillerists, and wagon handlers were not recorded. Hundreds of people died in the Zagyva and around 800 were taken prisoner. So, according to Bánlaky, the Austrian losses were as high as 2000. According to historian Gábor Bagi, 5 cannons, 16-17 ammunition wagons, and about 330 horses were lost. This was a loss of a magnitude never before suffered by the imperial forces on the Hungarian theater of war", ". According to Bánlaky, the Dragoons regiment's treasury of 7,000 Florins, were also captured by the Hungarians, but Damjanich returned the treasury to Abony the next day, showing unparalleled fairness to the enemy. It should be noted, finally, that most of the Karger brigade's baggage was also lost.", "The exact number of casualties on the Hungarian side is not known, but is usually put at around 300, including Lieutenant Colonel Puchly, the enthusiastic commander of 3d Hussar Regiment, and Captain Károly Szilvay, who received 12 wounds. On the imperial side, Karger could not avoid prosecution. As his brigade had not only suffered heavy losses, but had also been disabled for several days, he reported sick before his dismissal, probably on the afternoon of 6 March, and left for the capital", ". He was no longer allowed to lead troops in the field and was forced to temporarily retire in 1850.", "With the victory at Szolnok, all the crossings of the Tisza were now in the hands of the Hungarian troops. The victory allowed the Hungarian army to take the initiative again by quickly regrouping the Hungarian troops.", "But shortly after the victory, the two commanders entered a serious conflict with each other. The conflict arose from the fact that Damjanich, lower in rank, was entrusted with the task of conducting the attack, while General Vécsey was only invited in support. After the battle of Szolnok, the 6th and 8th divisions were united into one corps, and General Damjanich became subordinate to Vécsey as a senior general", ". Damjanich, however, ascribing to himself the credit for the success of the enterprise, not only wished to retain his autonomy as division commander but, despite his subordinate relation to Vécsey, reproached him for the delay in carrying through the attack, using even offensive words. To remedy this untenable situation, Vécsey appealed to Dembiński, asking him to come to Szolnok in person and take command of the III. Corps himself", ". Corps himself. Dembinski forwarded Vécsey's letter to Kossuth in Debrecen with the following note: I see that the cause of Hungary will be ruined, not by the enemy, but by internal strife, and as it is always the case in such cases, not even in a honorable way.", "The unpleasant affair was finally settled when Damjanich was appointed commander of the III Corps in recognition of his merits, while Vécsey, having handed over his division, traveled to Debrecen on 6 March. Although Damjanich initially wanted to defend Szolnok, the reports from the reconnaissance clearly indicated the growing superiority of the imperial forces", ". Therefore, on the afternoon of 9 March, the General withdrew his troops from the city, which, after destroying the defenses and the bridge over the Tisza, retreated to Törökszentmiklós and Cibakháza. Thereafter, neither side stationed a permanent garrison in Szolnok: during March, only the two sides' reconnaissance forces visited the town on a daily basis.", "The events and the result of the battle of Szolnok on 5 March 1849 (apart from the fact that the imperials lost the only crossing on the Tisza for a short time) clearly indicated that a significant part of the Hungarian troops and their commanders had reached a level of combat power that it was not advisable to make tactical-strategic mistakes against them, trusting that the Austrian troops would somehow \"solve\" the situation with their supposedly superior fighting strength", ". But the Imperial General Staff did not seem to draw the right conclusion from this negative experience: in a letter of 7 March 1849, the imperial commander in chief Field Marshal Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz only called on the commander of the I. Corps Lieutenant Lıeutenant General Josip Jelačić to increase reconnaissance and security, so that similar incidents to the one in Szolnok could be avoided in the future", ". For, as the Imperial Commander-in-Chief wrote, this was the only way that the Imperial troops could be defeated by a force composed of unprepared, weak troops. The latter words proved to be a big mistake from Windisch-Grätz. 5 more weeks passed, and the \"unprepared, weak troops\", together with their similarly \"novice\" commanders, will put an end to the Prince's military career once and for all.", "Explanatory notes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\n \n\n \n \n Hoffmann Arnold Az 1848-49-iki Vörös-sapkás 9-ik Honvédzászlóalj története (\"The History of the 9th Red Hatted Battalion from 1848-49\"). Kassa, 1906\n \n \n\nConflicts in 1849\n2nd Szolnok\nHistory of Hungary" ]

[ "The 2022–23 season was the 128th season in the existence of Manchester City Football Club and their 21st consecutive season in the top flight of English football, where they were competing as two-time defending champions. In addition to the Premier League, Manchester City also participated in this season's editions of the FA Cup, EFL Cup, Community Shield and UEFA Champions League, entering the latter for the 12th consecutive season", ". The season was unusual in that the fixture dates of domestic and European competitions were altered to accommodate the FIFA World Cup played in November and December 2022 in Qatar.", "Manchester City kicked off the season by losing the Community Shield to Liverpool 1–3 and were knocked out of the EFL Cup by Southampton at the quarter-final stage in January 2023. On 20 May, City mathematically clinched their third consecutive Premier League title following an exciting title race with closest rivals Arsenal, who had been leading the standings for the large part of the season. On 3 June, City defeated rivals Manchester United 2–1 in the FA Cup final to win their second trophy of the season", ". Furthermore, the Blues had advanced to their second Champions League final in three years, where they defeated Inter Milan on 10 June in Istanbul to clinch the club's first-ever European Cup, their first European trophy since 1970, and complete only the second continental treble by an English men's team, after Manchester United in 1998–99. Manchester City ended the season topping the UEFA coefficient rankings.", "One of this season's individual highlights were the goalscoring feats of City's new striker Erling Haaland in his debut season in English football. He broke several club, league, and European records after scoring 52 goals in his first 53 games at City, going on to win multiple individual awards, including the European Golden Shoe.", "This was the first season since 2012–13 without former team captain Fernandinho, who left at the end of the previous season to return to Brazil, and the first since 2014–15 not to feature English forward Raheem Sterling, who moved to Chelsea in the summer of 2022.\n\nKits\nSupplier: Puma / Sponsor: Etihad Airways\n\nSeason summary\n\nPre-season", "Season summary\n\nPre-season\n\nManchester City had already resolved their most pressing squad issue before the end of the previous season, having announced their agreement to recruit a prolific centre-forward in Erling Haaland from Borussia Dortmund. This transfer was confirmed on 13 June 2022, with Haaland formally joining the first team on 1 July. Julián Álvarez would also join from River Plate, having been transferred in January 2022 and then temporarily loaned back.", "City were expected to purchase a defensive midfielder to replace former captain Fernandinho. Kalvin Phillips was duly signed from Leeds United for a reported fee of £42 million plus add-ons on 4 July, and took the number 4 shirt previously worn by Vincent Kompany. City were also reported to be in the market for a new specialist left-back, with rumours that Marc Cucurella of Brighton was their number one target.", "City's first player sales of the season were the transfer out of Pedro Porro to Sporting CP through a loan-to-buy deal for £7.2 million, and of Gavin Bazunu to Southampton for £12 million initially, up to £15 million after add-ons. Neither player had made a first-team appearance for City.", "City began pre-season with several key first-team players entering the final years of their contract amidst rumours that they might leave the club for a fee rather than renew. Of these, it seemed the most speculation concerned Gabriel Jesus and his possible transfer to Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur or Real Madrid after five years at City, and Raheem Sterling, who was also rumoured to be a Real Madrid target", ". Both players would, in theory, compete with the incoming Haaland and Álvarez for playing time if they remained. Jesus left City for Arsenal for a reported fee of £45 million on 4 July. Sterling went on to join Chelsea on 13 July for a fee reported to be about £47.5 million, with £2.5 million of add-ons. He had won eleven domestic titles in seven seasons at Manchester City, scoring 131 goals in 339 appearances, and was the club's 11th-highest scorer of all time.", "Another significant transfer was the move of versatile Ukrainian left-back/midfielder Oleksandr Zinchenko to Arsenal for a fee of around £30 million after six seasons at City on 22 July. This left Pep Guardiola with just two senior specialist full-backs in his squad at the start of the new season, both of whom were natural right-backs, meaning City did not have a first team left-back", ". The club had refused to offer the minimum £50 million fee demanded by Brighton for Cucurella and he was eventually transferred to Chelsea on 5 August for a reported fee in excess of £60 million.", "Manchester City opted to start pre-season training a week later than most of their rivals, and scheduled only two friendly warm-up games as part of their tour of the United States, in order to ensure their players would have sufficient rest. They would also begin the new season with a relatively small squad of just twenty senior players. Both of these were considered to be strong preferences by Guardiola.", "Start of season\nCity won both their pre-season tour games in the United States. However, they tasted defeat in their first competitive match of the season, losing 1–3 to a more-prepared Liverpool side in the Community Shield held at Leicester City's King Power Stadium. Debutant Julián Álvarez scored the sole goal for the Blues.", "In their first league game on 7 August, City beat West Ham United 2–0 away, with Haaland recording his first two competitive goals for the club; he became the first City player to score a brace on their league debut since Sergio Agüero did so against Swansea City in 2011", ". The following weekend, City announced that İlkay Gündoğan had been appointed club captain, with Rodri and Kyle Walker joining the vice-captain leadership group, shortly after City won their first league game at home 4–0 against Bournemouth.", "City finally recruited a specialist left-back on 16 August, signing Spanish under-21 defender Sergio Gómez for £11 million plus add-ons from Anderlecht, where he had previously played under the management of former City defender and captain Vincent Kompany.\n\nOn 21 August, City played Newcastle United in an even match at St James' Park, and fought out another two-goal comeback to snatch a 3–3 draw. With seven points after three games, City were second in the league standings, two points behind Arsenal.", "On 27 August, City fell behind by two goals for the fourth time in six league matches, this time against Crystal Palace at home, only to recover to a 4–2 victory in a second half comeback, with Erling Haaland scoring his first home goals and first hat-trick for the club.", "On 31 August, Haaland became the first City player in the Premier League era to score a hat-trick in consecutive league games, scoring a \"perfect\" one in a 6–0 home rout of newly promoted Nottingham Forest. He had scored nine goals in his first five league games, another Premier League record.", "City were estimated to have earnt a Premier League record of about £180 million from transfer sales during the single summer 2022 window, thus demonstrating the success of the team's academy programme (sales included several youth players sold for seven- or eight-figure fees), and the increasing market value for footballers (such as Zinchenko and Jesus) gained from playing under Guardiola and his coaching team for several seasons", ". City's overall net-spend in both 2022 transfer windows was estimated to be around £100 million or more.", "In their opening UEFA Champions League group game, Manchester City thrashed Sevilla 4–0 in Spain, with a Haaland brace that brought his tally up to twelve goals in eight games for City and 25 goals in just twenty total Champions League appearances. This was Sevilla's largest ever defeat at home in the Champions League and their first defeat in an opening fixture since their debut season; this was also the sixth time in seven seasons that City had won their opening fixture in the competition.", "City's home league fixture against Tottenham Hotspur, which originally was due to be played on 10 September, was postponed a day beforehand along with the entire weekend's English football league programme as a mark of respect following the death of Queen Elizabeth II. The following week, the away league fixture against Arsenal, due to be played on 19 October, was also postponed indirectly due to events following the Queen's death.", "By late September, and the first international break of the season, City were second in the league, one point behind Arsenal and ahead of Spurs on goal difference, with a record of five wins and two draws. By that point, Haaland had already scored fourteen goals in ten games across all competitions and become the first player in Premier League history to score in all of his first four away fixtures", ". City had also extended their unbeaten away run in the league to 22 games and well over a year since their last defeat.", "Autumn period", "On 2 October, City beat Manchester United 6–3 in the first Manchester derby of the season at the Etihad, making it the highest scoring derby match of all-time. Both Haaland and Phil Foden scored the first City derby hat-tricks in 52 years and only the third and fourth of all time", ". Haaland also became the first Premier League player to score a hat-trick in three consecutive home games, and City became the first team since Tottenham in 1965 to win eight consecutive league home games while scoring three goals or more. With his performance, the Norwegian pushed his output to seventeen goals in eleven appearances, as well as fourteen Premier League goals in eight appearances.", "A 4–0 home league victory against Southampton the following week included another goal from Haaland and meant he had now scored in ten consecutive fixtures overall and seven in the Premier League. The latter record matched a feat accomplished only once before by a City player in the Premier League, namely Sergio Agüero in 2019. Haaland also reached the milestone of twenty goals for the season after playing only thirteen matches, another league record", ". Moreover, City matched the previous all-time English record set by Wolves in 1959 of nine consecutive home league wins while scoring three or more goals. In the league standings, the Blues maintained their second place with 23 points, just one behind surprise leaders Arsenal and already three ahead of third-placed Spurs.", "City qualified for the last 16 of the Champions League for the tenth consecutive season on 11 October. Although they could only draw 0–0 away to Copenhagen that night, a 1–1 draw between Borussia Dortmund and Sevilla ensured their progression", ". City's match included three first-half VAR decisions: a 25-yard Rodri strike ruled out because of a Riyad Mahrez handball in the build-up, a penalty awarded to City, also for handball, taken by Mahrez and saved, and a red card shown to City's left back Sergio Gómez for a professional foul, which left the Blues playing with ten men for over an hour.", "City suffered their first league defeat in a hard-fought match against Liverpool at Anfield on 16 October. Mohamed Salah scored the only goal off of a second-half breakaway, after Foden had seen his effort earlier in the contest ruled out by VAR for a foul on Fabinho by Haaland in the build-up.", "A second consecutive 0–0 Champions League away draw, to Dortmund on 25 October, was sufficient to ensure City would qualify for the last 16 as group winners with one game to spare, although Mahrez again missed a penalty. On 2 November, Rico Lewis scored his first senior goal in a 3–1 win against Sevilla; he became the all-time youngest scorer on a first start in a Champions League match and City's youngest ever Champions League scorer, aged 17 years and 346 days", ". Three days later, City beat Fulham 2–1 in the league at the Etihad, having played for over an hour with ten men after João Cancelo had been sent off when adjudged to have deliberately denied Harry Wilson a goal-scoring opportunity with a shoulder charge. City's winner was scored in the fifth minute of injury time by Haaland, netting a penalty after De Bruyne had been fouled. This led to ecstatic scenes afterwards with Guardiola encouraging his players to thank the crowd with a lap of honour.", "The Blues lost their final game before the mid-season break for the World Cup on 12 November, having been beaten 1–2 at home to Brentford with a brace, including a 98th minute winner, from Ivan Toney. City therefore ended the first part of the season in second place in the league, five points behind Arsenal and two points ahead of Newcastle, but with a game in hand; the Blues also advanced in the Champions League with an unbeaten record and reached the fourth round of the EFL Cup.", "Sixteen of City's players were called up in squads to play in the World Cup finals, second only to Barcelona (seventeen) in world football, and the most in the club's history. This left just eight players remaining at home until the season resumed the week before Christmas with a home EFL Cup tie against Liverpool. Just two of City's World Cup participants played for teams eliminated after the group stage of the competition; the other fourteen would remain for the knockout phase", ". However, only Julián Álvarez reached the final week of the competition in the Argentina squad, while the others were eliminated either in the round of 16 or quarter-finals. Álvarez went on to become the fifth player to participate on the pitch in a World Cup final while playing at City (after Nigel de Jong in 2010, and Sergio Agüero, Pablo Zabaleta and Martin Demichelis in 2014), and only the second to become a World Cup winner as a City player.", "The club announced on 23 November that Pep Guardiola had signed a new contract to remain as manager for an additional two years until summer 2025.", "Christmas and New Year", "All but two of City's first team players had been able to return to training by the time of the first competitive fixture after the resumption of the season. Ederson had been delayed by flight problems returning from Brazil, and Álvarez was permitted an extended break to enjoy the victory celebrations in Argentina", ". In their first match back on 22 December, City beat Liverpool for the first time in two seasons with a 3–2 win in the fourth round of the EFL Cup, thus knocking out the current holders and qualifying for the quarter-finals.", "Another brace from Haaland in City's 3–1 away victory over Leeds in their first league game after the World Cup moved him to twenty league goals for the season, as he became the fastest player since the formation of the Premier League to reach this milestone (after only fourteen appearances).", "City suffered from inconsistent form in early January 2023. They were knocked out of the EFL Cup by Southampton in a 2–0 defeat at St Mary's Stadium, and dropped league points against Everton and Manchester United to allow Arsenal to open up an eight point gap at the top of the table. The latter derby defeat included a controversial equalising goal for their rivals, which many observers deemed should have been ruled out for offside", ". However, the Blues also convincingly beat Chelsea 4–0 in the FA Cup to reach the fourth round.", "Haaland scored his fourth hat-trick of the season in City's 3–0 victory over Wolves on 22 January. This set a new club record for the most hat-tricks scored in a single season and a new national record for the fewest games to achieve the milestone. It also moved Haaland to 31 goals in all competitions for the season, only seven behind City's all-time record, as he became only the thirteenth player in the club's history to score more than thirty.", "On winter transfer deadline day, João Cancelo moved on loan to Bayern Munich for the remainder of the season with an option for a later permanent transfer, amid rumours he had fallen out with Pep Guardiola. Until then Cancelo had played the most minutes of any of the squad's defenders but had found game time more limited since the World Cup with the emergence of teenage academy graduate Rico Lewis and the form of Nathan Aké.", "On 6 February, the Premier League announced that, after a four-year investigation, they were charging Manchester City with committing more than 100 breaches of financial rules, referring the club to an independent commission for breaches made between 2009 and 2018. City were also accused of not co-operating with the investigation. The punishments that the commission could impose ranged from fines to points deduction or even expulsion from the Premier League.", "Despite this, City went back to top of the league on 15 February when they beat Arsenal 3–1 at the Emirates Stadium to move ahead of them on goal difference, although their opponents that day still had a game in hand", ". However, this lead was brief as City's inconsistency and wasteful finishing again cost them two points in their following match away at Nottingham Forest, as the Blues were held to a 1–1 draw with a late equaliser by Chris Wood for the hosts; Arsenal won their game in hand to again stretch their lead to five points by early March.", "Haaland scored his 27th goal of the league season against Bournemouth on 25 February, breaking the club record that Sergio Agüero set in 2014–15 for most Premier League goals in a season.\n\nOn 28 February, City defeated Bristol City away from home 3–0, advancing to the FA Cup quarter-finals.\n\nSeason run-in", "On 14 March, on a record breaking night, City defeated RB Leipzig 7–0 at home (8–1 on aggregate) in their Champions League round of 16 second leg tie to advance to the quarter-finals of the competition. This equalled City's record scoreline in the Champions League, but the match was particularly notable for the five goals scored by Haaland, who in recording his 39th goal of the season broke the 94-year-old club record of Tommy Johnson", ". It was also the first time a City player had scored five goals in a single continental match, and broke the record for the most number of continental goals scored in a season.", "Prior to the final international break of the season, the Blues displayed an impressive offensive showing against Burnley, recording a 6–0 home win in the FA Cup quarter-finals with another Haaland hat-trick.", "Following the resumption of domestic football on City convincingly beat Liverpool 4–1 at home on 1 April, despite going a goal behind and missing the injured Haaland and Foden from their matchday squad. However, Arsenal matched the result later that day by beating Leeds United", ". However, Arsenal matched the result later that day by beating Leeds United. Thus, with just ten games remaining, City remained seven points behind the Gunners as league leaders, but still had a game in hand and a home fixture against their league rivals to help bolster their chances of retain ing their title.", "On 8 April, in a 4–1 away win against Southampton, Haaland brought his tally to thirty league goals with a brace, becoming only the fifth player to reach this milestone and the fastest ever to do so. De Bruyne also became the fastest player to reach 100 Premier League assists.", "Arsenal dropped points the following day, drawing 2–2 away to Liverpool after they had led by two goals. This reduced the deficit to six points with City still having a game in hand, yet to play their rivals at home and with a superior goal difference.", "On 11 April, Manchester City faced ten-time defending Bundesliga champions Bayern Munich at home in the first leg of their Champions League quarter-final, and earned a convincing 3–0 victory. Rodri, Bernardo Silva and Haaland each scored, and the Blues had multiple chances to further increase their advantage.", "A dominant first-half performance against Leicester City in the next league game saw City run out as 3–1 winners. Another brace from Haaland brought his league goals tally to 32, equalling the record held by Mohamed Salah for goals in a 38-game Premier League season. The following day, Arsenal once again dropped points after holding a two goal lead, drawing 2–2 at West Ham and thus decreasing their lead at the top of the table to only four points with an extra game played.", "On 19 April, the Blues secured safe passage to the Champions League semi-finals for the third year in a row after a 1–1 draw with Bayern at the Allianz Arena. Haaland had sent a penalty over the crossbar at the end of the first half, but atoned by converting a one-on-one chance early into the second period. Late in the game, Bayern managed to equalise with a penalty from Joshua Kimmich", ". Late in the game, Bayern managed to equalise with a penalty from Joshua Kimmich. City would next face holders Real Madrid in a rematch of the previous year's semi-finals, where the Spanish giants had dramatically won 6–5 on aggregate after extra time en route to their 14th European crown.", "Later that week, Arsenal hosted the league's bottom club Southampton and drew 3–3 unexpectedly, coming back from a two-goal deficit. Their lead in first place was now five points, having played two more matches, than City, and due to meet them at the Etihad in their next game in what was billed as a league decider.\n\nOn 22 April, Riyad Mahrez scored City's first ever Wembley hat-trick, and the first in a FA Cup semi-final since 1958, to beat Sheffield United 3–0 and reach the club's twelfth FA Cup final.", "On 26 April, City convincingly beat Arsenal 4–1 at home, with a brace from De Bruyne and a goal and two assists from Haaland, with his goal breaking the Premier League scoring record for a 38-game season. This meant City moved to within two points of the their opponents with two games in hand, leaving the destiny of the league title in City's hands with only seven games remaining.", "End of season\nOn 3 May, Haaland became the sole record holder for the most Premier League goals scored in a single season, netting City's second goal in a 3–0 home victory against West Ham. The third goal, scored by Phil Foden, was also the 1,000th under Guardiola's reign as City manager, achieved in just 404 games.", "Further victories away at Fulham and at home to Leeds United stretched City's winning streak in the league to ten games and ensured that they would likely require a maximum of eight points from their four remaining fixtures to retain the league title, thanks to a significantly better goal difference than their closest rivals.", "On 9 May, the Blues secured a 1–1 draw at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in the first leg of their Champions League semi-final against Real Madrid, with Kevin De Bruyne netting a long-range equaliser and becoming the first player to score in separate Champions League away knockout games against Real Madrid, having previously done so against Los Blancos in the round of 16 of the 2019–20 edition. City had controlled much of the game and frustrated the title holders in many periods of the match", ". City had controlled much of the game and frustrated the title holders in many periods of the match. However, both goalkeepers had to make several saves to keep the scores level. The result stretched City's unbeaten run to 21 matches in all competitions over the past three months.", "On 12 May, Haaland was named FWA Footballer of the Year, the season's first top level award.", "City extended their unbeaten run to 22 games and their league winning streak to eleven as they defeated Everton 3–0 at Goodison Park on 14 May, with captain İlkay Gündoğan scoring a brace for the second league match in a row. This win, coupled with Arsenal's home defeat to Brighton later the same day, meant that City could become league champions if they were victorious against Chelsea at home in their next league game, or if Arsenal lost against Nottingham Forest in their next fixture the day before", ". The latter scenario subsequently materialised, as Arsenal lost 0–1 at Forest on 20 May, with Manchester City thus securing a third consecutive league title, and fifth in six years, with three games to spare.", "On 17 May, in one of their best performances of the Guardiola era, City thrashed Real Madrid 4–0 at home in the second leg of the Champions League semi-finals for a convincing 5–1 aggregate victory. Bernardo Silva scored a first-half brace and Manuel Akanji and Julián Álvarez further extended their lead in the second half", ". Once again, the Blues had an abundance of chances to score more, but, similarly to last season, Madrid goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois's prolific performance kept his side in the game, this time until City's third goal. Manchester City therefore advanced to their second Champions League final in three years, having lost to Chelsea in the 2021 final; they would meet Inter Milan in Istanbul on 10 June 2023, attempting to clinch their first European Cup and first European trophy since 1970.", "With the title already secured, City ended their league campaign with a home win, an away draw and an away defeat against Chelsea, Brighton and Brentford, respectively, as Guardiola rotated his squad to rest players ahead of their two upcoming finals. In the end of season awards, Haaland became the first player to win both the Premier League Player of the Season and Young Player of the Season awards, as well as the Golden Boot", ". De Bruyne won the Playmaker of the Season award, while Guardiola won both the Premier League Manager of the Season and LMA Manager of the Year awards.", "The treble\nOn 3 June, City secured the league and FA Cup double for the second time in their history by beating city rivals Manchester United 2–1 in the first-ever Manchester derby cup final. İlkay Gündoğan scored both goals for the Blues, the first one after just 12 seconds, making it the fastest in FA Cup final history.", "On 10 June, Manchester City faced Inter Milan in the Champions League final, aiming to end the 53-year European trophy drought and secure the continental treble, and the match was a tense and close affair. City began the final with Kyle Walker unexpectedly left on the bench in favour of Nathan Aké; Inter retained the same starting line-up that had played in previous rounds. The two sides had scoring chances early in the first half, but Inter's André Onana made two saves to prevent City from taking the lead", ". A misplayed pass from Ederson in the 26th minute was stolen by Nicolò Barella, but his shot over the goalkeeper missed. De Bruyne would leave the match in the 36th minute with a hamstring injury, and he was replaced by Phil Foden. The first half ended scoreless, with Inter playing more defensively to prevent City from gaining momentum.", "Romelu Lukaku was brought on to replace former City striker Edin Džeko early in the second half and immediately produced a chance from a header. In the 59th minute, Ederson did not anticipate a backpass from Akanji which was found by Inter's Lautaro Martínez; his shot from near the touchline was blocked by Ederson. Rodri scored the opening goal for City in the 68th minute, finishing a pulled-back pass that Bernardo Silva sent from near the goal to the top of the penalty area", ". Inter had a chance to equalise three minutes later through a header by defender Federico Dimarco that hit the crossbar. Dimarco tried to capitalise on the rebound as well, but his shot was blocked by Lukaku. The Belgian striker had his own chance to score from a close-range header in the 89th minute, which Ederson blocked with his legs. The Brazilian made an additional save in stoppage time off of a Robin Gosens header to preserve a 1–0 victory for City.", "Rodri, who scored the lone goal and was instrumental in City's midfield, was named man of the match by UEFA. For Manchester City, this was their first-ever European Cup, and first European trophy since 1970. Having earlier won the Premier league and FA Cup titles, they achieved a continental treble, becoming only the second English and eighth European men's club to have done so", ". As winners, City earned the right to play against Sevilla, the champions of the 2022–23 UEFA Europa League, in the UEFA Super Cup, as well as qualifying for both the 2023 and 2025 FIFA Club World Cups.", "City's players and staff later received multiple prestigious awards in recognition of their achievements. Haaland was named the UEFA Men's Player of the Year, and Pep Guardiola won the UEFA Men's Coach of the Year award. Seven City players were included in the Champions League team of the season, with Rodri being named the most valuable player of the tournament.\n\nFirst-team squad\n\nTransfers\n\nTransfers in\n\nTransfers out\n\nLoans out\n\nNew contracts", "Pre-season and friendlies\nOn 25 April, Manchester City announced they would travel to the United States for two pre-season friendlies in preparation for the new season, starting with a fixture against Club América on 20 July. The second fixture against Bayern Munich on 23 July was announced a week later. On 7 December, City announced they would play a friendly match against fellow CFG team Girona on 17 December at their Academy Stadium as a warm-up to the resumption of the post-World Cup season.", "Competitions\n\nOverall record\n\nPremier League\n\nLeague table\n\nResults summary\n\nResults by matchday\n\nMatches\nThe league fixtures were announced on 16 June 2022.\n\nFA Cup", "City entered the competition in the third round and were drawn at home to Chelsea, making it a rematch of the third round League Cup tie earlier that season. The fourth round draw was held shortly before City's third round tie against Chelsea, with the Blues drawn against the winner of the following day's Oxford United vs Arsenal tie. In the fifth round, City were drawn away to Bristol City. After their victory, the Cityzens were drawn at home to Burnley in the quarter-finals", ". After their victory, the Cityzens were drawn at home to Burnley in the quarter-finals. In the semi-finals, the Blues were paired with Sheffield United with a potential derby in the final at stake. City defeated Sheffield 3–0, while Manchester United overcame Brighton on penalties after a goalless draw to set up the first-ever Manchester derby in a major cup final.", "EFL Cup", "City entered the competition in the third round. The draw was held on 24 August 2022 after the second round fixtures were completed, and they were drawn at home to the previous season's runners-up Chelsea as one of seven all-Premier League ties. The draw for the fourth round was held after the final match of the third round between Manchester United and Aston Villa on 10 November, by Peter Schmeichel and Dion Dublin. City were drawn at home to the cup holders Liverpool", ". City were drawn at home to the cup holders Liverpool. The tie would be held immediately after the World Cup final, before the resumption of league fixtures. City were handed an away tie at Southampton in the quarter-finals draw, held immediately after their fourth round victory over Liverpool.", "Community Shield\n\nThe traditional season curtain raiser was played between Manchester City and Liverpool, the previous season's league champions and FA Cup winners respectively. Normally held at Wembley Stadium, this season's edition was played at Leicester City's King Power Stadium to avoid clashes with UEFA Women's Euro 2022.\n\nUEFA Champions League\n\nGroup stage", "UEFA Champions League\n\nGroup stage\n\nThe 2022–23 UEFA Champions League group stage draw took place in Istanbul, Turkey, on 25 August 2022. The first group matches were played on 6 September, and they wrapped up earlier than usual, at the start of November, to accommodate the mid-season FIFA World Cup.\n\nKnockout phase\n\nRound of 16\nThe draw for the round of 16 was held on 7 November 2022 at UEFA's headquarters in Nyon, with Manchester City being drawn against RB Leipzig.", "Quarter-finals\nThe draw for the quarter-finals and semi-finals was held on 17 March 2023. City were drawn against Bayern Munich in the quarter-finals, with the winner of that tie playing either Real Madrid or Chelsea in the semi-finals.\n\nSemi-finals\n\nFinal\n\nStatistics\n\nOverall\nAppearances () numbers are for appearances in competitive games only, including sub appearances.\nRed card numbers denote: numbers in parentheses represent red cards overturned for wrongful dismissal.Source for all stats:", "Goalscorers\nIncludes all competitive matches. The list is sorted alphabetically by surname when total goals are equal.\n\nAssists\nIncludes all competitive matches. The list is sorted alphabetically by surname when total assists are equal.\n\nDisciplinary record\nIncludes all competitive matches. The list is sorted alphabetically by surname when total cards are equal.\n\nHat-tricks\n\n4 – Player scored four goals.\n\n5 – Player scored five goals.", "Hat-tricks\n\n4 – Player scored four goals.\n\n5 – Player scored five goals.\n\nClean sheets\nThe list is sorted by shirt number when total clean sheets are equal. Numbers in parentheses represent games where both goalkeepers participated and both kept a clean sheet; the number in parentheses is awarded to the goalkeeper who was substituted on, whilst a full clean sheet is awarded to the goalkeeper who was on the field at the start of play.\n\nAwards", "Awards\n\nEtihad Player of the Year\nAwarded by an online vote of supporters on the official Manchester City F.C. website.\n\nUEFA Men's Player of the Year\n\nPFA Players' Player of the Year\nAwarded by a vote of PFA members.\n\nPremier League Player of the Season\nAwarded by a vote of a shortlist on the Premier League website\n\nPremier League Young Player of the Season\nAwarded by a vote of a shortlist on the Premier League website\n\nFWA Footballer of the Year", "FWA Footballer of the Year\n\nUEFA Champions League Player of the Season\nSelected by the UEFA technical study group at the end of the tournament.\n\nEuropean Golden Shoe\nAwarded to the highest goalscorer of all European top-division national leagues throughout the season.\n\nPremier League Golden Boot\n\nPremier League Playmaker of the Season\n\nUEFA Men's Coach of the Year\n\nPremier League Manager of the Season\nAwarded by a vote of a shortlist on the Premier League website.\n\nLMA Manager of the Year", "LMA Manager of the Year\n\nUEFA Champions League Team of the Season\nThe UEFA technical study group selected the following City players as part of the team of the tournament.\n\nPFA Team of the Year\nVoted for by PFA members.\n\nPremier League Player of the Month\nAwarded by a combination of an online public vote on the EA Sports website with those of a panel of football experts.\n\nEtihad Player of the Month\nAwarded by an online vote of supporters on the official Manchester City F.C. website.", "See also\n 2022–23 in English football\n List of Manchester City F.C. seasons\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\n2022–23\nManchester City\nManchester City\nManchester City\n2022–23\n2022–23" ]

[ "The history of autism spans over a century, autism has been subject to varying treatments, being pathologized or being viewed as a beneficial part of human neurodiversity. The understanding of autism has been shaped by cultural, scientific, and societal factors, and its perception and treatment change over time as scientific understanding of autism develops.", "The term autism was first introduced by Eugen Bleuler in his description of schizophrenia in 1911. The diagnosis of schizophrenia was broader than its modern equivalent: autistic children were said to have childhood schizophrenia. The earliest research that focused on children who would today be considered autistic was conducted by Grunya Sukhareva starting in the 1920s. In the 1930s and 1940s, Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner described two related syndromes, later termed infantile autism and Asperger syndrome", ". Kanner thought that the condition he had described might be distinct from schizophrenia, and in the following decades, research into what would become known as autism accelerated", ". Formally, however, autistic children continued to be diagnosed under various terms related to schizophrenia in both the DSM and ICD, but by the early 1970s, it had become more widely recognized that autism and schizophrenia were in fact distinct psychiatric conditions, and in 1980, this was formalized for the first time with new diagnostic categories in the DSM-III", ". Asperger syndrome was introduced to the DSM as a formal diagnosis in 1994, but in 2013, Asperger syndrome and infantile autism were reunified into a single diagnostic category, autism spectrum disorder (ASD).", "Autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with. The development of the web has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. Societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.", "Although the rise of parent organizations, self-advocacy, and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed, Autistic individuals and parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.", "The discussion of autism has brought about much controversy. Without researchers being able to meet a consensus on the varying forms of condition, there was for a time a lack of research being conducted on the disorder. Discussing the syndrome and its complexity frustrated researchers. Controversies have surrounded various claims regarding the etiology of autism.\n\nAutism before the term \"autism\" (until 1908)", "Autistic people before autism \nA few examples of people now understood to be autistic were described long before autism was named. The Table Talk of Martin Luther, compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance.", "Henry Cavendish was a prolific natural philosopher, first published in 1766. During his life, Cavendish was considered eccentric and his behavior was described as \"peculiarly shy\" by contemporaries. When researching Cavendish as a subject for a 2001 article in the journal Neurology, neurologist Oliver Sacks determined that evidence for an Asperger's diagnosis was \"almost overwhelming\".", "The Wild Boy of Aveyron, a feral child found in 1798, showed several signs of autism. He was non-verbal during his teenage years, and his case was widely popular among society for its time. Such cases brought awareness to autism, and more research was conducted on the natural dimensions of human behavior. The medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.", "Early descriptions of autistic symptoms \nIn 1877, British doctor John Down used the term developmental retardation to describe conditions including what would be considered autism today.\n\nAlso in 1877, German doctor Adolf Kussmaul defined the condition aphasia voluntaria - when people choose not to speak.", "German psychiatrist Hermann Emminghaus wrote Allgemeine Psychopathologie zur Einführung in das Studium der Geistesstörungen (General Psychopathology as an Introduction to the Study of Mental Disorders) in 1878. Using a very similar typology he later wrote the first textbook on child psychiatry, Die psychischen Störungen des Kindesalters (The Psychic Disturbances of Childhood) in 1887. These were both very influential on the categorisation of mental conditions", ". These were both very influential on the categorisation of mental conditions. While autistic people could fit into certain categories, there was no category that aligned closely with autism.", "In 1887, John Down gave a lecture which describes idiots savants, people whose mental abilities were generally poor, but who had strong abilities in a particular area. He notes that \"In none of the cases of \"idiot savant\" have I been able to trace any history of a like faculty in the parents or in the brothers and sisters...\"", "French psychiatrist Pierre Janet published the book Lés Obsessions et la Psychasthénie (The obsessions and psychasthenia) in 1903. It included the newly defined condition of psychasthenia, which became a prototype of Carl Jung's later introverted personality type, and was believed by Grunya Sukhareva to be a component of schizoid psychopathy in childhood.", "Dementia praecox and related disorders \nThe term dementia praecox (premature dementia) was first used by German psychiatrist Heinrich Schüle in 1880, and also by 1891 by Arnold Pick, a Czech professor of psychiatry at Charles University in Prague.", "Scottish psychiatrist Thomas Clouston in his 1883 book Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases, described a new condition he called psychoneurosis. His description covered what is today considered the schizophrenia and autism spectrums - what others had considered \"dementia praecox\".", "The term \"dementia praecox\" was greatly popularised in 1899 through the sixth edition of German Psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin's book Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aerzte (Psychiatry. A text-book for students and physicians). This condition was defined very broadly by today's standards. The primary disturbance in dementia praecox was seen to be a disruption in cognitive or mental functioning in attention, memory, and goal-directed behaviour", ". Autistic people seen to have these attributes were diagnosed with this condition.", "Italian psychiatrist Sante De Sanctis briefly mentioned a condition in a 1906 paper he called dementia praecocissima (very premature dementia), which was a form of dementia praecox that started very early in people's lives. He wrote about it in more detail in a 1908 paper. It was a very broadly defined condition he considered \"very similar to the hebephrenic or catatonic symptom complex of puberty and adolescence.\"", "Austrian educator Theodor Heller defined a condition called dementia infantilis (infantile dementia) in 1908. This condition would go on to be called Heller's syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder. The DSM currently considers it part of autism spectrum disorder. It is a rare genetic condition.\n\nAutism as a symptom of schizophrenia (1908–1924)\n\nEugen Bleuler", "Autism as a symptom of schizophrenia (1908–1924)\n\nEugen Bleuler \n\nEugen Bleuler was a Swiss psychiatrist who was the director of the Burghölzli mental hospital, which was associated with the University of Zurich.\n\nIn April 1908 he gave a lecture explaining that dementia praecox was very different to other forms of dementia. He proposed that it be given the unique name schizophrenia - a split mind. The term would be increasingly adopted over the next fifty years.", "What is now known as \"schizophrenia\" is different from what Bleuler described. He included what is today considered as autism, schizoid personality disorder and various schizophrenia spectrum disorders in his definition.", "The Neo-Latin word autismus (English translation autism) was coined by Bleuler in July 1910. He first used it in print to describe a symptom of schizophrenia in the scientific paper \"Zur Theorie des schizophrenen Negativismus\" (On the theory of schizophrenic negativism). He derived autismus from the , and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to \"autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance\".", "Bleuler created the term in reference to Sigmund Freud's term autoerotismus, shortening the latter term because he did not believe sexuality to be critical in the etiology of autistic symptoms. He characterized the autistic patient as one who \"wants to shut himself off from reality\". Autistic people, then, are those \"most severe schizophrenics, who no longer have any intercourse at all, live in a world of their own\".", "Bleuler believed that the idiosyncratic behaviours of people with schizophrenia displaying autistic behaviour were due to them engaging with personal fantasy rather than with the world as it is. He believed they drew on an early childhood mental state that was unable to form theory of mind.", "August Hoch: the shut-in personality", "In two papers first publicly presented in November 1908 and May 1910, and published in 1909 and 1910 respectively, Swiss-American psychiatrist August Hoch of the New York State Psychiatric Institute defined the concept of the shut-in personality. It was characterised by reticence, seclusiveness, shyness and a preference for living in fantasy worlds, among other things. Hoch also said they had \"a poorly balanced sexual instinct [and] strikingly fruitless love affairs\"", ". This personality was identified because a high proportion of patients with dementia praecox had shut-in behaviour before more serious symptoms appeared.", "Children's rights \nIn 1913, the Mental Deficiency Act was passed in England and Wales, ensuring institutional care for all children identified as \"mental defectives\".\n\nGannushkin and Kraepelin \n\nBoth Russian psychiatrist Pyotr Gannushkin's 1914 paper \"The state of the question of the schizophrenic constitution\", and the verschrobene (eccentric) type of the eighth edition of Emil Kraepelin's psychiatry textbook (1915), detailed character types that would later be considered schizoid by Grunya Sukhareva.", "Kraepelin writes of an as-of-yet poorly understood group of patients who may be intellectually well-endowed, yet are \"absent-minded, forgetful, and show fluctuations in their intellectual capacity.\" They are eccentric in the sense that they tend to hold \"extravagant and unworldly ideas,\" have a rambling or confused mode of expression, and tend to not to adjust themselves to others' experiences and instead \"occupy themselves with completely hopeless and out-of-the-way plans\".", "Introduction of the term schizoid \nThe term schizoid began to be used just before 1920. It was used to describe people who had symptoms similar to \"schizophrenia\", but were not as pronounced.", "German psychiatrist of the University of Tübingen, Ernst Kretschmer's 1921 paper \"Körperbau und Charakter\" was expanded in 1922. This expanded version was published as the book Physique and Character in English in 1925, and used the terms schizoid and schizothmes (the latter being like schizoid, but more neurotypical). He included the schizothmic artistic temperament as one of two varieties of genius.", "In 1924, Bleuler said schizoid people were: At this time Bleuler also believed that everyone had a schizoid element, writing \"Every man then has one syntonic [in harmony with one's environment] and one schizoid component, and through closer observation one can determine its force and direction\".\n\nIn 1925, Sante De Sanctis published another paper about \"dementia praecocissima\". It had some overlap with Heller's syndrome.\n\nCarl Jung's Personality Types and introversion", "Carl Jung's Personality Types and introversion \n\nIn September 1909, Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung used the term introverted in a lecture at Clark University. A transcript of this lecture was then published with two others in a journal in 1910, the first time the term appeared in print. In the lecture he mentions that love that is \"introverted\", \"is turned inward into the subject and there produces increased imaginative activity\". Jung had earlier worked under Bleuler at Burghölzli.", "Carl Jung's 1921 book Psychologische Typen was published as Personality Types in English in 1923. It described the \"introverted\" in detail for the first time. (Various new editions were published until 1949). Jung writes:\n\nA more concise definition of the introverted type was given by Jung in February 1936, in his paper \"Psychologische Typologie\" (Psychological Types). It included:", "Moritz Tramer \nIn 1924, Austrian-Swiss psychiatrist Moritz Tramer published the paper \"Einseitig Talentierte und Begabte Schwachsinnige\" (Singularly talented and gifted mental defectives). It described idiot savants. Leo Kanner would later claim Tramer's autism work as an antecedent of his own.\n\nPioneering research (1925–1949)", "Grunya Sukhareva", "Soviet child psychiatrist Grunya Sukhareva (Груня Сухарева) was the first person to comprehensively define what is now considered autism. She was born in Kyiv to a Jewish family. and between 1917 and 1921 worked in a psychiatric hospital in Kyiv. In 1921, she founded a school for children with psychological problems at the Psychoneurological Department for Children in Moscow, and worked there for some time. She was supervised by Mikhail Gurevich, who had previously worked under Emil Kraepelin.", "In 1925 she published a paper containing six case studies and a detailed description of schizoid personality disorder in children, titled \"Шизоидные псиxопатии в детском возрасте\" (Schizoid Psychopathies in Childhood). This was republished in German in 1926, as \"Die schizoiden Psychopathien im Kindesalter\" (The Schizoid Psychopathies in Childhood). Her definition aligned well with that for ASD in the DSM-5.\n\nHer description of the condition included the following:", "Her description of the condition included the following:\n\n An odd type of thinking, characterized by a tendency towards abstraction and schematization, as well as by rationalization and absurd rumination.\n An autistic attitude, understood as difficulty adapting to peers and a tendency to keep apart from them.\n A flatness and superficiality of emotions, combined with Kretschmer's psychasthenic mood and also involving a mixture of insensitive and oversensitive elements.", "Sukhareva concluded that \"there is a group of personality disorders whose clinical picture shares certain features with schizophrenia, but which yet differs profoundly from schizophrenia in terms of its pathogenesis\". Speculating about the etiology of the condition, she attributed these to \"an inborn deficiency of those systems which are also affected in schizophrenia\".", "Sukhareva followed this paper with one the next year that focused on girls with the condition. She found that there were four main sex-related differences. (New Zealand translator Charlotte Simmonds translated this paper into English in 2020.)\n\nWhile Sukhareva's writings would be read and referenced by American child psychology researchers like Louise Despert, Charles Bradley, and Leo Kanner in the 1930s and 40s, her work was subsequently largely unknown in the Anglosphere and Western Europe.", "Sukhareva would not become well known in the West until much later: In September 1996, British child psychiatrist Sula Wolff published her translation of Grunya Sukhareva's 1925 paper, starting the process of increasing awareness of Sukhareva's work in the West.", "In 1930, Sukhareva published the paper K probleme struktury i dinamiki detskikh konstitutsionnykh psikhopatiĭ (shizoidnye formy) (On the problem of the structure and dynamics of children's constitutional psychopathy (schizoid form)). It was translated into English by William New and Hristo Kyuchukov in 2022. She notes:Between 1932 and 1936, Sukhareva went on to publish several papers about childhood schizophrenia", ". In her December 1932 paper Uber den Verlauf der Schizophrenien im Kindesalter (On the course of schizophrenia in childhood), she identifies \"lack of unification of the psychic functions\" as an early symptom of childhood schizophrenia, noting that even \"the psychiatric untrained educator\" finds these children \"striking and odd\". She further notes, that even from early childhood, these children showed \"lack of adaptability to life in the collective, a certain autism and unreliability\".", "In 1939, Sukhareva published the three book collection Клинические лекции по психиатрии детского возраста, (Clinical lectures on child psychiatry). The second volume included her findings about schizoid/schizophrenic children. New editions were published in 1959 and 1965.\n\nHans Asperger \nThe Austrian psychiatrist Hans Asperger was born in Vienna in 1906.", "Hans Asperger \nThe Austrian psychiatrist Hans Asperger was born in Vienna in 1906.\n\nIn 1929, German psychiatrist Erich Rudolf Jaensch (of the University of Marburg) published his book Grundformen menschlichen Seins (Basic forms of human existence). Asperger would later say his autism thinking was influenced by its explanation of schizothyms (a mild schizoid personality type).", "In May 1931, Asperger joined the Vienna University's Children's Clinic, and the following year had joined its department of curative education. He learnt from those already working there, including the Austrians psychiatrist , psychologist Anni Weiss, and nurse Viktorine Zak. In 1935, Asperger went on to become the head of the department.", "In April 1935, Anni Weiss published the paper \"Qualitative intelligence testing as a means of diagnosis in the examination of psychopathic children\", which includes a case study about an autistic boy. In August that year, the Jewish Weiss migrated from Europe to the United States. She would go on to work at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore.", "George Frankl was working at the clinic long before Asperger, and had taught Asperger much about child psychiatry. Already in 1934, Frankl had published the paper \"Befehlen und Gehorchen\" (Command and Obey), which identified a group of children with particular language difficulties that some have subsequently considered autistic. As a Jew, Frankl was in danger from his country's Nazi regime. So he left Vienna in 1937 and migrated to the United States in November that year", ". So he left Vienna in 1937 and migrated to the United States in November that year. He went to work with his friend Leo Kanner at John Hopkins Hospital.", "Asperger used the terms autistic psychopath and autism in a 3 October 1938 lecture to describe a pattern he had seen in his patients and elsewhere. The lecture was published later that year as Das Psychisch Abnormale Kind (The Mentally Abnormal Child). The lecture included two case studies, and analysis", ". The lecture included two case studies, and analysis. It instructed its predominantly Viennese listeners and readers that people who are a bit strange may also be very intelligent, and that knowing this will become important \"when the 'Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseased Offspring' comes into force in our country\".", "Describing a particular kind of mentally abnormal child, Asperger wrote:He also spoke to the broad range of people he considered as having \"autism\":Hans Asperger submitted a postdoctoral habilitation thesis on the topic of autism to the University of Vienna in October 1942, which would be published with very few changes in June 1944. The paper \"Die \"Autistischen Psychopathen\" im Kindesalter\" (The \"Autistic Psychopaths\" in Childhood) included four cases studies and related analysis", ". This work offered by far the most detailed description of autism as yet published.", "Asperger notes:In regards to his work's academic antecedents, Asperger frequently acknowledges Bleuler, and also:(It has been suggested that Asperger was also likely aware of Sukhareva's work.)\n\nThe particular patterns Asperger identified later became known as \"Asperger syndrome\", particularly those that differed from the children described by Kanner.", "Despite many important English-publishing autism researchers being fluent in German, and his work being covered in some English language works, Asperger's concept of autism would be almost unknown by non-German-speaking psychological professionals until the 1970s. It would take yet longer for substantial numbers of non-German-speaking people it describes to hear about it.", "Leo Kanner \nLeo Kanner was born in 1894 to a Jewish family in what is Ukraine today, and what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He went on to study and work in Berlin. He then immigrated to the United States in 1924.\n\nIn 1930, the first child psychiatry clinic in the United States was established at Johns Hopkins Hospital, and Kanner was appointed to run it. In 1933, Kanner became associate professor of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins University.", "In May 1933, American psychiatrist Howard Potter, (assistant director of the New York State Psychiatric Institute and Hospital), published a paper titled \"Schizophrenia in Children\". Potter defined six diagnostic criteria for childhood schizophrenia, which Kanner would later say was important when thinking about autism:", "A generalized retraction of interests from the environment.\n Dereistic thinking, feeling and acting.\n Disturbances of thought, manifested through blocking, symbolization, condensation, perseveration, incoherence and diminution, sometimes to the extent of mutism.\n Defect in emotional rapport.\n Diminution, rigidity and distortion of affect.", "Defect in emotional rapport.\n Diminution, rigidity and distortion of affect.\n Alterations of behavior with either an increase of motility, leading to incessant activity, or a diminution of motility, reacting to complete immobility or bizarre behavior with a tendency to perseveration or stereotypy.", "In 1934, Soviet psychiatrist Evgenia Grebelskaya-Albatz (Евгения Гребельская-Альбац) of Moscow published the paper \"Zur Klinik der Schizophrenie des frühen Kindesalters\" (On the clinic of early childhood schizophrenia). It divided people with childhood \"schizophrenia\" into two groups, those with normal intelligence, and those with lesser intelligence. Kanner would later say that she was one of the three people to identify autism before he did.", "Leo Kanner published the first American textbook on child psychiatry in 1935, titled Child Psychiatry. (While many sources say he published the first English-language book of that kind, Kanner himself credits this to William Ireland).", "In 1937, Swiss psychiatrist Jakob Lutz of University of Zurich published a short book reviewing the available material on childhood schizophrenia, including the work of Sukhareva, Potter, Grebelskaja-Albatz and others. It was republished in a journal later in 1937. Lutz visited Kanner's department at Johns Hopkins in early 1938. Lutz would also publish a chapter on the topic in a book that year. Kanner later acknowledged Lutz's influence on his work.", "In June 1938, American psychiatrist Louise Despert of the New York State Psychiatric Institute published the paper Schizophrenia in Children. It included case studies of people that have subsequently been identified as having autism. The paper referenced two researchers, Sukhareva and Grebelskaya-Albatz. It has been suggested that this paper was a major influence on Kanner. Kanner would later also claim Despert's autism work as an antecedent of his own.", "By this time, two of Hans Asperger's close colleagues, psychiatrist (and friend of Kanner) and psychologist Anni Weiss, were now working at Johns Hopkins, having fled the Nazis.\n\nLeo Kanner visited the autistic child Donald Triplett on 27 October 1938. Kanner would later say that this was the first time he saw the pattern of autism.", "In April 1941, Kanner presented a paper titled \"Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact\" to a staff conference in The Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic in Baltimore. This would be published in April 1943. It includes case studies of eleven children and their families who have particular things in common. He does not use the term autism as the name of the children's condition.\n\nHe summarises:", "He summarises:\n\nAlmost all the characteristics described in this paper, notably \"autistic aloneness\" and \"insistence on sameness\", are still regarded as typical of autistic spectrum disorder.\n\nAs for the cause of the condition, it states:The term Kanner's syndrome was later coined to describe the children's condition, in particular to distinguish them from the differing symptoms of Asperger's children. This syndrome has also sometimes been known as classic autism.", "Kanner and Asperger's colleague George Frankl published the paper \"Language and Affective Contact\" in the same journal edition as Kanner's 1943 paper. It describes different kinds of speech problems children have. In particular, he identifies a group of speech-troubled children defined by having a \"lack of contact with persons\", which can considered to be an autistic group. Frankl's precise role in the development of the concept of autism is not clear.", "In September 1944, Kanner published the paper \"Early Infantile Autism\", giving his newly identified condition a new name. The paper has much in common with Kanner's 1943 paper. It included only two case studies, but had a much more detailed introduction.", "Kanner writes:His third paper on autism, \"Irrelevant and metaphorical language in early infantile autism\" was published in September 1946. He concludes, \"schizophrenic 'irrelevance' is not irrelevant to the patient himself and could become relevant to the audience to the extent to which it were possible to find the clues to his private and self-contained metaphorical transfers.\"", "He released a new edition of his textbook Child Psychiatry in 1948, which included his newly identified condition, and did much to increase knowledge of it.", "Kanner published a fourth autism paper in July 1949, entitled \"Problems of nosology and psychodynamics of early infantile autism\". The first part aims to reinforce the separateness of early infantile autism from other conditions accepted by the medical community. He notes \"Early infantile autism bears no resemblance to Heller's disease\". He says it is however the same condition earlier identified by three women, \"Ssucharewa [a German spelling of Sukhareva], Grebelskaya-Albatz, and Despert.\"", "The paper also says much about the personality type of the parents of autistic children, including:He also notes that the parents were typically \"reared sternly in emotional refrigerators\", and that \"the parents did not seem to know what to do with the children when they had them. They lacked the warmth which the babies needed.\"", "Other research \nGerman child psychiatrist August Homberger released the book Vorlesungen über Psychopathologie des Kindesalters (Lectures on childhood psychopathology) in 1926, which included a chapter called \"Die Schizophrenie\" (The schizophrenia). Charles Bradley would later quote from it extensively.", "Russian-French psychiatrist Eugène Minkowski submitted a thesis in 1926, \"La notion de perte de contact avec la réalité et ses applications en psychopathologie\" (The Notion of Loss of Contact with Reality and its Applications in Psychopathology). He thought that autism was the patient's loss of contact with reality, and was the core component of \"schizophrenia\". He thought autism was of two types, \"rich\" (full of fantasy/psychosis) and \"poor\" (with few thoughts and feelings)", ". Contrary to Bleuer, he thought that the vast majority of autistic cases were of the \"poor\" type.", "R. Niedenthal published the paper \"Schizophrenia in childhood\" in 1932. It was devoted to defining the symptoms of childhood schizophrenia.\n\nIn 1934, Moritz Tramer published the paper \"Elktiver Mutismus bei Kindern\" (Elective Mutism in Children), coining the term elective mutism.\n\nDuring this period, the term autism came to be used quite widely, with a variety of related meanings.", "In December 1937, British psychiatrist Mildred Creak of Maudsley Hospital presented a paper titled \"Psychoses in Children\". One part of it identified a group of five children that might today be considered autistic. The paper was published in March 1938.", "In 1939 and 1940, Dutch psychiatrist Alfons Chorus of Nijmegen's Pedological Institute published a pair of papers describing children that were autists and schizoid, which today would be considered autistic. In late 1938 or early 1939, the Institute created a category for its child students called \"autists\", representing those who were particularly self-centred. (The institute's work with the autistic would later be explained by senior Sister and psychologist Ida Frye in her doctoral desertion in 1968).", "In November 1940, husband-and-wife psychiatrists the American Lauretta Bender and Austrian-American Paul Schilder of New York University and Bellevue Hospital published the paper \"Impulsions: A specific disorder of behaviour of children\"", ". This paper describes in detail children with what would earlier be considered monomania, and later be considered \"special interests\":American psychiatrist Charles Bradley of the Emma Pendleton Bradley Home, published the book Schizophrenia in Childhood in March 1941, which described in extensive detail what is today considered childhood autism. He cited dozens of other early researchers on the topic, predominantly Lutz, Sukhareva, Potter and Homberger.", "In 1942, Lauretta Bender described the condition of childhood schizophrenia as a \"definite syndrome\", a \"pathology at every level and in every field of integration within the functioning of the central nervous system\".", "American Academy of Speech Correction", "The American Academy of Speech Correction (AASC) was founded in 1925, bringing together people working to correct serious communication problems some people had. This included some autistic people. Speech correctionists later became known as \"speech therapists\" and \"speech pathologists\", amongst other terms. The AASC changed its name to the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association in 1978", ". The AASC changed its name to the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association in 1978. In 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) noted that \"The most common developmental therapy for people with ASD is Speech and Language Therapy.\"", "Similar bodies later formed in other parts of the world, including the UK's College of Speech Therapists (now Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists) in 1945, the Australian College of Speech Therapists (now Speech Pathology Australia) in 1949 and Speech-Language & Audiology Canada (SAC).\n\nFragile X syndrome", "Fragile X syndrome \n\nIn July 1943, the British neurologist James Martin and geneticist Julia Bell described a pedigree of X-linked intellectual disability. This would later be called Fragile X syndrome, and is now considered one of the genetic causes of autism.", "ICD-6 \nOn 7 April 1948, the newly formed United Nations established the World Health Organization (WHO). One of its first tasks was to create a global standard list of all health conditions, which was approved by an international conference at the end of April. The WHO adopted and greatly expanded an earlier list of fatal conditions, the ILCD-5. The first International Classification of Diseases (ICD-6) soon became widely used in Europe and elsewhere.", "It included \"primary childhood behaviour disorders\" (324), which was used to categorise all children with what was considered disordered behaviour. There was also the condition of \"specific learning defects\" (326.0). One of its \"disorders of character, behaviour, and intelligence\" was the \"pathological personality\" of \"schizoid personality\" (320.0). Various categories of schizophrenia (300) were additionally represented, though not specifically \"childhood\" schizophrenia", ". (The DSM-II would later explicitly state that its concept of childhood schizophrenia had no ICD equivalent).", "The ICD would not substantially change its representation of autism-related conditions until the ICD-9 in 1978.\n\nIncreasing awareness (1950–1979) \nStarting in the 1950s, awareness of \"autism\" as a distinct condition begins to spread to psychiatrists and the wider culture. Parents of autistic children began to group together around the condition, and advocate for their children and themselves. Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) became adopted as a method of treatment.", "The League for Emotionally Disturbed Children", "The League for Emotionally Disturbed Children was founded in New York in 1950 by 20 parents of emotionally disturbed children, including doctor and researcher Jacques May. The group established the League School in Brooklyn in 1953. Enrolment was limited to children diagnosed with \"childhood schizophrenia\". The school helped establish a new method of teaching, led by teacher Carl Fenichel and assisted by psychiatrists Alfred Freedman and Zelda Klapper", ". In 1955, it changed its name to the National Organization for Mentally Ill Children. Leo Kanner noted in 1956 that the organisation had sponsored research that was \"attempting to uncover metabolic and electrophysiologic abnormalities\" in autistic children. In 1966, Fenichel established the League School of Boston.", "Refrigerator mother theory", "In the early 1950s, the refrigerator mother theory emerged as an accepted explanation for Kanner's early infantile autism. The hypothesis was based on the idea that autistic behaviors stem from the emotional frigidity, lack of warmth, and cold, distant, rejecting demeanor of a child's mother. Parents of children with an ASD experienced blame, guilt and self-doubt, especially as the theory was embraced by the medical establishment and went largely unchallenged into the mid-1960s", ". (While an inspiration for it, Leo Kanner himself eventually rejected the theory.)", "Austrian-British psychologist Anna Freud and British psychologist Sophie Dann published a paper in 1951 that found that the extreme conditions of deprivation of affection of the Nazi concentration camps did not induce autistic pathology in children. This was later used as an argument against the refrigerator mother theory.", "DSM-I \nThe first edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was released in 1952. The DSM was created to give each of America's mental disorders a clear definition. Two of the conditions it defined included reference to Bleuler's understanding of \"autism\" - the symptom of keeping-to-oneself. Each was named primarily using another of Bleuler's terms, and defined with a paragraph.", "One was \"Schizophrenic reaction, childhood type\" (000-x28), used in cases of \"psychotic reactions\", including those manifesting primarily autism. This diagnosis was used in cases where there were intellectual disturbances, repetitive behavior, or a retreat from reality. The other was \"Schizoid personality\" (000-x42), which was characterized by avoidance of close relations with others, inability to express ordinary aggressive feelings, and autistic thinking.", "Kanner and Eisenberg's 1956-57 work \nIn February 1956, American psychiatrist Leon Eisenberg published the paper \"The Autistic Child in Adolescence\", which compared the childhood and adolescence of 63 autistic people. He found that almost one third had achieved at least a moderate social adjustment over the period, predominantly those who had possessed \"meaningful language\" by the age of 5. He also found that \"the fundamental feature [of autism] is a disturbance in social perception.\"", "In July that year, Kanner and fellow Johns Hopkins researcher Eisenberg published the paper \"Early infantile autism, 1943-1955\". Providing Kanner's most concise definition of the condition yet published, the paper says:Supporting the refrigerator mother hypothesis, the paper notes: \"The emotional frigidity in the typical autistic family suggests a dynamic experiential factor in the genesis of the disorder in the child.\"", "Kanner released the third edition of his textbook Child Psychiatry in 1957. It included an extensive chapter on \"early infantile autism\", which he categorised as a type of schizophrenia. Regarding the treatment of child schizophrenia as a whole, he wrote: \"Whenever possible, frequent sessions with a psychiatrist may enhance the child's ability to form relationships and wean him away from the temptation to schizophrenic withdrawal.\"", "Kanner published a number of other papers about autism in the 1950s and 60s.", "Mildred Creak's nine point definition", "Until 1961, autistic children in the UK were often institutionalised from a young age. Poor disease control in these institutions often led to a quick death. At this time, the British government sought to discover exactly how many psychotic children there were in the UK. They commissioned Mildred Creak of Great Ormond Street Hospital to lead a group to define the symptoms of childhood psychosis/schizophrenia, and the group completed their work the same year", ". They came up with a nine-point definition that soon became widely used in that country, and in time would form the definition of the condition used in most of the world.", "The nine points were more detailed than Sukhareva's similar definition. They lacked the earlier definition's mention of OCD and clumsiness, and added the inclusion of anxiety. A major difference came in Creak's ninth point: \"A background of serious retardation in which islets of normal, near normal, or exceptional intellectual function or skill may appear.\"\n\nAs the new definition took off, the autistic condition began to be seen as involving a lack of fantasy rather than an excess of it.", "In the United Kingdom \nBritish teacher Sybil Elgar began a school for autistic children in the basement of her London home in 1962. Later that year Elgar, Lorna Wing and others established the UK's Society for Autistic Children. (It became known as the National Autistic Society in 1982.)\n\nThe Society proposed the \"puzzle piece\" as a symbol for autism in 1963, because it reflected their view of autism as a \"puzzling condition\".", "In 1965, the group set up The Society School for Autistic Children, which was later named after Sybil Elgar. As of 2023, the society operates seven schools across England.\n\nRepresentative organisation Scottish Autism began in 1968, and continues independently today. (Autism Northern Ireland would follow in 1991.)", "In the United States \nAmerican psychologist Bernard Rimland published an article in 1959 in Scientific American, \"Joey the Mechanical Boy\", about a 9-year-old with autism. This increased public awareness of the condition in the United States.\n\nRosemary Kennedy, sister of US President John F Kennedy, was autistic. Her sister Eunice Kennedy Shriver made the public aware of this through an article in the New York Post in September 1962. Rosemary's treatment with brain surgery severely impacted her.", "The US Community Mental Health Act (CMHA) of 1963 prompted the closure of most of the country's residential institutions for the mentally unwell. The intent was that as many people as possible would be enabled to live freely in homes without full time professional supervision, but could draw on support from community mental health centres. The introduction of Medicaid in 1965 increased the rate of institutional closure.", "In 1964, Bernard Rimland published the book Infantile Autism: The Syndrome and Its Implications for a Neural Theory of Behavior, which refuted the refrigerator theory. Instead, Rimland suggested, autism was a result of biochemical defects \"triggered by environmental assaults\". It included a foreword by Leo Kanner. The book challenged the medical establishment's perceptions of autism. Rimland's message resonated with parents, who wanted to share their stories with him and ask for advice", ". (The book also includes a reference to \"Asperger Syndrome\".)", "Philip K. Dick published the science fiction book Martian Time-Slip in 1964, which features an autistic boy with special powers.\n\nIn February 1965, American TV aired an episode of the series Directions entitled \"Conall\", the story of a boy with autism told by his family.", "In May that year, Life magazine published an article on the work led by Norwegian-American behaviourist psychologist Ivar Lovaas at UCLA's Young Autism Project. \"Screams, Slaps and Love\" showed how the adults working with autistic children hit them as part of their training.", "Both this TV episode and magazine article led to further awareness of the condition in the United States. Later in 1965, this newfound awareness coalesced as Rimland, Lovaas, nurse Ruth C. Sullivan and others founded the National Society for Autistic Children (NSAC). Leo Kanner and Carl Fenichel soon joined its Professional Advisory Board.", "Austrian-American psychologist Bruno Bettelheim at the University of Chicago countered Rimland's assertions about the causes of autism in his 1967 book Empty Fortress: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self. It greatly popularised the refrigerator theory. Bettelheim subsequently appeared multiple times on The Dick Cavett Show in the 70s to discuss theories of autism and psychoanalysis", ". (Refrigerator theory has since been refuted in the scientific literature, including a 2015 systematic review which showed absolutely no association between caregiver interaction and language outcomes in ASD patients.)", "Another notable book of 1967 was The Siege: The First Eight Years of an Autistic Child by American teacher Clara Claiborne Park. It told the story of Clara's daughter and Clara's efforts to help her. (An updated version was released in 1982).\n\nBernard Rimland left his central role at the NSAC in 1967, founding the Autism Research Institute. However, he remained attached to the NSAC.", "Starting in the late 1960s, \"autism\" started to be considered as a separate syndrome from \"schizophrenia\", just as Bleuler had separated schizophrenia from dementia.\n\nThe Rehabilitation Act of 1973 stated, “No otherwise qualified handicapped individual in the United States, shall solely by reason of his handicap, be subject to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.”", "The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) was passed in November 1975, after a series of related Supreme Court decisions. In 1970, US schools educated only one in five children with disabilities. Many states had laws excluding emotionally disturbed and intellectual disabled children from public education. The EHA guaranteed each disabled child a free and appropriate public education. (The act became the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990).", "Sensory processing disorder, hyperlexia, and alexithymia", "Sensory processing disorder is a condition in which multisensory input is not adequately processed in order to provide appropriate responses to the demands of the environment. The concept was developed by American occupational therapist Anna Jean Ayres in the 1960s. The disorder continues to be recognised by some major occupational therapy bodies. Studies by the STAR Institute suggest that at least three-quarters of autistic children have significant symptoms of the condition.", "Hyperlexia is when a child can read at an early age. This can be a symptom of autism, particularly when their reading ability is much better than their speaking ability. The term was coined by Norman E. Silberberg and Margaret C. Silberberg in 1967.", "The term alexithymia was conceptualised by American psychiatrists Peter Sifneos and John Case Nemiah in 1973. It refers to people having difficulties in understanding the emotions experienced by themselves or others. This is common in people with autism, but is not always the case.", "During the 1970s, Anna Jean Ayres developed the sensory integration theory, which proposes that sensory-processing is linked to emotional regulation, learning, behavior, and participation in daily life. Sensory integration is the process of organizing sensations from the body and from environmental stimuli.", "In conjunction with her theory, Ayres developed sensory integration therapy (SIT) to help children with sensory-processing difficulties. America's CDC notes that this therapy is used with autistic people to \"help improve responses to sensory input that may be restrictive or overwhelming.\"\n\nAsperger's 1968 paper", "Asperger's 1968 paper \n\nIn April 1968, Hans Asperger wrote about the similarities and differences of his and Kanner's concepts of autism in the paper \"Zur Differentialdiagnose des kindlichen Autismus\" (On the differential diagnosis of childhood autism), noting:Highlighting his broad use of the term autism, he also remarked:Leo Kanner republished a copy of his 1934 paper in the same journal edition.", "DSM-II \nIn the DSM-II, published in 1968, the concept of autism was used to describe the symptoms of three different conditions: childhood schizophrenia (295.8), withdrawing reaction of childhood (308.1), and schizoid personality (301.2). Compared to the DSM-I, the description of childhood schizophrenia was more detailed.\n\nApplied behavior analysis and related techniques", "While serving as an assistant professor of psychology at Indiana University from 1957 to 1962, Charles Ferster employed errorless learning to instruct young autistic children how to speak. This was an early example of what would later be known as applied behaviour analysis. From the late 1950s, Ferster and others used the new science of behaviorism to teach people with autism and other mental conditions", ". This led researchers at the University of Kansas to start the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis in the northern spring of 1968, establishing the concept of applied behavior analysis (ABA).", "A concise definition of the concept, still used today, was given in the first issue of the journal. ABA soon came to be used extensively with autistic children in the United States and elsewhere. In the US, ABA became the only autism-specific teaching method insurance companies would typically pay for, thus most autism-specialist teachers there became ABA trained and qualified. (Two major American professional associations would later be founded for ABA practitioners.)", "The Behavior Research Institute was founded by Matthew Israel in the United States in 1971. It would later become known as the Judge Rosenberg Educational Centre. Six residents have died of preventable causes at the center since it opened. Various bodies have accused the centre of repeatedly torturing autistic people in the name of ABA. Matthew Israel invented the graduated electronic decelerator to provide electric shocks as punishment for residents", ". This includes shocks nine times as powerful as a cattle prod.", "The MidWestern Association for Behavior Analysis was founded in the United States in 1974. It later became the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI).", "Kanner's work in the 1970s \nThe Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia was established in January 1971, with Leo Kanner as the editor. This was the first scientific journal devoted to autism. Kanner wrote a paper called \"Childhood psychosis: A historical overview\" for the first issue. It acknowledges the work of a broader range of people than Kanner had previously, but not that of Asperger or Frankl; according to Dirk van Krevelen, Kanner and Asperger were mutually unaware of each other's work.", "Another paper in the first edition however compares Kanner's syndrome (early infantile autism) with Asperger's syndrome (autistic psychosis). It also differentiates the two conditions through a list of seven differences. For the second edition, Kanner traced the eleven children in his 1943 paper, and determined how they had grown up. The results were published in Follow-up Study of Eleven Autistic Children Originally Reported in 1943, but the results were inconclusive.", "Kanner released the fourth and final edition of his textbook Child Psychiatry in 1972.\n\nHe edited the book Childhood Psychosis: Initial Studies and New Insights in 1973, and wrote three of its chapters. It reviewed 30 years of research into early infantile autism and childhood schizophrenia. In it he bemoaned the diagnosing of intellectually disabled children with a few autistic features as singularly having autism.", "The \"First International Leo Kanner Colloquium on Child Development, Deviations, and Treatment\" was held in October 1973. The papers tabled were published as the popular academic book Psychopathology and child development: research and treatment in April 1976. Many of the papers were about autism. It was edited by Eric Schopler and American psychiatrist Robert J. Reichler", ". It was edited by Eric Schopler and American psychiatrist Robert J. Reichler. Eric Schopler would become the second editor of the Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia in 1974, staying in that role until 1997.", "ICD-9 \nThe international medical condition classification system, the ICD, greatly changed the way it categorised autism-related conditions in 1978, with the release of the ICD-9. \"Infantile autism\" (299.0) was now recognised as a condition, with separate sub-categories for it having a \"current or active state\" or \"residual state\". Its definition of this condition was based on the criteria devised by Mildred Creak for \"childhood schizophrenia\" in the early 1960s.", "In the category of \"disturbance of emotions specific to childhood and adolescence\", the ICD now included \"sensitivity, shyness and social withdrawal disorder\" (313.2), which included the subcategories \"shyness disorder of childhood\", \"introverted disorder of childhood\" and \"elective mutism\". \"Schizoid personality disorder\" (301.2) now had two varieties, a general one, and \"introverted personality\".", "Other scientific contributions \nDirk van Krevelen published the paper \"Een geval van 'early infantil autism'\" (A case of early infantile autism) in 1952. It was the first European paper about \"early infantile autism\". In it, van Krevelen notes that while the condition is well known by United States child psychiatrists, it is virtually unknown in Europe.", "In 1952, British psychiatrist Ronald Fairbairn published the paper \"Schizoid Factors in the Personality\" as part of a book. (An early form of it had been given as a lecture in November 1940). It included Fairbairn's belief that the schizoid type was defined by \"(1) an attitude of omnipotence, (2) an attitude of isolation and detachment and, (3) a preoccupation with inner reality\", with last being by far the most important", ". Fairbairn believed that people became schizoid because they had been unable to get the parental love they sought when they were small children. He also saw an equivalency between being \"schizoid\" and \"introverted\".", "1962 saw a number of notable scientific publications about autism published: In January, Charles Ferster and American psychiatrist Marian DeMyer published the paper \"A method for the experimental analysis of the behavior of autistic children\". This was possibly the first paper to show how behaviorism could be used to teach autistic students", ". This was possibly the first paper to show how behaviorism could be used to teach autistic students. Also in January, Dirk van Krevelen and Christine Kuipers published a paper in English regarding the work of Hans Asperger, \"The psychopathology of autistic psychopathy\".", "Also in 1962, German psychiatrist Gerhard Bosch published the book Der Frühkindliche Autismus: Eine Klinische und Phänomenologisch-Anthropologische Untersuchung am Leitfaden der Sprache (Early Childhood Autism: A Clinical and Phenomenological-Anthropological Study Using Language as a Guide). Among other things, it briefly compared the work of Asperger and Kanner and suggested both were variants of the same condition. In 1965, Kanner said he had read this book", ". In 1965, Kanner said he had read this book. Bruno Bettleheim cited it substantially in his later work.", "British psychiatrist John K Wing edited the first edition of Early Childhood Autism; Clinical, Educational and Social Aspects in 1966, which included chapters from both Ivar Lovaas and Lorna Wing. Later editions would contain different chapters.\n\nBritish psychiatrist Michael Rutter's extensive research in the 1960s provided statistically robust evidence that the syndrome of \"early infantile autism\" existed. His most cited paper of the period was published in October 1968.", "1970 saw the release of the English translation of Gerhard Bosch's 1962 book as Infantile autism: a clinical and phenomenological-anthropological investigation taking language as the guide. It was translated by Derek and Inge Jordan, and included an introduction from Bruno Bettelheim. The English language edition included a large appendix about Asperger and Kanner not included in the German one. It used the term Asperger's syndrome to describe the symptoms of Asperger's patients.", "American psychiatrist Stella Chess conducted studies on the potential link between rubella and autism. In 1971, she found that children with congenital rubella syndrome developed autism at rates 200 times higher than the general population at the time. She followed this up with a 1977 study.\n\nSouth African-British psychiatrist Israel Kolvin provided much evidence that \"early infantile autism\" was a very different condition to later onset schizophrenia through two studies published in 1971.", "In 1975, American-British psychologist Donald Meltzer released his book Explorations in Autism: a psychoanalytic study, documenting the treatment of childhood autism following the thinking of Melanie Klein.\n\nHans Asperger gave a lecture in Fribourg in 1977, of which a translation in English titled \"Problems of Infantile Autism\" was published in 1979.", "American psychiatrist Susan Folstein and British psychiatrist Micheal Rutter published a significant twin study establishing the genetic basis of autism in September 1977.\n\nThe popular academic book Language of autistic children was published in 1978, and was written by American psychiatrist Don W. Churchill.", "Considering the wide difference of autistic traits in different people, British researcher Lorna Wing and Judith Gould coined the term autism spectrum in their March 1979 paper Severe impairments of social interaction and associated abnormalities in children: epidemiology and classification.\n\nThe opioid excess theory hypothesis of autism was first proposed by Estonian-American neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp in a 1979 paper.", "Other treatment programmes, self-advocacy and books", "American social worker, teacher and dramatist Viola Spolin released the book Improvisation for the Theater in 1963, based on her decades of experience teaching people how to more effectively communicate with each other. The book contained a series of exercises for teaching people how to understand other people's thoughts about their shared situation, and how to react to them effectively. This kicked off the theatre games set of practices, which form an important part of drama therapy", ". This kicked off the theatre games set of practices, which form an important part of drama therapy. (A second edition was published in 1983, and a third in 1999.)", "The University of North Carolina's TEACCH Autism Program was founded by German-American psychologist Eric Schopler in 1971, building on work started by Schopler and a colleague in 1964. It recognizes autism as a lifelong condition and does not aim to cure but to respond to autism as a culture. It uses behaviourism in a small group setting. Its methods have been adopted by many practitioners.", "British researcher Lorna Wing of the Institute of Psychiatry, London published the book Autistic children - a guide for parents in 1971. Louise Despert endorsed the book, and provided its forewords.\n\nIn 1972, German-American Wolf Wolfensberger released his book Normalisation. It advocated that society should provide opportunities to people with disabilities so that they can do what people without those disabilities can do.", "The popular book A child called Noah: a family journey was written about the autistic boy Noah Greenfield by his father the American playwright Josh Greenfeld, and was published in 1972. Josh Greenfield was to write two other books about Noah, and Noah's brother would write an additional one.", "In 1975, Canadian speech pathologist Ayala Hanen Manolson founded The Hanen Centre. Here she developed a new program for groups of parents whose children had significant language delays, known as the \"Hanen Approach.\" Previously, speech pathology was largely delivered by professional pathologists - this approach trained parents to provide the same guidance to children. Over decades, this approach further developed into programs such as More Than Words and Talkability.", "In November 1975, two British organisations, the Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation and the Disability Alliance, held a discussion about the \"fundamental principles of disability.\" The published summary of that discussion advanced a new definition of disability. \"In our view, it is society which disables physically impaired people. Disability is something imposed on top of our impairments, by the way we are unnecessarily isolated and excluded from full participation in society", ".\" This sentiment later became the basis of the social model of disability, and was important in disability self-advocacy.", "The home-based autism treatment program Son-Rise, was developed by American couple Barry Kaufman and Samahria Kaufman in the early 1970s. Barry published a book on the method in 1976, (Son-Rise), claiming that it cured his son of autism. An American TV movie based on the book, Son-Rise: A Miracle of Love, was released in 1979. It was influential in Brazil, and was repeatedly aired there during the 1980s", ". It was influential in Brazil, and was repeatedly aired there during the 1980s. In 1990, the BBC in the UK aired a documentary about one boy's treatment using the Son-Rise program, titled I Want My Little Boy Back, as part of the series Q.E.D.: Challenging Children. An updated and expanded Son-Rise book, Son-Rise: The Miracle Continues was released in 1994.", "The \"developmental, individual-difference, relationship-based model\" (DIR) of autism diagnosis and treatment was developed by American psychiatrist Stanley Greenspan in 1979. This was later further developed into the Floortime program.\n\nEstablishment of new organizations \nIn addition to new scientific and cultural developments, the period from 1950 to 1980 also saw the establishment of various new associations, foundations, and other organizations related to autism:", "The first French national autism organisation, the ASITP (Association au service des inadaptés présentant des troubles de la personnalité), was founded in Paris in 1963. (Since 1990, it has been known as (FFSA)).\n Kfar Tikva was established in Israel as a village for people with \"cognitive, developmental and emotional disabilities\" in 1964. This includes autistic people. (The similar Kishorit community opened in 1997.)", "In 1964–7, Australian autistic people and their parents founded what is now Autism SA (1964), the Autistic Children's Association of New South Wales (now Aspect, 1966), Victorian Autistic Children's and Adult's Association (now Amaze, 1967), Autistic Children's Association of Queensland (now Autism Queensland, 1967), and what is now the Autism Association of Western Australia (1967). These organisations continue today. (Later, Autism Tasmania (1992) and Autism NT (2002) would be founded.)", "In Brazil, the Comunidade Terapêutica Leo Kanner (Leo Kanner Therapeutic Community) was founded in Porto Alegre in 1965.\n 40 parents of autistic children met in Tokyo in December 1966. In February 1967, they and others formed the Association of Autistic Children's Parents. A national body was established in 1968. In time, this would become (日本自閉症協会).", "In 1970, NSAC launched an ongoing national autism awareness campaign in the US. In 1972, it started the first National Autistic Children's week, which later evolved into Autism Awareness Month.\n In Italy, (AIABA, The Italian Association for Assistance to Autistic Children) was founded by parents of children with autism in 1970.\n In Germany, what is now (Autism Germany) was founded in 1970.", "In Germany, what is now (Autism Germany) was founded in 1970.\n In Canada's most populous province, the Ontario Society for Autistic Children was founded by parents in 1973. (After a number of name changes, it became Autism Ontario in 2006.)", "Division 33 of the American Psychological Association was established in 1973, bringing together American psychiatrists interested in \"Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities\", including autism. As of 2023, the group covers \"Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities/Autism Spectrum Disorder\" (IDD/ASD).\n The Israeli Society for Children and Adults with Autism (ALUT) was founded in 1974. As of 2023 it has over 2,500 employees, providing services to over 15,000 families.", "In January 1975, Autismus Deutsche Schweiz (Autism German Switzerland) began in German-speaking Switzerland. (This was followed with an allied body in French-speaking Switzerland in 1985, and one in Italian-speaking Switzerland in 1989. The three groups now form a confederation called Autism Switzerland.)\n Autism Society Canada was established in 1976.", "Autism Society Canada was established in 1976.\n Autism support group APAFAC was founded in Catalonia in 1976. It was joined by Aspanaes in Galacia in 1979, and similar bodies in other parts of Spain after that.\n The (NVA) (Dutch Association for Autism) was founded in 1978 by parents of children with autism.\n The Sensory Processing Disorder Foundation was founded in America in 1979 by occupational therapist Lucy Jane Miller. It is now known as the STAR Institute.", "Formal recognition (1980–1993) \nThe DSM-III, the third version of the DSM, was released in 1980. With the release of this manual, autism became formally recognized as a developmental disorder distinct from schizophrenia for the first time. This was a major milestone in enabling research into autism, since researchers now had a unified definition of the disorder. Asperger's work became known to a wider audience, thanks in part to new publications by Lorna Wing.", "Awareness of autism in the public culture increased with the release of Rain Man and other media productions, and stronger self-advocacy by autistic people laid the foundations of the neurodiversity movement and helped secure better legal rights for autistic people.\n\nDSM-III and DSM-III-R", "DSM-III", "Under advisement from the NSAC, the DSM-III (1980) turned what was previously defined as childhood schizophrenia into three kinds of \"pervasive developmental disorder\" (PDD). \"Infantile autism\" began before a child was 30 months old, and \"childhood onset pervasive developmental disorder\" began between 30 months and 12 years. A third variety, \"atypical pervasive developmental disorder\" was similar but lesser than the other two, and could begin at any time", ". \"Elective mutism\" was now categorised as in independent condition.", "\"Withdrawing reaction of childhood (or adolescence)\" became \"schizoid disorder of childhood or adolescence\". The DSM-III notes that people with this condition have qualifying symptoms \"Not due to Pervasive Developmental Disorder; Conduct Disorder, Undersocialized, Nonaggressive; or any psychotic disorder, such as Schizophrenia.\"", "\"Schizoid personality\" in adults was split into \"schizoid personality disorder\", \"avoidant personality disorder\" and \"schizotypal personality disorder\". The first two differed by the motivation of diagnosed person - \"avoidant\" people had social difficulties but wanted to be social, while \"schizoid\" people had social difficulties and were happy to stay that way. \"Schizotypal\" people were on the schizophrenia spectrum - the condition was not well aligned with conceptions of autism.", "The DSM-III gave much more detail for its conditions than previous editions had done, providing comprehensive diagnostic criteria for the first time.", "DSM-III-R", "In 1987, the revised DSM-III-R was released. In this edition of the DSM, \"infantile autism\" was merged with \"childhood onset pervasive developmental disorder\" to create the new \"autistic disorder\". The new definition broadened the range of neurotypes that were considered \"autistic\" by clinicians. The DSM's third PDD category became \"pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified\" (PDDNOS, later PDD-NOS). \"Schizoid disorder of childhood or adolescence\" was absorbed by the PDD category as a whole", ". \"Schizoid disorder of childhood or adolescence\" was absorbed by the PDD category as a whole. \"Schizoid personality disorder\" in adults, \"avoidant personality disorder\" and \"elective mutism\" continued to exist.", "The DSM-III-R noted that \"The evidence suggests, however, that [autistic disorder] is merely the most severe and prototypical form of the general category Pervasive Developmental Disorders ... Whereas in clinical settings Autistic Disorder is more commonly seen than PDDNOS, studies in England and the United States, using criteria similar to those in this manual, suggest that PDDNOS is more common than Autistic Disorder in the general population.\"", "The book also stated that \"In Schizoid and Schizotypal Personality Disorders there are deficits in interpersonal relatedness. The diagnosis of Autistic Disorder preempts the diagnosis of these personality disorders. However, these personality disorders preempt the diagnosis of Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified.\"", "Lorna Wing on Asperger's syndrome", "Lorna Wing's February 1981 publication of the paper Asperger's Syndrome: A Clinical Account greatly increased awareness of the existence of Hans Asperger's autism work. Wing summarised Asperger's autism syndrome, and made two challenges to points he had made. She also provided six case studies of her own, and much additional analysis. The paper brought the concept of \"Asperger's disorder\" into the spotlight, leading to it being recognised by many psychological practitioners.", "Regarding the breadth of people with the condition, Wing notes:As to the relationship between schizoid personality disorder and Asperger's syndrome, Wing writes:\n\nScientific developments \nThe Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) was released in March 1980 by Americans Eric Schopler, Robert Jay Reichler, Robert F DeVellis and Kenneth Daly.\n\nIn 1981, Jakob Lutz published the paper \"Hans Asperger und Leo Kanner zum Gedenken\" (Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner in memoriam).", "The Minspeak image-based language was first implemented on a computer in 1981. It was developed by American linguist Bruce R Baker. It has gone on to become popular on augmentative and alternative communication devices.", "In 1983, Swiss-American neurologist Isabelle Rapin and psycholinguist Doris A Allen suggested the term semantic pragmatic disorder to describe the communicative behavior of children who presented traits such as pathological talkativeness, deficient access to vocabulary and discourse comprehension, atypical choice of terms and inappropriate conversational skills. They referred to a group of children who presented with mild autistic features and specific semantic pragmatic language problems", ". (In the late 1990s, the term \"pragmatic language impairment\" (PLI) was proposed to cover this situation.)", "The popular academic book Educating and understanding autistic children was edited by Americans Robert L. Koegel (psychiatrist), Arnold Rincover and Andrew L. Egel (educationalist), and released in 1983.\n\nIn September 1985, Felix F. de la Cruz outlined extensively the physical, psychological, and cytogenetic characteristics of people with Fragile X syndrome in addition to their prospects for therapy.", "A controversial claim suggested that watching extensive amounts of television may cause autism. This hypothesis was largely based on research suggesting that the increasing rates of autism in the 1970s and 1980s were linked to the growth of cable television at the time.", "Multiplex developmental disorder was conceptualised by American Yale University researchers Donald J. Cohen (psychiatrist), Rhea Paul (speech pathologist) and Fred Volkmar (psychiatrist) in March 1986. They proposed that it be recognised as a variety of autism in the DSM, however this did not occur.", "The Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders is a popular academic book about autism that was first released in 1987. The first edition was edited by Americans Donald J. Cohen (psychiatrist), Anne M. Donnellan (educational psychologist) and Rhea Paul (speech pathologist). New editions were published in 1997, 2005 and 2014. Additional editors included the Americans Fred Volkmar (psychiatrist), Ami Klin (psychologist), Sally J. Rogers (psychologist) and Kevin A. Pelphrey (neuroscientist).", "Mind-blindness is a term first published in early 1990 by British psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen at the University of Cambridge. It refers to the idea that \"people with autism are impaired in their ability to attribute mental states (such as beliefs, knowledge states, etc.) to themselves and other people\". This is otherwise known as an impaired theory of mind (ToM)", ".) to themselves and other people\". This is otherwise known as an impaired theory of mind (ToM). Baron-Cohen believed that a lack of ability to read eyes was a particularly important deficit, and developed a training program to develop this. It is now thought that all autistic people have some ToM ability. Baron-Cohen, Scottish psychologist Alan M Leslie and Uta Frith released another well-cited paper on the topic in 1985", ". Baron-Cohen's book Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind was released in 1995.", "The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) was developed in 1989 by Catherine Lord, Michael Rutter, Susan Goode, Jacquelyn Heemsbergen, Heather Jordan, Lynn Mawhood and Eric Schopler. It became commercially available in 2001. (A revised version, ADOS-2, was released in 2012).", "The Autism Diagnostic Interview (ADI) was also developed in 1989 by Ann Le Couteur, Michael Rutter, Catherine Lord, Patricia Rios, Sarah Robertson, Mary Holdgrafer and John McLennan. An updated version, the ADI-R, was commercially released in 2003.", "Hans Asperger's early papers were first published in English in 1991, as part of the book Autism and Asperger Syndrome. They were translated by the book's editor, Uta Frith. This further increased awareness of Asperger's work, and of the concept of \"Asperger syndrome\".", "Applied behavior analysis \nThe Early Start Denver Model of autism treatment for young children was developed in 1981 by American psychologists Sally J Rogers and Geraldine Dawson. It was initially called the \"play school model\", because its main actions happened during children's play. It is considered a variety of ABA.", "Positive behavior support (PBS, PBIS, SWPBS or SWPBIS) emerged from the University of Oregon in the mid-1980s. It is a type of ABA that is typically used in schools. Tim Lewis is a noted practitioner of the concept, and is often credited as a co-founder. The Association for Positive Behaviour Support was founded in 2003.", "Pivotal response treatment (PRT) was pioneered by Americans Robert Koegel, Mary O'Dell and Lynn Kern Koegel in 1987. It is a \"naturalistic\" form of ABA used with young children. PRT aims to teach a few “pivotal skills”, that will help the student learn many other skills. Initiating communication with others is deemed one such pivotal skill.", "Ivar Lovaas released a major report on the decades established UCLA Young Autism Project in 1987, defining a new method of ABA. Lovaas controversially reported that half his pre-school patients that received intensive therapy now had an IQ level equal to their non-autistic peers, and had \"recovered\" from their autism. It is sometimes called the \"Lovaas method/model/program\" and sometimes the \"UCLA model/intervention\"", ". It has become the primary form of Early Intensive Behavior Intervention (EIBI), and now is often referred to by that name as well. One methodology it developed was discrete trial training, which has become a well-used ABA technique.", "The commonly-used textbook Applied Behavior Analysis was first released by American educationalists John O Cooper, Timothy E Heron, and William Lee Heward at Ohio State University in 1987. New editions were published in 2007 and 2019.", "Non-ABA treatment and support \nIn a February 1981 publication, Lorna Wing noted that although she believes there is currently no treatment for autism, \"handicaps can be diminished by appropriate management and education\" and that \"techniques of behaviour modification used with autistic children can possibly be helpful if applied with sensitivity\".", "The LEAP (Learning Experiences - An Alternative Program for Preschoolers and Parents) curriculum model was developed by American psychologist Phillip Strain of the University of Pittsburgh in 1981. The first paper explaining it was published in 1984. The program has autistic and non-autistic pre-schoolers share a classroom, with the latter assisting the former. It is considered a more-cognitive rather than a more-behaviourist form of teaching", ". It is considered a more-cognitive rather than a more-behaviourist form of teaching. It is also considered one of the best researched forms of training for autistic pre-schoolers.", "The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) was developed in 1985 at the Delaware Autism Program by Andy Bondy and Lori Frost. It is a communication teaching method for people with limited speech.\n\nSocial skill teaching method, Social Stories, began its development in 1989 by American teacher Carol Gray. A survey of Ontario autism support workers in 2011 found that 58% had support programs influenced by her.\n\nStart of the neurodiversity movement", "Start of the neurodiversity movement \n\nThe United Nations declared 1981 the International Year of Disabled Persons. This gave increased focus on people with disabilities in many countries. The physically disabled British musician Ian Dury released the song Spasticus Autisticus in protest to elements of the year.", "In 1983, building on developments over the previous twenty years, the disabled British academic Mike Oliver coined the term \"social model of disability,\" which posits that \"disability\" is caused by a lack of acceptance by society of people's non-typical natures. This was contrasted with the \"medical model of disability\", which posits that disability is that non-typical nature.", "American Jim Sinclair is credited as the first person to communicate the \"anti-cure\" or \"autism rights\" perspective in the late 1980s. In 1992, Sinclair co-founded the Autism Network International (ANI) with Kathy Grant and Donna Williams. ANI is an organization that publishes newsletters \"written by and for autistic people\". This grew into the autism rights movement.", "Neurodiversity is the idea that people can think differently to the norm without those differences being a medical problem. Australian sociologist Judy Singer and American self-advocate Jane Meyerdin coined the term in 1998. It was used by the group known as the \"Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical\" (INST). The term first appeared in print in the September 1998 article Neurodiviersity in The Atlantic, by American journalist Harvey Blume", ". The term neurodivergent was later coined in 2000 by American neurodiversity activist Kassiane Asasumasu.", "Mirror neurons \n\nResearchers Giacomo Rizzolatti, Giuseppe Di Pellegrino, Luciano Fadiga, Leonardo Fogassi, and Vittorio Gallese at the University of Parma published a paper announcing the existence of mirror neurons in 1992. They found that when a monkey watches another monkey doing something, specialised neurons in the first monkey's brain fire in a way that mirrors the firing of the neurons in the acting monkey. The same scientists later found the same thing in human brains.", "It has been proposed that differences in the mirror neuron system could in part explain differences between autistic and neurotypical people. A well-cited study in 2006 by American psychiatrist Mirella Dapretto and others found such a connection.\n\nLater research, however, did not support this connection.", "Later research, however, did not support this connection.\n\nDiagnostic tools for toddlers \nThe Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), a tool for diagnosing autism in children aged 18–24 months, was first published in December 1992 by Simon Baron-Cohen, Jane Allen and Christopher Gillberg. Simon Baron-Cohen and others also developed another test for autism in 18-month-olds, which was published in February 1996.", "The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) was developed in 1999 by American psychologists Diana Robins, Deborah Fein and Marianne Barton. Revised versions, the M-CHAT-R (2009) and M-CHAT-R/F were later released.\n\nIn specific countries", "In specific countries\n\nIn China \nAutism was first diagnosed in the People's Republic of China in 1982 by Professor Tao Guotai (陶国泰) from the Nanjing Brain Hospital. He presented the case in a Chinese journal. In the late 1980s, he introduced his findings to the global audience in English.\n\nThe \"China Compulsory Education Law\" (中华人民共和国义务教育法) was enacted in 1986. Like the American EHA, it required public schools to accept students with disabilities.", "In the United States \nThe US congress endorsed Autism Awareness Month in 1984.\n\nThe Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 made it illegal to discriminate against people based on their disability, in a number of important categories. It also required covered employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities, and imposed accessibility requirements on public accommodations.", "In Finland \nAutism found its way into the Finnish disease classification in 1987. (It was only in 1996 that it was finally removed from the category of psychosis in the Finnish version of the ICD-10.)", "Newly established organizations \n Domus Instituto de Autismo was established in Mexico in May 1980 by parents of children with autism.\n Autism-Europe began in 1983, co-ordinating autism organisations across Europe.\n In Brazil, (AMA, Association of Friends of the Autistic) was founded in 1983. Within a year of this, they were running a school. They soon became their country's main autism association.\n The Autism Society of Taiwan (中華民國自閉症總會) was founded in January 1985.", "The Autism Society of Taiwan (中華民國自閉症總會) was founded in January 1985.\n Eleven mothers of autistic children in the Philippines held a gathering in 1987. In March 1989, they and others founded the Autistic Children and Adults of the Philippines (ACAP) Foundation. The group became the country's predominant autism organisation. It is now known as Autism Society Philippines.\n 1987 saw America's National Association for Autistic Children became the Autism Society of America.", "A new national French autism organisation, , was founded in February 1989.\n Representative organisation Autism South Africa (A;SA) was founded in 1989 by concerned parents and professionals.\n In Saudi Arabia, the Saudi Autistic Society (الجمعية السعودية الخيرية للتوح) was founded in January 1990.\n In India, Action for Autism (AFA) began in 1991 as a parent support group. It soon became India's foremost autism organisation.", "In Turkey, a support group for parents of children with autism began in 1991. It reformed as the Turkish Autistic Support and Education Foundation (TODEV) in 1997. It is Turkey's pre-eminent autism group.", "Popular books and other media \n Popular American movie Rain Man was released in 1988. Its titular character was an autistic man. Bernard Rimland was consulted on how the character was portrayed. The movie did much to define public understanding of the condition.\n The book Autism: Explaining the Enigma was released by Uta Frith in 1989. It explained to non-autistic people how autistic people thought. A second edition was published in 2003.", "The popular book Children with autism: a parents' guide was also released in 1989. It was edited by American psychologist Michael D. Powers. A second edition was published in 2000. The similar Asperger's syndrome and your child: a parents' guide was released in 2002.", "Asperger syndrome acknowledged (1994–2012) \nThe 1990s saw the continued popularization of autism both in popular culture and in the scientific community. The newly ICD and DSM endorsed condition \"Asperger syndrome\" saw a particularly strong increase in attention.", "ICD and DSM changes \nThe 1990s saw the release of both the ICD-10 and the DSM-IV, as well as the revised version DSM-IV-TR. Notably, Asperger syndrome came to be recognized as condition distinct from, but related to, autistic disorder/childhood autism.", "ICD-10 \nThe ICD-10 was first published in 1992, for use beginning in 1994. It made a number of changes to its categorisation of autism-related conditions. It newly included \"Asperger syndrome\" (F84.5) - its first recognition by a major mental health body. It also included \"childhood autism\" (F84.0), and a category for \"atypical autism\" (F84.1, similar to the DSM's PDD-NOS).", "The ICD-10 categorised all of these as \"pervasive developmental disorders\", as the DSM had done since 1980. The ICD childhood shyness conditions were incorporated into the new section \"disorders of social functioning with onset specific to childhood and adolescence\", with a category for elective mutism (F94.0) and various categories not specifically aligning with common autism symptoms. \"Schizoid personality disorder\" would remain, though its subcategories would not", ". \"Schizoid personality disorder\" would remain, though its subcategories would not. (The ICD-9 would continue to be used for coding by some organisations in the United States until 2015.)", "DSM-IV: autistic disorder, Asperger syndrome and other conditions \nIn 1994, reflecting the better understood diversity of autistic experience, the DSM-IV included a number of newly defined PDD conditions. \"Autistic disorder\" was redefined, and supplemented with the new conditions Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD). PDD-NOS remained. The definition of Asperger syndrome required those with it to have speech and language difficulties.", "This edition also saw the defining of developmental coordination disorder (DCD), a condition featuring \"a marked impairment in the development of motor coordination.\" The DSM acknowledged that these symptoms were common in people with PDDs, and excluded such people from being diagnosed with DCD. In October 1994, the International Consensus Meeting on Children and Clumsiness adopted the concept of DCD, choosing to use it in place of earlier descriptions of child clumsiness", ". This led to the adoption of the concept by occupational therapists and physiotherapists as covering all abnormal child clumsiness.", "Schizoid personality disorder and avoidant personality disorder also remained in the manual. \"Elective mutism\" became \"selective mutism\".\n\nAmerican psychiatrist Fred Volkmar was the lead author of the autism section in the DSM-IV. (From 2007, Volkmar would later be the fourth editor of the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders).", "DSM-IV TR \nThe DSM-IV TR (2000) contained an almost complete rewrite of the definition of Asperger syndrome. Notably, it now no longer included speech and language difficulties. This greatly increased the number of people deemed to have the condition.", "Temple Grandin", "American animal behaviourist Temple Grandin came to prominence in 1996, with the publishing of her popular book Thinking in Pictures: My Life with Autism in November 1995. She would later become a board member of the Autism Society of America. Together with Catherine Johnson, she coauthored the popular book Animals in Translation: Using the Mysteries of Autism to Decode Animal Behavior, which was published in December 2004. In February 2010, a movie titled Temple Grandin about her life was released.", "Fraudulent vaccine study \n\nIn February 1998, British doctor Andrew Wakefield published a controversial paper claiming a link between some vaccines and autism. It was subsequently found to be fraudulent. He would go on to retract the paper in 2010, and he subsequently lost his license to practice medicine.", "Treatment and support \nLeadership of the TEACCH Autism Program passed from Eric Schopler to American psychologist Gary Mesibov in 1992. Mesibov subsequently also succeeded Schopler as editor of the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders from 1997 to 2007.", "American speech therapist Michelle Garcia Winner began to develop the Social Thinking Methodology in the mid-1990s, and established the Social Thinking company shortly afterwards. The organisation has subsequently developed a wide range of resources for teaching social skills to people with autism. Winner's works were a substantial influence on Ontario autism support workers in 2011.", "The developmental social-pragmatic (DSP) model of autism teaching emerged in the late 1990s. It aims to work with and strengthen autistic children's desires to successfully communicate (as well as their ability to), with parents and teachers conversing with children in as non-contrived ways as possible. It emphasises cognitive psychology more than typical, behaviourism focused, varieties of ABA.", "The influential book Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals was published by British-Australian psychologist Tony Attwood in 1998. Attwood went on to publish widely on autistic topics. A survey of Ontario autism support workers in 2011 found that 52% had support programs influenced by him.", "Relationship Development Intervention was developed by American psychologist Steven Gutstein in the 1990s. It is designed to increase someone's desire and ability to be social. It became better known after the publishing of books on the topic in 2002.\n\nFred Frankel and Robert Myatt developed the Children's Friendship Training (CFT) model over two decades at UCLA, publishing a book on it in 2002.", "The SCERTS Model: A Comprehensive Educational Approach for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders was published in June 2004 by five American authors. The model covers children's social communication (SC), emotional regulation (ER), and transactional support (TS). The model continues to be developed.\n\nTony Attwood released the program Exploring Feelings: Cognitive Behaviour Therapy to Manage Anxiety in 2004. It is recommended for use with autistic children by the ASHA.", "\"Paediatric Autism Communication Therapy\" (PACT), a technique for teaching parents of young autistic children how to better communicate with them, was first released through a paper in November 2004. It was written by three British researchers, speech therapist Catherine Aldred, psychiatrist Jonathan Green, and speech therapist Catherine Adams.", "The Raising Children Network launched raisingchildren.net.au in May 2006, with the endorsement and financial support of the Australian government. This website provides extensive information for raising autistic children.", "Simon Baron-Cohen and others released an animated series for autistic pre-schoolers called The Transporters in 2006. Its creators claimed that autistic children could learn to read facial emotions as well as non-autistic children after repeated viewing, addressing their alexithymia. The series was nominated for a BAFTA. The British-voiced version of the series is available for free under a Creative Commons licence.", "The notable book No More Meltdowns was published by American Jed Baker in April 2008. This and his other works were substantially influential on Ontario autism support workers in 2011.\n\nAmerican teacher Brenda Smith Myles at the University of Kansas began writing well-received books to help people with Asperger syndrome in the late 1990s. These books were also a substantial influence on Ontario autism support workers in 2011.\n\nPathological demand avoidance", "In July 2003, British child psychologist Elizabeth Newson at the University of Nottingham published an article in the Archives of Disease in Childhood journal arguing that pathological demand avoidance (PDA) be recognised as a unique profile within the autism spectrum. She had first seen the pattern of PDA in children in 1980", ". She had first seen the pattern of PDA in children in 1980. She believed that autistic people with pronounced PDA symptoms tend to behave quite differently to those that do not, and that people with PDA symptoms often do not have common autistic symptoms.", "New diagnostic tools \nThe \"Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test\" was first published in 1997 by Simon Baron-Cohen and others. A very well-cited revised version was released in February 2001, which also involved British experimental psychologist Sally Wheelwright.\n\nAlso in February 2001, the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ), a measure of autism within an individual, was released by a Simon Baron-Cohen-led team from the University of Cambridge.", "The \"Diagnostic Interview for Social and Communication Disorders\" (DISCO) was released in March 2002 by Lorna Wing and others. It was a further development of the child-specific \"Handicaps Behaviour and Skills\" (HBS) schedule Wing had developed in the 1970s. As of 2023, it is still in use in the UK.", "The \"Social Communication Questionnaire\" (SCQ) is a commonly used tool for measuring autism social symptoms. It was released as the \"Autism Screening Questionnaire\" (ASQ), by British psychiatrists Michael Rutter and Anthony Bailey, and American psychologist Catherine Lord, in 2003.\n\nThe empathy quotient measure was released in April 2004 by Simon Baron-Cohen and Sally Wheelwright.", "In February 2008, American psychiatrist Riva Ariella Ritvo of Yale University and others released the Ritvo Autism and Asperger Diagnostic Scale (RAADS). A revised version, RAADS-R, was released in 2011.\n\nIn the United States \nThe atypical antipsychotic drug risperidone was approved in the United States for treating autism-associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors in October 2006. The similar but less problematic drug aripiprazole was approved in 2009.", "The United States passed its Combating Autism Act in December 2006, providing US$1 billion for autism services and research in that country, over five years.\n\nThe US state of South Carolina enacted Ryan's Law in July 2008. This requires health insurers to provide up to $50,000 of behavioral therapy each year for people with autism aged 16 and younger.\n\nAutism Speaks", "Autism Speaks \n\nAmerican advocacy organisation Autism Speaks was founded in 2005 by businessman Bob Wright and his wife Suzanne Wright, grandparents of a child with autism. In 2023, the organisation claimed it had so far provided more than 18 million people with free autism information and resources. It adopted a puzzle piece as part of its logo.", "Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative \nThe Simons Foundation established the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI) in 2006. As of 2023, the foundation has a research budget of over US$100 million per year.\n\nThe SFARI website launched a \"News & Opinion\" section in 2008. This grew, and was given its own identity as Spectrum in 2015. This has become an important autism research news website.", "Recognition in China \nChina's Eleventh Five Year Development Programme for the Disabled (中国残疾人事业\"十一五\"发展纲要) was released in 2006. It officially recognised autism as a neurological disability.\n\nAutistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN)", "Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN) \n\nThe Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN) was co-founded in November 2006 by Americans Ari Ne'eman and Scott Michael Robertson. It has positioned itself as America's foremost body of autistic people representing the interests of autistic people. In early 2017, Julia Bascom became the second president of ASAN.\n\nAffiliated bodies were later formed in Australia/New Zealand, Canada and Portugal.", "Affiliated bodies were later formed in Australia/New Zealand, Canada and Portugal.\n\nThe Academic Autistic Spectrum Partnership In Research and Education (AASPIRE) was also founded in the United States in 2006. It focuses on improving the lives of autistic adults. It has come to work closely with ASAN.", "ASAN's activities have included organising the first Disability Day of Mourning on 1 March 2012, which commemorates disabled people who were killed by their parents. The organisation also assisted in the production of the 2020 Pixar short film Loop by Erica Milsom, which features a non-verbal autistic teenage girl.", "World Autism Awareness Day \nWorld Autism Awareness Day was first held by the United Nations in April 2007. Lighting buildings with blue light at night is a common means of awareness raising on this day. Autism Speaks quickly embraced it. This had led some neurodiversity-embracing autistic people to shun using the colour blue to represent autism.", "Great National Cause in France \nEach year, the French government assigns a \"Great National Cause\" for the country to focus on. This includes much free publicity on state television and radio. Autism was the cause for 2012.", "Other scientific developments \n\"Executive Functions and Developmental Psychopathology\" is a well-cited paper published in January 1996. In it, the Americans Bruce F Pennington (psychiatrist) and Sally Ozonoff (psychologist) explored the effects of various conditions (including autism) on executive function.\n\nThe first edition of the scientific journal Autism was published in July 1997 by the British National Autistic Society.", "There are certain specialised parts of the brain that non-autistic people use to process face information. American psychiatrist Karen Pierce and others found that autistic people do not use these parts of the brain for this task. They also found that the fusiform face area in individuals with autism has a reduced volume. They published a paper on these and related findings in October 2001.", "The empathising–systemising theory of autism was released by Simon Baron-Cohen in June 2002. He and others would go on to develop it in subsequent years.\n\nBritish psychiatrist Chris Frifth and his wife Uta Frifth published a well-cited short description of theory of mind in 2004.\n\nIn October 2006, N. Carolyn Schanen (of the University of Delaware), found two chromosomes with a strong epigenetic association with autism.", "The scientific journal Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders was first published in January 2007 by Elsevier.\n\nThe well-cited paper \"Strong Association of De Novo Copy Number Mutations with Autism\" was published in April 2007 by 32 people including Jonathan Sebat and Daniel Geschwind. It found that de novo germline mutation was a more significant causative factor for ASD than was previously recognised.", "The imprinted brain hypothesis of autism was first presented by Bernard Crespi and Christopher Badcock of Canada's Simon Fraser University in June 2008.", "\"Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample\" is a well-cited paper published in August 2008. Its six authors included the Britons Emily Simonoff (psychiatrist) and Andrew Pickles (biostatistician). It found that seventy percent of its autistic sample had at least one other recognised psychiatric condition, and that 41% had two or more", ". The most common comorbid diagnoses were social anxiety disorder (29%), ADHD (28%), and oppositional defiant disorder (28%).", "The open access scientific journal Molecular Autism was founded in the UK by BioMed Central in 2010.\n\nIn May 2011, American neuroscientist Jared Reser proposed that autistic traits, including increased abilities for spatial intelligence, concentration and memory, could have been naturally selected to enable self-sufficient foraging in a more (although not completely) solitary environment, referred to as the \"Solitary Forager Hypothesis\".", "The concept of the double empathy problem was first described as such in October 2012 by British psychologist Damian Milton. The idea proposes that the interaction issues between autistic and non-autistic people are at least in part because these two types of people think differently from each other, understand other people in their own group, but have difficulty understanding people that think differently", ". This contrasts with the idea that the interaction issues are due to autistic people having lesser social understanding abilities than non-autistic people.", "The Australian government established its national autism research organisation Autism CRC in March 2013.\n\nOrganizations \nThe first International Conference on Autism was held in Toronto, Canada, in July 1993. It was organised by the Autism Society of America and Autism Society Canada. 2300 delegates from 47 countries attended.\n\nIn 1999, the Autism Society of America adopted the puzzle ribbon as a sign of autism awareness.", "In 1999, the Autism Society of America adopted the puzzle ribbon as a sign of autism awareness.\n\nThis period also saw the establishment of various new autism-related organizations:", "Stars and Rain was the first non-governmental organization established for autism in China. It was founded in March 1993 by Tian Huiping (田慧萍), a mother of a child with autism. The institution runs training programs for both parents and children, and overall has a focus on ABA.\n The nation-wide (Autism Spain) was established in Spain in January 1994 by the coming together of autonomous community based organisations.", "The Korean Autism Society (한국자폐학회) was founded in South Korea in 1994. It has focused on professionals who treat those with the condition.\n The US National Alliance for Autism Research was founded in 1994. (It merged with Autism Speaks in early 2006).\n (Indonesian Autism Foundation) was founded in by five doctors and eight parents of people with autism in 1997.", "The Behavior Analyst Certification Board was founded in May 1998 in the United States to provide accreditation for ABA practiconers. It quickly became an established international authority.\n On November 21, 1998, the World Autism Organisation (WAO) began. It was set up by Autism-Europe to prompt the UN to do more about autism, and to increase autism support in countries with few services of that kind.", "The United States' Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee was set up in 2000. It coordinates US government autism actions.\n In 2001, the autistic daughter of Israeli Major General Gabi Ophir inspired him and others to establish Special in Uniform, an organisation that supports a squad of teens with disabilities or autism in the Israel Defense Forces.\n (PAS, Persons on the Autism Spectrum) was founded in the Netherlands in 2001. It represents autistic people with normal or higher IQs.", "Autistic-specialist employment services company Specialisterne was founded by Danish IT worker Thorkil Sonne in 2003. It has gone on to operate in various parts of Europe, North America and Australia.\n Aspies For Freedom (AFF) was established in 2004 as a global online organisation by Welsh husband-and-wife Gareth Nelson and Amy Nelson. AFF celebrated the first Autistic Pride Day on 18 June 2005.\n The autism community website Wrong Planet was started in 2004 by Dan Grover and Alex Plank.", "The autism community website Wrong Planet was started in 2004 by Dan Grover and Alex Plank.\n The British autism research charity Autistica was founded in 2004 by German-British software entrepreneur Dame Stephanie Shirley.\n (한국자폐인사랑협회는) was founded in South Korea in January 2006. It has focused on representing people with autism and their parents.\n Israeli people-with-autism representative organisation began in early 2006.", "Israeli people-with-autism representative organisation began in early 2006.\n The UK's Autism Education Trust was established by the National Autistic Society and the UK's Department for Children, Schools and Families in 2007. It is tasked with ensuring that all British children with autism are educated appropriately, through better education of their teachers.\n Autism Spectrum News began as a quarterly print publication in the United States in 2008. It became online-only in 2021.", "The Autism Science Foundation was founded in the United States in April 2009, by Alison Singer and Karen Margulis London. Its founders broke away from Autism Speaks due to its focus on funding research into possible links between vaccines and autism.", "Other popular self-help books", "A popular book of 1998 was sensory processing guide The Out-of-Sync Child by American music and movement teacher Carol Stock Kranowitz. New editions were published in 2005 and 2022.\n The Introvert Advantage: How to Thrive in an Extrovert World was a popular book released by American psychologist Marti Olsen Laney in February 2002.", "August 2002 saw the publishing of Freaks, Geeks, and Asperger Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence by 13-year-old British adolescent with Asperger syndrome, Luke Jackson. The book was praised by Sula Wolff. In January 2004, Luke and his family featured in the BBC documentary feature My Family and Autism. In 2005, a fictional movie based on the family, Magnificent 7, was aired on the BBC. It included a character based on Luke's mother, fellow autistic subject author Jacqui Jackson.", "Another book first published in August 2002 was A Parent's Guide to Asperger Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism by American psychologist Sally Ozonoff. A second edition, A Parent's Guide to High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder: How to Meet the Challenges and Help Your Child Thrive, was published in 2014 by Ozonoff and fellow American psychologists, Geraldine Dawson and James C. McPartland. Over 125,000 copies of the books have been printed.", "Raising a Sensory Smart Child was first released in March 2005 by two Americans, the occupational therapist Lindsey Biel and the writer Nancy Peske. New editions were released in 2009 and 2018.\n Ten Things Every Child with Autism Wishes You Knew was first published by American speech therapist Ellen Notbohm in 2005. New editions were published in 2012 and 2019. Over 250,000 copies have been sold.", "ABA book The Verbal Behavior Approach: How to Teach Children With Autism and Related Disorders was released in May 2007 by two Americans, nurse Mary Barbera and writer Tracy Rasmussen.\n Released in September 2007 was the book Louder Than Words: A Mother's Journey in Healing Autism by American mother Jenny McCarthy.", "Smart but Scattered: The Revolutionary \"Executive Skills\" Approach to Helping Kids Reach Their Potential was released in January 2009. Written by American psychologists Peg Dawson and Richard Guare, it has over 375,000 copies in print.", "Other books and media \nOther popular books and other media were published during this period, most notably the following:", "Personal memoir Nobody Nowhere: The Extraordinary Autobiography of an Autistic Girl by Australian Donna Williams was published in 1992, and was on the New York Times Bestsellers list in 1993.\n The Hollywood action movie Mercury Rising (1998) featured an autistic boy.", "The Hollywood action movie Mercury Rising (1998) featured an autistic boy.\n Pretending to Be Normal: Living with Asperger's Syndrome was an autobiography published by American researcher Liane Holliday Willey in 1999. She also coined the term aspie. She released an updated edition in 2014. (The book was praised by Sula Wolff). She went on to write a number of other books on autism topics.", "The book The Fear of Game Brain (ゲーム脳の恐怖) was released by Japanese physiologist Akio Mori in 2002, and sold over 100,000 copies in Japan. In a related speaking engagement, Mori was believed to say that autism is at least in part caused by people spending too much time playing video games. However, Mori refuted this assertion to Autism Society Japan.", "The British fiction book The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time was published in May 2003 by Mark Haddon. It features a protagonist that the publishers have said has Asperger's syndrome, but was not specifically written that way. In 2012, it was made into a successful West End play, which then went to Broadway in 2014.\n Mozart and the Whale, an American romantic comedy-drama film about two people with Asperger's syndrome, was first released in September 2005. It was based on a true story.", "The documentary feature Normal People Scare Me: A Film About Autism was produced by American actor Joey Travolta in 2006.\n The popular photo-book All Cats have Asperger Syndrome was released in October 2006 by Australian teacher Kathy Hoopmann. A second edition (retitled All Cats have Autism) was released in 2020. She also wrote other books about autism and related conditions.", "2007 also saw the publishing of The Reason I Jump, a bestselling memoir attributed to Naoki Higashida, a Japanese 13-year-old boy with autism. It was released in English in 2013, and has been translated into over 30 languages.\n Children of the Stars (来自星星的孩子) is a 2007 documentary about lives of autistic children in China.", "Children of the Stars (来自星星的孩子) is a 2007 documentary about lives of autistic children in China.\n Another popular book of 2007 was Look Me in the Eye: My Life with Asperger's by American John Elder Robison, first released in September that year. Robison would later become a board member of Autism Speaks.", "The character Sheldon Cooper first appeared on American television in September 2007, in the popular sitcom The Big Bang Theory. While he is not explicitly autistic, according to the actor who plays him as an adult, the character \"couldn't display more traits\" of Asperger's syndrome.\n The soap opera Aapki Antara first went on air in India in June 2009. The title character of the series is an autistic girl.", "The book A history of autism: a conversation with the pioneers was released in October 2010 by British autism researcher Adam Feinstein, having been commissioned by Autistica founder Dame Stephanie Shirley.", "Neurodiversity and autism as a spectrum (since 2013) \nIn 2013, the DSM-5 eliminated Asperger syndrome as a separate diagnosis, instead considering autism to be a spectrum disorder, now referred to as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Both in the research community and among autistic people, there is ongoing debate about whether autism should be considered a disorder, or whether it should be thought of as merely a different way of being.", "DSM-5", "In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released. It combined \"autistic disorder\", \"Asperger's disorder\", \"CDD\" and \"PDD-NOS\" into the broader concept of \"autism spectrum disorder\" (ASD), and discontinued the four earlier conditions. It also grouped the symptoms into two groups - impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors", ". The new definition was narrower than the collective definitions of its DSM-IV predecessors had been, reducing the number of neurodiverse people covered by it.", "The DSM-5 assigned three \"severity levels\" for ASD, with people in level 1 \"requiring support\", level 2 \"requiring substantial support\" and level 3 \"requiring very substantial support\". Many autism activists believe the autistic spectrum should not be measured in this way, as it does not take into account the greatly varying attributes the people in the different DSM severity levels have.", "DSM publishers, the American Psychiatric Association, said that \"The revised diagnosis represents a new, more accurate, and medically and scientifically useful way of diagnosing individuals with autism-related disorders.\" It also noted that the conditions that the new ASD condition replaced \"were not consistently applied across different clinics and treatment centers\".", "A new condition of social (pragmatic) communication disorder was added. This does not apply to people who fulfil all of the ASD criteria, but to those who only have the social communication difficulties found in the ASD definition.\n\n\"Schizoid personality disorder\", \"avoidant personality disorder\" and \"selective mutism\" remained.", "\"Schizoid personality disorder\", \"avoidant personality disorder\" and \"selective mutism\" remained.\n\nAnother major change in this edition of the DSM was allowing individuals to be diagnosed with both ASD and ADHD. Previously, under the DSM's rules people could only be diagnosed as having one of their antecedent conditions. There is evidence to suggest that a majority of people with ASD also have ADHD.", "Similarly, people diagnosed with ASD could now also be diagnosed with other commonly co-morbid psychiatric syndromes such as social anxiety disorder, oppositional defiant disorder and developmental coordination disorder.\n\nICD-11 \nJanuary 2022 saw the first official use of the ICD-11. This version of the ICD combined all PDD conditions as \"autistic spectrum disorder\" (following the DSM's practice). However, unlike the DSM-5, the ICD-11 included a number of ASD subdivisions.", "Science \nDiagnostic test, the \"Aspie Quiz\", was released by Leif Ekblad of Sweden in July 2013.", "Autism Speaks, Hospital for Sick Children (Toronto) and Google Genomics began the AUT10K project in 2014. It created one of the world's largest collections of autism related genetic material, and had open access to researchers, called AGRE. The project later evolved into the similar MSSNG project. MSSNG aims to \"provide the best resources to enable the identification of many subtypes of autism\". The MSSNG project was quickly met with criticism from autistic self-advocates.", "Brazilian researcher Alysson Muotri and others founded the company Tismoo in 2015, which aims to develop genetic treatments for autism and other conditions.", "An October 2016 paper by three researchers from the University of York examines Asperger syndrome as \"an alternative prosocial adaptive strategy\" which may have developed as a result of the emergence of \"collaborative morality\" in the context of small-scale hunter-gathering, i.e. where \"a positive social reputation for making a contribution to group wellbeing and survival\" becomes more important than complex social understanding.", "A National Guideline for the Assessment and Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Australia was released by Autism CRC in August 2018.", "The well-cited study \"Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years — Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014\" was released in April 2018 by 26 US-based authors. It found that one in 59 US children aged 8 years had ASD (nearly 2%). It found that 56% of autistic children had an intellectual disability (with an IQ of 85 or less), and 44% had IQ scores in the average to above average range.", "The Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q) was released by British psychologist Laura Hull, Simon Baron-Cohen and others in March 2019.\n\nAn ABA tool, the graduated electric decelarator, became the third device ever banned by the United States' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in March 2020. Its main user, the Judge Rotenberg Center, filed a lawsuit against the FDA, and in July 2021, the DC Circuit Court overturned the ban, meaning that the centre can still use the device.", "American psychiatrist Lynn Kern Koegel of Stanford University became the sixth editor of the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders in 2022. She and her husband had earlier developed pivotal response treatment.\n\nSupport \nThe ASEAN Autism Network was created in January 2010, linking together autism organisations in South East Asia. It held the ASEAN Autism Games athletic competition in 2016 and 2018.", "The Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS) was developed by Americans Elizabeth Laugeson and Fred Frankel in 2010, drawing on Frankel's earlier CFT work. Laugeson later established the UCLA PEERS Clinic. PEERS programs are used to teach social skills to autistic and other people in many countries of the world.", "In December 2012, Brazil passed the Berenice Piana Law, which created the National Policy for the Protection of the Rights of Persons with Autism Spectrum Disorder. This officially classified autism as a disability under Brazilian law, and increased the condition's profile in the country.\n\nThe Iran Autism Association was founded in 2013 by treatment professionals, the autistic and their families.", "The United States government passed the Autism CARES Act of 2014, authorising the spending of US$1.3 billion between 2015 and 2019. This extended the work of the Combating Autism Act. The Act was reauthorised in 2019.", "The first Social Communication Intervention Programme (SCIP) manual was published in 2015 by British speech and language therapist Catherine Adams. SCIP was based on research she and others had conducted since 2005. The program teaches social communication skills to children. It involves social understanding and social interpretation, pragmatics and language processing.\n\nIn 2015, representative body Autism Canada was created through the merger of Autism Society Canada and Autism Canada Foundation.", "2016 saw Australia's main state-based and other autism representative organisations group together as the Australian Autism Alliance.\n\nIn March 2017, the Russian peak parents-of-autistic-children representative body Autism Regions (Аутизм Регионы) was founded.\n\nNeurodiversity employment services organisation Untapped Group was co-founded by Australian accountant Andrew Eddy in 2017. It operates in the United States and Australia, and notably organises the prominent Autism at Work conferences.", "In the United States, the National Council on Severe Autism was founded in January 2019. It is concerned with autistic people who have an IQ of 85 or less.\n\nAustralia's National Disability Insurance Scheme went into full operation in 2020. It provides many autistic people in that country with substantial amounts of money to help them live fuller lives.\n\nIn April 2021, the American Autism Awareness Month became Autism Acceptance Month.", "In April 2021, the American Autism Awareness Month became Autism Acceptance Month.\n\nThe National Guideline for Supporting the Learning, Participation, and Wellbeing of Autistic Children and Their Families in Australia was released by Autism CRC in February 2023.\n\nPopular books for helping autistic people and their parents", "Aspergirls: Empowering Females with Asperger Syndrome was published by American writer Rudy Simone in 2010. She went on to write a number of other books on autistic subjects.\n Emotional control guidebook Zones of Regulation was published by American occupational therapist Leah Kuypers in 2011, to help people with autism and others who needed it. It has since sold over 100,000 copies. Various other products helping people understand and use the Zones concept have since been created.", "Understanding Your Child's Sensory Signals: A Practical Daily Use Handbook for Parents and Teachers was released in September 2011 by American occupational therapist Angie Voss. Two further editions have subsequently been published.\n Bestselling book Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can't Stop Talking was published by American writer Susan Cain in January 2012.", "The Survival Guide for Kids with Autism Spectrum Disorders (And Their Parents) was released in March 2012 by Americans Elizabeth Verdick (a writer) and Elizabeth Reeve (a psychiatrist). A new edition was released in 2021.\n Denver Early Start Model book, An Early Start for Your Child with Autism: Using Everyday Activities to Help Kids Connect, Communicate, and Learn was released by Americans Sally J. Rogers, Geraldine Dawson and Laurie A. Vismara in May 2012. It has sold over 100,000 copies.", "The Asperkids' (Secret) Book of Social Rules: The Handbook of Not-So-Obvious Guidelines for Teens and Tweens was published by American social worker Jennifer Cook O'Toole in September 2012. It sold many copies, and won the Autism Society of America's Temple Grandin Outstanding Literary Work of the Year. Jennifer would go on to write a number of other books about autism.\n Quiet influence: the introvert's guide to making a difference by American counsellor Jennifer B. Kahnweiler, was released in 2013.", "The ABA Visual Language: Applied Behavior Analysis by Japanese ABA practitioner Makoto Shibutani, was published in May 2017.\n ABA book Positive Parenting for Autism: Powerful Strategies to Help Your Child Overcome Challenges and Thrive was released by American speech therapist Victoria Boone in December 2018.", "Divergent Mind: Thriving in a World That Wasn't Designed for You was released by American journalist Jenara Nerenberg in February 2021. It explores how ADHD, autism, synaesthesia, high sensitivity, and sensory processing disorder manifest in women.", "Autism in popular culture\n\nSee also \nHistory of Asperger syndrome\n Autism in China\n\nReferences \n\nAutism\nAutism" ]

[ "Charles Thomas William Curle (4 July 1916 – 28 September 2006), better known as Adam Curle, was a British academic, known for his work in social psychology, pedagogy, development studies and peace studies. After holding posts at the University of Oxford, University of Exeter, University of Ghana and Harvard University, in 1973 he became the inaugural Professor of Peace Studies at the University of Bradford, following the establishment of the University's Department of Peace Studies", ". Curle's works included several books on education, including Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963), and a number of books on peace and peacemaking, including Making Peace (1971). He was also, throughout his career and after his retirement in 1978, active in peacemaking and mediation, and visited Nigeria and Biafra several times as part of a Quaker contingent during the Nigerian Civil War of 1967–70.", "Early life and education", "Charles Thomas William Curle was born in L'Isle-Adam, Val-d'Oise, France, on 4 July 1916, as the Battle of the Somme raged nearby. His father was the British author, critic and journalist Richard Curle. His mother was Cordelia Curle (née Fisher), whose siblings included the historian H. A. L. Fisher, the cricketer and academic Charles Dennis Fisher, the naval officer William Wordsworth Fisher, the banker Edwin Fisher, and Adeline Vaughan Williams, the wife of the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams", ". Their other relatives included the historian Frederic William Maitland, the photographer Julia Margaret Cameron, the author Virginia Woolf and the painter Vanessa Bell. He was named after three of his mother's brothers, and took the name Adam, after his birthplace, after returning to France in 1919.", "He grew up in Wheatfield, Oxfordshire, where he developed an affection for animals and a sensitivity to landscape. Richard Curle was not a frequent presence in his son's childhood; Adam did not meet his father until he was three years old. Curle later described how they became closer in Richard's later life, however, \"on a man-to-man basis,\" having \"somehow missed the father–son phase\"", ". Curle attributed his pacifism to the influence of his mother, who lost three of her brothers to war and instilled a hatred of war in her son. Woodhouse argued that Curle's mother was also responsible for the \"self-confidence which was to enable him later to make a series of unconventional moves at critical turning points in his life\". His \"inclination to kick against convention\", however, was identified by Woodhouse as closer to that of Richard Curle.", "Curle attended Charterhouse School, where he was unhappy, later recalling having \"survived a dreadful conventional schooling ... by playing the flute (mainly Bach), writing poems and reading the mystics\". From 1935 he attended New College, Oxford, at first studying history with the intention of becoming a civil servant, then switching to anthropology", ". He continued his studies at Exeter College, Oxford and the Oxford Institute of Social Anthropology, and in 1938 travelled to Sápmi and the Sahara Desert on field trips.", "Career", "Britain and Pakistan", "Curle served in the British Army for six years during World War II, rising to the rank of Major and becoming a research officer in the Civil Resettlement Units (CRUs). In this role he was involved in the development of a residential rehabilitation programme which provided counselling, skills training, medical and recreational facilities, and opportunities for social contact, and was tasked with evaluating the effectiveness of the CRUs' work", ". In this period he developed an interest in psychology, in particular the integration of psychological and anthropological approaches to society, and the psychological effects of traumatic experiences. He received a postgraduate degree in anthropology in 1947, having drawn on his experiences with the CRUs in his work", ". He began his academic career with a series of journal articles also drawing on those experiences, the first of which was a paper in Human Relations on the experiences of prisoners of war in returning to their communities and the relationship between individual and community.", "In 1947 Curle took up a position at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, where he researched rural decay in South West England. This work led to his appointment, in 1950, as a lecturer in social psychology at the University of Oxford. While at Oxford in the early 1950s he developed an interest in the connections between social psychology and education policy", ". While he remained interested in the social psychiatry approach that Tavistock Institute emphasised, he also came to believe in the necessity of education for individuals' psychological stability and positive relationships with others, and published several articles on education policy. His work at Oxford led to his appointment in 1952 to the Chair in Education and Psychology at the University of Exeter, where he remained until 1956.", "While at Exeter he became involved in a project focused on development in Europe, and his work took on an international dimension. In 1956 he was invited, via Harvard University, to advise on education policy in Pakistan. Initially planning to stay in Pakistan for a year, he later decided to remain for two additional years, and resigned from his position at Exeter in order to do so", ". From 1956 to 1959 he was an advisor to the Pakistan Planning Board, in which capacity he travelled in Pakistan (including present-day Bangladesh), including in the Hindu Kush. In addition to education policy, his work in Pakistan concerned health care, housing, labour relations, welfare and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, where he worked among the Pashtun and Kho peoples. He would later frequently refer to his experiences in Pakistan in his lectures and books.", "Ghana and Harvard", "In 1959 Curle was appointed Professor of Education at the University of Ghana. While in Ghana he became a Quaker, which, like his pacifism, he attributed to his mother's influence. He also travelled widely in Africa during this time, and advised the Ghanaian government on education and development. His inaugural lecture, entitled The Role of Education in Developing Societies, was published in 1961", ". He resigned from the University in 1961, having reached the conclusion that the institution, which was then predominantly white, was \"out of place\" in a political context marked by the growth of African nationalism. That year he travelled to South Africa with the intention of establishing a college for Black Africans, but was arrested.", "Also in 1961 he was appointed director of Harvard University's Centre for Studies in Education and Development, a position he would hold until 1971. While at Harvard he participated in field projects in Barbados, Central America, Nigeria and Tunisia, and returned to Pakistan in 1963 and 1964 as a consultant on education, contributing to Pakistan's third five-year plan. The fieldwork he conducted at Harvard led him to see education policy as vital in achieving and maintaining peace", ". In 1964 he also became an advisor to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East.", "Indo-Pakistani War", "Curle visited India and Pakistan as part of a Quaker contingent in the wake of the Tashkent Declaration, the January 1966 agreement which ended the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. The team's roles included gathering information, facilitating communication between the Indian and Pakistani sides, offering assessments of the situation, and proposing possible measures for achieving peace. Curle was selected for the role due to his knowledge and experience of Pakistan", ". Curle was selected for the role due to his knowledge and experience of Pakistan. His role involved presenting the case for conciliation to the younger people involved in the conflict and those sceptical of possibilities for peace. The Quakers played only a minor role in maintaining peace in India and Pakistan and did not facilitate a breakthrough in relations, but did help to maintain the less tense relations that had developed", ". Their report described the history of Quaker activity in the region, outlined Indian and Pakistani viewpoints, and described their own work, and concluded that the onus was on India to take conciliatory measures towards Pakistan.", "Nigerian Civil War", "Known by this time for his work in the fields of pedagogy and development studies, Curle was consulted by governments and charities, and provided mediation in the Nigerian Civil War of 1967–70 as part of a group of three Quakers alongside John Volkmar and Walter Martin. Prior to becoming a mediator in Nigeria Curle had been involved in establishing a model school in Ayetoro, Nigeria", ". On their initial trip in 1967, their intention was to listen to the parties in conflict and to aid them through conciliation or relief. Arriving before the war began, Curle, Martin and Volkmar met with C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Hamzat Ahmadu and Okoi Arikpo, and remained hopeful that peace could be maintained; a week after the team left, however, Ojukwu declared the secession of the Republic of Biafra. In early 1968 Curle and Volkmar hosted initial informal talks and met with Yakubu Gowon.", "In March 1967 Curle and Martin visited Biafra, where they met with Louis Mbanefo and again with Ojukwu and Gowon. When the Commonwealth Secretariat arranged for public talks to be held in Kampala, Uganda, in May, Curle and his wife Anne were selected to attend as a Quaker delegation. The Curles' role in the Kampala talks involved mediating between Commonwealth Secretary-General Arnold Smith and the Biafrans and proposing possible terms of settlement", ". In Making Peace Adam described his and Anne's role as involving \"persuasion, clarification, message carrying, listening, defusing, honest brokering, encouraging, and liaison with the Commonwealth Secretariat\". The Curles then returned to Nigeria, where Adam met again with Gowon. In August 1967 Curle and Volkmar attended the continuing negotiations in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. When Gowon announced a \"final push\" against Biafra, the Quakers turned their attention to relief operations.", "Curle, Volkmar and Martin embarked on another series of trips in September and October 1968. In the continuing impasse, the proposal made by Hamani Diori, the president of Niger, for a Quaker-sponsored meeting was taken up. Ojukwu's representatives expressed interest in Diori's proposal, and Curle discussed the proposal with Smith and a representative of the British government. The stalemate that continued through 1969, however, led the Quakers to once again turn their attention to providing relief", ". In October 1969, Curle met again with Gowon alongside Volkmar and Kale Williams. In London, Curle and Williams met with Smith and a Biafran representative to discuss issues including the possibility of the Commonwealth Secretariat again becoming involved in negotiations. In January 1970, however, the war ended with the Biafrans' surrender. Curle and Volkmar rejoined Williams on Nigeria days after the surrender, in order to observe the post-war climate and offer conciliation.", "C. H. Mike Yarrow, in his study of Quaker reconciliation efforts, argues that the personal qualities and personalities of the Quaker contingent played a pivotal role in their success in building connections with Nigerian and Biafran leaders, though from mid-1968 Yarrow argues the Quaker organisation and the faith it engendered came to play a similar role", ". While Yarrow argues their listening process was a success, he describes their effectiveness at changing the parties' perceptions of one another in more ambivalent terms. In concluding, Yarrow argued that while the negotiated peace the Quakers sought was not achieved, Yarrow argues that \"the peace terms resulting after the military solution were imbued with the spirit of conciliation.\"", "Curle's experiences of the Indo–Pakistani and Nigerian conflicts contributed to his interest in the causes of war and informed his research on the relationships between violence, social transformation, and the goals of development. At Harvard he responded to the 1968 student protests and the emergence of the New Left by teaching history to schoolchildren in a working-class neighbourhood of Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he was struck by similarities to the \"underdeveloped world\".", "Professor of Peace Studies", "In 1973 Curle became the United Kingdom's first Professor of Peace Studies at the University of Bradford. Robert A. McKinlay, who was involved in the selection of the new Department of Peace Studies's inaugural professor, recalled contacting Curle after a fellow Quaker suggested Curle would disabuse him of the viability of the position, after which Curle expressed an interest in the post. As Professor of Peace Studies he was responsible for both the department's administration and its academic development", ". His first year at Bradford was spent recruiting staff, seeking especially those with experience in peacemaking, and developing a postgraduate programme", ". Among those he appointed were Tom Stonier, who would later head Bradford's School of Science and Society; Aleksandras Štromas, a lawyer and Soviet dissident; David Bleakley, a former Minister of Community Relations in the Government of Northern Ireland; Michael Harbottle, a former chief of staff of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus; Uri Davis, who had been involved in peacemaking among Jews and Arabs in the Middle East; Vithal Rajan, a Gandhian who had worked in India; Nigel Young", ", a Gandhian who had worked in India; Nigel Young, a political scientist formerly based at the University of Birmingham; and Tom Woodhouse, who became Curle's research assistant", ".", "While at Bradford, Curle contributed to the development of peace studies and drew on his own experiences of mediation. In his 1975 inaugural lecture, entitled \"The Scope and Dilemmas of Peace Studies\", he argued for the necessity not only of resolving individual conflicts but also of addressing the underlying causes of war, which he identified as injustice and inequality", ". Departments of peace studies, he argued, should thus seek to create fair, just and open societies that would not foster the resentments that ultimately lead to war. Accordingly, he sought to operate his department in a democratic, participatory and non-hierarchical manner, and saw his own role as that of a co-ordinator rather than a leader.", "Retirement", "Towards the end of his tenure at Bradford, Curle began to feel the need to return to more direct involvement in international reconciliation, and so left the university in 1978, after five years. After his retirement, Curle continued to practice peacemaking and track two diplomacy, and worked with Quaker Peace and Service as a mediator in Pakistan, Zimbabwe, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, the Balkans and elsewhere", ". In 1983 a proposal formulated by Curle and others to assess the teaching of conflict resolution in schools was taken up by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe as part of a plan to ensure compulsory education contain a focus on non-violent behaviour.", "Curle and his wife Anne visited the former Yugoslavia several times during the Yugoslav Wars of 1991–2001. In 1992 Curle co-founded the Centre for Peace, Human Rights and Non-Violence in Osijek, Croatia, a contested area that was the site of significant violence", ". The organisation sought to cultivate a culture of non-violence through education, and provided civil rights education, community mediation, groups for parents, legal and practical support, peace education programmes, self-help groups, and programmes for survivors of domestic violence", ". In Županja, Croatia, a multi-ethnic community which had similarly seen conflict and dispossession, Curle co-founded Mir i dobro (Peace and Good), which sought to aid the local community in adjusting to the war's aftermath and to build peace. In his work in Croatia, Curle emphasised the necessity for aid workers to respond to the needs of communities and encouraged dialogue to discern what those needs were", ". As part of this emphasis, in 1996 he convened a workshop to explore ways to mitigate the effects of the war on Županja's children. A further workshop in 1997 sought to explore ways to develop a culture of non-violence and to facilitate reintegration as refugees returned to their homes. Barbara Mitchels has argued that these workshops combined peacemaking with aspects of counselling. Curle continued to visit Županja into the 2000s.", "In his later years he was also influenced by Tibetan Buddhism and the 14th Dalai Lama. In the 1990s and 2000s he worked with the Oxford Research Group as an advisor and a patron. Later in his career he also revisited his earlier work with prisoners of war and reaffirmed his argument that efforts to heal the psychological wounds of war ought to form part of a holistic programme of interventions. In 2000 he was awarded the Gandhi International Peace Award.\n\nThought", "Overview", "In the 1960s Curle published work on education and development that reflected conventional views about the relationship between economic modernisation and social progress. In this work he did, however, emphasise the role of the social and cultural, and in particular the concept of human potential, in development, rather than identifying development as a solely economic phenomenon. In this period he also sought to develop new teaching methods drawing on social psychology", ". In this period he also sought to develop new teaching methods drawing on social psychology. From the late 1960s he came to question development per se, and questions relating to violence and conflict, informed by his experiences of the Indo-Pakistani War and the Nigerian Civil War, came to play a greater role in his work. Around this time, informed by the movement in opposition to the Vietnam War and the 1960s counterculture, he also looked to the roots of conflict that lay in developed countries", ". Curle's turn to peace studies was the result of these experiences, which instilled a desire to understand the causes of conflict.", "Peace studies", "In his work in peace studies, Curle developed an approach in which peace has both negative dimensions, relating to the prevention of violence, and positive dimensions, relating to the fulfilment of human needs and the freeing of human potential. Curle viewed peace in terms of human development rather than in terms of organisations or rules that would enforce peace", ". Finding the word \"conflict\" to be too ambiguous, Curle preferred to speak of \"peaceful\" and \"unpeaceful\" relationships, defining the former as relationships in which \"the various parties did each other more good than harm\", and the latter as those \"doing more harm than good\" to those involved. The development of peaceful relationships, rather than the containment of conflict, was at the core of Curle's conception of peace", ". While other peace researchers have tended to analyse social, political, and military systems, Curle's work focused on the values and attitudes of individuals within those systems. Curle played an important role in the emergence of peace studies as a separate field from international relations, and in the incorporation of insights from psychology, especially humanistic psychology, into the field", ". Curle's work also addressed the problems of occupational burnout and apathy among peace studies scholars and practitioners.", "Curle saw peace studies as an interdisciplinary endeavour benefiting from a variety of backgrounds and skills. From the late 1960s he was aware of the work of Johan Galtung and Kenneth Boulding, whose work he saw as sharing a common goal with his own. Curle's work in peace studies was also influenced by the Russian esotericist P. D", ". Curle's work in peace studies was also influenced by the Russian esotericist P. D. Ouspensky and the Russian philosopher George Gurdjieff; by Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism), Sufism and his involvement with the Quakers; and by the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, who was his colleague at Harvard. In keeping with Quaker thought, Curle saw the Inner Light as a force in each human akin to a universal mind", ". Drawing on Buddhist philosophy, he argued that the three poisons (ignorance, greed and hatred) caused social alienation and formed the basis of most violence. Drawing on Vajrayana and Quakerism, he viewed all living things as connected, and believed that every human action has effects on humans' environment. He also emphasised the artistic and creative aspects of peacemaking and of writing on the subject.", "Mediation and reconciliation", "Mediation was, in Curle's view, the foremost tool of peacemaking. Its purpose, in Curle's account, was to eliminate misperceptions between parties in conflict and to allay violent emotions. Curle's proposed mediation process has four parts: first, mediators develop and improve communications; second, they provide information to, and between, the parties; third, they \"befriend\" the parties; and fourth, they encourage a willingness to engage in negotiations", ". Curle criticised \"top down\" forms of mediation as ineffectual, though, and argued mediation ought to be accompanied by the transformation of attitudes and of economic and social conditions. He saw this form of mediation as applicable on conflicts at all scales, from wars between nations to disputes within families. His theory of mediation draws on Quaker practices, on humanistic psychology, and on his own experiences in the field", ". It is distinct from John Burton's approach to conflict resolution, but shares with Burton several commitments: both saw the role of the mediator as one of structuring discussions and providing information, both thought mediation involved exploring and analysing the conflict in question, both used psychological principles to mitigate against misperceptions and misunderstandings, and both envisioned new understandings resulting that feed into the development of policy.", "In his later works, published in the 1990s and 2000s, Curle continued to revise his theory of reconciliation and its role in peacemaking. His work with the Osijek Centre for Peace led to the realisation that the model of peacemaking by neutral parties that he had advanced in In the Middle (1986) was insufficiently nuanced to resolve the Yugoslav Wars, and that affected communities themselves ought to play a greater role in the process", ". He came to favour a form of conflict resolution in which outsiders' involvement would focus on training and supporting local peacemakers, and argued that effective peacemaking processes ought not to focus on the proliferation of peace treaties by elites, but rather ought to empower communities affected by war to construct peace \"from below\".", "Works\n\nEducational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963)\n\nCurle's Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963) is a review of the role of education in economic growth and social and political transformation.", "Planning for Education in Pakistan (1966)", "Planning for Education in Pakistan: A Personal Case Study (1966) is an account of Curle's experiences as an advisor to the Planning Commission of Pakistan in 1963 and 1964. In it, he assesses problems with education in Pakistan and discusses the role of foreign advisors to governments. Drawing on his experiences with the Planning Commission and with educational bodies, Curle shows significant differences between East Pakistan and West Pakistan in education and literacy", ". Curle presents those involved in educational planning as complex, conflicted figures rather than aloof arbiters of objective facts.", "Richard S. Wheeler, reviewing the book in The Journal of Asian Studies, described Curle's assessment of Pakistan's educational problems as \"authoritative\" and the insight provided into the role of foreign advisors as \"rewarding\". J. A. Keats and Daphne M", ". J. A. Keats and Daphne M. Keats, writing in the Australian Journal of Education, characterised the book as \"an unusual and in some ways courageous approach to a serious examination of the problems of educational planning in a newly developing country\", but argued that Curle's subjective approach was not wholly successful and queried the omission of certain important individuals from his account", ". Keats and Keats concluded that while Curle \"has succeeded in showing the interaction between persons and action, he has achieved this at the expense of an objectivity which might well have led to an even more valuable exposition.\"", "Educational Problems of Developing Societies (1969)", "Educational Problems of Developing Societies: With Case Studies of Ghana, Pakistan, and Nigeria was first published in 1969, then in a revised and expanded edition in 1973. The book comprises 12 essays on various topics. After introducing the educational problems faced by developing societies, Curle describes background conditions in these societies and factors in educational development in Pakistan", ". As in Educational Strategy for Developing Societies, Curle here understands development in social psychological terms. Drawing on his experiences in Pakistan, he argues that development requires flexibility and an appreciation of cultural differences, and that solely economic approaches to development risk fomenting conflict.", "Woodhouse describes the book as the best illustration of \"the progress of Curle's intellectual development toward the distinct field of peace research\". Philip Foster, in his review in the International Journal of Comparative Sociology, argued that the essays show only limited awareness of broader debates in the field, and questioned Curle's methodology in some of the essays, but concluded \"that the good far outweighs the less than satisfactory", ".\" Joseph Kivlin, meanwhile, reviewing the book in Social Forces, argued that it \"does not contribute much that is new to the understanding\" of developing societies' educational problems, and noted that several of its chapters are only tangentially connected to the topic of education.", "Making Peace (1971)\n\nCurle's Making Peace (1971) applies ideas from peace studies to his own experiences, explores the definition of peacemaking and considers what constitute peaceful and non-peaceful relationships and what cause them.", "Education for Liberation (1973)", "Curle's Education for Liberation was published in 1973. Drawing on his personal experiences and responding to the educational environment of the 1970s, and dealing with similar topics to Making Peace, Curle considers how education can contribute to the achievement of peace and social change. More so than in his previous works, Curle is critical of existing forms of education, which he sees as contributing to authoritarianism, social hierarchy and economic materialism", ". He identifies this as especially problematic in developing countries, where education is \"attuned to the competitive and materialistic ideologies of the rich nations\". The book was strongly influenced by Paulo Freire's thought, and contains an appendix contrasting Curle's views with those of B. F. Skinner.", "Richard D'Aeth, reviewing the book in the British Journal of Educational Studies, described Curle's analysis as \"humane and warmly personal\" and the book as \"a pleasure to study, despite its pessimism\". In his review in the British Journal of Educational Psychology, Ken Pease expressed enthusiasm for the book but argued its use of the concept of awareness was too insubstantial to form \"the cornerstone of an educational system\".", "The Fragile Voice of Love (2006)", "Curle's final book, The Fragile Voice of Love (2006), was published shortly before he died. The book, which includes aspects of memoir and travelogue, offers a personal account of the human condition and human despair at the beginning of the 21st century. Curle comments on alienation, greed, and commercialism as causes of conflict, and proposes ways to combat certain damaging illusions, such as the idea that material wealth results in happiness", ". Drawing on the insights of the Buddha on the ultimate emptiness of reality, denial of which he identifies as the cause of suffering, Curle proposes that suffering can be overcome first by cultivating and applying virtue, and second by acquiring wisdom. Curle concludes by discussing globalisation, which he argues is driven by the desire for power and profit. Reviewing the book in Peace and Conflict, William H", ". Reviewing the book in Peace and Conflict, William H. Long described the book as \"straight from the heart\", and suggested \"like your grandfather's advice, it's best to pay it some mind.\"", "Other works", "Mystics and Militants: A Study of Awareness, Identity and Social Action (1972) deals with similar themes to Making Peace and examines the personal beliefs, qualities and skills of peace makers. It also considers the psychological aspects of social action, social awareness and identity, and the inner and outer, or private and public, aspects of peacemaking. Curle's interest in the concepts of awareness and identity was based on his observation of people in conflict situations", ". Like Making Peace, Mystics and Militants contributed to Curle's reputation as an influential figure in the field of peace research. Both books contributed to the emergence of peace studies.", "Peacemaking Public and Private (1978) continued to explore the question of the inner and outer aspects of peacemaking first taken up in Mystics and Militants.", "True Justice (1981) draws on Quaker theology and Curle's own experiences as a peacemaker, and focuses on personal solutions rather than structural ones. It explores the question of human nature in relation to religion, and continues to consider public and private levels of peacemaking. Curle argues here that feelings of hatred, anger, jealousy and the like are not unchangeable features of any individual, but rather the result of failures to understand and develop their own potential", ". Michael Hare Duke, in his review for the New Internationalist, acknowledged the importance of the interpersonal phenomena on which Curle focuses, but argued that the book lacked \"a clear recognition of the economic realities which lie behind any justice in the distribution of the world's resources.\"", "In the Middle (1986) argues for the importance of mediation and reconciliation in both peace research and peacemaking practice. In it, Curle introduces his account of mediation as a four-part process, and identifies three types of activity as central to peacemaking: the development of co-operative economic and social systems, nonviolent opposition to violent and oppressive regimes, and the achievement of reconciliation between conflicting parties, including through mediation", ". In concluding, Curle proposes the creation of an international organisation within the United Nations dedicated to mediation, which would conduct research and provide mediation, training and resources.", "Tools for Transformation (1990), like Making Peace and Mystics and Militants, frames conflict as a dynamic force capable of effecting changes in individuals and social structures. Barbara Mitchels and Tom Woodhouse argue that this perspective influenced the development of peace studies by providing a holistic account of conflict that goes beyond merely ending or preventing wars", ". In To Tame the Hydra (1999), Curle describes a global situation in which violence, successfully subdued, immediately flares up elsewhere, akin to the Hydra, a mythological monster which grew a new head each time one was cut off. Curle saw these outbreaks of violence as fuelled by the pursuit of money and power, and argued for the continuing necessity of peacemaking techniques.", "Curle also wrote poetry and fiction. His collection Recognition and Reality: Reflections & Prose Poems was published in 1987. Norbert Koppensteiner described the volume as \"a poetic transrationality.\" His poem \"Indra's Net\" (1999), named for the metaphor used in Buddhist philosophy, reflects on the ideas of human interconnection that also formed part of his work on peace.", "Personal life\nCurle married Pamela Hobson in 1939. They had two daughters and divorced after the end of Curle's military service. In 1958 he married Anne Edie, a New Zealander who he had met in Dhaka during his travels. They had one daughter. Later in life he lived with Anne in London.\n\nDeath and legacy\nCurle died from acute leukaemia on 28 September 2006 in Wimbledon, London.", "Death and legacy\nCurle died from acute leukaemia on 28 September 2006 in Wimbledon, London.\n\nBarbara Mitchels' study of Curle, Love in Danger, was published in 2006. It was followed in 2016 by Adam Curle: Radical Peacemaker, a collection of Curle's writings edited by Tom Woodhouse and John Paul Lederach.", "In a 2003 article Mitchels described Curle as \"one of the pioneers of the academic study of peace\". In his obituary in The Guardian, Tom Woodhouse wrote that \"the legitimacy and growth of peace studies\" would be Curle's \"greatest and enduring legacy\". Mitchels and Woodhouse argue Curle's works \"were instrumental in establishing the legitimacy of peace studies in universities worldwide and in advancing the scholarly agenda of peace research", ".\" Lederach described Curle as \"a beacon of orientation\" for his own work and \"one of the most important influences relevant to many of our contemporary debates\" in peace studies.", "List of works\n The Role of Education in Developing Societies (1961)\n Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963), expanded and updated edition 1973\n Planning for Education in Pakistan: A Personal Case Study (1966)\n Educational Problems of Developing Societies: With Case Studies of Ghana, Pakistan, and Nigeria (1969) revised and expanded edition 1973\n Making Peace (1971)\n Mystics and Militants: A Study of Awareness, Identity and Social Action (1972)\n Education for Liberation (1973)", "Education for Liberation (1973)\n Peacemaking Public and Private (1978)\n Preparation for Peace (1980)\n True Justice (1981)\n Recognition and Reality: Reflections & Prose Poems (1987)\n Tools for Transformation: A Personal Study (1990)\n To Tame the Hydra: Undermining the Culture of Violence (1995)\n In the Middle: Non-Official Mediation in Violent Situations (1986)\n Peacemaking: The Middle Way (1992)\n Another Way: Positive Responses to Contemporary Violence (1995)\n The Fragile Voice of Love (2006)", "Another Way: Positive Responses to Contemporary Violence (1995)\n The Fragile Voice of Love (2006)\n Adam Curle: Radical Peacemaker (2016)", "See also\n List of peace activists\n\nNotes\n\nSources\n\nFurther reading", "1916 births\n2006 deaths\n20th-century educational theorists\n20th-century British psychologists\nAcademics of the University of Bradford\nAcademics of the University of Exeter\nAcademics of the University of Oxford\nAlumni of Exeter College, Oxford\nAlumni of New College, Oxford\nBritish Army personnel of World War II\nBritish Christian pacifists\nBritish educational theorists\nBritish Quakers\nConverts to Quakerism\nDeaths from cancer in England\nDeaths from acute leukemia\nDevelopment specialists", "Deaths from cancer in England\nDeaths from acute leukemia\nDevelopment specialists\nGandhi International Peace Award recipients\nHarvard University Department of Psychology faculty\nHarvard University people\nNon-interventionism\nPeace and conflict scholars\nPeople educated at Charterhouse School\nPeople from L'Isle-Adam, Val-d'Oise\nQueen's Royal Regiment officers\nSocial psychologists\nAcademic staff of the University of Ghana\nWriters about Pakistan\nWriters from London\nWriters from Oxfordshire" ]

[ "The history of Leeds United Football Club, a professional association football club based in the city of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, dates back to 1919, when the club was established following the demise of Leeds City F.C.", "Leeds had their most successful period under the management of Don Revie in the 1960s and 1970s. The club won the English league title twice, the FA Cup once, the League Cup once and the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup twice and Charity Shield in 1969. They were also finalists in the European Cup Winners Cup in 1973 and the European Cup in 1975. Leeds later won another league title in 1991–92 under manager Howard Wilkinson followed by the Charity Shield also in 1992.", "Leeds City\nLeeds United's predecessor club, Leeds City F.C., was formed in 1904, but was forcibly disbanded by The Football League in 1919 in response to allegations of financial irregularities regarding illegal payments to players during the First World War.\n\nFormation of Leeds United", "Formation of Leeds United \n\nShortly after the disbanding of Leeds City a new club, Leeds United, was formed on 17 October 1919, under the management of former player Dick Ray. They began playing in the Midland League, taking the place vacated by Leeds City's reserve team. Yorkshire Amateurs, who occupied Elland Road, offered to make way for the new team.", "In 1920 Leeds United were acquired by Huddersfield Town's chairman Hilton Crowther. Crowther planned to amalgamate Huddersfield Town and Leeds United, but a public outcry in the Huddersfield press prevented this; eventually, enough money was raised in Huddersfield to buy Crowther out, leaving him to concentrate solely on Leeds United.\n\nOn 31 May 1920 Leeds United were elected to the Football League; they polled 31 votes and entered the Second Division along with Cardiff City, who won 23 votes.", "Due to the connection with Huddersfield, Leeds adopted the home colours of Huddersfield for their first home kit.\n\n1919–29\n\n Honours Won: Second Division Championship (1923–24)\n\nLeeds first manager was former Leeds City player Dick Ray, but chairman Hilton Crowther wasted no time in enlisting the Huddersfield boss Arthur Fairclough as his replacement; Ray was appointed as Fairclough's assistant.", "Leeds' first fixture after their election to the league was against Port Vale, the club who had taken up Leeds City's fixtures following their expulsion. Leeds lost the game 2–0, but seven days later recorded their first victory in the corresponding fixture at Elland Road, which ended Leeds United 3 Port Vale 1. However, Leeds made little impact in 1920–21, their first season, eventually finishing 14th", ". However, Leeds made little impact in 1920–21, their first season, eventually finishing 14th. Following seasons saw them consolidate their position in the league, finishing 8th in 1921–22 and 7th in 1922–23, before winning the Second Division Championship in 1923–24 with 54 points. The championship winning team was a strong one, with Jim Baker, Bert Duffield and Ernie Hart featuring prominently.", "Leeds struggled during their First Division debut season in 1924–25 and finished in 18th place. The following 1925–26 season was even more of a struggle, and the club only just avoided relegation. The 1926–27 season finally saw Leeds relegated to Second Division, and Fairclough resigned as manager. His replacement was his former assistant Dick Ray, who had left Elland Road in 1923 to manage Doncaster Rovers.", "In 1927–28, Ray's first season, Leeds were promoted back to the First Division, finishing as runners-up to Manchester City. The team did well on its return to the First Division, eventually finishing 13th in 1928–29.", "The following season, 1929–30, Leeds finished 5th – the club's best position before the arrival of Don Revie. The half-back line of George Reed, Willis Edwards and Ernie Hart provided a strong defensive backbone to an attacking side spearheaded by Tom Jennings. The side was further enhanced by Wilf Copping, who joined in the close season.\n\n1930s", "1930s\n\nLeeds were inconsistent; after their best ever finish, the club were relegated in the following 1930–31 season. The following 1931–32 season saw Leeds promoted back to the First Division, finishing runners-up to Wolverhampton Wanderers. On their return to the First Division, Leeds managed to finish 8th in the 1932–33 season, and 9th in 1933–34.", "Wilf Copping left for Arsenal in 1934, and his absence made a big difference as Leeds slumped to 18th place in 1934–35. Dick Ray resigned as manager, and was replaced by Billy Hampson. Hampson went for experience and recruited former England internationals, such as Albert McInroy and George Brown. He also introduced promising youngsters Bert Sproston, Billy Furness and Eric Stephenson, who went on to play for England", ". In the 1934–35 season, Leeds adopted a half yellow-half blue strip, in tribute to the defunct Leeds City, and this kit stayed in place until 1948, with several variations on the colours being used between then and 1960–61. The club also adopted their first badge in 1934, using the city crest.", "1935–36 saw the club achieve a respectable 11th place in the table, but 1936–37 brought another slump as Leeds finished 19th. 1937–38 saw an improvement and Leeds were even up amongst the title challengers in the early part of the season, with South African striker Gordon Hodgson scoring 25 goals in 36 League games. However, the side faded, and eventually finished 9th.\n\n1938–39 was the last full season before World War II, and Leeds finished 13th.\n\n1946–49", "1938–39 was the last full season before World War II, and Leeds finished 13th.\n\n1946–49\n\nIn the 1946–47 season after the War, Leeds United won just 18 points – the equal lowest First Division total until Stoke City's performance in 1984–85. They also recorded what remains to this day the worst away record in top-flight history, having gained just a single point from 21 away matches. Once relegation to the Second Division was confirmed, manager Billy Hampson was replaced by former player Willis Edwards.", "Edwards proved to be a poor manager, and the 1947–48 season was a struggle against relegation to the Third Division. After just a year in charge, Edwards was moved back to the post of assistant manager, and the Leeds board appointed Major Frank Buckley.\n\n1948–53 Frank Buckley: challenging for promotion", "1948–53 Frank Buckley: challenging for promotion\n\nBuckley had previously managed Wolverhampton Wanderers to a runners-up position in the league, and to the FA Cup Final. However, his first season in charge of Leeds was another relegation battle, with Leeds eventually finishing 15th in the 1948–49 season that saw John Charles make his league debut.", "The following 1949–50 season saw Buckley clear much of the dead wood from the side, replacing them with younger, fitter players. Buckley's new side finished a creditable 5th in the Second Division, and enjoyed a run to the 6th round of the FA Cup. The season also saw Leeds sign a 15-year-old Jack Charlton.", "The 1950–51 season was another period of transition for the club; Buckley continued to rebuild, with only seven original players remaining from the squad he had inherited in 1948, and Leeds eventually finished 5th.", "The 1951–52 season saw Leeds finish 6th in the table. By this time, Buckley had grown steadily more frustrated with the inability of some players in the squad to fulfil their potential, whilst the lack of funds from the board made radical action impossible. Buckley's scouting and youth programmes were bringing talent through, but it was taking too long.", "Buckley was 68 at the start of the 1952–53, and aware that the board was impatient for promotion. He switched Charles from his usual defensive position to a centre forward role, and was rewarded with 27 goals in 29 appearances. The season also saw Jack Charlton making his debut at centre back, replacing Charles. It was not enough; the previously tight defense missed Charles, and Leeds finished the season in 10th place", ". After five years as manager, Buckley resigned at the end of the season to take over at Walsall Town.", "1953–57 Raich Carter: promotion realised", "The Leeds board replaced Buckley with former England legend Raich Carter. Initially, the new manager caused unrest among the players; Carter was convinced of his abilities, but scathing and dismissive in his put downs of the players, whom he deemed lesser talents. Team spirit suffered as he lavished all his attention on John Charles, who rewarded his manager's devotion with 42 goals in 39 games. Despite the goals, Leeds were still erratic, and finished the 1953–54 season in 10th position.", "The 1954–55 season saw the club settle down into a winning routine under Carter, eventually finishing 4th and missing out on promotion by just one point. However, Charles was unsettled by attention from First Division clubs, and submitted a written Transfer Request, which was rejected by the board.", "Carter switched Charles back to defence for the 1955–56 season, and Leeds finished as Second Division runners-up – returning to the First Division for the first time since 1947. Team regulars included Charlton, Eric Kerfoot, Jimmy Dunn and Grenville Hair.", "Leed's return to the First Division in the 1956–57 season saw them finish a creditable 8th, with John Charles playing a pivotal role. However, in September 1956, fire gutted the West Stand at Elland Road; the fire was so ferocious that large sections of the pitch were scorched by the heat. The blaze consumed the entire structure, offices, kit, club records, physiotherapy equipment, dressing rooms, directors' rooms and the press box", ". Damage was estimated at £100,000, and the club's insurance cover had been woefully inadequate. In order to raise funds to replace the stand, the club's directors reluctantly listened to offers for Charles. Carter did his best to persuade his star player to stay, but Charles was hungry for success at the highest level, and Carter was unable to convince him that Leeds could satisfy his ambitions. Charles was sold to Juventus for a then world record of £65,000.", "The loss of such a key player was reflected in the performances on the pitch, and the following 1957–58 season saw Leeds finish in 17th place. At the end of the season, the club directors decided not to renew Carter's contract after just one season in the top flight.\n\n1958–61: decline and relegation", "Bill Lambton took over as acting manager at Leeds for the 1958–59 season. Lambton had been hired by Carter the previous season, and had no experience of running a football club. He had not been a great success as coach and commanded little respect among the playing staff", ". He had not been a great success as coach and commanded little respect among the playing staff. A player rebellion saw the board sack Lambton in January 1959, and former manager Willis Edwards resumed the manager's chair on a temporary basis, aided by trainer Bob Roxburgh, and Leeds managed to avoid relegation, eventually finishing 15th. Lambton's main legacy was the signing of former England international Don Revie, who was then ending his playing career.", "Lambton's eventual successor was Jack Taylor, who had managed Queens Park Rangers without conspicuous success and the club were relegated to the Second Division at the end of the 1959–60 season.\n\nTaylor fared no better in the lower division, and resigned in March 1961, to be replaced by Revie.", "Taylor fared no better in the lower division, and resigned in March 1961, to be replaced by Revie.\n\n1961–74 Don Revie: \"The Glory Days\" \n Honours Won: First Division Championship (1968–69, 1973–74), FA Cup (1971–72), Football League Cup (1967–68), Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (1967–68, 1970–71), Charity Shield (1969–70), Second Division Championship (1963–64)", "Runners Up: First Division (1964–65, 1965–66, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1971–72), FA Cup (1964–65, 1969–70, 1972–73), Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (1966–67), European Cup Winners Cup (1972–73)\n\n Semi-Finalists: FA Cup (1966–67, 1967–68), Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (1965–66), European Cup (1969–70)", "Under Revie, Leeds enjoyed their most successful period, yet his stewardship started in adverse conditions; the club was in financial difficulty, and in the 1961–62 season only a win in the final game of the season saved the club from relegation to the Third Division.", "Revie immediately made radical changes to the club; adopting the all white colours of Real Madrid, and concentrating the club policy on scouting and developing youth talent, rather than simply buying older players. He appointed experienced coaches like Les Cocker, Maurice Lindley and Syd Owen, and implemented radical techniques like forming a family atmosphere around the club", ". Revie took on more revolutionary techniques, his pre-match preparation was meticulous for its day, his staff prepared highly detailed dossiers on the opposition before every match and pioneered a highly detailed approach to the way opposing teams could be analysed. Coaches like Les Cocker were also responsible for developing high fitness levels in the Leeds players, using diets and rigorous, military style training programs", ". Revie forged a completely new team around a crop of outstanding youth talents, including Norman Hunter, Paul Reaney, Peter Lorimer, Eddie Gray, Billy Bremner, Paul Madeley, Albert Johanneson and these were backed up by more experienced heads Jack Charlton, and veteran Scottish international central midfielder Bobby Collins", ". Revie also made a shrewd purchase in acquiring former Busby Babe winger John Giles from Manchester United, who Leeds' coaching staff would mould into one of the most influential central midfielders of the game. In 1964 this new team won promotion once more to the First Division.", "Leeds made an immediate impact; they began the season with a scintillating 4–2 victory over defending league champions Liverpool, which would set the tone for the rest of the season. Revie's young side chased an improbable league and cup double finishing the 1964–65 season as runners up only to Busby's Manchester United, losing the title on goal average", ". They turned the tables on Manchester United in the FA cup semi-final replay, reaching the FA Cup Final where they were beaten 2–1 by Liverpool in a dour game, best remembered for the appearance of Albert Johanneson, the first black player to play in an FA Cup final.", "The 1965–66 season saw Leeds consolidate their place in the First Division, finishing as runners up in the league again, and progressing through to the semifinals of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup with victories over sides such as Valencia and Torino.", "The 1966–67 season saw Leeds finish 4th in the league, as well as reaching the FA Cup Semi-finals and making an early exit from the League Cup. In addition, their European campaign ended as beaten finalists in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, losing 2–0 to Dinamo Zagreb.", "Leeds spent the 1967–68 season chasing four trophies; leading the title race for much of the season, although eventually losing out to Manchester City and finishing fourth. Revie's men were also beaten semi-finalists in the FA Cup, although they did find their first domestic and European successes, completing a League Cup and Fairs Cup double", ". Terry Cooper's goal securing a tense League Cup final victory against Arsenal, and a Mick Jones goal secured the Fairs cup victory over the veteran Hungarian side Ferencváros. Leeds were the first British team to win the trophy.", "Leeds won the First Division Championship for the first time in the 1968–69 season; they lost only two league games, and were unbeaten at home which was the best record in the 20th century. The price of such consistency in the league was reflected in poor cup runs, as Leeds exited the FA cup, and League cup in the early stages, although reached the quarterfinal of the Fairs Cup, after victories over Standard Liege, Napoli and Hannover", ". During this season Leeds broke the following top flight records: Most points (67), Most home points (39), Most wins (27), Most home wins (18), Fewest defeats (2), Only 26 goals conceded.", "At the beginning of the 1969–70 season Don Revie completed the signing of Allan Clarke from Leicester City, in the hope of trying to win all three of the major competitions – the League, the FA Cup and the European Cup. In the end, they won none of them – in the League, Leeds were runners up to Everton, and in the European Cup they went out in the semifinals to Celtic. Leeds also reached the FA Cup final and, despite a memorable performance from Eddie Gray, lost to Chelsea after a replay", ". Revie's Leeds were victims of their own success; FA rules at the time stipulated that a squad of only 20 players could be used, and as a consequence some of the Leeds players took part in 62 competitive games that season. Additionally, FA rules only allowed the use of one substitute, and even then only in case of injury", ". Other factors, such as fixture congestion and the FA's insistence that Leeds play 9 games in 22 days (the 1969–70 season was foreshortened by England's early departure to Mexico to defend the World Cup) meant that Revie was often forced to field tired players. Geoffrey Green of the Times wrote: \"It has been a strenuous slog, greatly pressurised by the loss of a month because of the demands of Mexican acclimatisation for England's players in the World Cup", ". None have suffered more than Leeds United's players ... At the beginning of March, Leeds looked capable of winning everything and anything, including the General Election. At that time they seemed unbeatable, but in the end a condensed programme of highly competitive fixtures overwhelmed them. Should it be any consolation to them, Leeds have now probably won something more in defeat as good losers than they would have done in many hours of victorious celebrating – universal public sympathy.\"", "At the end of the season, Leeds won only the Charity Shield, although consolation came in the form of Manager of the Year and Player of the Year awards for Revie and Bremner respectively.", "In the 1970–71 season Leeds were runners up in the league again, in controversial circumstances. With four games to play, Leeds were two points clear at the top of the league. Whilst playing West Bromwich Albion, Leeds had a Mick Jones goal dissalowed and later in the game a Leeds pass was intercepted by West Bromwich player Tony Brown", ". Brown paused, as his teammate Colin Suggett was running back from an offside position – the linesman flagged for offside, and the majority of players stopped when they saw that the flag was raised. Referee Ray Tinkler overruled the linesman, allowing Brown to play the ball to Jeff Astle, who scored what proved to be the winning goal", ". Both Revie and the Leeds fans were so enraged at the decision that they invaded the pitch to protest, and consequently the FA banned Leeds from playing their first five home games of the following season at home. Despite winning all their remaining games (including a 1–0 victory over rivals Arsenal) Leeds lost the title to Arsenal by 1 point, in doing so accumulating a record number of points for second place, 12 points ahead of third placed Tottenham", ". In addition, Leeds went out of the FA Cup in the 5th round in a shock 3–2 defeat by Colchester, who were in the Fourth Division at the time. There was consolation in Europe though; Leeds won the Fairs Cup for a second time, beating Juventus over two legs, with Mick Bates, Paul Madeley and Allan Clarke scoring the crucial goals.", "The Fairs Cup was replaced with the UEFA Cup, and at the beginning of the next season Leeds were requested to contest a play-off match with Barcelona at the Camp Nou to decide who would keep the Fairs Cup permanently; Revie wishing to concentrate on the domestic league, and sent a side containing several youth players. Leeds lost the match 2–1.", "As a result of the pitch invasion against West Bromwich Albion, Leeds were banned from playing their first five home games of the 1971–72 season at home, and only managed to pick up 2 points from those games", ". However, they still managed to mount a challenge for the Double; an Allan Clarke goal was enough as Leeds beat Arsenal 1–0 in the FA Cup Final, but once again heavy fixture congestion meant that Leeds had to play three crucial games within the space of one week; an away match against Chelsea in the league three days before the FA cup final and they had to play their final league game less than two days after the final, which was away to Wolves", ". Leeds only had to draw this game to win the title, but they were beaten. The league went to Derby County, again by 1 point. Eric Todd of the Guardian wrote on the situation in the week prior to these games: \"If Leeds fail to win either the Cup or the League title they need not blame loss of form. They must blame the system", ". They must blame the system. And if Leeds cannot field a full strength side against Arsenal at Wembley, the crowd can blame the Football League and Chelsea who have decided that their jaunt to the West Indies, or wherever it is, is more important than trying to help Leeds prepare properly for crucial football matches.\" In later years controversy surrounding the Wolves game would develop into a match-fixing scandal, with accusations directed towards Leeds United captain Billy Bremner", ". However Bremner would clear his name of these allegations in court, with evidence given for Bremner by Wolves's captain and forward Derek Dougan, who scored the winning goal in the match at Molineux.", "Leeds finished 3rd in the league during the 1972–73 season, never sustaining a convincing title challenge, but they again mounted impressive cup runs domestically and in Europe reaching two finals. However, in space of two dramatic weeks, Leeds would be the victims of one of the biggest giant killings in football history and losers of one of the most controversial European finals", ". In the 1973 FA Cup Final, a full strength Leeds side was beaten 1–0 by second division Sunderland, and two weeks later a weakened Leeds United side were beaten 1–0 by A.C. Milan in the bad tempered 1973 European Cup Winners' Cup Final. Leeds went into the game missing Bremner, Giles, and Clarke, and also under a cloud of press speculation surrounding Revie, who had been strongly linked with the Everton managers post", ". This speculation and Revie's revelation one hour before the match, that he had decided to accept the job, created a despressed atmosphere inside the Leeds dressing room, but the remaining players determined they were going to win the trophy as a tribute to their seemingly departing manager", ". AC Milan opened the scoring in the first few minutes and the rest of the match would be dominated by dubious refereeing decisions; numerous fouls against Leeds were ignored by the referee Christos Michas and the aggravation eventually boiled over in the closing stages, with Norman Hunter being sent off for retaliation as Leeds pushed for an equaliser. Leeds also had two penalty appeals – a handball and a trip on forward Mick Jones inside the Milan penalty area – ignored by the referee", ". The match ended with missiles being thrown at the Milan players and the match officials by a Greek crowd who had begun the match as neutral observers, but had ended it sympathising with the Leeds players, who gave a lap of honour around the stadium to rapturous applause. The referee Christos Michas was subsequently banned from refereeing for life by UEFA; however despite appeals from Leeds United no replay was awarded by UEFA and AC Milan were never penalised.", "The shock of losing to Sunderland and the manner of defeat in Greece caused Revie to turn down the Everton managers job, and inspired his team to attempt to go through the following league season unbeaten. In Revie's final season in charge, Leeds won the 1973–74 title going 29 matches unbeaten, eventually losing away to Stoke. This was still a record unbeaten start to a league campaign in the 20th century, and not bettered until Arsenal's 2003–04 campaign", ". In total Leeds lost just 4 league games and remained in first place for almost the entire campaign. At the end of the season Don Revie left to become England national manager.", "In his thirteen years in charge, Revie guided Leeds to two Football League First Division titles, one FA Cup, one League Cup, two Inter-Cities Fairs Cups, one Football League Second Division title and one Charity Shield. He also guided them to three more FA Cup Finals, two more FA Cup Semi-finals, one more Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Final and one Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Semi-final, one European Cup Winners' Cup Final and one European Cup Semi-final", ". The team also finished second in the Football League First Division five times, third once and fourth twice.", "Leeds' reputation was built on strong organisation, professionalism, physical robustness (at a time when football was more physical than it is today), as well as free flowing attacking wing play and patient, possession based football. The team was built around a core of technically adept, intelligent and versatile players, who were willing to play in multiple positions and indeed could interchange positions and roles around the pitch", ". Most of Revie's team went on to become internationals; in 1970 the squad contained 17 full internationals. This was at a time when squads never had more than 20 players, when players from outside the British Isles were rare in English football, and international players correspondingly more rare", ". Two of Revie's players would feature in England's 1966 World Cup winning squad, with Jack Charlton playing a pivotal role at the heart of defence, a further four Leeds players would feature in England's 1970 World Cup squad (two more missed out through injury and fatigue), and five Leeds players featured in Scotland's 1974 World Cup squad. In the early 1970s the Leeds team could boast the captain of Ireland, John Giles, the captain of Scotland, Billy Bremner and the captain of Wales, Terry Yorath", ". Leeds would also loan their first team coach Les Cocker to the England national team throughout this period; as one of the first holders of an FA certificate in coaching, he would combine his responsibilities to Leeds with that of the national team and play a pivotal role to the success of England in the 1966 world cup as team trainer.", "In a survey of leading football writers, historians and academics by Total Sport magazine, Revie's Leeds United were voted as one of the fifty greatest football teams of all time. In a 1973 episode of the Big Match, Manchester City manager Malcolm Allison rated Leeds as the greatest British club side of all time, stating; \"they play the best football I've seen from any English side ever and probably comparable to some of the great teams that I have seen like Hungary\".", "1974 Brian Clough: 44 days of turmoil\n\n Runners Up: Charity Shield (1974–75)", "Don Revie had recommended Johnny Giles as his replacement; however, the Leeds board instead appointed one of England's most successful and outspoken managers, Brian Clough, who had guided Derby County to the league championship in 1972. However, Clough arrived without his key assistant Peter Taylor, who was supposed to be part of the deal agreed by Leeds chairman Manny Cussins, but instead decided to remain at Brighton", ". Clough was an outspoken critic of Revie and his team; in addition, his management style was in complete contrast to Revie's close relationship with his players and his methodical attention to detail.", "At Clough's first team talk, he reportedly told the Leeds players to throw their medals away, as they had won them by cheating. He also antagonised several senior players, including captain Billy Bremner and Norman Hunter, and reportedly told the injury-prone Eddie Gray that if he had been a horse, he would have been shot years ago", ". Clough purchased players who he felt could turn the dressing room such as John O'Hare and John McGovern from Derby County, and thrust them into the team ahead of the established players who were lukewarm to his appointment. Clough's first match in charge was the 1974 FA Charity Shield against Liverpool at Wembley Stadium; Leeds lost on penalties after a 1–1 draw, but the match is best remembered for Bremner and Kevin Keegan being sent off for fighting. The FA imposed an 11 match ban on Bremner", ". The FA imposed an 11 match ban on Bremner. Deprived of his captain, Clough's tenure was further hampered by injuries to numerous first team players. Leeds' start to the league campaign was poor, with just one victory and two draws from his first six games, leaving the club 19th in the First Division.", "Unnerved by the poor results, the directors called an extraordinary meeting to gauge the players' feelings about the new manager and his methods. Some players, such as Allan Clarke and Johnny Giles, recognised the need to rebuild Revie's ageing side, and thought Clough should be given more time. Others – notably Paul Madeley – felt differently, and said so during the meeting. Shortly after, an emergency board meeting was held, and in September 1974 Clough was sacked after only 44 days in charge", ". Clough went on to greater things with Nottingham Forest; of his signings for Leeds, only Duncan McKenzie flourished at the club.", "1974–78 Jimmy Armfield: rebuilding Revie's team\n Runners Up: European Cup (1974–75)\n\n Semi-Finalists: FA Cup (1976–77), League Cup (1977–78)", "Clough was replaced in October 1974 by former England captain Jimmy Armfield, who stabilised the club – Leeds finished 9th in the league – and Revie's old team made one last swansong in the European Cup, reaching the final of the competition after defeating Spanish champions Barcelona over two legs, a team captained by Johan Cruyff. However Leeds would lose another European final in controversial circumstances, going down 2–0 to defending European champions Bayern Munich", ". Leeds had dominated the match with Bayern taking the defensive from the outset; in the 60th minute Peter Lorimer had a seemingly decisive goal disallowed due to a dubious offside decision given against captain Billy Bremner. This came after both the linesman and referee had initially signalled a goal", ". This came after both the linesman and referee had initially signalled a goal. The referee Michel Kitabdjian also turned down two Leeds claims for penalties, firstly when Franz Beckenbauer handled the ball inside the penalty area, and then when the Bayern Munich captain tripped Allan Clarke in the box after going through on goal", ". In response to these decisions, frustrated Leeds fans ripped out seats at the Parc des Princes stadium and rioted, which resulted in Leeds receiving a three-year ban from European football. Kitabdjian never officiated in Europe again.", "Assisted by Don Howe, Armfield was responsible for rebuilding Don Revie's ageing but formidable side, a task which he achieved with some success. He retained a core set of players – Paul Madeley, Eddie Gray, Trevor Cherry, Frank Gray, Terry Yorath, Gordon McQueen and Joe Jordan – and complemented them with shrewd purchases such as Tony Currie, Arthur Graham and Brian Flynn", ". In the four years under Armfield, Leeds played in a European Cup Final, qualified for the UEFA cup, reached FA and League Cup semi-finals, and never finished outside of the top ten. However, the board was impatient for greater success and in July 1978 the board dismissed him, replacing him with Celtic manager Jock Stein.", "1978–82 Stein, Adamson and Clarke: decline and relegation\n Semi-finalists: League Cup (1978–79)", "Stein remained as Leeds manager for just 44 days before taking up an invitation to manage the Scottish national team. In October 1978 the board turned to Jimmy Adamson, a long-time manager at Burnley, who took Leeds back into Europe and reached a League Cup semi-final in his first season in charge", ". However, some wretched sales in the transfer market – notably Tony Currie and Frank Gray – caused a rapid decline in Leeds' fortunes, with the team winning just four of their first seventeen league games during the 1979–80 season. With the fans calling for him to be dismissed, Adamson resigned in September 1980.", "Adamson was replaced by former Leeds and England star Allan Clarke. Clarke shored up the defence, ensuring that Leeds survived the 1980–81 season, but in the first game of the 1981–82 season Leeds lost 5–1 to Swansea City, and the team never seemed to recover. The previously watertight defence started to ship goals, and the team seemed unable to score", ". The previously watertight defence started to ship goals, and the team seemed unable to score. Clarke broke the club's transfer record when he purchased Peter Barnes for an initial £750,000, but his impact was slight – between 12 December 1981 and 6 April 1982, the team scored just five goals in fourteen league games. Clarke was unable to find a reliable striker until Frank Worthington was recruited in March 1982", ". Clarke was unable to find a reliable striker until Frank Worthington was recruited in March 1982. Leeds were relegated at the end of the 1981–82 season; Clarke was sacked and replaced by former teammate Eddie Gray.", "It was during this time that Leeds United fans gained an unwanted reputation across the country which tarnished the club's names. Incidents of football hooliganism were rife, and there were regular instances of British National Front members and supporters peddling their literature to spectators on their way and in and out of the stadium.\n\n1982–88 Gray and Bremner: seeking promotion\n Runners-up: Second Division play-off final (1986–87)\n\n Semi-Finalists: FA Cup (1986–87)", "Clarke's spending had left Leeds in a precarious financial situation, and Gray was forced to concentrate on youth development to rebuild the team. Gray had no money to spend on team building, and those players he developed were often sold off as well. Young players to emerge during this period included Neil Aspin, Denis Irwin, John Sheridan, Scott Sellars and Bob Taylor – who all enjoyed considerable success at other clubs after leaving Leeds", ". The 1984–85 season saw Leeds take the promotion battle to the final game, but lost 1–0 away to Birmingham City. However, that game will be remembered for all the wrong reasons by both clubs due to a high-profile hooliganism incident at St Andrew's stadium. Leeds fans rioted at the game, causing a wall to collapse and crushing a 15-year-old boy to death", ". Leeds fans rioted at the game, causing a wall to collapse and crushing a 15-year-old boy to death. 96 policemen were injured, hundreds of thousands of pounds worth of damage was caused by vandalism and graffiti, and the collapsed wall also crushed several parked motor vehicles beyond repair.", "However, Leeds started the 1985–86 badly and relegation to the Third Division became a real possibility, causing Gray to be sacked in favour of another Revie teammate, former Leeds and Scotland captain Billy Bremner. Bremner carried on where Gray had left off, but found it just as difficult to achieve promotion, though he did bring the club close to success", ". Under Bremner, the club were defeated 2–1 in the 1987 play-off final, after extra time, against Charlton Athletic and, in the same year, were beaten 3–2 (after extra-time) in the FA Cup semi-final, losing to eventual winners Coventry City. In October 1988, with the team standing at 21st position in the Second Division, Bremner was fired to make way for Howard Wilkinson.", "1988–96 Howard Wilkinson: re-emergence\n\n Honours Won: First Division Championship (1991–92), Second Division Championship (1989–90), Charity Shield (1992–93)\n\n Runners Up: Football League Cup (1995–96)", "Runners Up: Football League Cup (1995–96)\n\nWilkinson set about building a team capable of promotion. Key acquisitions included Gordon Strachan, Vinnie Jones, Mel Sterland, Lee Chapman and Chris Fairclough. He also began to bring players through from the youth team, including David Batty (actually a product of the Bremner era) and Gary Speed. In the 1989–90 season Leeds finally won promotion back to the First Division after an absence of eight years. Leeds were promoted as Second Division Champions.", "Wilkinson continued to rebuild the team, and among his 1990 signings were the club's first million-pound signings - goalkeeper John Lukic and midfielder Gary McAllister. The club finished the 1990–91 season in fourth place in the First Division, also reaching the semifinals of the League Cup, and the board continued to make money available to Wilkinson, allowing the signings of Tony Dorigo, Steve Hodge and Rod Wallace in 1991.", "The following season saw Leeds pip Manchester United to the First Division championship, the last before it was rebranded as the Premier League. In January 1992, Wilkinson brought one of the club's first foreign signings to Elland Road - French striker Eric Cantona. By this stage, Leeds were competing with Manchester United in what was effectively a two-horse race for the league title", ". The title was secured in the penultimate game of the season, when Leeds defeated Sheffield United 3–2 and Manchester United lost to Liverpool. Wilkinson's side boasted arguably the finest midfield in the League in the form of Strachan, Batty, McAllister and Speed.", "The 1992–93 season started promisingly, with Leeds beating Liverpool 4–3 in the Charity Shield. Wilkinson had set his sights on winning the UEFA Champions League but progress was halted by Rangers, who beat Leeds in both legs of a clash labelled the \"Battle of Britain\". Controversially, Eric Cantona was sold to rivals Manchester United for £1", ". Controversially, Eric Cantona was sold to rivals Manchester United for £1.2 million in November 1992, having already being dropped from the time despite being the top scorer, and Leeds seemed incapable of any consistency – the team failed to win an away game all season, becoming the only defending League champions ever to achieve this dubious record. Leeds eventually finished 17th in the League – three places above relegation.", "The following 1993–94 season saw a much improved and reshaped Leeds side finish 5th in League. The subsequent 1994–95 season again saw Leeds finish 5th, this time qualifying for the UEFA Cup. The previously erratic defence was shored up by Lucas Radebe, who proved to be an astute purchase, as did striker Tony Yeboah. Unfortunately Wilkinson also made a number of suspect signings, notably Carlton Palmer for £2.6million and later Tomas Brolin for £4.5million", ".6million and later Tomas Brolin for £4.5million. Brolin had arrived at Elland Road in October 1995 as one of the most highly rated forwards in Europe, but his form for Leeds was disappointing and he made his last appearance for the club barely six months later, although he lingered on the payroll for nearly two years afterwards before finally leaving on a free transfer.", "Wilkinson's mid 1990s team failed to live up to expectations, and the 1995–96 season saw Leeds finish in 13th position. Leeds did reach the League Cup final, but were beaten 3–0 by Aston Villa in a disappointing performance.", "Despite the arrival of Nigel Martyn and Lee Bowyer, Leeds made a slow start to the 1996–97 season, and after a 4–0 home defeat by Manchester United, Wilkinson had his contract terminated. Under Wilkinson Leeds won the First Division Championship, the Second Division Championship, the Charity Shield and reached the League Cup Final. Howard Wilkinson remains the second most successful manager of the club behind Don Revie, and the only other manager to guide the club to a major trophy.", "1996–98 George Graham: Rejuvenation", "Leeds controversially appointed George Graham as Howard Wilkinson's successor; Graham had recently finished a 12-month ban from football for accepting illegal payments at his former club Arsenal. When Graham arrived, he stepped into a club where the players' morale was low; he started work immediately by sorting out the team's defence and Leeds became \"bore draw\" specialists, finishing the 1996–97 season in 11th place", ". He made some astute purchases, notably Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink and Bruno Ribeiro, and also introduced Australian youngster Harry Kewell from the youth team. Under Graham, Leeds finished the 1997–98 season in 5th place, qualifying for the following season's UEFA Cup. However, within a few weeks of the 1998–99 season, Graham left Leeds to manage Tottenham Hotspur.", "1998–2002 David O'Leary: living the dream\n Semi-Finalists: UEFA Cup (1999–2000), UEFA Champions League (2000–01)\n\nThe Leeds board wanted Martin O'Neill to take the job; however pressure from Leicester City fans meant O'Neill stayed on as their manager. Leeds opted for David O'Leary, George Graham's assistant manager.", "O'Leary introduced promising youngsters like Jonathan Woodgate, Alan Smith and Stephen McPhail to complement the likes of Harry Kewell and Ian Harte, who were already established in the first team. Leeds finished the 1998–99 season in 4th place, qualifying for the UEFA Cup once again.\n\nThe following 1999–2000 season saw a superb run in the UEFA Cup complemented by good form in the league, with Leeds finishing 3rd place and qualifying for the UEFA Champions League.", "Unfortunately, Leeds' image was tarnished by an incident in January 2000 involving Jonathan Woodgate and Lee Bowyer, which left an Asian student in hospital with severe injuries. The trial of Bowyer and Woodgate took nearly two years to resolve before the start-stop court case came to a close (a prejudicial Sunday Mirror article in 2001 caused the original trial to collapse and a re-trial was scheduled several months later)", ". Bowyer was cleared, and Woodgate convicted of affray and sentenced to community service. Bowyer played some of the finest football of his career during the trial and would often drive straight from court to play for Leeds; however, Woodgate's form deteriorated, and he had to sit out games due to pressure.", "In the UEFA Cup Leeds reached their first European semi-final in 25 years, and were paired against Turkish champions Galatasaray. The first leg of the semifinal was played in Istanbul, with Leeds losing the game 2–0. However, the result was overshadowed by the death of two Leeds United fans, Christopher Loftus and Kevin Speight, who were stabbed to death in rioting the night before the game. Leeds were only able to draw the return leg at Elland Road and went out of the competition", ". Leeds were only able to draw the return leg at Elland Road and went out of the competition. A minute's silence is held every year at the match closest to the anniversary of the incident to remember Christopher Loftus and Kevin Speight.", "The 2000–01 season saw Leeds enjoy a spectacular run in the Champions League, playing the likes of Barcelona, Real Madrid, Lazio and A.C. Milan. They eventually lost in the semifinals to València. Leeds could only finish in 4th place in the league, narrowly missing on qualification for the Champions League.", "The 2001–02 season saw continued investment; Robbie Fowler and Seth Johnson signed for a combined fee of around £20 million. Leeds began the season brightly, losing just two of their opening 21 matches, and they topped the table on New Year's Day 2002. However, they then failed to win a league match for two months, a run which included a dismal 4–0 home defeat to Liverpool, and were knocked out of the FA Cup by Second Division Cardiff City", ". Leeds ultimately finished 5th, thus missing out on qualification for the UEFA Champions League. O'Leary was sacked at the end of the season; the reasons given were that despite heavy investment in the squad, Leeds had failed to qualify for the Champions League for two consecutive seasons, and there were also reports that O'Leary had lost the confidence of some of the players. In four seasons as manager, O'Leary had guided Leeds to four consecutive top five finishes and two European semi-finals.", "Although the general public were unaware, chairman Peter Ridsdale had taken out large loans against the prospect of gate receipts from Champions League games. As Leeds had failed to qualify for the competition, there was simply not enough money coming in to repay the debt. The first indication that the club was in financial trouble was the sale of Rio Ferdinand to Manchester United for £30 million, a world record for a defender. O'Leary and Ridsdale publicly fell out over the sale.", "2002–04 Venables, Reid and Gray: another decline", "On 8 July 2002, former England and Tottenham coach Terry Venables was unveiled as O'Leary's successor. Martin O'Neill and Steve McClaren had also been linked with the job. Despite Venables being confident of keeping Ferdinand, the England defender was sold to Manchester United in a record £30 million deal. Ferdinand's departure was soon followed by that of striker Robbie Keane, who joined Tottenham for £7 million on transfer deadline day in August", ". Bowyer was also set to leave, but a proposed £9 million move to Liverpool fell through at the last moment. The only new arrivals in the summer were Nicky Barmby, a £2.5 million signing from Liverpool, and Paul Okon, a free transfer from Watford. Things began promisingly under Venables; Leeds won four of their opening six Premier League games, including a 1–0 win over old rivals Manchester United, and they briefly topped the table", ". Thereafter, however, results were poor and the team drifted into mid-table, at one point as low as 16th.", "Reports of the club's precarious financial position continued to circulate, and in the January 2003 transfer window, more key players departed: Robbie Fowler, Olivier Dacourt, Lee Bowyer and Jonathan Woodgate were sold to repay the debt, and to reduce an unsustainable wage bill. The sale of Woodgate particularly upset Venables, who had been promised by Ridsdale that the player would not be sold", ". Tensions mounted between the pair, eventually resulting in the sacking of Venables, who was replaced by Peter Reid. By now Leeds were in danger of relegation, but Reid saved Leeds from the drop with a 3–2 win away to Arsenal in the penultimate game of the season – a result which won the title for rivals Manchester United.", "In the meantime, Peter Ridsdale resigned from the Leeds board and was replaced by Professor John McKenzie, who had to try to turn around a club with debts in excess of £100 million. Leeds reported a British record loss of £49.5 million in October 2003, which on-top of their already existing £78 million debt set the club's total debt at £127.5 million.", "During summer 2003 Harry Kewell – who was nearing the end of his contract – joined Liverpool for £5 million; controversially, Leeds received just £3 million for the player, while £2 million went to Kewell's manager Bernie Mandic.\n\nAn unsuccessful start to the 2003–04 season saw Leeds collect just 8 points from the club's first 12 Premiership fixtures, and after a 6–1 defeat at Portsmouth Reid was dismissed. Former manager Eddie Gray was appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season.", "Gray continued the trend of recent years in rebuilding with young players, including James Milner and Aaron Lennon. A period of serious financial difficulty resulted in takeover offers, including a £60 million bid by Ugandan property tycoon Michael Ezra, but the team was eventually sold in early 2004 to a consortium led by new chairman Gerald Krasner. The team continued to struggle on the field, and Leeds were relegated to the Championship at the end of the 2003–04 season", ". Following confirmation of the club's relegation, Gray's reign as caretaker manager was terminated. His former assistant, Kevin Blackwell, was appointed caretaker manager for the final match of the season, and afterwards as permanent manager.", "At the end of the season, other members of the team – Paul Robinson, Dominic Matteo, Mark Viduka and Alan Smith – were transferred, and even Milner, whom Leeds had been intent on keeping, had to be sold. In their place Leeds began signing players prepared to accept lower wages. The club were eventually forced to sell both their training ground, for £4.2m, and their Elland Road stadium in autumn 2004.", "2004–07 Blackwell and Wise: play-off final heartbreak and relegation to League One\n Runners-up: Championship play-off final (2005—06)\n\nOn 21 January 2005, Krasner announced the sale of a 50% stake to Ken Bates for £10m and Bates became the club's new chairman, replacing Krasner. This investment effectively saved Leeds United from going into administration. Bates had previously headed three other league football clubs, most famously Leeds' old rivals Chelsea.", "Blackwell was forced to sell most of the remaining players, including Aaron Lennon; somehow he managed to build a team using loan players and experienced professionals nearing the end of their careers. Despite a promising opening day win against Derby County, Leeds's form at the start of the 2004–05 Coca-Cola Championship was little better than in the previous season, and they spent the first half of the campaign looking in serious danger of a second successive relegation", ". Their form gradually picked up after the club was taken over by Bates and Leeds finished in a relatively safe 14th place.", "With new players brought in over the summer, the club's goal during the 2005–06 season was promotion. Blackwell's shrewd tactics away from Elland Road and attacking style at home proved highly effective, and by the end of February he had guided Leeds to 3rd place in the Championship. However, from that point onwards Leeds slumped, gaining just 4 points from a possible 18, and eventually had to settle for a play-off place", ". In the first round of the playoffs against Preston North End, Leeds drew 1–1 at Elland Road, but then won the return leg 2–0 to advance to the Play-off final. The playoff final was played on 21 May 2006 at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, though in a dismal performance, Leeds crashed to a 3–0 final defeat to Watford", ". While some fans predicted that Leeds would go one better and finally return to the Premier League the following year, others were concerned by the fact that with the exception of the bottom four teams, Leeds's form going into the play-offs was the worst of any team in the Championship, their only two wins in the final months of the campaign being the play-off victory against Preston and a narrow 1–0 victory against relegated Crewe Alexandra.", "On 10 September 2006, Kevin Blackwell announced that within a year the club would be debt free. Just over 2 years before, Leeds United had been £121 million in debt.", "On 20 September 2006, after a poor start to the season, Kevin Blackwell's contract was terminated. John Carver was appointed as caretaker manager, but after winning his first match against Birmingham City, the club went on a run of five straight defeats with 17 goals conceded before Carver was dismissed after just three weeks in charge that saw Leeds crash to the foot of the Championship table. From this point, despite occasional improvements in form, Leeds would never escape the relegation zone", ". David Geddis took over the responsibilities for the League Cup match against Southend United. Dennis Wise eventually took charge on 25 October 2006. It was announced on 20 November 2006 that Kevin Blackwell was suing the club for wrongful dismissal after it was confirmed he was sacked for gross misconduct, on the grounds of \"negative comments made in the press about the club's finances\".", "Wise started by improving the fitness of the side, and by bringing in a number of loan players, notably Alan Thompson. Unfortunately, he was unable to bring any consistency to the side (not helped by injuries to Thompson and fellow new signing Tore André Flo after playing just 3 and 2 games respectively; Flo did not play again that season), and by May 2007 Leeds were relegated from the Championship after entering voluntary administration.\n\n2007: Administration", "Leeds entered voluntary Administration on 4 May 2007, thus incurring a 10-point deduction which confirmed the club's relegation to League One. Administration had been predicted for some time, due to crippling debts created during Peter Ridsdale's chairmanship. For his part, Ridsdale denied any of the current situation was his fault, only days after having admitted it was a mistake to allow David O'Leary to spend so lavishly on players", ". Ken Bates, however, blamed Leeds financial situation firmly on Ridsdale and his board. KPMG were appointed as administrators and within minutes of entering administration sold the club to Leeds United Football Club Limited, owned by Ken Bates, Shaun Harvey and Mark Taylor. On 1 June 2007 75.20% of the creditors voted in favour of Ken Bates' bid", ". On 1 June 2007 75.20% of the creditors voted in favour of Ken Bates' bid. With just minutes remaining of the 28-day period during which creditors could challenge the buyback by Ken Bates, HM Revenue & Customs lodged a formal challenge, and the club was put up for sale again. After due deliberation, on 11 July 2007 KPMG revealed that once again they had chosen Ken Bates' bid.", "During the weekend of 21 July 2007, Leeds United fans decorated the statue of Billy Bremner outside the Elland Road stadium with flowers, Leeds United shirts and scarves, and notes bearing messages of support for their team, as uncertainty over the future of the club grew amid legal disputes between owners, football authorities, administrators and HMRC", ". Certain sections of the press predicted (or even called for) Leeds's expulsion from the Football League, but this was considered a difficult matter for the League, since there had never been any precedent for expelling a club outside of the bottom division.", "The league eventually sanctioned the sale to Bates without the club going through a CVA under the \"exceptional circumstances rule\", but imposed a 15-point deduction due to Leeds not following football league rules on clubs exiting administration. \nOn 31 August 2007 HMRC decided not to pursue their legal challenge any further, accepting Bates' final offer.\n\n2007–2010, Wise, McAllister and Grayson: the third tier\n Runners-up: League One Play Off Final (2007–08)", "Semi-Finalists: League One Play Off Semi-Final (2008–09)\n\n Promotion From League One (2009–10)", "After waiting most of the summer for the league-imposed transfer embargo to be lifted, Leeds were eventually allowed to sign players on 7 August 2007. They immediately set about re-signing players whose loan or permanent contracts had expired during the summer including the experienced Alan Thompson, Tore André Flo and Casper Ankergren. Some new faces were also brought in such as the previous England under-21 star David Prutton", ". Some new faces were also brought in such as the previous England under-21 star David Prutton. Thompson was awarded the captain's arm-band due to his previous high-level experience. Leeds won their first match in the third tier 2–1 away at Tranmere Rovers with a goal from Tresor Kandol sealing the victory in the 89th minute, and won their next six league games to equal the club's best ever start to a season, last achieved 34 years ago in the 1973–74 season)", ". In recognition of the outstanding start to the season, Wise was named as League One's Manager of the Month for August and September 2007. However, after guiding Leeds to the play-off places despite the 15-point deduction, Wise controversially quit the club to take up a position in Kevin Keegan's new set-up at Newcastle United.", "The following day former club captain Gary McAllister, who had been captain the last time Leeds won the League Championship, was appointed as the club's new manager with Steve Staunton his assistant. After the New Year, Leeds's form began to slump badly, the team going seven games without a win at one stage, and by the end of March the team had fallen to mid-table, and their promotion hopes looked to be in tatters", ". However, an excellent run of seven wins from their last eight games saw them secure fifth place and a play-off spot; without the well-publicised points deduction they would have finished second and earned automatic promotion. The deduction was heavily appealed, but this ultimately failed on 1 May 2008 when an independent arbitration panel ruled that the Football League were right to give Leeds this deduction.", "Victory over Gillingham on the final day of the season saw Leeds finish fifth in the final table and book themselves a play-off semi-final tie with Carlisle United. After losing 2–1 with a poor performance in the first leg at Elland Road, Leeds beat Carlisle 2–0 at Brunton Park to book their first appearance at Wembley in 12 years, and their first ever appearance at the new Wembley Stadium. Leeds lost the Play-off Final 1–0 to Doncaster Rovers.", "Leeds seemed unable to maintain any consistency; they started the 2008/09 season well, but lost momentum and a series of poor performances saw them slip out of the play-off positions. In the cups, Leeds were beaten in Johnston's Paint Trophy by Rotherham, and struggled to the quarterfinals of the League Cup, where they were beaten 2–1 by Derby", ". McAllister was sacked on 21 December following a run of 6 defeats in a row, including an embarrassing defeat to non-league Histon in the FA Cup, and replaced by Blackpool manager Simon Grayson. Blackpool subsequently reported Leeds United to the Football League, claiming that they rejected five approaches from Leeds to talk to Grayson, and that they had not accepted Grayson's resignation.", "Once Grayson established himself, the club began to turn around its performances and following a defeat to Hereford United on 17 February 2009, went unbeaten until 13 April when they were finally defeated by League One Champions Leicester City. Despite this setback, Leeds bounced back five days later to win their 10th home game in succession, a record not matched since the days of Don Revie. The win secured Leeds a place in the League One Play-offs for the second successive season", ". The win secured Leeds a place in the League One Play-offs for the second successive season. Leeds faced Millwall in the Play-off Semi-finals after finishing the League One season in 4th place, but lost 2–1 on aggregate.", "The 2009–10 season saw Leeds finally promoted to the Championship as they finished 2nd in League One with 86 Points. In the League Cup they gave an excellent performance against Premiership opposition Liverpool, narrowly losing 1–0. In the FA Cup Leeds caused a major upset in the 3rd round, beating then Premiership Champions Manchester United 1–0 at Old Trafford. In the 4th round the team claimed a 2–2 draw with Tottenham Hotspur, before losing the replay at Elland Road", ". Leeds also advanced to the Northern Area Final of the Johnstones Paint Trophy; however, after drawing with Carlisle United over two matches, Leeds lost in a penalty shoot-out. The end of the FA Cup run saw a serious dip in form, with the team falling as low as fifth at one point. However, their form improved again as the season drew to a close, leaving Leeds back in second place going into the final match of the season", ". Leeds United beat Bristol Rovers 2–1 in their final league game of the season and clinched promotion back to the Championship after a 3-year exile in League One.", "On 27 November 2008 it was revealed that in their first 14 months of operation under the guidance of Leeds United Football Club Limited the club had made an operating profit of £902,000 before the inclusion of player trading from a turnover of £23,249,000. Once player trading had been included this profit rose to £4.5 million. This was in stark contrast to the financial year to June 2006 from the previous club owners Leeds United Association Football Club Limited, who lost £4", ".5 million and had debts approaching £25 million.", "2010–2014, return to the Championship\nLeeds spent much of the next season in the playoff places, but eventually finished in a respectable 7th place – just missing out on the playoffs. They also finished the season as the best supported club in the entire Football League with an average attendance of 27,299; the attendance figure was also higher than the average attendances of 9 Premier League clubs.", "In May 2011 it was announced that Leeds chairman Ken Bates had bought the club and became the owner of Leeds. Before the match against Middlesbrough, Leeds fans protested at Ken Bates about lack of investment in the playing side, in which Bates responded by calling Leeds fans 'morons'.", "Despite securing promotion to The Championship, Grayson was sacked after failing to mount a consistent challenge for promotion to the Premier League. Neil Warnock was appointed as the club's new manager on 18 February, with his initial contract lasting until the end of the 2012–13 season.", "On 21 November 2012, Middle East-based private equity group GFH Capital finalised a deal for a protracted takeover of Leeds, gaining 100% shareholding in the club. It was also announced Ken Bates would remain as chairman until the end of the 2012–13 season and then become club president. The takeover was officially completed on 21 December 2012.", "2014–2017, the Cellino era", "On 5 April, Cellino was successful in his appeal with independent QC Tim Kerr to take over the club. The takeover was completed on 10 April, with Cellino's company, Eleonora Sport Limited, buying 75% of the club's shares. Two months later, the inexperienced Dave Hockaday was surprisingly appointed head coach, with Junior Lewis hired as his assistant. The decision was met with surprise and anger from Leeds United fans, and after only 70 days, the pair were fired by Cellino", ". Darko Milanič was given the head coach position in September 2014, but left the club the following month. On 1 November 2014, Neil Redfearn was confirmed as the new head coach.", "On 1 December 2014, Cellino was disqualified by the Football League after it obtained documents from an Italian court, where he was found guilty of tax evasion. He was disqualified from running the club until 10 April 2015, and on 24 February 2015, Cellino announced he would not be returning to the club after his ban ended. Redfearn was replaced by Uwe Rosler as head coach in the summer of 2015, but Rosler was himself replaced by Steve Evans after only a few months in the role.", "On 30 October 2015, Cellino agreed a deal in principle with Leeds Fans Utd to sell a majority stake in the club. When asked to legally commit to an exclusivity period to allow due diligence to commence, he reneged.\n\nOn 2 June 2016 Garry Monk was appointed as the new head coach, replacing Steve Evans.\n\nOn 4 January 2017, Italian businessman Andrea Radrizzani purchased a 50% stake in the club from Massimo Cellino.", "At the close of the 2016/17 season, Leeds narrowly missed out on the Championship play-offs. Leeds had been in the play-off positions for the majority of the season before a poor run of form in the final games saw them drop into seventh place. This was compounded by being knocked out in the Fourth Round of the FA Cup by non-league side Sutton United 1–0, who, at the time, were 84 places and 4 divisions below Leeds United.", "2017–2023, the Radrizzani era, return to the Premier League \nHonours won: EFL Championship (2019–20)\n\nSemi-Finalists: Championship Play off Semi-Final (2018–19)", "On 23 May 2017, Radrizzani announced a 100% buyout of Leeds United, buying the remaining 50% shares from previous co-owner Massimo Cellino, with Radrizzani taking full ownership of the club. Garry Monk resigned as head coach two days after the takeover, after one season at the club in which he guided them to seventh place. In June 2017, former Spain international Thomas Christiansen was announced as the new Head Coach of Leeds, joining from APOEL", ". This was followed by Radrizzani introducing Leeds United Ladies back to Leeds United ownership. Also in June, Radrizzani completed the purchase of Elland Road, returning the stadium freehold to the club, who had not owned it since 2004.", "In January 2018, Leeds announced an official partnership with Aspire Academy in Qatar. Aspire own Spanish team Cultural Leonesa who saw Leeds players Yosuke Ideguchi and Ouasim Bouy both join them on loan as part of the partnership. On 4 February 2018, Thomas Christiansen was sacked after a bad run of games (not a single win since Boxing Day 2017 across all competitions) leaving the team 10th in the Championship table", ". On 6 February, Paul Heckingbottom was confirmed as Christiansen's replacement, just four days after signing a new contract at Barnsley.", "On 24 April, it was announced that Leeds United would go on tour in Myanmar in the post-season following the 2017–18 campaign and despite the 2017 Rohingya persecution, which has been described by the UN as ethnic cleansing, two games took place. On 24 May 2018, Leeds announced that 49ers Enterprises had bought shares in the club to become a minority investor. The 49ers Enterprises is the business arm of the NFL side San Francisco 49ers, owned by Denise DeBartolo York, Jed York and John York.", "Heckingbottom was sacked by Leeds on 1 June 2018 after being at the club for just four months. Argentine manager Marcelo Bielsa was named the club's new manager on 15 June, signing a two-year contract with an option of a third year. In doing so he became the highest-paid manager in Leeds United's history.", "The start of Bielsa's reign saw Leeds make an impressive start and after nine games, Leeds were at the top of the Championship. Following a number of injuries and a 2–1 loss to Blackburn Rovers on 20 October, Leeds fell into the play-off places, only to return to the top four days later after a 2–0 win against Ipswich Town", ". A 4–1 defeat at West Bromwich Albion on 10 November sent Leeds back to 3rd place; however, the side spent Christmas at the top of the table after winning the next seven games in a row, the last of those being a 3–2 win at Aston Villa on 23 December, as Leeds recovered from 2–0 down with Kemar Roofe scoring a 95th-minute winner.", "Before a 2–0 victory over Derby County on 11 January 2019, manager Bielsa admitted he had sent a spy to the Derby training ground, after reports emerged in the press that a man was spotted the previous day outside the Derby training ground. Derby manager Frank Lampard was critical of Bielsa's method. On 12 January, Leeds United released a statement in response to the incident. Tottenham Hotspur Manager Mauricio Pochettino described the incident as 'not a big deal' and commonplace in Argentina", ". Manchester City Manager Pep Guardiola, when asked about Bielsa's due to his scouting methods, described him as 'the best' and 'everyone who works with him is a better player and the teams are better. That's why he's a special manager and special person'. On 15 January, the EFL announced they would be investigating the incident", ". On 15 January, the EFL announced they would be investigating the incident. With intense media scrutiny on what was coined 'Spygate' in the media, Bielsa announced a press briefing on 16 January 2019, where he gave a detailed analysis of his research on a PowerPoint presentation to the gathered media and journalists, detailing his meticulousness, thoroughness and preparation over his opponents, with some journalists in attendance describing it as a 'coaching masterclass' and 'genius'", ". Bielsa's 'Spygate' saga was resolved on 18 February, when Leeds were fined a sum of £200,000 by the EFL for breach of a portion of Rule 3.4 of EFL Regulations (\"In all matters and transactions relating to The League each Club shall behave towards each other Club and The League with the utmost good faith.\"), with the EFL also announcing a new rule as a result, that teams could not watch opposition training up to 72 hours before a game", ". It was subsequently revealed, by Bielsa, that he paid the £200,000 fine in full himself.", "After being in the top two with Norwich City for the majority of the season, with four games of the season remaining, Leeds were still sat second in the Championship table, three points clear of third place and on course for automatic promotion to the Premier League", ". However, the team went on to lose three of their remaining four fixtures, including a shock 1–2 defeat against 10 man Wigan Athletic which led to Sheffield United over taking them on goal difference, thus losing out on automatic promotion overall by six points to Sheffield United. This period included a 1–1 home draw to Aston Villa, where a controversial goal scored by Mateusz Klich, after an Aston Villa player was injured, lead to the team allowing Aston Villa to score and equalise in response", ". This result guaranteed a 3rd-placed finish in the league, and ensured participation in the Championship promotion playoffs.", "It was Leeds' first play-off campaign since they regained promotion back to the EFL Championship. Leeds had several key players out injured for the playoff campaign and proceeded to lose 4–3 on aggregate to 6th placed Derby County in the play-off semi finals, having won 1–0 away at Pride Park in the first leg, before losing the return home leg 4–2 including playing with 10 men after a red card to Gaetano Berardi to consign the club to another season in the Championship.", "In the 2019–20 season, Leeds finally ended their 16-year spell without Premier League football. On 17 July, West Brom failed to defeat Huddersfield Town, which guaranteed promotion from the Championship to the Premier League for the Whites.\n\nLeeds won the league, having finished the season ten points clear of second-placed West Bromwich Albion.", "The club’s first season back in the Premier League produced a top half finish, their points tally was the most by a newly promoted side since Ipswich Town two decades earlier. However, the following season was not as successful and following a series of poor results, Bielsa was sacked by the club in February 2022", ". Jesse Marsch was appointed as Bielsa's replacement, and he successfully led the club to avoid relegation on the final day of the season, following a 2–1 win over Brentford at the Brentford Community Stadium. Marsch was sacked by the club in February 2023, following their 1–0 defeat to Nottingham Forest at the City Ground.", "Former Watford manager Javi Gracia was appointed as Marsch's replacement in February 2023. Gracia was sacked in May 2023, having won just three of his twelve games in charge, he was replaced by Sam Allardyce as the club aimed to avoid relegation for the second successive season, but he was unable to prevent relegation as Leeds dropped back into the Championship on the final day of the season.\n\nSee also\n Doing a Leeds\n List of Leeds United F.C. records and statistics\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "References\n\nExternal links\n\n Official website\n Leeds History at leeds-fans.org.uk\n History of the Club at mightyleeds.co.uk\n Leeds United F.C. History at ozwhitelufc.net.au\n A concise Leeds United history at wafll.com\n Leeds United at Football Club History Database\n Leeds United Fans Forum\n\nLeeds United F.C.\nLeeds United" ]

[ "The Lindy Hop is an American dance which was born in the African-American communities of Harlem, New York City, in 1928 and has evolved since then. It was very popular during the swing era of the late 1930s and early 1940s. Lindy is a fusion of many dances that preceded it or were popular during its development but is mainly based on jazz, tap, breakaway, and Charleston. It is frequently described as a jazz dance and is a member of the swing dance family.", "In its development, the Lindy Hop combined elements of both partnered and solo dancing by using the movements and improvisation of African-American dances along with the formal eight-count structure of European partner dances – most clearly illustrated in the Lindy's defining move, the swingout. In this step's open position, each dancer is generally connected hand-to-hand; in its closed position, leads and follows are connected as though in an embrace on one side and holding hands on the other.", "There was renewed interest in the dance in the 1980s from American, Swedish, and British dancers and the Lindy Hop is now represented by dancers and loosely affiliated grass-roots organizations in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania.", "Lindy Hop today is danced as a social dance, as a competitive dance, as a performance dance, and in classes, workshops, and camps. Partners may dance alone or together, with improvisation a central part of social dancing and many performance and competition pieces.", "Lindy Hop is sometimes referred to as a street dance, referring to its improvisational and social nature. In 1932, twelve-year-old Norma Miller did the Lindy Hop outside the Savoy Ballroom with her friends for tips. In 1935, 15,000 people danced on Bradhurst Avenue for the second of a dance series held by the Parks Department. Between 147th and 148th street, Harlem \"threw itself into the Lindy Hop with abandon\" as Sugar Hill residents watched from the bluffs along Edgecombe Avenue.\n\nHistory", "History\n\nFrom jazz to swing (1920s–1940s)", "Name origins", "The first dances named as Lindy Hop were born around the time the aviator Charles Lindbergh made his groundbreaking flight across the Atlantic Ocean in May 1927. The most famous Lindy Hop dance, which is not connected to the other Lindy Hop dances was born in the Harlem dance marathon in 1928 where George Snowden and Mattie Purnell reinvented the breakaway pattern by accident. That started a process in which their invention became bigger than it initially suggested", ". That started a process in which their invention became bigger than it initially suggested. The Harlem dance is the only one of the Lindy Hop dances which survived in the long run.", "The Harlem Lindy Hop developed probably from four possible sources, or some combination thereof: the breakaway, the Charleston, the Texas Tommy, and the hop.", "A recorded source of the non-Harlem-connected Lindy Hop dances is the famed aviator Charles Lindbergh, nicknamed \"Lucky Lindy\", who \"hopped the Atlantic\" in 1927. After Lindbergh's solo non-stop flight from New York to Paris in 1927 he became incredibly popular and many people named songs, recipes and businesses among several other things, after him. Te Roy Williams and His Orchestra recorded the song \"Lindbergh Hop\", written by Ted Nixon and Elmer Snowden, on May 25, 1927", ". The Memphis Jug Band on September 13, 1928 recorded \"Lindberg Hop- Overseas stomp,\" written by Jab Jones and Will Shade.", "The first of the Lindy Hop-named dances was probably the \"Lindbergh Hop\" which was referred to as Lindy \"Hop\" in the headline of an article in Pittsburgh Gazette Times on May 25, 1927, just four days after Lindbergh landed at Le Bourget. The dance was reported to be Broadway's tribute to Lindbergh, and it included six basic steps.", "Later, a \"Lindy Hop\" dance was described by columnist Gilbert Swan. He wrote, \"Obviously the first dance named for the Lindbergh flight was the 'Lindy Hop'...Like all trick dances, they will be done in a few theatres and dance halls, where experts appear, and that will be that\". Later that year, on September 14, the Woodland Daily Democrat reported Catherine B", ". Later that year, on September 14, the Woodland Daily Democrat reported Catherine B. Sullivan describing the \"Lindy Hop\" as having been placed third in the Dancing Masters of America, New Dances competition, behind the Kikajou and the Dixie Step. (The \"Lindy Hop\" was also described in reports as the \"Lindbergh Glide\"). The journalist reports that Miss Johnson showed a very fast little step, with hops and a kick, whilst holding the arms out, like the Spirit of St. Louis", ". Louis. The foot work is described as \"dum-de-dum, dum-de-dum, dum-de-dum\".", "According to Ethel Williams, the Lindy Hop was similar to the dance known as the Texas Tommy in New York in 1913. The basic steps in the Texas Tommy were followed by a breakaway identical to that found in the Lindy. Savoy dancer \"Shorty\" George Snowden told Marshall Stearns in 1959 that \"We used to call the basic step the Hop long before Lindbergh did his hop across the Atlantic. It had been around a long time and some people began to call it the Lindbergh Hop after 1927, although it didn't last", ". Then, during the marathon at Manhattan Casino, I got tired of the same old steps and cut loose with a breakaway...\" According to Snowden, Fox Movietone News covered the marathon and took a close-up of Shorty's feet. As told to Marshall and Jean Stearns, he was asked \"What are you doing with your feet,\" and replied, \"The Lindy\". The date was June 17, 1928.", "Snowden's account to Stearns probably refers to the fact that he used already existing elements of the dance when he and his partner Mattie Purnell had an accident in the dance marathon where they became separated for a while until Snowden got back to Purnell. According to Snowden, the crowd in the dance marathon answered enthusiastically to the accident. As Marshall Stearns put it, Snowden rediscovered the Breakaway pattern when the accident happened", ". As Marshall Stearns put it, Snowden rediscovered the Breakaway pattern when the accident happened. But the accident where Snowden and Purnell devised the basic principle of the Lindy Hop turned out to be much bigger than it initially suggested. Their invention started a process which led the Lindy Hop to contests, theaters and ballrooms by the end of 1928, and to Broadway plays by 1930. Thus, Snowden and Purnell are the creators of the Harlem Lindy Hop.", "The first generation of Lindy Hop is popularly associated with dancers such as \"Shorty\" George Snowden, his partner Big Bea, and Leroy Stretch Jones and Little Bea. \"Shorty\" George and Big Bea regularly won contests at the Savoy Ballroom. Their dancing accentuated the difference in size with Big Bea towering over Shorty. These dancers specialized in so-called floor steps, but they also experimented with early versions of air steps in the Lindy Hop.", "As white people began going to Harlem to watch black dancers, according to Langston Hughes:\n\nHughes's mocking statement reflects how the Harlem Renaissance movement acknowledged the Lindy Hop which the movement considered part of \"low culture\", and thus not an important cultural achievement. According to Snowden, \"When he finally offered to pay us, we went up and had a ball. All we wanted to do was dance anyway.\"", "Aerial Creation \nWhen by 1936 \"Air steps\" or \"aerials\" such as the Hip to Hip, Side Flip, and Over the Back (the names describe the motion of the follow in the air) began to appear, the old guard of dancers such as Leon James, Leroy Jones, and Shorty Snowden disapproved of the new moves.\n\nYounger dancers fresh out of high school (Al Minns, Joe Daniels, Russell Williams, and Pepsi Bethel) worked out the Back Flip, \"Over the head\", and \"the Snatch\".", "Frankie Manning was part of a new generation of Lindy Hoppers, and is the most celebrated Lindy Hopper in history. Al Minns and Pepsi Bethel, Leon James, and Norma Miller are also featured prominently in contemporary histories of Lindy Hop. Some sources credit Manning, working with his partner Freida Washington, for inventing the ground-breaking \"Air Step\" or \"aerial\" in 1935. One source credits Al Minns and Pepsi Bethel as among those who refined the air step", ". One source credits Al Minns and Pepsi Bethel as among those who refined the air step. However, early versions of air steps in the Lindy Hop were performed already from the very beginning of the 1930s. An Air Step is a dance move in which at least one of the partners' two feet leave the ground in a dramatic, acrobatic style. Most importantly, it is done in time with the music", ". Most importantly, it is done in time with the music. Air steps are now widely associated with the characterization of Lindy Hop, despite being generally reserved for competition or performance dancing, and not generally being executed on any social dance floor.", "Mainstream Culture", "Lindy Hop entered mainstream American culture in the 1930s, gaining popularity through multiple sources. Dance troupes, including the Whitey's Lindy Hoppers (also known as the Harlem Congaroos), Hot Chocolates and Big Apple Dancers exhibited the Lindy Hop. Hollywood films, such as Hellzapoppin' and A Day at the Races began featuring the Lindy Hop in dance sequences. Dance studios such as those of Arthur Murray began teaching Lindy Hop", ". Dance studios such as those of Arthur Murray began teaching Lindy Hop. By the early 1940s the dance was known as \"New Yorker\" on the West Coast.", "Jazz-loving youths were enamored with the bands of the time, influenced by radio stations and the film industry showcasing clips. In Nazi Germany, the Swingjugend, young rebels, defied the regime's cultural restrictions by embracing banned swing music. Similarly, in California and other parts of the country, Mexican-Americans, Japanese-heritage individuals, Black, and white youth all adored jazz music and wanted to learn the new dance steps.", "In 1943, Lindy Hop was featured on the cover of Life magazine, becoming America's National Folk Dance and a recruitment tool for the military. Hollywood capitalized on its popularity in films, promoting enlistment for the military and fostering unity and support for the troops.", "In that same year, the Zoot Suit Riots occurred, fueled by racially motivated attacks against Mexican-American and other youths who were jazz enthusiasts wearing zoot suits. These riots, predominantly in Los Angeles, but spread to other parts of the country, highlighted social, cultural, and economic tensions, as well as racial prejudice, and are significant in the history of civil rights and racial relations in the United States.", "In 1944, due to continued involvement in World War II, the United States levied a 30 percent federal excise tax against \"dancing\" nightclubs. Although the tax was later reduced to 20 percent, \"No Dancing Allowed\" signs went up all over the country.\n\nStyles\n\nSavoy-style Lindy Hop \nSavoy-style Lindy Hop is characterized by a high energy, circular, rotating style. This particular style of Lindy Hop was most frequently associated with living dancers from the 1930s, such as Frankie Manning.", "The term \"Savoy-style Lindy Hop\" applies a generic relationship between all African American Lindy Hoppers (and aficionados of their styles) which ignores the variety and diversity of Lindy Hop in the 1930s and 40s. Lindy Hop historians see clear differences between the Lindy Hop of the early years of its development (the late 1920s) and dancers such as \"Shorty\" George Snowden, dancers of the 1930s (such as Manning), and then between individual dancers during these periods.", "Lennart Westerlund, described the differences in styles between Manning and Al Minns, the dancer he worked with in the earliest years of the Lindy Hop revival. Al Minns and Leon James are often considered authoritative figures in the academic discussion of Lindy Hop, in part for their work with Marshall Stearns and Jean Stearns (in their book Jazz Dance and documentary films)", ". Lindy Hop historians also draw clear distinctions between the dancing styles of key female dancers such as Norma Miller and Ann Johnson. The most useful point to be made about this variation within a single community of dancers in one historical moment, is that vernacular African American dance, and Lindy Hop in particular, prioritized individual style and creative improvisation and musical interpretation within a particular dance style.", "Features", "In describing Savoy style Lindy Hop, observers note that the follower is led out of the basic swingout sideways as a default. This is not the case, however, as leading a follow out backwards or forwards is just as likely", ". This is not the case, however, as leading a follow out backwards or forwards is just as likely. Savoy style is also said to be characterized by a pronounced downwards \"bounce\", which is again something of a misnomer, as different dancers employed varying degrees and types of \"bounce\", and observers of Frankie Manning have noted changes in his own dancing style in this respect over the years", ". Despite these comments, it is important to note that the \"bounce\" described is characteristic of many African American vernacular dance forms. One of the clearest distinctions between Hollywood and Smooth style Lindy Hop and Savoy style Lindy Hop is the open \"connection\" and relative freedom of the follower to improvise within the structure of the swingout in particular. Again, this technical difference varies between individual dancers, and between teachers today", ". Again, this technical difference varies between individual dancers, and between teachers today. Historians may also note that Hollywood style, while often characterized by a more intense connection (characterized at its extreme by counter balance), also featured extensive variations and individual improvisation within the swingout in other instances.", "African American identity \nAfrican American and African dances which are present in the Lindy Hop of these dancers in this period.", "These may include:\n clear angles at the ankle – between leg and foot – and often at the wrist and/or elbow\n wide-legged stances for both followers and leaders, particularly in the follower's swivel\n Frankie Manning's characteristically \"athletic\" stance – like a runner spread out in motion, parallel to the ground – echoes African dance", "particular \"variations\" or jazz steps associated with Savoy-style date back to the African communities from which African American slaves were taken (and are discussed in the History of slavery in the United States article), including the move \"the itch\".", "'Hollywood Style' Lindy Hop \nSometimes referred to as Dean Collins style, or alternatively, 'Smooth Style' Lindy Hop, is a dance style named after Dean Collins, a Jewish man who danced at the Savoy Ballroom before 1936 and became a high-profile dancer of this style on the west coast of the United States, appearing in Hollywood films such as Hellzapoppin'.", "Dean Collins style of Lindy Hop is a style of dancing was danced at the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem during the 1930s and 1940s. Unfortunately, we do not have footage of the other white dancers who were part of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, making it difficult to observe their dance style. However, we do have footage of Sonny Allen and George Lloyd showcasing a slot dance style, meaning the follower travels in a straight line instead of the more elliptical or circular Savoy-style Lindy Hop.", "The swingout (the basic step of Lindy) is danced in a position often described as someone about to sit on a stool, thereby bringing their center point of balance closer to the ground. This piked position is the classic look of Hollywood with the back straight and a slight forward tilt. This style originated from Jewel McGown, who was Dean Collins' dance partner and had prior experience as a Balboa dancer before dancing with him.", "Sylvia Sykes and Jonathan Bixby, took private lessons from Dean Collins from 1981 to 1984, and passed on his knowledge. Erik Robison and Sylvia Skylar learned by studying under the original dancers from the 1930s and 1940s, such as Jewel McGowan and Jean Veloz, and watching old Hollywood movies of Dean Collins and his friends in the movies. They were the first to refer to it as 'Hollywood Style'.", "LA-style Lindy Hop \nA popular variation of Hollywood-Style Lindy Hop called LA-style Lindy Hop has a few technical changes in the footwork and fewer steps. The steps are shortened or \"cheated\" to create this look. The style is geared towards performance and is heavily based on short choreographies.", "Groove-style Lindy Hop", "A contemporary variation of Lindy Hop is characterized by slower music, a greater emphasis on improvisation, and a distinctive \"groove\" style. This specific usage of Lindy Hop emerged in the late 90s in San Francisco and Los Angeles as a way to differentiate it from the popular \"Hollywood\" or \"LA Style\" of Lindy Hop. The Hollywood or LA Style was typically performed to faster music and allowed for limited improvisation, primarily adhering to predefined patterns", ". The modern Lindy Hop style broke away from these constraints, providing more freedom for dancers to interpret the music and incorporate their own improvised movements, resulting in a distinct groove-oriented approach.", "As Frankie Manning put it, \"Everyone at the Savoy had their [own] style.\" And there was no specific \"Savoy style\" of Lindy Hopping.", "Post-swing era (1950s–1970s) \nAfter World War II, jazz clubs faced taxes and regulations, leading to smaller bands and a shift towards listening rather than dancing. The rise of rock and roll and bebop in the 1950s diminished jazz's popularity for dancing, causing Lindy Hop to fade out of the public eye and be replaced by Rock and Roll, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing, and other styles.", "From 1949 to 1968, Norma Miller's Jazz Men performed, showcasing their passion for the dance form. Similarly, from 1949 to 1955, Frankie Manning's Congaroo Dancers enchanted audiences with their Lindy Hop skills. After the Savoy Ballroom closed in 1958, Louise \"Mama Lou\" Parks Dancers took the stage and trained to compete in the Harvest Moon Ball. The Black community continued to dance with new and inventive styles to emerge", ". The Black community continued to dance with new and inventive styles to emerge. Additionally, in a 1959 or 1960 episode of Playboy's Penthouse, Al Minns and Leon James showcased jazz dances while Marshall Stearns discussed them with Hugh Hefner.", "Dean Collins and some of his friends were also dedicated dancers, never ceasing their passion for the dance at various venues, including Bobby McGee's, throughout the decades. Skippy Blair contributed to a new dance scene by opening a dance studio in 1958 to train teachers in the art of West Coast Swing. Several published works were also contributed. Arthur Murray's 1954 edition of \"How to Become a Good Dancer\" included instructions for swing dances such as the Lindy Hop", ". East Coast Swing and Lindy Hop were equated in Yerrington and Outland's 1961 publication. The 1962 Ballroom Dancebook for Teachers dedicated a chapter to the Lindy Hop. By 1960, the Lindy Hop had become known as \"swing,\" as stated in the book \"Social Dance\" copyrighted in 1969.", "In film, \"Happy Days\" (1974) showcased fifties rock and roll music, sock hops, the Twist, and even a \"Harvest Moon\" dance contest. In the made-for-television movie \"Queen of the Stardust Ballroom\" (1975), onscreen dancers such as Dean Collins and Skippy Blair were featured. The 1970s in the UK witnessed the emergence of diverse music trends, including a revival of original rock 'n' roll pioneers", ". Additionally, the European Rock'n'Roll Association (ERRA) was founded in 1974 by Italy, France, Germany, and Switzerland to promote rock 'n' roll dancing.", "1980s", "Lindy Hop was revived in the 1980s by dancers in New York City, California, Stockholm, and the United Kingdom. West Coast Swing, ballroom swing, and Rock'n'Roll enthusiasts were on the hunt for old swing dancers, as old videos emerged, showcasing partner dances that had been lost to time. Each group independently searched for original Lindy Hop dancers and, for those who lived outside of New York City, traveled to New York City to work with them", ". Al Minns, Pepsi Bethel, Frankie Manning and Norma Miller came out of retirement and toured the world teaching Lindy Hop, later to be joined by dancers such as George and Sugar Sullivan.", "British revival", "Louise \"Mama Lou\" Parks was a hostess at the Savoy Ballroom who promised Charles Buchanan that she would continue holding the Lindy Hop portion of the Harvest Moon Ball dance competition after the Savoy Ballroom closed in 1958. She helped preserve the dance by teaching the performance and competition aspects to a new generation of dancers, and in doing so, helped a generation from getting in trouble with the law", ". After Parks contacted Wolfgang Steuer of the World Rock 'N' Roll Federation in Germany about sponsoring the winners of her Harvest Moon Ball (competitions that ran from 1927-1984) at their international swing dance competition, she started to become more well known in Europe and caught the attention of the British TV company London Weekend Television. \"In 1981 they paid for one of Mama Lou's events to be re-staged at Small's Paradise Club on 7th Avenue in Harlem.\"", "The program aired in late 1982 on the arts program The South Bank Show and featured Parks, her Traditional Jazz Dance Company, and the Lindy Hop. The TV show sparked so much interest in the dance that Mama Lou Parks and her Traditional Jazz Dance Company toured the UK in 1983 and 1984. Terry Monaghan and Warren Heyes met each other at her workshops in London in 1983. Afterwards, they decided to form the British dance company the Jiving Lindy Hoppers.", "In March 1985, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers (Warren Heyes, Terry Monaghan, Ryan Francois, Claudia Gintersdorfer, and Lesley Owen) travelled to New York City on their first research visit. Their goal was primarily to meet Al Minns but when they arrived, they learned that he was in hospital and not expected to live much longer. (Al Minns died on 24 April 1985.) Through Mama Lou Parks, they met Alfred \"Pepsi\" Bethel and trained with him for two weeks in New York City followed by another week in London", ". While in NY, they also met two former members of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, Frankie Manning and Norma Miller, dance historians Mura Dehn, Sally Sommer, and Ernie Smith, as well as dance enthusiasts that had just formed the New York Swing Dance Society in 1985. During the 1980s, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers were instrumental in spreading Lindy Hop throughout the UK by teaching and performing at shows, festivals and on TV. In January 1984, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers started teaching Lindy Hop in London.", "American revival\n\nNew York \nIn 1981, Al Minns was rediscovered by Sandra Cameron and Larry Schulz during a Louise \"Mama Lou\" Parks event. They invited him to teach at Sandra's dance studio, the Sandra Cameron Dance Center (SCDC). Another instrumental figure was Paul Grecki, who also worked with Al and later with Frankie Manning at the studio. In 1982, Al Minns was convinced to start teaching Lindy Hop at SCDC in New York City.", "Al Minns' early students formed the New York Swing Dance Society, established in 1985.\n\nFrankie Manning continued teaching at the SCDC in 1985, carrying on where Al Minns had left off. As the demand for his dance instruction grew, Frankie Manning started to travel and teach worldwide, sharing his joy of Lindy Hop.", "California", "In 1983-1984, Californian dancers Erin Stevens and Steven Mitchell had taken lessons from Al Minns at SCDC and were actively searching for original Savoy dancers after learning about Frankie Manning through Bob Crease. Stevens discovered three listings for the name Manning in a New York phone book. Calling the first Frankie Manning, she asked, \"Are you Frankie Manning the dancer?\" Initially, he replied, \"No, I'm Frankie Manning the postal worker", ".\" However, after a pause, he added, \"But I used to be a dancer.\" Stevens had indeed found the Manning she was looking for.", "Erin and Steven visited Frankie Manning and convinced him to begin instructing Lindy Hop an experience he cherished as his \"first real teaching experience\". They played a crucial role in spreading Lindy Hop to California and other locations within the US.\n\nSwedish revival", "Swedish revival \n\nIn 1984, three members of The Rhythm Hot Shots from Sweden, namely Lennart Westerlund, Anders Lind, and Henning Sorenson, embarked on a journey to New York. Their purpose was to seek out one of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers and specifically learn from Al Minns. They brought Al Minns to Stockholm in 1984, where he held a dance workshop for the newly created Swedish Swing Society.", "When Al Minns died in 1985, they brought Frankie Manning and other original Savoy Ballroom dancers to Stockholm. The Swedish Swing Society and The Rhythm Hot Shots helped spread Lindy Hop throughout Sweden and the rest of the world, partly through the Herräng Dance Camp held every summer since 1982 in the town of Herräng.", "1990s–2010s", "On Broadway, \"Black and Blue\" (1989) garnered Frankie Manning a Tony Award for his choreography. The Broadway production of \"Swing!\" (1999) showcased Lindy Hoppers, Latin swing dancers, and country swing stars and continues to be performed worldwide. In film, Frankie Manning choreographed a dance sequence for \"Malcolm X\" (1992), while \"Swing Kids\" (1993) portrayed the swing dance movement in Nazi Germany, capturing the essence of swing dancing", ". Notably, Gap aired television commercials titled \"Khakis Swing\" (1999 and 2000) that featured swing dancing.", "Music", "Swing Revival: The 1990s witnessed a significant swing revival, specifically with the popularity of neo-swing. Bands from various genres such as rock, punk, ska, and rockabilly emerged, including the Cherry Poppin' Daddies, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, and Squirrel Nut Zippers, leading the way. This revival successfully reintroduced swing music to the mainstream, capturing the attention of a new generation of listeners and Retro Swing Lindy Hop dancers.", "Retro Swing: Alongside the swing revival, there was a resurgence of interest in retro styles. This led to the popularity of swing music and dance styles such as Lindy Hop being revived in its traditional form, with bands and artists embracing the swing genre and creating new music that captured the essence of classic swing from the 1920s to the 1940s. This style is still alive today.", "Dance Camps, conventions and exchanges", "There are retro swing Lindy Hop communities throughout the world. The concept of a Lindy exchange, a gathering of Lindy Hop dancers in one city for several days to dance with visitors and locals, enables different communities to share their ideas with others. The first Lindy exchange was called \"The Weekend\", and occurred on December 4–6, 1998, in California, between the cities of Chicago, Illinois, and San Francisco, California", ". Many annual Lindy Hop conventions are held across the world, such as Camp Hollywood in Los Angeles, International Lindy Hop Championships on the US east coast, and Rock That Swing Festival in München.", "2010–2020s \nIn the film industry, \"So You Think You Can Dance\" (2005-2010) featured Lindy Hop performances throughout the seasons. Additionally, the documentary \"Alive and Kicking\" (2016), produced by Susan Glatzer, explored the world of swing dancing.", "Music \nElectro swing, also known as swing house gained popularity during this period, blending swing music with electronic beats and production techniques. It combined the vintage sound of swing with modern electronic, house and hip hop dance music. This revival successfully reintroduced swing music to the mainstream through venues such as TikTok, capturing the attention of a new generation of listeners and retro swing Lindy Hop dancers.\n\n2020s", "The Lindy Hop community remains vibrant and active in the present day, with enthusiasts participating in various events worldwide. Lindy Hop camps and competitions bring together dancers of all levels, providing opportunities for learning, connection, and friendly competition. These gatherings foster a sense of camaraderie among dancers who share a passion for the lively and energetic Lindy Hop style", ". Participants engage in workshops, social dances, performances, and showcases, showcasing their skills and celebrating the rich history of swing dancing. The Lindy Hop community continues to preserve and promote this dynamic and joyful dance form for future generations to enjoy.", "Broadway\n\nFilm\n\nCommercials\n\nDocumentaries\n\nMusic\n\nDance Tours \n\n In 2022, Sw!ng Out, a swing dance performance choreographed by Caleb Teicher, started touring in the US.\n\nSee also \nJitterbug\n\nReferences", "Further reading\n Batchelor, Christian, This Thing Called Swing. Christian Batchelor Books, 1997, \n DeFrantz, Thomas. Dancing Many Drums: Excavations in African American Dance. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001.\n Emery, Lynne Fauley. Black Dance in the United States from 1619 to 1970. California: National Press Books, 1972.", "Friedland, LeeEllen. \"Social Commentary in African-American Movement Performance.\" In Brenda Farnell (ed.), Human Action Signs in Cultural Context: The Visible and the Invisible in Movement and Dance. London: Scarecrow Press, 1995. 136 – 57.\n Giordano, Ralph G. Social Dancing in America: A History and Reference, Volume 2, Lindy Hop to Hip Hop, 1901–2000. Greenwood, 2006. \n Gottschild, Brenda Dixon. Digging the Africanist Presence in American Performance. Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1996.", "Hancock, Black Hawk. American Allegory: Lindy Hop and the Racial Imagination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.\n Hazzard-Gordon, Katrina. Jookin': The Rise of Social Dance Formations in African-American Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990.\n Jackson, Jonathan David. \"Improvisation in African-American Vernacular Dancing.\" Dance Research Journal 33.2 (2001/2002): 40 – 53.", "Malone, Jacqui. Steppin' on the Blues: The Visible Rhythms of African American Dance. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996.\n \n Stevens, Erin and Tamara. Swing Dancing. The American Dance Floor Series, Greenwood, 2011, \n Szwed, John F., and Morton Marks. \"The Afro-American Transformation of European Set Dances and Dance Suites.\" Dance Research Journal 20.1 (1988): 29 – 36.", "Spring, Howard. \"Swing and the Lindy Hop: Dance, Venue, Media, and Tradition\". American Music, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Summer 1997), pp. 183–207.\n Thomas, Amy. Infinity Dance: The Move That Never Ends. California: National Press Books, 2006.", "External links\n\n\"Savoystyle Archives of early Lindy Hop\", resource for Lindy Hop history\n\"Lindy Hop Terms\"\n \"Lindy Hop and Retro Lifestyle\"\n\n \nDancesport\nCompetitive dance\nSwing dances\nDance terminology\nArticles containing video clips\nSocial dance\nNovelty and fad dances" ]

[ "Byzantine music (Greek: Βυζαντινή μουσική) originally consisted of the songs and hymns composed for the courtly and religious ceremonial of the Byzantine Empire and continued, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, in the traditions of the sung Byzantine chant of Eastern Orthodox liturgy", ". The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music are the best known forms today, because different Orthodox traditions still identify with the heritage of Byzantine music, when their cantors sing monodic chant out of the traditional chant books such as the Sticherarion, which in fact consisted of five books, and the Irmologion.", "Byzantine music did not disappear after the fall of Constantinople. Its traditions continued under the Patriarch of Constantinople, who after the Ottoman conquest in 1453 was granted administrative responsibilities over all Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. During the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, burgeoning splinter nations in the Balkans declared autonomy or autocephaly from the Patriarchate of Constantinople", ". The new self-declared patriarchates were independent nations defined by their religion.", "In this context, Christian religious chant practiced in the Ottoman Empire, in, among other nations, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece, was based on the historical roots of the art tracing back to the Byzantine Empire, while the music of the Patriarchate created during the Ottoman period was often regarded as \"post-Byzantine\"", ". This explains why Byzantine music refers to several Orthodox Christian chant traditions of the Mediterranean and of the Caucasus practiced in recent history and even today, and this article cannot be limited to the music culture of the Byzantine past.", "The Byzantine chant was added by UNESCO in 2019 to its list of Intangible Cultural Heritage \"as a living art that has existed for more than 2000 years, the Byzantine chant is a significant cultural tradition and comprehensive music system forming part of the common musical traditions that developed in the Byzantine Empire\".\n\nImperial age", "The tradition of eastern liturgical chant, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed even before the establishment of the new Roman capital, Constantinople, in 330 until its fall in 1453. Byzantine music was influenced by Hellenistic music traditions, classic Greek music as well as religious music traditions of Syriac and Hebrew cultures", ". The Byzantine system of octoechos, in which melodies were classified into eight modes, is specifically thought to have been exported from Syria, where it was known in the 6th century, before its legendary creation by Arab monk John of Damascus of the Umayyad Caliphate.", "The term Byzantine music is sometimes associated with the medieval sacred chant of Christian Churches following the Constantinopolitan Rite. There is also an identification of \"Byzantine music\" with \"Eastern Christian liturgical chant\", which is due to certain monastic reforms, such as the Octoechos reform of the Quinisext Council (692) and the later reforms of the Stoudios Monastery under its abbots Sabas and Theodore", ". The triodion created during the reform of Theodore was also soon translated into Slavonic, which required also the adaption of melodic models to the prosody of the language. Later, after the Patriarchate and Court had returned to Constantinople in 1261, the former cathedral rite was not continued, but replaced by a mixed rite, which used the Byzantine Round notation to integrate the former notations of the former chant books (Papadike)", ". This notation had developed within the book sticherarion created by the Stoudios Monastery, but it was used for the books of the cathedral rites written in a period after the fourth crusade, when the cathedral rite was already abandoned at Constantinople. It is being discussed that in the Narthex of the Hagia Sophia an organ was placed for use in secular processions of the Emperor's entourage.", "The earliest sources and the tonal system of Byzantine music", "According to the chant manual \"Hagiopolites\" of 16 church tones (echoi), the author of this treatise introduces a tonal system of 10 echoi. Nevertheless, both schools have in common a set of 4 octaves (, and ), each of them had a (authentic mode) with the finalis on the degree V of the mode, and a (plagal mode) with the final note on the degree I", ". According to Latin theory, the resulting eight tones (octoechos) had been identified with the seven modes (octave species) and tropes (tropoi which meant the transposition of these modes). The names of the tropes like \"Dorian\" etc. had been also used in Greek chant manuals, but the names Lydian and Phrygian for the octaves of and had been sometimes exchanged. The Ancient Greek harmonikai was a Hellenist reception of the Pythagorean education programme defined as mathemata (\"exercises\")", ". Harmonikai was one of them. Today, chanters of the Christian Orthodox churches identify with the heritage of Byzantine music whose earliest composers are remembered by name since the 5th century. Compositions had been related to them, but they must be reconstructed by notated sources which date centuries later", ". The melodic neume notation of Byzantine music developed late since the 10th century, with the exception of an earlier ekphonetic notation, interpunction signs used in lectionaries, but modal signatures for the eight echoi can already be found in fragments (papyri) of monastic hymn books (tropologia) dating back to the 6th century.", "Amid the rise of Christian civilization within Hellenism, many concepts of knowledge and education survived during the imperial age, when Christianity became the official religion. The Pythagorean sect and music as part of the four \"cyclical exercises\" (ἐγκύκλια μαθήματα) that preceded the Latin quadrivium and science today based on mathematics, established mainly among Greeks in southern Italy (at Taranto and Crotone). Greek anachoretes of the early Middle Ages did still follow this education", ". Greek anachoretes of the early Middle Ages did still follow this education. The Calabrian Cassiodorus founded Vivarium where he translated Greek texts (science, theology and the Bible), and John of Damascus who learnt Greek from a Calabrian monk Kosmas, a slave in the household of his privileged father at Damascus, mentioned mathematics as part of the speculative philosophy.", "According to him philosophy was divided into theory (theology, physics, mathematics) and practice (ethics, economy, politics), and the Pythagorean heritage was part of the former, while only the ethic effects of music were relevant in practice. The mathematic science harmonics was usually not mixed with the concrete topics of a chant manual.", "Nevertheless, Byzantine music is modal and entirely dependent on the Ancient Greek concept of harmonics. Its tonal system is based on a synthesis with ancient Greek models, but we have no sources left that explain to us how this synthesis was done. Carolingian cantors could mix the science of harmonics with a discussion of church tones, named after the ethnic names of the octave species and their transposition tropes, because they invented their own octoechos on the basis of the Byzantine one", ". But they made no use of earlier Pythagorean concepts that had been fundamental for Byzantine music, including:", "It is not evident by the sources, when exactly the position of the minor or half tone moved between the and . It seems that the fixed degrees (hestotes) became part of a new concept of the echos as melodic mode (not simply octave species), after the echoi had been called by the ethnic names of the tropes.\n\nInstruments within the Byzantine Empire", "Instruments within the Byzantine Empire \n\nThe 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911); in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the lyra (lūrā) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe).", "The first of these, the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, would come to be called the lira da braccio, in Venice, where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later flourished there. The bowed \"lyra\" is still played in former Byzantine regions, where it is known as the Politiki lyra (lit. \"lyra of the City\" i.e. Constantinople) in Greece, the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy, and the Lijerica in Dalmatia.", "The second instrument, the Hydraulis, originated in the Hellenistic world and was used in the Hippodrome in Constantinople during races. A pipe organ with \"great leaden pipes\" was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music. Despite this, the Byzantines never used pipe organs and kept the flute-sounding Hydraulis until the Fourth Crusade.", "The final Byzantine instrument, the aulos, was a double-reeded woodwind like the modern oboe or Armenian duduk. Other forms include the plagiaulos (πλαγίαυλος, from πλάγιος, plagios \"sideways\"), which resembled the flute, and the askaulos (ἀσκαυλός from ἀσκός askos \"wine-skin\"), a bagpipe. These bagpipes, also known as Dankiyo (from ancient Greek: To angeion (Τὸ ἀγγεῖον) \"the container\"), had been played even in Roman times", ". Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign (possibly Nero) who could play a pipe (tibia, Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit. The bagpipes continued to be played throughout the empire's former realms down to the present. (See Balkan Gaida, Greek Tsampouna, Pontic Tulum, Cretan Askomandoura, Armenian Parkapzuk, Zurna and Romanian Cimpoi.)", "Other commonly used instruments used in Byzantine Music include the Kanonaki, Oud, Laouto, Santouri, Toubeleki, Tambouras, Defi Tambourine, Çifteli (which was known as Tamburica in Byzantine times), Lyre, Kithara, Psaltery, Saz, Floghera, Pithkiavli, Kavali, Seistron, Epigonion (the ancestor of the Santouri), Varviton (the ancestor of the Oud and a variation of the Kithara), Crotala, Bowed Tambouras (similar to Byzantine Lyra), Šargija, Monochord, Sambuca, Rhoptron, Koudounia", ", Bowed Tambouras (similar to Byzantine Lyra), Šargija, Monochord, Sambuca, Rhoptron, Koudounia, perhaps the Lavta and other instruments used before the 4th Crusade that are no longer played today", ". These instruments are unknown at this time.", "In 2021, archaeologists discovered a flute with six holes dated back to the 4th and 5th centuries AD, in the Zerzevan Castle.", "Acclamations at the court and the ceremonial book \nSecular music existed and accompanied every aspect of life in the empire, including dramatic productions, pantomime, ballets, banquets, political and pagan festivals, Olympic games, and all ceremonies of the imperial court. It was, however, regarded with contempt, and was frequently denounced as profane and lascivious by some Church Fathers.", "Another genre that lies between liturgical chant and court ceremonial are the so-called polychronia (πολυχρονία) and acclamations (ἀκτολογία). The acclamations were sung to announce the entrance of the Emperor during representative receptions at the court, into the hippodrome or into the cathedral", ". They can be different from the polychronia, ritual prayers or ektenies for present political rulers and are usually answered by a choir with formulas such as \"Lord protect\" (κύριε σῶσον) or \"Lord have mercy on us/them\" (κύριε ἐλέησον). The documented polychronia in books of the cathedral rite allow a geographical and a chronological classification of the manuscript and they are still used during ektenies of the divine liturgies of national Orthodox ceremonies today", ". The hippodrome was used for a traditional feast called Lupercalia (15 February), and on this occasion the following acclamation was celebrated:", "The main source about court ceremonies is an incomplete compilation in a 10th-century manuscript that organised parts of a treatise Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως (\"On imperial ceremonies\") ascribed to Emperor Constantine VII, but in fact compiled by different authors who contributed with additional ceremonies of their period", ". In its incomplete form chapter 1–37 of book I describe processions and ceremonies on religious festivals (many lesser ones, but especially great feasts such as the Elevation of the Cross, Christmas, Theophany, Palm Sunday, Good Friday, Easter and Ascension Day and feasts of saints including St Demetrius, St Basil etc. often extended over many days), while chapter 38–83 describe secular ceremonies or rites of passage such as coronations, weddings, births, funerals, or the celebration of war triumphs", ". For the celebration of Theophany the protocol begins to mention several stichera and their echoi (ch. 3) and who had to sing them:", "These protocols gave rules for imperial progresses to and from certain churches at Constantinople and the imperial palace, with fixed stations and rules for ritual actions and acclamations from specified participants (the text of acclamations and processional troparia or kontakia, but also heirmoi are mentioned), among them also ministers, senate members, leaders of the \"Blues\" (Venetoi) and the \"Greens\" (Prasinoi)—chariot teams during the hippodrome's horse races", ". They had an important role during court ceremonies. The following chapters (84–95) are taken from a 6th-century manual by Peter the Patrician. They rather describe administrative ceremonies such as the appointment of certain functionaries (ch. 84,85), investitures of certain offices (86), the reception of ambassadors and the proclamation of the Western Emperor (87,88), the reception of Persian ambassadors (89,90), Anagorevseis of certain Emperors (91–96), the appointment of the senate's proedros (97)", ". The \"palace order\" did not only prescribe the way of movements (symbolic or real) including on foot, mounted, by boat, but also the costumes of the celebrants and who has to perform certain acclamations. The emperor often plays the role of Christ and the imperial palace is chosen for religious rituals, so that the ceremonial book brings the sacred and the profane together", ". Book II seems to be less normative and was obviously not compiled from older sources like book I, which often mentioned outdated imperial offices and ceremonies, it rather describes particular ceremonies as they had been celebrated during particular imperial receptions during the Macedonian renaissance.", "The Desert Fathers and urban monasticism \n\nTwo concepts must be understood to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship and they were related to a new form of urban monasticism, which even formed the representative cathedral rites of the imperial ages, which had to baptise many catechumens.", "The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the angelic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the prayer of the angelic choirs. It was partly based on the Hebrew fundament of Christian worship, but in the particular reception of St. Basil of Caesarea's divine liturgy", ". Basil of Caesarea's divine liturgy. John Chrysostom, since 397 Archbishop of Constantinople, abridged the long formula of Basil's divine liturgy for the local cathedral rite.", "The notion of angelic chant is certainly older than the Apocalypse account (Revelation 4:8–11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the Old Testament is brought out clearly by Isaiah (6:1–4) and Ezekiel (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in Exodus 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of Israel was derived from heaven", ". The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early Fathers, such as Clement of Rome, Justin Martyr, Ignatius of Antioch, Athenagoras of Athens, John Chrysostom and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of Nicolas Kavasilas and Symeon of Thessaloniki.", "The second, less permanent, concept was that of koinonia or \"communion\". This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and \"oneness\" that united the clergy and the faithful in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names", ". With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the congregation as a whole. St. Ignatius wrote to the Church in Ephesus in the following way:", "You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through Jesus Christ to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.", "A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses and psalms. The terms choros, koinonia and ekklesia were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In Psalms 149 and 150, the Septuagint translated the Hebrew word machol (dance) by the Greek word choros", ". As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song in heaven and on earth both.", "Concerning the practice of psalm recitation, the recitation by a congregation of educated chanters is already testified by the soloistic recitation of abridged psalms by the end of the 4th century. Later it was called prokeimenon", ". Later it was called prokeimenon. Hence, there was an early practice of simple psalmody, which was used for the recitation of canticles and the psalter, and usually Byzantine psalters have the 15 canticles in an appendix, but the simple psalmody itself was not notated before the 13th century, in dialogue or papadikai treatises preceding the book sticheraria. Later books, like the akolouthiai and some psaltika, also contain the elaborated psalmody, when a protopsaltes recited just one or two psalm verses", ". Between the recited psalms and canticles troparia were recited according to the same more or less elaborated psalmody. This context relates antiphonal chant genres including antiphona (kind of introits), trisagion and its substitutes, prokeimenon, allelouiarion, the later cherubikon and its substitutes, the koinonikon cycles as they were created during the 9th century", ". In most of the cases they were simply troparia and their repetitions or segments were given by the antiphonon, whether it was sung or not, its three sections of the psalmodic recitation were separated by the troparion.", "The recitation of the biblical odes \n\nThe fashion in all cathedral rites of the Mediterranean was a new emphasis on the psalter. In older ceremonies before Christianity became the religion of empires, the recitation of the biblical odes (mainly taken from the Old Testament) was much more important. They did not disappear in certain cathedral rites such as the Milanese and the Constantinopolitan rite.", "Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the Council of Laodicea, whose fifteenth Canon permitted only the canonical psaltai, \"chanters:\", to sing at the services. The word choros came to refer to the special priestly function in the liturgy – just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the sanctuary—and choros eventually became the equivalent of the word kleros (the pulpits of two or even five choirs).", "The nine canticles or odes according to the psalter were:\n\n (1) The Song of the sea (Exodus 15:1–19);\n (2) The Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:1–43);\n (3) – (6) The prayers of Hannah, Habakkuk, Isaiah, Jonah (1 Kings [1 Samuel] 2:1–10; Habakkuk 3:1–19; Isaiah 26:9–20; Jonah 2:3–10);\n (7) – (8) The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children (Apoc. Daniel 3:26–56 and 3:57–88);\n (9) The Magnificat and the Benedictus (Luke 1:46–55 and 68–79).", "and in Constantinople they were combined in pairs against this canonical order:", "Ps. 17 with troparia Ἀλληλούϊα and Μνήσθητί μου, κύριε.\n (1) with troparion Tῷ κυρίῳ αἴσωμεν, ἐνδόξως γὰρ δεδόξασται.\n (2) with troparion Δόξα σοι, ὁ θεός. (Deut. 32:1–14) Φύλαξόν με, κύριε. (Deut. 32:15–21) Δίκαιος εἶ, κύριε, (Deut. 32:22–38) Δόξα σοι, δόξα σοι. (Deut. 32:39–43) Εἰσάκουσόν μου, κύριε. (3)\n (4) & (6) with troparion Οἰκτείρησόν με, κύριε.\n (3) & (9a) with troparion Ἐλέησόν με, κύριε.\n (5) & Mannaseh (apokr. 2 Chr 33) with troparion Ἰλάσθητί μοι, κύριε.\n (7) which has a refrain in itself.", "The troparion \nThe common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is troparion. As a refrain interpolated between psalm verses it had the same function as the antiphon in Western plainchant. The simplest troparion was probably \"allelouia\", and similar to troparia like the trisagion or the cherubikon or the koinonika a lot of troparia became a chant genre of their own.", "A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the 4th century, is the Easter Vespers hymn, Phos Hilaron (\"O Resplendent Light\"). Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the monk Auxentios (first half of the 5th century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service", ". Another, O Monogenes Yios (\"Only Begotten Son\"), ascribed to the emperor Justinian I (527–565), followed the doxology of the second antiphonon at the beginning of the Divine Liturgy.", "Romanos the Melodist, the kontakion, and the Hagia Sophia", "The development of large scale hymnographic forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical sermon, reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. Romanos the Melodist (6th century)", ". Romanos the Melodist (6th century). This dramatic homily which could treat various subjects, theological and hagiographical ones as well as imperial propaganda, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas (oikoi \"houses\") and was sung in a rather simple style with emphasise on the understanding of the recent texts", ". The earliest notated versions in Slavic kondakar's (12th century) and Greek kontakaria-psaltika (13th century), however, are in a more elaborate style (also rubrified idiomela), and were probably sung since the ninth century, when kontakia were reduced to the prooimion (introductory verse) and first oikos (stanza). Romanos' own recitation of all the numerous oikoi must have been much simpler, but the most interesting question of the genre are the different functions that kontakia once had", ". Romanos' original melodies were not delivered by notated sources dating back to the 6th century, the earliest notated source is the Tipografsky Ustav written about 1100. Its gestic notation was different from Middle Byzantine notation used in Italian and Athonite Kontakaria of the 13th century, where the gestic signs (cheironomiai) became integrated as \"great signs\"", ". During the period of psaltic art (14th and 15th centuries), the interest of kalophonic elaboration was focussed on one particular kontakion which was still celebrated: the Akathist hymn. An exception was John Kladas who contributed also with kalophonic settings of other kontakia of the repertoire.", "Some of them had a clear liturgical assignation, others not, so that they can only be understood from the background of the later book of ceremonies. Some of Romanos creations can be even regarded as political propaganda in connection with the new and very fast reconstruction of the famous Hagia Sophia by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. A quarter of Constantinople had been burnt down during a civil war", ". A quarter of Constantinople had been burnt down during a civil war. Justinian had ordered a massacre at the hippodrome, because his imperial antagonists who were affiliated to the former dynasty, had been organised as a chariot team. Thus, he had place for the creation of a huge park with a new cathedral in it, which was larger than any church built before as Hagia Sophia. He needed a kind of mass propaganda to justify the imperial violence against the public", ". He needed a kind of mass propaganda to justify the imperial violence against the public. In the kontakion \"On earthquakes and conflagration\" (H. 54), Romanos interpreted the Nika riot as a divine punishment, which followed in 532 earlier ones including earthquakes (526–529) and a famine (530):", "According to Johannes Koder the kontakion was celebrated the first time during Lenten period in 537, about ten months before the official inauguration of the new built Hagia Sophia on 27 December.\n\nChanges in architecture and liturgy, and the introduction of the cherubikon", "During the second half of the sixth century, there was a change in Byzantine sacred architecture, because the altar used for the preparation of the eucharist had been removed from the bema. It was placed in a separated room called \"prothesis\" (πρόθεσις). The separation of the prothesis where the bread was consecrated during a separated service called proskomide, required a procession of the gifts at the beginning of the second eucharist part of the divine liturgy", ". The troparion \"Οἱ τὰ χερουβεὶμ\", which was sung during the procession, was often ascribed to Emperor Justin II, but the changes in sacred architecture were definitely traced back to his time by archaeologists. Concerning the Hagia Sophia, which was constructed earlier, the procession was obviously within the church. It seems that the cherubikon was a prototype of the Western chant genre offertory.", "With this change came also the dramaturgy of the three doors in a choir screen before the bema (sanctuary). They were closed and opened during the ceremony. Outside Constantinople these choir or icon screens of marble were later replaced by iconostaseis. Antonin, a Russian monk and pilgrim of Novgorod, described the procession of choirs during Orthros and the divine liturgy, when he visited Constantinople in December 1200:", "When they sing Lauds at Hagia Sophia, they sing first in the narthex before the royal doors; then they enter to sing in the middle of the church; then the gates of Paradise are opened and they sing a third time before the altar", ". On Sundays and feastdays the Patriarch assists at Lauds and at the Liturgy; at this time he blesses the singers from gallery, and ceasing to sing, they proclaim the polychronia; then they begin to sing again as harmoniously and as sweetly as the angels, and they sing in this fashion until the Liturgy", ". After Lauds they put off their vestments and go out to receive the blessing of the Patriarch; then the preliminary lessons are read in the ambo; when these are over the Liturgy begins, and at the end of the service the chief priest recites the so-called prayer of the ambo within the sanctuary while the second priest recites in the church, beyond the ambo; when they have finished the prayer, both bless the people. Vespers are said in the same fashion, beginning at an early hour.", "Monastic reforms in Constantinople and Jerusalem", "By the end of the seventh century with the reform of 692, the kontakion, Romanos' genre was overshadowed by a certain monastic type of homiletic hymn, the canon and its prominent role it played within the cathedral rite of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem", ". Essentially, the canon, as it is known since 8th century, is a hymnodic complex composed of nine odes that were originally related, at least in content, to the nine Biblical canticles and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation (see the section about the biblical odes)", ". Out of the custom of canticle recitation, monastic reformers at Constantinople, Jerusalem and Mount Sinai developed a new homiletic genre whose verses in the complex ode meter were composed over a melodic model: the heirmos.", "During the 7th century kanons at the Patriarchate of Jerusalem still consisted of the two or three odes throughout the year cycle, and often combined different echoi. The form common today of nine or eight odes was introduced by composers within the school of Andrew of Crete at Mar Saba. The nine odes of the kanon were dissimilar by their metrum", ". The nine odes of the kanon were dissimilar by their metrum. Consequently, an entire heirmos comprises nine independent melodies (eight, because the second ode was often omitted outside Lenten period), which are united musically by the same echos and its melos, and sometimes even textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion—especially in acrosticha (ἀκρόστιχα) composed over a given heirmos, but dedicated to a particular day of the menaion", ". Until the 11th century, the common book of hymns was the tropologion and it had no other musical notation than a modal signature and combined different hymn genres like troparion, sticheron, and canon.", "The earliest tropologion was already composed by Severus of Antioch, Paul of Edessa and Ioannes Psaltes at the Patriarchate of Antioch between 512 and 518. Their tropologion has only survived in Syriac translation and revised by Jacob of Edessa", ". Their tropologion has only survived in Syriac translation and revised by Jacob of Edessa. The tropologion was continued by Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, but especially by Andrew of Crete's contemporary Germanus I, Patriarch of Constantinople who represented as a gifted hymnographer not only an own school, but he became also very eager to realise the purpose of this reform since 705, although its authority was questioned by iconoclast antagonists and only established in 787", ". After the octoechos reform of the Quinisext Council in 692, monks at Mar Saba continued the hymn project under Andrew's instruction, especially by his most gifted followers John of Damascus and Cosmas of Jerusalem. These various layers of the Hagiopolitan tropologion since the 5th century have mainly survived in a Georgian type of tropologion called \"Iadgari\" whose oldest copies can be dated back to the 9th century.", "Today the second ode is usually omitted (while the great kanon attributed to John of Damascus includes it), but medieval heirmologia rather testify the custom, that the extremely strict spirit of Moses' last prayer was especially recited during Lenten tide, when the number of odes was limited to three odes (triodion), especially patriarch Germanus I contributed with many own compositions of the second ode", ". According to Alexandra Nikiforova only two of 64 canons composed by Germanus I are present in the current print editions, but manuscripts have transmitted his hymnographic heritage.", "The monastic reform of the Stoudites and their notated chant books", "During the 9th-century reforms of the Stoudios Monastery, the reformers favoured Hagiopolitan composers and customs in their new notated chant books heirmologion and sticherarion, but they also added substantial parts to the tropologion and re-organised the cycle of movable and immovable feasts (especially Lent, the , and its scriptural lessons). The trend is testified by a 9th-century tropologion of the Saint Catherine's Monastery which is dominated by contributions of Jerusalem", ". Festal stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Hesperinos and the psalmody of the Orthros (the Ainoi) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the Sundays and weekdays of Lent, and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with Easter. Their melodies were originally preserved in the tropologion", ". Their melodies were originally preserved in the tropologion. During the 10th century two new notated chant books were created at the Stoudios Monastery, which were supposed to replace the tropologion:", "the sticherarion, consisting of the idiomela in the menaion (the immoveable cycle between September and August), the triodion and the pentekostarion (the moveable cycle around the holy week), and the short version of octoechos (hymns of the Sunday cycle starting with Saturday evening) which sometimes contained a limited number of model troparia (prosomoia)", ". A rather bulky volume called \"great octoechos\" or \"parakletike\" with the weekly cycle appeared first in the middle of the tenth century as a book of its own.", "the heirmologion, which was composed in eight parts for the eight echoi, and further on either according to the canons in liturgical order (KaO) or according to the nine odes of the canon as a subdivision into 9 parts (OdO).", "These books were not only provided with musical notation, with respect to the former tropologia they were also considerably more elaborated and varied as a collection of various local traditions. In practice it meant that only a small part of the repertory was really chosen to be sung during the divine services", ". Nevertheless, the form tropologion was used until the 12th century, and many later books which combined octoechos, sticherarion and heirmologion, rather derive from it (especially the usually unnotated Slavonic osmoglasnik which was often divided in two parts called \"pettoglasnik\", one for the kyrioi, another for the plagioi echoi).", "The old custom can be studied on the basis of the 9th-century tropologion ΜΓ 56+5 from Sinai which was still organised according to the old tropologion beginning with the Christmas and Epiphany cycle (not with 1 September) and without any separation of the movable cycle", ". The new Studite or post-Studite custom established by the reformers was that each ode consists of an initial troparion, the heirmos, followed by three, four or more troparia from the menaion, which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos (akrostics), thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well. The combination of Constantinopolitan and Palestine customs must be also understood on the base of the political history.", "Especially the first generation around Theodore Studites and Joseph the Confessor, and the second around Joseph the Hymnographer suffered from the first and the second crisis of iconoclasm. The community around Theodore could revive monastic life at the abandoned Stoudios Monastery, but he had to leave Constantinople frequently in order to escape political persecution. During this period, the Patriarchates of Jerusalem and Alexandria (especially Sinai) remained centres of the hymnographic reform", ". Concerning the Old Byzantine notation, Constantinople and the area between Jerusalem and Sinai can be clearly distinguished. The earliest notation used for the books sticherarion and was theta notation, but it was soon replaced by palimpsests with more detailed forms between Coislin (Palestine) and Chartres notation (Constantinople)", ". Although it was correct that the Studites in Constantinople established a new mixed rite, its customs remained different from those of the other Patriarchates which were located outside the Empire.", "On the other hand, Constantinople as well as other parts of the Empire like Italy encouraged also privileged women to found female monastic communities and certain hegumeniai also contributed to the hymnographic reform", ". The basic repertoire of the newly created cycles the immovable menaion", ", the movable triodion and pentekostarion and the week cycle of parakletike and Orthros cycle of the eleven stichera heothina and their lessons are the result of a redaction of the tropologion which started with the generation of Theodore the Studite and ended during the Macedonian Renaissance under the emperors Leo VI (the stichera heothina are traditionally ascribed to him) and Constantine VII (the exaposteilaria anastasima are ascribed to him)", ".", "The cyclic organization of lectionaries", "Another project of the Studites' reform was the organisation of the New Testament (Epistle, Gospel) reading cycles, especially its hymns during the period of the triodion (between the pre-Lenten Meatfare Sunday called \"Apokreo\" and the Holy Week). Older lectionaries had been often completed by the addition of ekphonetic notation and of reading marks which indicate the readers where to start (ἀρχή) and to finish (τέλος) on a certain day", ". The Studites also created a typikon—a monastic one which regulated the cœnobitic life of the Stoudios Monastery and granted its autonomy in resistance against iconoclast Emperors, but they had also an ambitious liturgical programme. They imported Hagiopolitan customs (of Jerusalem) like the Great Vesper, especially for the movable cycle between Lent and All Saints (triodion and pentekostarion), including a Sunday of Orthodoxy which celebrated the triumph over iconoclasm on the first Sunday of Lent.", "Unlike the current Orthodox custom Old Testament readings were particular important during Orthros and Hesperinos in Constantinople since the 5th century, while there was no one during the divine liturgy. The Great Vespers according to Studite and post-Studite custom (reserved for just a few feasts like the Sunday of Orthodoxy) were quite ambitious. The evening psalm 140 (kekragarion) was based on simple psalmody, but followed by florid coda of a soloist (monophonaris)", ". A melismatic prokeimenon was sung by him from the ambo, it was followed by three antiphons (Ps 114–116) sung by the choirs, the third used the trisagion or the usual anti-trisagion as a refrain, and an Old Testament reading concluded the prokeimenon.", "The Hagiopolites treatise", "The earliest chant manual pretends right at the beginning that John of Damascus was its author. Its first edition was based on a more or less complete version in a 14th-century manuscript, but the treatise was probably created centuries earlier as part of the reform redaction of the tropologia by the end of the 8th century, after Irene's Council of Nikaia had confirmed the octoechos reform of 692 in 787. It fits well to the later focus on Palestine authors in the new chant book heirmologion.", "Concerning the octoechos, the Hagiopolitan system is characterised as a system of eight diatonic echoi with two additional phthorai (nenano and nana) which were used by John of Damascus and Cosmas, but not by Joseph the Confessor who obviously preferred the diatonic mele of and .", "It also mentions an alternative system of the Asma (the cathedral rite was called ἀκολουθία ᾀσματική) that consisted of 4 , 4 , 4 , and 4 . It seems that until the time, when the Hagiopolites was written, the octoechos reform did not work out for the cathedral rite, because singers at the court and at the Patriarchate still used a tonal system of 16 echoi, which was obviously part of the particular notation of their books: the asmatikon and the kontakarion or psaltikon.", "But neither any 9th-century Constantinopolitan chant book nor an introducing treatise that explains the fore-mentioned system of the Asma, have survived. Only a 14th-century manuscript of Kastoria testifies cheironomic signs used in these books, which are transcribed in longer melodic phrases by the notation of the contemporary sticherarion, the middle Byzantine Round notation.", "The transformation of the kontakion \nThe former genre and glory of Romanos' kontakion was not abandoned by the reformers, even contemporary poets in a monastic context continued to compose new liturgical kontakia (mainly for the menaion), it likely preserved a modality different from Hagiopolitan oktoechos hymnography of the sticherarion and the heirmologion.", "But only a limited number of melodies or kontakion mele had survived. Some of them were rarely used to compose new kontakia, other kontakia which became the model for eight prosomoia called \"kontakia anastasima\" according to the oktoechos, had been frequently used", ". The kontakion ὁ ὑψωθεῖς ἐν τῷ σταυρῷ for the feast of cross exaltation (14 September) was not the one chosen for the prosomoion of the kontakion anastasimon in the same echos, it was actually the kontakion ἐπεφάνης σήμερον for Theophany (6 January). But nevertheless, it represented the second important melos of the which was frequently chosen to compose new kontakia, either for the (introduction) or for the oikoi (the stanzas of the kontakion called \"houses\")", ". Usually these models were not rubrified as \"avtomela\", but as idiomela which means that the modal structure of a kontakion was more complex, similar to a sticheron idiomelon changing through different echoi.", "This new monastic type of kontakarion can be found in the collection of Saint Catherine's Monastery on the peninsula of Sinai (ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 925–927) and its kontakia had only a reduced number of oikoi. The earliest kontakarion (ET-MSsc Ms. Gr. 925) dating to the 10th century might serve as an example", ". Gr. 925) dating to the 10th century might serve as an example. The manuscript was rubrified Κονδακάριον σῦν Θεῷ by the scribe, the rest is not easy to decipher since the first page was exposed to all kinds of abrasion, but it is obvious that this book is a collection of short kontakia organised according to the new menaion cycle like a sticherarion, beginning with 1 September and the feast of Symeon the Stylite", ". It has no notation, instead the date is indicated and the genre κονδάκιον is followed by the dedicated Saint and the incipit of the model kontakion (not even with an indication of its echos by a modal signature in this case).", "Folio 2 verso shows a kontakion ἐν ἱερεῦσιν εὐσεβῶς διαπρέψας which was composed over the prooimion used for the kontakion for cross exaltation ὁ ὑψωθεῖς ἐν τῷ σταυρῷ. The prooimion is followed by three stanzas called oikoi, but they all share with the prooimion the same refrain called \"ephymnion\" (ἐφύμνιον) ταὶς σαῖς πρεσβεῖαις which concludes each oikos", ". But the model for these oikoi was not taken from the same kontakion, but from the other kontakion for Theophany whose first oikos had the incipit τῇ γαλιλαίᾳ τῶν ἐθνῶν.", "The Slavic reception", "The Slavic reception is crucial for the understanding, how the kontakion has changed under the influence of the Stoudites. During the 9th and 10th centuries new Empires established in the North which were dominated by Slavic populations - Great Moravia and the Kievan Rus' (a federation of East Slavic tribes ruled by Varangians between the Black Sea and Scandinavia). The Byzantines had plans to participate actively in the", "Christianization of those new Slavic powers, but those intentions failed. The well established and recently Christianized (864) Bulgarian Empire created two new literary centres at Preslav and Ohrid. These empires requested a state religion, legal codexes, the translation of canonic scriptures, but also the translation of an overregional liturgy as it was created by the Stoudios Monastery, Mar Saba and Saint Catherine's Monastery", ". The Slavic reception confirmed this new trend, but also showed a detailed interest for the cathedral rite of the Hagia Sophia and the pre-Stoudite organisation of the tropologion", ". Thus, these manuscripts are not only the earliest literary evidence of Slavonic languages which offer a transcription of the local variants of Slavonic languages, but also the earliest sources of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite with musical notation, although transcribed into a notation of its own, just based on one tone system and on the contemporary layer of 11th-century notation, the roughly diastematic Old Byzantine notation.", "The literary schools of the first Bulgarian empire", "Unfortunately, no Slavonic tropologion written in Glagolitic script by Cyril and Methodius has survived. This lack of evidence does not prove that it had not existed, since certain conflicts with Benedictines and other Slavonic missionaries in Great Moravia and Pannonia were obviously about an Orthodox rite translated into Old Church Slavonic and practised already by Methodius and Clement of Ohrid. Only few early Glagolitic sources have been left", ". Only few early Glagolitic sources have been left. The Kiev Missal proves a West Roman influence in the Old Slavonic liturgy for certain territories of Croatia. A later 11th-century New Testament lectionary known as the Codex Assemanius was created by the Ohrid Literary School. A euchologion (ET-MSsc Ms. Slav. 37) was in part compiled for Great Moravia by Cyril, Clement, Naum and Constantine of Preslav. It was probably copied at Preslav about the same time", ". It was probably copied at Preslav about the same time. The aprakos lectionary proves that the Stoudites typikon was obeyed concerning the organisation of reading cycles. It explains, why Svetlana Kujumdžieva assumed that the \"church order\" mentioned in Methodius' vita meant the mixed Constantinopolitan Sabbaite rite established by the Stoudites. But a later finding by the same author pointed to another direction. In a recent publication she chose \"Iliya's book\" (RUS-Mda Fond 381, Ms", ". In a recent publication she chose \"Iliya's book\" (RUS-Mda Fond 381, Ms. 131) as the earliest example of an Old Church Slavonic tropologion (around 1100), it has compositions by Cyril of Jerusalem and agrees about 50% with the earliest tropologion of Sinai (ET-MSsc Ms. NE/MΓ 56+5) and it is likewise organised as a mеnaion (beginning with September like the Stoudites), but it still includes the movable cycle", ". Hence, its organisation is still close to the tropologion and it has compositions not only ascribed to Cosmas and John, but also Stephen the Sabaite, Theophanes the Branded, the Georgian scribe and hymnographer Basil at Mar Saba and Joseph the Hymnographer. Further on, musical notation has been added on some pages which reveal an exchange between Slavic literary schools and scribes of Sinai or Mar Saba:", "theta (\"θ\" for \"thema\" which indicates a melodic figure over certain syllables of the text) or fita notation was used to indicate the melodic structure of an idiomelon/samoglasen in glas 2 \"Na yeerdanĭstěi rěcě\" (Theophany, f.109r). It was also used on other pages (kanon for hypapante, ff.118v-199r & 123r),", "two forms of znamennaya notation, an earlier one has dots on the right sight of certain signs (the kanon \"Obrazę drevle Moisi\" in glas 8 for Cross elevation on 14 September, ff.8r-9r), and a more developed form which was obviously needed for a new translation of the text (\"another\" avtomelon/samopodoben, ино, glas 6 \"Odesnuǫ sŭpasa\" for Saint Christina of Tyre, 24 July, f.143r).", "Kujumdžieva pointed later at a Southern Slavic origin (also based on linguistic arguments since 2015), although feasts of local saints, celebrated on the same day as Christina Boris and Gleb, had been added. If its reception of a pre-Stoudite tropologion was of Southern Slavic origin, there is evidence that this manuscript was copied and adapted for a use in Northern Slavic territories", ". The adaption to the menaion of the Rus rather proves that notation was only used in a few parts, where a new translation of a certain text required a new melodic composition which was no longer included within the existing system of melodies established by the Stoudites and their followers", ". But there is a coincidence between the early fragment from the Berlin-collection, where the ἀλλὸ rubric is followed by a modal signature and some early neumes, while the elaborated zamennaya is used for a new sticheron (ино) dedicated to Saint Christina.", "Recent systematic editions of the 12th-century notated mineya (like RUS-Mim Ms. Sin. 162 with just about 300 folios for the month December) which included not just samoglasni (idiomela) even podobni (prosomoia) and akrosticha with notation (while the kondaks were left without notation), have revealed that the philosophy of the literary schools in Ohrid and Preslav did only require in exceptional cases the use of notation", ". The reason is that their translation of Greek hymnography were not very literal, but often quite far from the content of the original texts, the main concern of this school was the recomposition or troping of the given system of melodies (with their models known as avtomela and heirmoi) which was left intact. The Novgorod project of re-translation during the 12th century tried to come closer to the meaning of the texts and the notation was needed to control the changes within the system of melodies.", "Znamennaya notation in the stichirar and the irmolog \nConcerning the Slavic rite celebrated in various parts of the Kievan Rus', there was not only an interest for the organisation of monastic chant and the tropologion and the oktoich or osmoglasnik which included chant of the irmolog, podobni (prosomoia) and their models (samopodobni), but also the samoglasni (idiomela) like in case of Iliya's book.", "Since the 12th century, there are also Slavic stichirars which did not only include the samoglasni, but also the podobni provided with znamennaya notation", ". A comparison of the very first samoglasen наста въходъ лѣтоу (\"Enter the entrance of the annual cycle\") in glas 1 (ἐπέστη ἡ εἴσοδος τoῦ ἐνιαυτοῦ echos protos, SAV 1) of the mineya shows, that the znamennaya version is much closer to fita (theta) notation, since the letter \"θ =\" corresponds to other signs in Coislin and a synthetic way to write a kratema group in Middle Byzantine notation. It was obviously an elaboration of the simpler version written in Coislin:", "The Middle Byzantine version allows to recognise the exact steps (intervals) between the neumes. They are here described according to the Papadic practice of solfège called \"parallage\" (παραλλαγή) which is based on echemata: for ascending steps always kyrioi echoi are indicated, for descending steps always echemata of the plagioi echoi. If the phonic steps of the neumes were recognised according to this method, the resulting solfège was called \"metrophonia\"", ". The step between the first neumes at the beginning passed through the protos pentachord between kyrios (a as transcription for α') and plagios phthongos (D as transcription of πλα'): a—Da—a—G—a—G—FGa—a—EF—G—a—acbabcba. The Coislin version seems to end (ἐνιαυτοῦ) thus: EF—G—a—Gba (the klasma indicates that the following kolon continues immediately in the music)", ". In znamennaya notation the combination dyo apostrophoi (dve zapĕtiye) and oxeia (strela) at the beginning (наста) is called \"strela gromnaya\" and obviously derived from the combination \"apeso exo\" in Coislin notation. According to the customs of Old Byzantine notation, \"apeso exo\" was not yet written with \"spirits\" called \"chamile\" (down) or \"hypsile\" (up) which did later specify as pnevmata the interval of a fifth (four steps)", ". As usual the Old Church Slavonic translation of the text deals with less syllables than the Greek verse. The neumes only show the basic structure which was memorised as metrophonia by the use of parallage, not the melos of the performance", ". The melos depended on various methods to sing an idiomelon, either together with a choir or to ask a soloist to create a rather individual version (changes between soloist and choir were at least common for the period of the 14th century, when the Middle Byzantine sticherarion in this example was created). But the comparison clearly reveals the potential (δύναμις) of the rather complex genre idiomelon.", "The Kievan Rus' and the earliest manuscripts of the cathedral rite \nThe background of Antonin's interest in celebrations at the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople, as they had been documented by his description of the ceremony around Christmas and Theophany in 1200, were diplomatic exchanges between Novgorod and Constantinople.", "Reception of the cathedral rite \nIn the Primary Chronicle (Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ \"tale of passed years\") it is reported, how a legacy of the Rus' was received in Constantinople and how they did talk about their experience in presence of Vladimir the Great in 987, before the Grand Prince Vladimir decided about the Christianization of the Kievan Rus' (Laurentian Codex written at Nizhny Novgorod in 1377):", "There was obviously also an interest in the representative aspect of those ceremonies at the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople. Today, it is still documented by seven Slavic kondakar's:\n Tipografsky Ustav: Moscow, State Tretyakov Gallery, Ms. K-5349 (about 1100)\n Two fragments of a kondakar' (one kondak with notation): Moscow, Russian State Library (RGB), Fond 205 Ms. 107 (12th century)\n Troitsky-Lavrsky Kondakar': Moscow, Russian State Library (RGB), Fond 304 Ms. 23 (about 1200)", "Troitsky-Lavrsky Kondakar': Moscow, Russian State Library (RGB), Fond 304 Ms. 23 (about 1200)\n Blagoveščensky Kondakar': Saint Petersburg, National Library of Russia (RNB), Ms. Q.п.I.32 (about 1200)\n Uspensky Kondakar': Moscow, State Historical Museum (GIM), Ms. Usp. 9-п (1207, probably for the Uspensky Sobor)\n Sinodal'ny Kondakar': Moscow, State Historical Museum (GIM), Ms. Sin. 777 (early 13th century)", "Sinodal'ny Kondakar': Moscow, State Historical Museum (GIM), Ms. Sin. 777 (early 13th century)\n South-Slavic kondakar' without notation: Moscow, State Historical Museum (GIM), part of the Book of Prologue at the Chludov collection (14th century)", "Six of them had been written in scriptoria of Kievan Rus' during the 12th and the 13th centuries, while there is one later kondakar' without notation which was written in the Balkans during the 14th century. The aesthetic of the calligraphy and the notation has so developed over a span of 100 years that it must be regarded as a local tradition, but also one which provided us with the earliest evidence of the cheironomic signs which had only survived in one later Greek manuscript.", "In 1147, the chronicler Eude de Deuil described during a visit of the Frankish King Louis VII the cheironomia, but also the presence of eunuchs during the cathedral rite. With respect to the custom of the Missa greca (for the patron of the Royal Abbey of Saint Denis), he reported that the Byzantine emperor sent his clerics to celebrate the divine liturgy for the Frankish visitors:", "Kondakarian notation of the asmatikon part", "The Kievan Rus' obviously cared about this tradition, but especially about the practice of cheironomia and its particular notation: the so-called \"kondakarian notation\". A comparison with Easter koinonikon proves two things: the Slavic kondakar' did not correspond to the \"pure\" form of the Greek kontakarion which was the book of the soloist who had also to recite the larger parts of the kontakia or kondaks", ". It was rather a mixed form which included also the choir book (asmatikon), since there is no evidence that such an asmatikon had ever been used by clerics of the Rus', while the kondakarian notation integrated the cheironomic signs with simple signs, a Byzantine convention which had only survived in one manuscript (GR-KA Ms. 8), and combined it with Old Slavic znamennaya notation, as it had been developed in the sticheraria and heirmologia of the 12th century and the so-called Tipografsky Ustav.", "Although the common knowledge of znamennaya notation is as limited as the one of other Old Byzantine variants such as Coislin and Chartres notation, a comparison with the asmatikon Kastoria 8 is a kind of bridge between the former concept of cheironomiai as the only authentic notation of the cathedral rite and the hand signs used by the choir leaders and the later concept of great signs integrated and transcribed into Middle Byzantine notation, but it is a pure form of the choir book", ", but it is a pure form of the choir book, so that such comparison is only possible for an asmatic chant genre such as the koinonikon", ".", "See for instance the comparison of the Easter koinonikon between the Slavic Blagoveščensky kondakar' which was written about 1200 in the Northern town Novgorod of the Rus', its name derived from its preservation at the collection of the at Nizhny Novgorod.", "The comparison should not suggest that both versions are identical, but the earlier source documents an earlier reception of the same tradition (since there is a difference about 120 years between both sources it is impossible to judge the differences). The rubric \"Glas 4\" is most likely an error of the notator and meant \"Glas 5\", but it is also possible, that the Slavic tone system was already in such an early period organised in triphonia", ". Thus, it could also mean that анеане, undoubtedly the plagios protos enechema ἀνεανὲ, was supposed to be on a very high pitch (about an octave higher), in that case the has not the octave species of (a tetrachord up and a pentachord down), but the one of plagios protos. The comparison also shows very much likeness between the use of asmatic syllables such as \"оу\" written as one character such as \"ꙋ\"", ". Tatiana Shvets in her description of the notational style also mentions the kola (frequent interpunction within the text line) and medial intonations can appear within a word which was sometimes due to the different numbers of syllables within the translated Slavonic text", ". A comparison of the neumes also show many similarities to Old Byzantine (Coislin, Chartres) signs such as ison (stopica), apostrophos (zapĕtaya), oxeia (strela), vareia (palka), dyo kentemata (točki), diple (statĕya), klasma (čaška), the krusma (κροῦσμα) was actually an abbreviation for a sequence of signs (palka, čaška with statĕya, and točki) and omega \"ω\" meant a parakalesma", ", čaška with statĕya, and točki) and omega \"ω\" meant a parakalesma, a great sign related to a descending step (see the echema for plagios protos: it is combined with a dyo apostrophoi called \"zapĕtaya\")", ".", "A melismatic polyeleos passing through 8 echoi \nAnother very modern part of the Blagoveščensky kondakar' was a Polyeleos composition (a post-Stoudites custom, since they imported the Great Vesper from Jerusalem) about the psalm 135 which was divided into eight sections, each one in another glas:\n Glas 1: Ps. 135:1–4 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.107r).\n Glas 2: Ps. 135:5–8 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.107v).\n Glas 3: Ps. 135:9–12 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.108v).", "Glas 3: Ps. 135:9–12 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.108v).\n Glas 4: Ps. 135:13–16 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.109v).\n Glas 5: Ps. 135:17–20 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.110r).\n Glas 6: Ps. 135:21–22 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.110v).\n Glas 7: Ps. 135:23–24 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.112r).\n Glas 8: Ps. 135:25–26 (RUS-SPsc Ms. Q.п.I.32, f.113r).", "The refrain алелɤгιа · алелɤгιа · ананҍанҍс · ꙗко въ вҍкы милость ѥго · алелɤгιа (\"Alleluia, alleluia. medial intonation For His love endureth forever. Alleluia.\") was only written after a medial intonation for the conclusion of the first section. \"Ananeanes\" was the medial intonation of echos protos (glas 1). This part was obviously composed without modulating to the glas of the following section", ". This part was obviously composed without modulating to the glas of the following section. The refrain was likely sung by the right choir after the intonation of its leader: the domestikos, the preceding psalm text probably by a soloist (monophonaris) from the ambo. Interesting is that only the choir sections are entirely provided with cheironomiai", ". Interesting is that only the choir sections are entirely provided with cheironomiai. Slavic cantors had been obviously trained in Constantinople to learn the hand signs which corresponded to the great signs in the first row of Kondakarian notation, while the monophonaris parts had them only at the end, so that they were probably indicated by the domestikos or lampadarios in order to get the attention of the choir singers, before singing the medial intonations.", "We do not know, whether the whole psalm was sung or each section at another day (during the Easter week, for instance, when the glas changed daily), but the following section do not have a written out refrain as a conclusion, so that the first refrain of each section was likely repeated as conclusion, often with more than one medial intonation which indicated, that there was an alternation between the two choirs", ". For instance within the section of glas 3 (the modal signature was obviously forgotten by the notator), where the text of the refrain is almost treated like a \"nenanismaton\": \"але-нь-н-на-нъ-ъ-на-а-нъ-ı-ъ-лɤ-гı-а\". The following medial intonations \"ипе\" (εἴπε \"Say!\") and \"пал\" (παλὶν \"Again!\") obviously did imitate medial intonations of the asmatikon without a true understanding of their meaning, because a παλὶν did usually indicate that something will be repeated from the very beginning", ". Here one choir did obviously continue another one, often interrupting it within a word.", "The end of the cathedral rite in Constantinople", "1207, when the Uspensky kondakar' was written, the traditional cathedral rite had no longer survived in Constantinople, because the court and the patriarchate had gone into exile to Nikaia in 1204, after Western crusaders had made it impossible to continue the local tradition", ". The Greek books of the asmatikon (choir book) and the other one for the monophonaris (the psaltikon which often included the kontakarion) were written outside Constantinople, on the island of Patmos, at Saint Catherine's monastery, on the Holy Mount Athos and in Italy, in a new notation which developed some decades later within the books sticherarion and heirmologion: Middle Byzantine round notation", ". Thus, also the book kontakarion-psaltikon dedicated to the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite must be regarded as part of its reception history outside Constantinople like the Slavic kondakar'.", "The kontakaria and asmatika written in Middle Byzantine round notation", "The reason, why the psaltikon was called \"kontakarion\", was that most parts of a kontakion (except of the refrain) were sung by a soloist from the ambo, and that the collection of the kontakarion had a prominent and dominant place within the book", ". The classical repertoire, especially the kontakion cycle of the movable feasts mainly attributed to Romanos, included usually about 60 notated kontakia which were obviously reduced to the prooimion and the first oikos and this truncated form is commonly regarded as a reason, why the notated form presented a melismatic elaboration of the kontakion as it was commonly celebrated during the cathedral rite at the Hagia Sophia", ". As such within the notated kontakarion-psaltikon the cycle of kontakia was combined with a prokeimenon and alleluiarion cycle as a proper chant of the divine liturgy, at least for more important feasts of the movable and immovable cycle", ". Since the Greek kontakarion has only survived with Middle Byzantine notation which developed outside Constantinople after the decline of the cathedral rite, the notators of these books must have integrated the cheironomiai or great signs still present in the Slavic kondakar's within the musical notation of the new book sticherarion.", "The typical composition of a kontakarion-psaltikon (τὸ ψαλτικὸν, τὸ κοντακάριον) was:\n prokeimena\n alleluiaria\n eight hypakoai anastasimai\n kontakarion with the movable cycle integrated in the menaion after hypapante\n eight kontakia anastasima\n appendix: refrains of the alleluiaria in octoechos order, rarely alleluia endings in psalmody, or usually later added kontakia", "The choral sections had been collected in a second book for the choir which was called asmatikon (τὸ ᾀσματικὸν). It contained the refrains (dochai) of the prokeimena, troparia, sometimes the ephymnia of the kontakia and the hypakoai, but also ordinary chant of the divine liturgy like the eisodikon, the trisagion, the choir sections of the cherubikon asmatikon, the weekly and annual cycle of koinonika. There were also combined forms as a kind of asmatikon-psaltikon.", "In Southern Italy, there were also mixed forms of psaltikon-asmatikon which preceded the Constantinopolitan book \"akolouthiai\":\n annual cycle of proper chant in menaion order with integrated movable cycle (kontakion with first oikos, allelouiaria, prokeimenon, and koinonikon)\n all refrains of the asmatikon (allelouiarion, psalmodic allelouiaria for polyeleoi, dochai of prokeimena, trisagion, koinonika etc.) in oktoechos order\n appendix with additions", "The kontakia collection in the Greek kontakaria-psaltika", "Nevertheless, the Greek monastic as well as the Slavic reception within the Kievan Rus' show many coincidences within the repertoire, so that even kontakia created in the North for local customs could be easily recognised by a comparison of Slavonic kondakar's with Greek psaltika-kontakaria", ". Constantin Floros' edition of the melismatic chant proved that the total repertoire of 750 kontakia (about two thirds composed since the 10th century) was based on a very limited number of classical melodies which served as model for numerous new compositions: he counted 42 prooimia with 14 prototypes which were used as a model for other kontakia, but not rubrified as avtomela, but as idiomela (28 of them remained more or less unique), and 13 oikoi which were separately used for the recitation of oikoi", ". The most frequently used models also generated a prosomoion-cycle of eight kontakia anastasima. The repertoire of these melodies (not so much their elaborated form) was obviously older and was transcribed by echemata in Middle Byzantine notation which were partly completely different from those used in the sticherarion", ". While the Hagiopolites mentioned 16 echoi of the cathedral rite (four kyrioi, four plagioi, four mesoi and four phthorai), the kontakia-idiomela alone represent at least 14 echoi (four in and represented as mesos forms, four , three additional and three ).", "The integrative role of Middle Byzantine notation becomes visible that a lot of echemata were used which were not known from the sticherarion. Also the role of the two known as the chromatic νενανῶ and the enharmonic νανὰ was completely different from the one within the Hagiopolitan Octoechos, phthora nana clearly dominated (even in ), while phthora nenano was rarely used", ". Nothing is known about the exact division of the tetrachord, because no treatise concerned with the tradition the cathedral rite of Constantinople has survived, but the Coislin sign of (ξηρὸν κλάσμα) appeared on different pitch classes () than within the of the sticherarion.", "The Slavic kondakar's did only use very few oikoi pointing at certain models, but the text of the first oikos was only written in the earliest manuscript known as Tipografsky Ustav, but never provided with notation. If there was an oral tradition, it probably did not survive until the 13th century, because the oikoi are simply missing in the kondakar's of that period.", "One example for an kondak-prosomoion whose music can be only reconstructed by a comparison with model of the kontakion as it has been notated into Middle Byzantine round notation, is Аще и убьѥна быста which was composed for the feast for Boris and Gleb (24 July) over the kondak-idiomelon Аще и въ гробъ for Easter in :", "The two Middle Byzantine versions in the kontakarion-psaltikon of Paris and the one of Sinai are not identical. The first kolon ends on different : either on (C, if the melos starts there) or one step lower on the , the called \"grave echos\" (a kind of B flat). It is definitely exaggerated to pretend that one has \"deciphered\" Kondakarian notation, which is hardly true for any manuscript of this period", ". But even considering the difference of about at least 80 years which lie between the Old Byzantine version of Slavic scribes in Novgorod (second row of the kondakar's) and the Middle Byzantine notation used by the monastic scribes of the later Greek manuscripts, it seems obvious that all three manuscripts in comparison did mean one and the same cultural heritage associated with the cathedral rite of the Hagia Sophia: the melismatic elaboration of the truncated kontakion", ". Both Slavonic kondaks follow strictly the melismatic structure in the music and the frequent segmentation by kola (which does not exist in the Middle Byzantine version), interrupting the conclusion of the first text unit by an own kolon using with the asmatic syllable \"ɤ\".", "Concerning the two martyre princes of the Kievan Rus' Boris and Gleb, there are two kondak-prosomoia dedicated to them in the Blagoveščensky Kondakar' on the folios 52r–53v: the second is the prosomoion over the kondak-idiomelon for Easter in glas 8, the first the prosomoion Въси дьньсь made over the kondak-idiomelon for Christmas Дева дньсь (Ἡ παρθένος σήμερον) in glas 3. Unlike the Christmas kontakion in glas 3, the Easter kontakion was not chosen as model for the kontakion anastasimon of glas 8 ()", ". It had two other important rivals: the kontakion-idiomelon Ὡς ἀπαρχάς τῆς φύσεως (ꙗко начатъкы родоу) for All Saints, although an enaphonon () which begins on the lower fourth (), and the prooimion Τῇ ὑπερμάχῳ στρατιγῷ (Възбраньноумоу воѥводѣ побѣдьнаꙗ) of the Akathistos hymn in (which only appears in Greek kontakaria-psaltika).", "Even among the notated sources there was a distinction between the short and the long psaltikon style which was based on the musical setting of the kontakia, established by Christian Thodberg and by Jørgen Raasted. The latter chose Romanos' Christmas kontakion Ἡ παρθένος σήμερον to demonstrate the difference and his conclusion was that the known Slavic kondakar's did rather belong to the long psaltikon style.\n\nThe era of psaltic art and the new mixed rite of Constantinople", "There was a discussion promoted by Christian Troelsgård that Middle Byzantine notation should not be distinguished from Late Byzantine notation. The argument was that the establishment of a mixed rite after the return of the court and the patriarchate from the exile in Nikaia in 1261, had nothing really innovative with respect the sign repertoire of Middle Byzantine notation", ". The innovation was probably already done outside Constantinople, in those monastic scriptoria whose scribes cared about the lost cathedral rite and did integrate different forms of Old Byzantine notation (those of the sticherarion and heirmologion like theta notation, Coislin and Chartres type as well as those of the Byzantine asmatikon and kontakarion which were based on cheironomies)", ". The argument was mainly based on the astonishing continuity that a new a type of treatise revealed by its continuous presence from the 13th to the 19th centuries: the Papadike. In a critical edition of this huge corpus, Troelsgård together with Maria Alexandru discovered many different functions that this treatise type could have", ". It was originally an introduction for a revised type of sticherarion, but it also introduced many other books like mathemataria (literally \"a book of exercises\" like a sticherarion kalophonikon or a book with heirmoi kalophonikoi, stichera kalophonika, anagrammatismoi and kratemata), akolouthiai (from \"taxis ton akolouthion\" which meant \"order of services\", a book which combined the choir book \"asmatikon\", the book of the soloist \"kontakarion\"", ", a book which combined the choir book \"asmatikon\", the book of the soloist \"kontakarion\", and with the rubrics the instructions of the typikon) and the Ottoman anthologies of the Papadike which tried to continue the tradition of the notated book akolouthiai (usually introduced by a Papadike, a kekragarion/anastasimatarion, an anthology for Orthros, and an anthology for the divine liturgies)", ".", "With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional repertoire: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies (palaia \"old\"), or original music in highly ornamental style (called \"kalophonic\"). This was the work of the so-called Maïstores, \"masters\", of whom the most celebrated was St. John Koukouzeles (14th century) as a famous innovator in the development of chant", ". John Koukouzeles (14th century) as a famous innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the traditional repertoire continued in the centuries following the fall of Constantinople.", "The revision of the chant books \n\nOne part of this process was the redaction and limitation of the present repertoire given by the notated chant books of the sticherarion (menaion, triodion, pentekostarion, and oktoechos) and the heirmologion during the 14th century. Philologists called this repertoire the \"standard abridged version\" and counted alone 750 stichera for the menaion-part, and 3300 odes of the heirmologion.", "Chronological research of the books sticherarion and heirmologion did not only reveal an evolution of notation systems which were just invented for these chant books, they can be also studied with respect to the repertoire of heirmoi and of stichera idiomela. The earliest evolution of sticherarion and heirmologion notation was the explanation of the theta (Slav. fita), oxeia or diple which were simply set under a syllable, where a melisma was expected", ". fita), oxeia or diple which were simply set under a syllable, where a melisma was expected. These explanations were either written with Coislin (scriptoria of monasteries under administration of the Patriarchates Jerusalem and Alexandria) or with Chartres notation (scriptoria in Constantinople or on Mount Athos). Both notations went through different stages", ". Both notations went through different stages. Since the evolution of the Coislin system also aimed a reduction of signs in order to define the interval value by less signs in order to avoid a confusion with an earlier habit to use them, it was favoured in comparison with the more complex and stenographic Chartres notation by later scribes during the late 12th century", ". The standard round notation (also known as Middle Byzantine notation) combined signs of both Old Byzantine notation systems during the 13th century. Concerning the repertoire of unique compositions (stichera idiomela) and models of canon poetry (heirmoi), scribes increased their number between the 12th and 13th century", ". The Middle Byzantine redaction of the 14th century reduced this number within a standard repertoire and tried to unify the many variants, sometimes offering only a second variant notated in red ink. Since the 12th century also prosomoia (texts composed over well-known avtomela) had been increasingly written down with notation, so that a former local oral tradition to apply psalmody to the evening (Ps 140) and the Laud psalm (Ps 148) became finally visible in these books.", "Heirmologion", "The characteristic of these books is that their collection were over-regional. The probably oldest fully notated chant book is the heirmologion of the Great Lavra on Mount Athos (GR-AOml Ms. β 32) which has been written about the turn to the 11th century. With 312 folios it has much more canons than later redactions notated in Middle Byzantine notation. It was notated in archaic Chartres notation and was organised in canon order", ". It was notated in archaic Chartres notation and was organised in canon order. Each canon within an echos section was numbered through and has detailed ascriptions concerning the feast and the author who was believed to have composed poetry and music of the heirmos:", "In exceptional cases, some of these canons were marked as prosomoia and written out with notation. In comparison, later heirmologia just notated the heirmoi with the text they were remembered (referred by an incipit), while the akrosticha composed over the model of the heirmos had been written in the text book menaion. Already the famous heirmologion of Paris, Ms", ". Already the famous heirmologion of Paris, Ms. 220 of the fonds Coislin which gave the name to \"Coislin notation\" and written about 100 years later, seems to collect almost half the number of heirmoi. But within many heirmoi there are one or even two alternative versions (ἄλλος \"another one\") inserted directly after certain odes, not just with different neumes, but also with different texts", ". It seems that several former heirmoi of the same author or written for the same occasion had been summarised under one heirmos and some of the odes of the canon could be replaced by others", ". But the heirmoi for one and the same feast offered the option to singers to choose between different schools (the Sabaite represented by Andrew, Cosmas and John \"the monk\" and his nephew Stephen, the Constantinopolitan represented by Patriarch Germanos, and the one of Jerusalem by George of Nicomedia and Elias), different echoi, and even different heirmoi of the same author.", "Apart from this canonisation which can be observed in the process of redaction between the 12th and 14th centuries, one should also note that the table above compares two different redactions between the 11th and 12th centuries: the one of Constantinople and Athos (Chartres notation) and another one at the scriptoria of Jerusalem (especially the Patriarchate and the Monastery of Saint Sabbas) and Sinai within the Patriarchate of Alexandria written in Coislin notation", ". Within the medium of Middle Byzantine notation which combined signs stemming from both Old Byzantine notation systems, there was a later process of unification during the 14th century, which combined both redactions, a process which was preceded by the dominance of Coislin notation by the end of the 12th century, when the more complex Chartres notation came out of use, even at Constantinopolitan scriptoria.", "Sticherarion\n\nKalophonia\n\nThe synthesis between harmonikai and papadikai\n\nOttoman era\n\nChant between Raidestinos, Chrysaphes the Younger, Germanos of New Patras and Balasios\n\nPetros Bereketes and the school of the Phanariotes", "To a certain degree there may be found remnants of Byzantine or early (Greek-speaking, Orthodox Christian) near eastern music in the music of the Ottoman Court. Examples such as that of the composer and theorist Prince Cantemir of Romania learning music from the Greek musician Angelos, indicate the continuing participation of Greek speaking people in court culture. The influences of ancient Greek basin and the Greek Christian chants in the Byzantine music as origin, are confirmed", ". Music of Turkey was influenced by Byzantine music, too (mainly in the years 1640–1712). Ottoman music is a synthesis, carrying the culture of Greek and Armenian Christian chant. It emerged as the result of a sharing process between the many civilizations that met together in the Orient, considering the breadth and length of duration of these empires and the great number of ethnicities and major or minor cultures that they encompassed or came in touch with at each stage of their development.", "The Putna school of the Bukovina\n\nPhanariotes at the new music school of the patriarchate\n\nThe Orthodox reformulation according to the New Method", "Chrysanthos of Madytos (c. 1770–1846), Gregory the Protopsaltes (c. 1778 – c. 1821), and Chourmouzios the Archivist were responsible for a reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine Musical Symbols that, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly", ". The work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church. Unfortunately, their work has since been misinterpreted often, and much of the oral tradition has been lost.", "Konstantinos Byzantios' renunciation of the New Method\n\nThe old school of the patriarchate\n\nThe modern school of the patriarchate\n\nIson \n\nThe Ison (music) is a drone note, or a slow-moving lower vocal part, used in Byzantine chant and some related musical traditions to accompany the melody. It is assumed that the ison was first introduced in Byzantine practice in the 16th century.\n\nTeretismata and nenanismata", "Teretismata and nenanismata \n\nThe practice of Terirem is vocal improvisation with nonsense syllables. It can contain syllables like \"te ri rem\" or \"te ne na\", sometimes enriched with some theological words. It is a custom for a choir, or an orthodox psalmist to start the chanting by finding the musical tone by singing at the very beginning a \"ne-ne\".\n\nThe Simon Karas school at Athens", "The Simon Karas school at Athens \n\nSimon Karas (1905–1999) began an effort to assemble as much material as possible in order to restore the apparently lost tradition. His work was continued by his students Lycourgos Angelopoulos and Ioannis Arvanitis who both had a quite independent and different approach to the tradition.\n\nLycourgos Angelopoulos and the Greek-Byzantine choir", "Lycourgos Angelopoulos died on 18 May 2014, but during his life-time he always perceived himself more as a student than a teacher, despite of the great number of his students and followers and the great success he enjoyed as a teacher. He published some essays where he explained the role that his teacher Simon Karas had for his work. He studied the introduction of the New Method under the aspect which were the Middle Byzantine neumes that had been abandoned by Chrysanthos, when he introduced the New Method", ". In particular, he discussed the role of Petros Ephesios, the editor of the first print editions who still used the qualitative sign of \"oxeia\" which had been soon abandoned. In collaboration with Georgios Konstantinou who wrote a new manual and introduction for his school, Lycourgos Angelopoulos re-introduced certain aphonic signs and re-interpreted them as ornamental signs according to the definitive rhythmic interpretation of the New Method which had transcribed the melos into notation", ". Thus, he had to provide for the whole repertoire of the living tradition an own handwritten edition which had been printed for all his students. For the proper understanding, the new universal notation according to Chrysanthos could be used to transcribe any kind of Ottoman music, not only the church music composed according to the oktoechos melopœia, but also makam music and rural traditions of the Mediterranean", ". Thus, the whole ornamental aspect of monophonic music depended now on an oral tradition, but it was no longer represented by the aphonic or great signs which had to be understood from the traditional context rooting back to the Byzantine psaltic art", ". Therefore, the other fundament of Angelopoulos' school was the participating fieldwork of traditional protopsaltes, those of the archon protopsaltes of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople (and many of them had been forced into exile since the Cyprus crisis of 1964), and Athonite singers, especially those recordings he made of Father Dionysios Firfiris.", "Two major styles of interpretation have evolved, the Hagioritic, which is simpler and is mainly followed in monasteries, and the Patriarchal, as exemplified by the style taught at the Great Church of Constantinople, which is more elaborate and is practised in parish churches. Nowadays the Orthodox churches maintain chanting schools in which new cantors are trained. Each diocese employs a protopsaltes (\"first cantor\"), who directs the diocesan cathedral choir and supervises musical education and performance", ". The protopsaltes of the Patriarchates are given the title Archon Protopsaltes (\"Lord First Cantor\"), a title also conferred as an honorific to distinguished cantors and scholars of Byzantine music.", "Ioannis Arvanitis \n\nWhile Angelopoulos' school basically stuck to the transcriptions of Chourmouzios the Archivist who did transcribe as one of the great teachers also the Byzantine repertoire according to the New Method during the beginning of the 19th century, another student of Karas Ioannis Arvanitis developed an autonomous approach which allowed him to study the older sources written in Middle Byzantine notation.", "Ioannis Arvanitis published his ideas in several essays and in a doctoral thesis", ". He founded several ensembles like Aghiopolitis which performed the tradition of the Byzantine cathedral rite based on his own study of medieval kontakaria and asmatika in Italy, or got involved in collaborations with other ensembles whose singers were instructed by him, such as Cappella Romana directed by Alexander Lingas, Ensemble Romeiko directed by Yorgos Bilalis or Vesna Sara Peno who studied with Ioannis Arvanitis", ", Ensemble Romeiko directed by Yorgos Bilalis or Vesna Sara Peno who studied with Ioannis Arvanitis, before the she founded an own Ensemble dedicated Saint Kassia and to the Old Church Slavonic repertoire according to the Serbian tradition of the Athonite Hilandar Monastery", ".", "See also \n Ancient Greek music\n Byzantine Musical Symbols\n Modern Greek music\n Museum of Ancient Greek, Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Musical Instruments\n Music of ancient Rome\n The Lyra of the Byzantine\n Traditional music of Crete\n Znamenny chant – the Russian chant style that evolved from the Byzantine system\n\nFor more on the theory of Byzantine music and its cultural relatives in Greek-speaking peoples see:\n Echos\n Octoechos\n\nFor collections of Byzantine hymnography see:", "For collections of Byzantine hymnography see:\n\nFor contemporary works featuring Byzantine chant see:\n Prayer Bells\n Days and Nights with Christ\n John Tavener\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nTropologia and octoechoi\n\nLectionaries and psalters\n\nEuchologia and horologia\n\nMenologia\n\nMineya, triod postnaya and tsvetnaya služebnaya\n\nSticheraria\n\nHeirmologia\n\nCeremonials\n\nKontakaria and asmatika\n\nAkolouthiai and anthologies of the papadike\n\nBibliography\n\nEditions\n\nIntroductions\n\nGreek and Slavonic music palaeography", "Bibliography\n\nEditions\n\nIntroductions\n\nGreek and Slavonic music palaeography\n\nThe New Method and Orthodox chant of the Ottoman period\n\nGlossaries \nΟλυμπία Τολίκα, Επίτομο Εγκυκλοπαιδικό Λεξικό της Βυζαντινής Μουσικής [Olympia Tolika: Encyclopaedian Dictionary of Byzantine Music]. Έκδ. Ευρωπαϊκό Κέντρο Τέχνης (EUARCE), Αθήνα 1993.\n\nExternal links \n\nHistorical Recordings\n\nReconstructions\n\nModern parallage\n\nIntroductions into Byzantine music\n\n Introduction from The British Library\n\nOrthodox chant tutorials", "Introduction from The British Library\n\nOrthodox chant tutorials\n\nOther\n\n The American Society of Byzantine Music and Hymnology\n New Byzantine Music Publications\n The Divine Music Project\n\n \nChants\nEastern Christian liturgy\nGreek music\nChristian music genres\nMedieval Greek\nByzantine culture\nAncient music genres\nIntangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity" ]

[ "Weymouth ( ) is a sea-side town and civil parish in the Dorset district, in the ceremonial county of Dorset, on the English Channel coast of England. Situated on a sheltered bay at the mouth of the River Wey, south of the county town of Dorchester, Weymouth had a population of 53,427 in 2021. It is the third-largest settlement in Dorset after Bournemouth and Poole. The greater Weymouth urban area has a population of 72,802.", "The history of the town stretches back to the 12th century and includes roles in the spread of the Black Death, the settlement of the Americas and the development of Georgian architecture. It was a major departure point for the Normandy Landings during World War II. Prior to local government reorganisation in April 2019, Weymouth formed a borough with the neighbouring Isle of Portland. Since then the area has been governed by Dorset Council", ". Since then the area has been governed by Dorset Council. Weymouth, Portland and the Purbeck district are in the South Dorset parliamentary constituency.", "A seaside resort, Weymouth and its economy depend on tourism. Visitors are attracted by its harbour and position, approximately halfway along the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site, important for its geology and landforms", ". Once a port for cross-channel ferries, Weymouth Harbour is now home to a commercial fishing fleet, pleasure boats and private yachts, while nearby Portland Harbour is the location of the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy, where the sailing events of the 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games were held.", "History", "Early days", "The modern town of Weymouth originated as the two settlements of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis, on opposite sides of Weymouth Harbour in Dorset. The older of the two, on the south side, was referred to as Weymouth as early as the 10th century, as part of the parish of Wyke Regis, and by 1252 had become a chartered borough and established seaport, trading in imported wine. Melcombe Regis, on the north side, was first noted in the 11th century", ". Melcombe Regis, on the north side, was first noted in the 11th century. It developed separately from the mid 12th century onwards and in 1310 was a licensed wool port. But French raiders found the port so accessible that in 1433 the staple was transferred to Poole. Melcombe Regis is thought to be the first port at which the Black Death came into England in June or July 1348, possibly aboard either a spice ship or an army ship from Calais, where fighting was taking place in the Hundred Years' War.", "In their early history, the two towns were rivals for trade and industry, and many arguments broke out over use of the harbour. In 1571, Queen Elizabeth I became so tired of the petitioning that she united the two towns in an Act of Parliament, to form a double borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis. Both towns have become known as Weymouth, despite Melcombe Regis being the main centre", ". Both towns have become known as Weymouth, despite Melcombe Regis being the main centre. The villages of Upwey, Broadwey, Preston, Wyke Regis, Chickerell, Southill, Radipole and Littlemoor have since become part of the built-up area.", "King Henry VIII had two Device Forts built to protect the south Dorset coast from invasion in the 1530s: Sandsfoot Castle in Wyke Regis and Portland Castle in Castletown. Coastal erosion forced the abandonment of Sandsfoot as early as 1665 and parts have since fallen into the sea. In 1635, around 100 emigrants from the town crossed the Atlantic Ocean on board the ship Charity and settled in Weymouth, Massachusetts", ". More townspeople emigrated to the Americas to bolster the population of Weymouth, Nova Scotia and Salem, Massachusetts; then called Naumking.", "Civil war", "During the English Civil War, control of Weymouth changed a number of times and the town was much damaged as a result. When conflict first broke out in 1642, Weymouth was peacefully occupied by Parliamentarians, but it was captured in August the following year by 2,000 Royalist cavalry and held until June 1644, when it was retaken. Around 250 people were killed in the local Crabchurch Conspiracy when sympathetic residents let Royalist soldiers into the town in February 1645", ". It was recaptured later that month and remained in Parliamentarian hands for the remainder of the war, despite enduring a protracted siege.", "George III\n\nThe resort is among the first modern tourist destinations, after King George III's brother, the Duke of Gloucester, constructed an English country house named Gloucester Lodge there; the Duke spent the winter of 1780 at the house. George III made Weymouth his summer holiday residence on fourteen occasions between 1789 and 1805, even venturing into the sea in a bathing machine.", "In celebration of the king's patronage, in 1810, a painted statue was built on the seafront. Known simply as the King's Statue, it was extensively renovated in 2007–08. A second tribute to George III, completed two years earlier in 1808, is the mounted white horse at Osmington. Designed by local architect James Hamilton, and cut into the chalk hillside by soldiers under his direction, the figure measures long by high.", "19th century", "During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, Weymouth started to gain some military importance: in 1795, the Red Barracks were constructed for cavalry troops stationed at Nothe. They were badly damaged in 1798 by a fire and work started on new buildings and a parade ground at Radipole. These premises could house 953 officers and men together with 986 horses. The Red Barracks were rebuilt in 1801 and given over to infantry", ". The Red Barracks were rebuilt in 1801 and given over to infantry. Militarisation of the town continued through the Victorian era, with work starting on Portland Harbour in 1849. Built specifically to accommodate the new steam navy, the project was completed in 1872. Between 1860 and 1872, Nothe Fort was constructed at the entrance of Weymouth Harbour, overlooking the new harbour at Portland.", "Weymouth's popularity, both as a trading port and as a holiday destination, also grew in this period and the arrival of the railway in 1857 boosted both industries. The Royal National Lifeboat Institution stationed a lifeboat at Weymouth for the first time on 26 January 1869. A boathouse was built with a slipway by the harbour and is still in use, although the lifeboat is now moored at a pontoon", ". In 1887, to mark the 50th year of Queen Victoria's reign, a multi-coloured Jubilee Clock was erected on the esplanade.", "Modern times\nDuring World War I, about 120,000 Australian and New Zealand Army Corps personnel convalesced in Weymouth after being injured at Gallipoli or other theatres of the war; the existing army camps and mild climate made it an ideal location. Most of the soldiers were repatriated in 1919; some stayed and married local women.", "Weymouth's military importance made it a target for German bombing during World War II. The air raids destroyed 1,200 civilian dwellings and killed 76 civilians, and the high street was so badly damaged that much of it had to be demolished after the war. In September 1942 the first full-scale testing of the bouncing bomb was carried out west of the town, on the lagoon behind Chesil Bank. Tens of thousands of Allied troops departed Weymouth and Portland for D-Day, bound for Omaha in Normandy", ". By the time the conflict in Europe had ended, 517,816 troops and 144,903 vehicles had been through the ports.", "The immediate aftermath of the war was a difficult time for Weymouth which, in common with other seaside resorts, was not seen as a priority for government investment. In 1960, Southampton stopped services to the Channel Islands, leaving Weymouth as the UK's major link with the islands. A linkspan constructed in 1972 and the introduction of a passenger service to Cherbourg in 1974 helped to further revive the town's fortunes", ". During the 1970s, cheap package holidays abroad caused a reduction in the town's tourist trade, and harbour trade also suffered a decline; but the number of ferry passengers continued to rise and in 1980 a new terminal with improved facilities was built. From 1990, the demand for bigger vessels forced the cross-channel ferry operators to transfer to larger ports, such as Poole; the last ferry left Weymouth in 2015.", "Governance and politics\n\nThe district of Weymouth and Portland was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, and merged the borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis and the nearby Portland urban district. Under the local government reforms on 1 April 2019, the district was abolished, and Weymouth is now administered by Dorset Council at the highest tier, and Weymouth Town Council (successor to the district council) at the lowest tier.", "Weymouth, Portland and the Purbeck district are in the South Dorset parliamentary constituency which elects one Member of Parliament: since 2019, Richard Drax (Conservative). Dorset South was the most marginal Labour seat in the 2001 general election, won by 153 votes. Jim Knight was expecting to have a difficult 2005 election, yet he won with a margin of 1,812 votes—this was in contrast to other areas, where Labour suffered a decline in popularity", ". This was helped by a high-profile anti-Conservative campaign by musician Billy Bragg. The seat was gained from Labour by Richard Drax for the Conservatives at the 2010 General Election, and held by him in 2015 2017 and 2019.", "Weymouth and Portland have been twinned with the town of Holzwickede in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany since 1986, and the French town of Louviers, in the department of Eure in Normandy, since 1959.\n\nGeography", "Geography\n\nWeymouth is built on weak sand and clay rock which in most places along the Dorset coast, except for narrow bands at Lulworth Cove, Swanage and Durdle Door, has been eroded and transported away. This weak rock has been protected at Weymouth by Chesil Beach and the strong limestone Isle of Portland that lies offshore, south of Wyke Regis. The island affects the tides of the area, producing a double low tide in Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour. The maximum tidal range is small, at around .", "There are two lakes in the borough, both designated Nature Reserves by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)–Radipole Lake in the town centre, and Lodmoor between the town centre and Preston. Radipole Lake, the largest nature reserve, and mouth of the River Wey before it flows into Weymouth Harbour, are important habitats for fish and migratory birds, and over 200 species of plants", ". Radipole is an important tourist attraction; it and Weymouth Beach are situated very close to the main town centre. There are 11 Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the borough, which cover an area of , and there are 37 other Nature Conservation Designations.", "Situated approximately midway, Weymouth is a gateway town to the Jurassic Coast. The of the Dorset and east Devon coast is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage Site which is important for its geology and landforms. The South West Coast Path has two routes around Weymouth and Portland—one around its coast, and one along the South Dorset Downs, which reduces the path's length by", ". The steep ridge of chalk, locally known as The Ridgeway, separates Dorchester and Weymouth.", "Weymouth is the largest town in the area, larger than the county town of Dorchester, which lies to the north, and hence is a centre of activity for the nearby population. Weymouth's esplanade is composed of Georgian terraces, which have been converted into apartments, shops, hotels and guest houses. The buildings were constructed in the Georgian and Regency periods between 1770 and 1855, designed by architects such as James Hamilton, and were commissioned by wealthy businessmen", ". These terraces form a long, continuous arc of buildings which face Weymouth Bay along the esplanade, which is home to statues of Victoria, George III and Sir Henry Edwards, Member of Parliament for the borough from 1867 to 1885, and two war memorials.", "In the centre of the town lies Weymouth Harbour, separating the two areas of Melcombe Regis (the main town centre) and Weymouth (the southern harbourside) from each other. Since the 18th century they have been linked by successive bridges over the narrowest part of the harbour. The present Town Bridge, built in 1930, is a lifting bascule bridge allowing boats to access the inner harbour.", "The sand and clay on which Weymouth is built is very low-lying—large areas are below sea level, which allowed the eastern areas of the town to flood during extreme low pressure storms. In the 1980s and 1990s a sea wall was built around Weymouth Harbour and along the coast road in Preston; a rip rap groyne in Greenhill and beach nourishment up to Preston have created a wide and artificially graded pebble beach, to ensure that the low-lying land around Lodmoor does not flood", ". The defences at Preston, the extended ferry terminal and the widening of the esplanade have changed the sediment regime in Weymouth Bay, narrowing the beach at Greenhill and widening the sands in Weymouth. A study conducted as part of the redevelopment of the Pavilion complex showed that the proposed marina will contribute slightly to this effect, but sand dredged out of the marina could be used to make the beach up to wider.", "Climate", "Due to its location on the south-west coast of England, Weymouth has a temperate climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures. The average annual mean temperature from 1991 to 2020 was . The warmest month is August, which has an average temperature range of , and the coolest is February, which has a range of", ". Maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year are above England's average, and Weymouth is in American Horticultural Society (AHS) Heat zone 1. Mean sea surface temperatures range from in February to in August; the annual mean is .", "Days with snow lying are rare: on average zero to five days per year; Most winters have one day or less with snow lying. It may snow or sleet in winter, yet it rarely settles on the ground; low-lying coastal areas on the South Coast of England such as Weymouth experience milder winters than the rest of the United Kingdom. The lowest temperature of was recorded on 13 January 1987. The growing season in Weymouth lasts for more than 310 days per year, and the borough is in Hardiness zone 9b.", "Weymouth and Portland has one of the sunniest climates in the United Kingdom, along with many south coast towns. The resort averaged 1904.4 hours of sunshine annually between 1991 and 2020, which is 44% of the maximum possible, and 42% above the United Kingdom average of 1402.7 hours. December is the cloudiest month (64.5 hours of sunshine), November the wettest ( of rain) and July is the sunniest and driest month (245.6 hours of sunshine, of rain)", ".6 hours of sunshine, of rain). Sunshine totals in all months are well above the United Kingdom average, and monthly rainfall totals throughout the year are less than the UK average, particularly in summer; this summer minimum of rainfall is not experienced away from the south coast of England. The average annual rainfall of is well below the UK average of .", "Demography\n\nThe mid-year population of Weymouth in 2018 was 53,068, making it the largest settlement in rural Dorset and third largest overall, after Bournemouth and Poole.\nA built-up area of , gives the town a population density of 2,868 people per square kilometre, in 26,747 dwellings.", "The number of residents has grown steadily since the 1970s and there is an above average number of residents aged 60–84 (27.4%); however, this is less than the Dorset average of 30.2%, and the proportion of those between 18 and 59 is also above the Dorset average. The population is 95.2% White British, slightly below the Dorset average of 95.6%, and well above the England and Wales average of 80.5%. The most common religious identity in Weymouth and Portland is Christianity, at 61", ".5%. The most common religious identity in Weymouth and Portland is Christianity, at 61.0%, which is slightly above the England and Wales average of 59.3%. The next-largest group is those with no religion, at 29.3%, slightly above the average of 25.1%.", "Economy", "Tourism is important to the local economy, employing 17% of the local workforce. In 2019, over two million day trips and 469,600 longer stays, brought £209,560,000 of visitors money into the Weymouth and Portland area. Weymouth's coast and beaches, lakes, museums, aquarium, and two shopping centres are the main attractions for visitors", ". The visitor accommodation consists of hotels on the seafront, guest houses around the town centre, and caravan and camping sites just out of town, including three sites owned by Haven and British Holidays: Littlesea, Seaview and Weymouth Bay.", "In 2019 there were 2,160 business units in the Weymouth and Portland area, employing 18,000 local residents. The largest sector was Wholesale, Retail and Repair at 17.66% of all local businesses. Construction and Accommodation and food services were the next two largest sectors with a 13.66% share each. Most businesses, 83.1%, had less than nine employees while only 0.5% were large, employing over 250 staff", ".1%, had less than nine employees while only 0.5% were large, employing over 250 staff. Two of the area's largest employers are the aerospace parts manufacturer, FGP systems, and the retail clothing firm, New Look.", "Weymouth Harbour is long and narrow, and formed the estuary of the River Wey until the building of a dam in 1872, which separated the harbour's backwaters from Radipole Lake. For centuries the harbour was a passenger terminal and trade and cargo port: goods handled included wool and spices, and in the 20th century, fertiliser and cars", ". Cross-Channel ferry services ceased in 2015 but the harbour is still a working port with docks, unloading areas and a fishing fleet, which in 2004 had 82 boats, catching the largest mass of fish in England and the third largest in the United Kingdom. Fishing and cargo trading employ fewer people in the area since their peak in earlier centuries, the commercial fishing fleet has been reduced to 32 vessels but, together with the charter boats, was still worth £4 million per annum in 2018", ". Local boats offer fishing and diving trips, pleasure cruises along the Jurassic Coast, and thrill-rides to the Isle of Portland.", "The main shopping centre in the area is in Melcombe Regis, consisting of two pedestrianised streets (St. Thomas's and St. Mary's Street), shops along the esplanade, and a new precinct stretching from St. Thomas's Street to the harbourside, built in the 1990s. There are shops and restaurants in the pedestrianised Hope Square and Brewers Quay, which are linked to the town centre by town bridge and a small passenger ferry service across the harbour", ". In 2005 the town centre had 292 shops and of floorspace, and there was of industrial estate in the area. Weymouth, Portland and Chickerell have been a Fairtrade Zone since 2007 and in May 2013 local businesses voted in favour of creating the Weymouth Business Improvement District (BID). Like other BIDs located around the UK, it is a business-led initiative supported by Government legislation that enables the local businesses to raise funding to improve the trading environment.", "The town has undergone considerable regeneration, much of it in anticipation of 2012 Summer Olympics. Work began in 2007 on improvements to the esplanade: a public square was constructed around the restored statue of King George III, the Art Deco, a tourist information centre and café was built (2020), along with repairs and painting to existing Victorian-style shelters and new cafe seasonal kiosks, a beach rescue centre (2020), and a sand art pavilion for the sculptures of Mark Anderson", ". Other alterations to the promenade were made, particularly around key areas such as the Jubilee Clock and the pier bandstand, with the introduction of new cafes and bars, improved lighting and seating areas with planting, fountains and trees.", "Figures released by the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, in 2014 and 2019, suggested that the ex-borough of Weymouth and Portland was in the top 10% of the most deprived districts in the UK. Central Weymouth and the Littlemoor estate were the town's worst areas. Although unemployment is relatively low, at just over 4%, much of the work is seasonal, part time, and low paid.", "A Government initiative to help reinvigorate seaside economies was announced in 2015 and in 2019, Weymouth was awarded £3.79 million from the Coastal Communities Fund. The money will help with refurbishment of the area around the town's quay; first proposed in 2006, the plans were abandoned in favour of other works prior to the 2012 Olympics", ". In addition to beautification and better access, aimed at attracting visitors, there will be improved facilities for fishermen, including secure compounds for equipment and increased cold storage for catches. The town was voted Number 1 in The Times and Sunday Times Best UK Beaches 2023.", "Culture and community\n\nThere are over two hundred events held throughout the year in the borough, including firework festivals, dragon boat racing, beach volleyball, and motocross, and the annual carnival in mid-August. Weymouth is the only port in the world to have hosted the start of The Tall Ships' Races three times—in 1983, 1987 and 1994; the 1994 race attracting 300,000 spectators.", "The Pavilion Theatre was built in 1960 on a peninsula of reclaimed land between the harbour and the esplanade, after the Ritz Theatre was destroyed by fire in 1954. The Pavilion was owned and operated by Weymouth and Portland Borough Council, providing a venue for local community groups and schools, and hosting seasonal 'end-of-the-pier' entertainment and year-round shows and events", ". A failed proposal to regenerate the area in 2006, led the council to announce the demolition of the theatre and on 31 May 2013, it closed but following a formal tender process, the theatre was leased to a local businessman and reopened on 13 July 2013. Weymouth Pavilion is now operated by Weymouth Pavilion CIC as a not-for-profit organisation.", "The town has both a general and a specialist museum. Weymouth Museum, located in the older part of the town, is situated in a former brewery. The Victorian building is a Grade II listed building and contains artefacts from the Roman, Tudor and Georgian periods, which relate to the town and its surrounding area, including a collection of historic maps and documents. Nothe Fort was an operational coastal fort from 1872 to 1956. It is now a museum dedicated to its own history and that of coastal defence.", "Sited on the same promontory as the fort are Nothe Gardens, an informal garden of trees and established shrubberies. A large expanse of grass is a popular place for ball games and picnics while other areas are used for a nature trail and orienteering. Orienteering also takes place at Lodmoor Country Park, which is close to the town centre and also the venue for a weekly 5 km fun run. Other facilities include an outdoor gym and children's play park. Adjacent is the RSPB salt marsh nature reserve", ". Adjacent is the RSPB salt marsh nature reserve. More formal gardens, in and around the town, include Radipole Park and Greenhill gardens.", "Weymouth's Sea Life centre, a zoo and adventure park on the outskirts of the town, has over 1,000 examples of aquatic and semi-aquatic life, including sharks, turtles, otters, frogs and penguins. The centre takes part in an extensive breeding programme and also helps protect marine environments across the world through its partnership with the Sea Life Trust.\n\nTransport", "Transport\n\nWeymouth railway station is the terminus of a route from London Waterloo, and a route from Westbury, Bristol and Gloucester. A station that handled summer tourist traffic was demolished in 1986 after this traffic declined. A smaller station took up part of the site and the rest was given over to commercial development. Services to London Waterloo began running every 30 minutes from December 2007, but services through Bristol to Cardiff were reduced.", "An unusual feature of the railways in Weymouth was that, until 1987, main line trains ran through the streets and along the Weymouth Harbour Tramway to the Quay station at the eastern end of the harbour, to connect with ferries to mainland Europe. Due to declining business, goods traffic ceased in 1972 but passenger services continued until 1987. The line officially closed in 2016 and, in 2020, work began on its removal.", "Local bus services are provided by First Bus Wessex. Routes run from Weymouth to the Isle of Portland, Dorchester, Poole, Wool, Beaminster, Axminster, and to other villages and the town's holiday parks. Weymouth is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by route X53, which runs from Axminster to Weymouth, through Lyme Regis, Charmouth, Bridport and Abbotsbury. In addition, More Buses operate a summer only service to Durdle Door, Lulworth Cove, Wool, Dorchester, Wareham and Swanage.", "The A354 road connects the town to the A35 trunk road in Dorchester and terminates at Easton on the Isle of Portland. The A353 road runs east from Weymouth to the south of Warmwell, where it connects with the A352 to the Isle of Purbeck and Wareham. The B3157 road runs west from Weymouth to the south of Bridport, where it terminates and connects to the A35. Weymouth is approximately 52 miles (83 km) south-east of the M5 motorway at junction 25 for Taunton.", "On 5 April 2007, Dorset County Council granted planning permission for a single carriageway relief road, running north, and a 1000-space park-and-ride scheme, costing £84.5 million. Work commenced in 2008; and was completed by mid-2011. During archaeological excavations carried out in advance of the relief road construction, a burial pit containing 51 dismembered skeletons of Viking men was discovered on Ridgeway Hill", ". The park and ride operated significantly below capacity and, in October 2015, the council announced it would close the facility over the winter to reduce costs.", "Route 26 of the National Cycle Network runs through Weymouth.\n\nThe South West Coastal Path National Trail and the Hardy Way long distance footpath pass through Weymouth.\n\nEducation", "Weymouth has 14 primary schools and three secondary schools. All three secondary schools—All Saints Church of England Academy in Wyke Regis; Budmouth Academy in Chickerell; and Wey Valley Academy in Broadwey—converted to academies following poor Ofsted reports. Wey Valley was added to the Government's Failing Schools list in 2007 when only 27% of the students achieved 5 A*to C passes. After consistently failing to improve, the school closed on 1 May 2019. It reopened on 1 June 2019", ". After consistently failing to improve, the school closed on 1 May 2019. It reopened on 1 June 2019. In 2018, All Saints' had 830 students on roll, Budmouth had 1548 and Wey Valley 863.", "In 2019, 35% of students at All Saints', 36% of students at Budmouth and 21% of students at Wey Valley, attained five or more A*to C GCSEs including English and mathematics; below the national average of 43%. From 2016, schools in England have been measured on their pupils progress rather than GCSE results with greater emphasis placed on advancement in English and mathematics. Progress 8 scores, for all three schools, were below average, in 2019.", "Budmouth Academy also has a sixth form centre which had 257 students in 2018, the vast majority of which were studying for A-Level. Vocational and occupational courses are also offered. Weymouth College in Melcombe Regis is a further education college which, in 2020, had around 3,000 students from South West England and overseas", ". Part of The University of Plymouth Colleges Network, the college offers a wide range of practical and academic courses in many subjects, ranging from apprenticeship courses to full and part-time university level courses.", "There are three special schools for children of all ages: Arbour House School, Wyvern Academy and Westfield Arts College.\n\nThe 2011 UK Census recorded that 77.5% of Weymouth and Portland residents over 16 have qualifications, which is slightly above the UK national average of 76.8%; about 22.5% of adult residents have a higher than Level 4 qualification which is lower than the UK average of 27%.\n\nSport and recreation", "Sport and recreation\n\nWeymouth's sandy beach and shallow waters are used for swimming and sunbathing during the tourist season, and for beach sport events throughout the year, including beach motocross, the International handball championships and the beach volleyball classic. The international kite festival, held in May each year on Weymouth Beach, has attracted around 40,000 spectators to the esplanade from around the world.", "Weymouth has two sports centres, one shared by the college and local community, comprising two fitness suites and a large sports hall; the other, Redlands community sports hub, has both indoor and outdoor facilities with pitches for football and cricket. The latter is home to Weymouth Cricket Club, which is sponsored by local business and runs in partnership with nearby schools.", "The local football club, Weymouth F.C. or 'the Terras', are outside the Football League but, in common with some other non-league clubs, they became professional in 2005, The team have enjoyed some success; twice playing in the third round of the FA Cup, the highest club competition level. At the end of the 2005–06 season the team were promoted as champions to the National League for the first time since 1989. Since relegated, as of 2020, they are in the National League South", ". Since relegated, as of 2020, they are in the National League South. The Terras' ground is the Bob Lucas Stadium; its record attendance is 6,500 against Nottingham Forest in the FA Cup 2005–2006 season. Until 2010 Motorcycle speedway racing was staged adjacent to the stadium; the club closed following disputes with the landlords and the team, the Wildcats, relocated to Poole.", "On the shores of Portland Harbour, south of Wyke Regis, is Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy, where the sailing events of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games were based. The pre-existing venue was a major consideration in its selection. As part of the South West of England Regional Development Agency's plans to redevelop the area around the academy, a new 600-berth marina and an extension with more on-site facilities was built", ". Weymouth and Portland were one of the first locations in the United Kingdom to finish building a venue for the Olympic Games, as construction started in October 2007 and finished at the end of 2008.", "The waters of Weymouth and Portland are credited by the Royal Yachting Association (RYA) as some of the best in Europe for sailing. Local, national and international sailing events are regularly held in the bay; these include the J/24 World Championships in 2005, trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics, the International Sailing Federation (ISAF) World Championship 2006, the 2015 ISAF Sailing World Cup, the SAP 505 World Championship in 2016 and the 2019 World Championship for International A-class catamarans.", "Weymouth Bay is a venue for other water-sports—the reliable wind is favourable for wind and kitesurfing. The sheltered waters in Portland Harbour and near Weymouth are used for angling, diving to shipwrecks, snorkelling, canoeing, jet skiing, water skiing, and swimming.", "Media", "BBC local news comes from BBC South West in Plymouth and ITV West Country in Bristol is the local ITV television franchise. Television is received from the Stockland Hill transmitter or from one of its three relay transmitters in the town (Weymouth, Bincombe Hill and Preston). Reception is also possible in some areas from the Rowridge transmitter meaning the town is also covered by local news from BBC South Today in Southampton and ITV Meridian", ". BBC South region is also the default BBC One variant given to Weymouth postcodes on satellite television and ITV Meridian is the default HD variant of ITV received from the Wyke Regis, Bincombe Hill and Preston relay transmitters. The local newspaper is the Dorset Echo.", "Local radio stations are BBC Radio Solent on 103.8 FM, Heart South on 102.3 FM, Greatest Hits Radio South (formerly Wessex FM) on 97.2 FM and AIR Radio, a community radio station that broadcasts on 107.2 FM.", "In popular culture\nWeymouth has been used as a location in both film and television, particularly the esplanade which features prominently in the 1958 film The Key, the 1967 version of Far from the Madding Crowd, and the 1963 Hammer Horror production The Damned. Scenes for the 1965 wartime adventure film The Heroes of Telemark were shot in the bay. Other war films filmed in areas in and around the town are The Dam Busters (1954) and the 2017 adaptation of Dunkirk.", "Appearances on television include the 1980s detective series Rockliffe's Follies, where Weymouth was the setting for the fictional town of Maidenport. Some scenes from the series Broadchurch were filmed there in 2014 and in 2008, the town was the subject of an episode of the BBC soap opera EastEnders.\n\nNotable people\n\nWriters", "Notable writers are associated with Weymouth and the area has influenced, and appears in, their work. Before he was a published author, Thomas Hardy worked for a Weymouth-based architect and he visited and stayed in the town on a number of occasions between 1869 and 1872. The novel Under the Greenwood Tree was partially written there", ". The novel Under the Greenwood Tree was partially written there. Many of his other works incorporate features of the town and surrounding area: in The Return of the Native, one character describes Weymouth as a place where, \"out of every ten folk you meet nine of 'em in love\"", ". The esplanade, Gloucester Lodge Hotel and Old Rooms feature in Hardy's The Trumpet-Major (1880); the town was renamed \"Budmouth\" in the 1895 edition, to bring the novel within fictional 'Wessex', and Chesil Bank is referred to in The Well-Beloved (1897).", "John Cowper Powys's novel Weymouth Sands (1934) is set in Weymouth, where the writer \"...was more at home than anywhere else in the world\". Powys's paternal grandmother lived in Weymouth and the family lived in nearby Dorchester from 1880 to 1885. When Powys died in 1963, he was cremated and his ashes dispersed on the water around Chesil Bank.", "Joseph Drew, businessman and owner of the local newspaper The Southern Times, lived and worked in Weymouth. He wrote the historical novel The Poisoned Cup, \"a quaint tale of old Weymouth and Sandsfoot Castle\" in 1876.\n\nThe novelist Gerald Basil Edwards spent the last years of his life in Weymouth. In nearby Upwey, he met the art student Edward Chaney, who encouraged him to complete The Book of Ebenezer Le Page.", "Others\nThe architect Sir Christopher Wren was the Member of Parliament for Weymouth in 1702, and controlled nearby Portland's quarries from 1675 to 1717. He designed St Paul's Cathedral and had it built from the famous Portland stone. The famous artist, Sir James Thornhill was chosen to decorate the interior. He was born in Weymouth at the White Hart public house in Melcombe Regis and also served as the town's MP, in 1722.", "When sailed into Algeciras Bay in April 1781, to relieve Gibraltar during the Great Siege, she was carrying aboard two natives of Weymouth: the captain, Taylor Penny and a midshipman called Joseph Spear. They were both still aboard in 1782, when Marlborough led the line at the Battle of the Saintes. Taylor became mayor of Weymouth in 1785 while Spear went on to become a Royal Navy captain in 1809, commanding and .", "Thomas Fowell Buxton, a social reformer and abolitionist, was Weymouth's MP from 1818 to 1835. Buxton was the leader of the slavery abolition movement in the British House of Commons after William Wilberforce retired in 1825. The town's main route to the Isle of Portland is named after him. It runs past Belfield House, his former Weymouth home.", "See also\nList of people from Weymouth\n2012 Summer Olympic venues\nList of Dorset beaches\nList of churches in Weymouth and Portland\nList of places in Dorset\nUK coastline\n\nReferences and notes", "Population figure is an estimate for mid-2018, and includes only the town of Weymouth – not Portland or surrounding villages.\nAreas in American Horticultural Society Heat Zone 1 experience less than one day per year with maximum temperatures above .\nThe maximum hours of sunshine possible in one year is approximately 4,383 hours (12 hours/day × 365.25 days).", "The growing season in the United Kingdom is defined as starting on the day after five consecutive days with mean temperatures above . The season finishes the day after mean temperatures are below for five consecutive days.\nAreas in Hardiness zone 9 experience an average lowest recorded temperature each year between .\nFigures are for Weymouth and Portland as a whole.\nThese figures are for July to September in 2010.", "Figures are for Weymouth and Portland as a whole.\nThese figures are for July to September in 2010.\n A level 4 qualification is equivalent to a Higher National Certificate or Diploma of Higher Education.", "External links\n\nWeymouth and Portland Borough Council\nWeymouth Town Council\n\n \nTowns in Dorset\nSeaside resorts in England\nPopulated coastal places in Dorset\nTourist attractions in Dorset\nCivil parishes in Dorset\nJurassic Coast" ]

[ "John Wayne Gacy (March 17, 1942 – May 10, 1994) was an American serial killer and sex offender who raped, tortured, and murdered at least 33 young men and boys in Norwood Park Township, near Chicago, Illinois. He became known as the Killer Clown due to his public performances as a clown prior to the discovery of his crimes.", "Gacy committed all of his murders in his ranch-style house. Typically, he would lure a victim to his home and dupe them into donning handcuffs on the pretext of demonstrating a magic trick. He would then rape and torture his captive before killing them by either asphyxiation or strangulation with a garrote. Twenty-six victims were buried in the crawl space of his home, and three were buried elsewhere on his property; four were discarded in the Des Plaines River.", "Gacy had previously been convicted in 1968 of the sodomy of a teenage boy in Waterloo, Iowa, and was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, but served eighteen months. He murdered his first victim in 1972, had murdered twice more by the end of 1975, and murdered at least thirty victims after his divorce from his second wife in 1976. The investigation into the disappearance of Des Plaines teenager Robert Piest led to Gacy's arrest on December 21, 1978.", "His conviction for thirty-three murders (by one individual) then covered the most homicides in United States legal history. Gacy was sentenced to death on March 13, 1980. He was executed by lethal injection at Stateville Correctional Center on May 10, 1994.\n\nEarly life", "Early life\n\nChildhood\nJohn Wayne Gacy was born at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, on March 17, 1942, the second of three children and only son of John Stanley Gacy and Marion Elaine Robison. His father was an auto repair machinist and World War I veteran, and his mother was a homemaker. Gacy was of Polish and Danish ancestry, and his family was Catholic.", "Gacy was close to his mother and two sisters, but had a difficult relationship with his father, an alcoholic who was verbally and physically abusive to his family. The elder Gacy frequently belittled his son, calling him \"dumb and stupid\" and comparing him unfavorably with his sisters. One of Gacy's earliest childhood memories was of his father beating him with a leather belt at age four", ". His mother tried to shield her son from his father's abuse, which resulted in accusations that he was a \"sissy\" and a \"mama's boy\" who would \"probably grow up queer\". In 1949, Gacy's father whipped him with a razor strop after he and another boy were caught sexually fondling a young girl. The same year, a family friend began to occasionally molest Gacy. Gacy never told his father, afraid that his father would blame him", ". Gacy never told his father, afraid that his father would blame him. Despite their challenging relationship, Gacy loved his father, but felt he was \"never good enough\" in his father's eyes.", "Gacy was an overweight and unathletic child. Because of a heart condition, he was told to avoid sports. During the fourth grade, Gacy began to experience blackouts. He was hospitalized on occasion because of these episodes and also, in 1957, for a burst appendix. Gacy later estimated that between the ages of 14 and 18, he had spent almost a year in hospital; he attributed the decline of his grades to missing school", ". Gacy's medical condition was never conclusively diagnosed; his father suspected he was malingering. On one occasion, he openly accused Gacy of faking as he lay in a hospital bed.", "Career origins", "In 1960, at age 18, Gacy became involved in politics, working as an assistant precinct captain for a local Democratic Party candidate. This led to more criticism from his father, who called him a \"patsy\". The same year, Gacy's father bought him a car. He kept the vehicle's title in his own name until Gacy had paid for it, which took several years. His father would confiscate the keys if Gacy did not do as he said. In April 1962, Gacy purchased an extra set of keys", ". In April 1962, Gacy purchased an extra set of keys. In response, his father removed the distributor cap, keeping the component for three days. Hours after his father replaced the cap, Gacy left home and drove to Las Vegas, Nevada, with $136 to his name in the hope of residing with a cousin.", "Gacy worked in the city's ambulance service before being transferred to Palm Mortuary. He worked as a mortuary attendant for three months, observing morticians embalming dead bodies and occasionally serving as a pallbearer. He slept on a cot behind the embalming room and later confessed that one evening, while alone, he clambered into the coffin of a teenage male, embracing and caressing the body before experiencing a sense of shock. This experience prompted Gacy to return home.", "Shortly thereafter, Gacy enrolled at Northwestern Business College, despite having failed to complete high school. He graduated in 1963 and took a management trainee position with the Nunn-Bush Shoe Company. In 1964, the company transferred him to Springfield, Illinois, to work as a salesman, and eventually promoted him to department manager. In March of that year, he became engaged to Marlynn Myers, a co-worker.", "During their courtship, Gacy joined the local Jaycees. That same year, he had his second homosexual experience. According to Gacy, a colleague in the Jaycees plied him with drinks and invited him to spend the evening on his sofa; the colleague then performed oral sex on him while he was drunk. By 1965, Gacy had risen to the position of vice-president of the Springfield Jaycees and was named the third most outstanding Jaycee in Illinois.\n\nWaterloo, Iowa", "KFC manager", "Gacy and Myers married in September 1964. Marlynn's father subsequently purchased three Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) restaurants in Waterloo, Iowa. The couple moved there so Gacy could manage the restaurants, with the understanding that they would move into Marlynn's parents' former home. The offer was lucrative: Gacy would receive $15,000 per year (the equivalent of about $144,000 ), plus a share of the restaurant's profits", ". Gacy opened a \"club\" in his basement where his employees could drink alcohol and play pool. Although Gacy employed teenagers of both sexes, he socialized only with the young men. Gacy gave many of them alcohol before he made sexual advances; if they rebuffed him, he would claim his advances were jokes or a test of morals.", "Gacy's wife gave birth to a son in February 1966 and a daughter in March 1967. Gacy later described this period of his life as \"perfect\"—he had finally earned his father's approval. When Gacy's parents visited in July 1966, his father privately apologized for the abuse he had inflicted before happily saying, \"Son, I was wrong about you,\" as he shook Gacy's hand.", "Waterloo Jaycees", "In Waterloo, Gacy joined the local Jaycees chapter, regularly offering extended hours to the organization in addition to the 12- and 14-hour days he worked managing the restaurants. At meetings, Gacy often provided fried chicken and insisted on being called \"Colonel\". He and other Waterloo Jaycees were also deeply involved in drug abuse, pornography, prostitution and wife swapping", ". Although Gacy was considered ambitious and a braggart, the other Jaycees held him in high regard for his fundraising work: in 1967 he was named \"outstanding vice-president\" of the Waterloo Jaycees and served on the board of directors.", "Assault of Donald Voorhees", "In August 1967, Gacy sexually assaulted 15-year-old Donald Voorhees Jr., the son of Donald Edwin Voorhees, a local politician and fellow Jaycee. Gacy lured Voorhees to his house with the promise of showing him heterosexual stag films regularly played at Jaycee events. Gacy plied Voorhees with alcohol, allowed him to watch a stag movie, then persuaded him to engage in mutual oral sex, adding, \"You have to have sex with a man before you start having sex with women", ".\" Over the following months Gacy similarly abused several other youths, including one whom he encouraged to have sex with his own wife before blackmailing him into performing oral sex on him. Gacy also tricked several teenagers into believing he was commissioned to conduct homosexual experiments for scientific research, and paid them up to $50 each.", "In March 1968, Voorhees told his father that Gacy had sexually assaulted him. Voorhees Sr. immediately informed the police, who arrested Gacy and charged him with performing oral sodomy on Voorhees and the attempted assault of 16-year-old Edward Lynch. Gacy vehemently denied the charges and demanded to take a polygraph test. The results of these tests were \"indicative of deception\". Gacy publicly denied any wrongdoing and insisted the charges were politically motivated—Voorhees Sr", ". had opposed Gacy's nomination for appointment as president of the Iowa Jaycees. Several fellow Jaycees found Gacy's story credible and rallied to his support. However, on May 10, 1968, Gacy was indicted on the sodomy charge.", "On August 30, 1968, Gacy promised one of his employees, 18-year-old Russell Schroeder, $300 if he physically assaulted Voorhees in an effort to discourage the boy from testifying in court. Schroeder lured Voorhees to an isolated country park, sprayed Mace in his eyes, then beat him. Voorhees escaped and reported the assault to police, identifying Schroeder as his attacker. They arrested him the following day", ". They arrested him the following day. While initially denying any involvement, Schroeder soon confessed to assaulting Voorhees, indicating he had done so at Gacy's request. Police arrested Gacy and laid an additional charge of hiring Schroeder to assault and intimidate Voorhees.", "On September 12, Gacy was ordered to undergo a psychiatric evaluation at the Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Iowa. Two doctors concluded he had an antisocial personality disorder (the clinical term for sociopathy and/or psychopathy), was unlikely to benefit from treatment, and that his behavior pattern was likely to bring him into repeated conflict with society. The doctors concluded he was mentally competent to stand trial.", "Conviction and imprisonment", "On November 7, 1968, Gacy pleaded guilty to one count of sodomy in relation to Voorhees, but not guilty to the charges related to other youths. Gacy claimed Voorhees had offered himself to him and that he had acted out of curiosity. His story was not believed. Gacy was convicted of sodomy on December 3 and sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, to be served at the Anamosa State Penitentiary", ". That same day, Gacy's wife petitioned for divorce, requesting she be awarded the couple's home and property, sole custody of their two children, and alimony. The Court ruled in her favor, and the divorce was finalized on September 18, 1969. Gacy never saw his first wife or children again.", "During his incarceration, Gacy rapidly acquired a reputation as a model prisoner. Within months of his arrival, he had risen to the position of head cook. He also joined the inmate Jaycee chapter and increased its membership from 50 to 650 men in less than eighteen months", ". Gacy secured an increase in the inmates' daily pay in the prison mess hall and supervised several projects to improve conditions for inmates, including the installation of a miniature golf course; he was presented with a distinguished service award for his efforts within the inmate Jaycee chapter in February 1970.", "In June 1969, Gacy was denied parole. To prepare for a second scheduled parole hearing in May 1970, he completed sixteen high school courses, obtaining his diploma in November 1969. On Christmas Day 1969, Gacy's father died from cirrhosis. When informed of his father's death, Gacy collapsed to the floor, sobbing. His request for supervised compassionate leave to attend the funeral was denied.", "Return to Chicago", "Gacy was granted parole with twelve months' probation on June 18, 1970, having served eighteen months of his ten-year sentence. Conditions of his probation included a nightly curfew and that Gacy relocate to Chicago to live with his mother. On his release, Gacy told friend and fellow Jaycee Clarence Lane—who picked him up from the prison and had remained steadfast in his belief of Gacy's innocence—that he would \"never go back to jail\" and that he intended to re-establish himself in Waterloo", ". However, within 24 hours, Gacy had relocated to Chicago. He arrived there by bus on June 19 and shortly thereafter obtained a job as a short-order cook.", "On February 12, 1971, Gacy was charged with sexually assaulting a teenage boy who claimed that he had lured him into his car at Chicago's Greyhound bus terminal and driven him to his home, where he had attempted to force the boy into sex. The court dismissed this complaint when the boy failed to appear", ". The court dismissed this complaint when the boy failed to appear. On June 22, Gacy was arrested and charged with aggravated sexual battery and reckless conduct, in response to a complaint filed by a youth who claimed that Gacy had flashed a sheriff's badge, lured him into his car, and forced him to perform oral sex. These charges were dropped after the complainant attempted to blackmail Gacy. The Iowa Board of Parole did not learn of these incidents", ". The Iowa Board of Parole did not learn of these incidents. Gacy's parole ended on October 18, 1971, and a month later the records of Gacy's criminal convictions in Iowa were sealed.", "8213 West Summerdale Avenue\nWith financial assistance from his mother, Gacy bought a ranch house at 8213 West Summerdale Avenue in unincorporated Norwood Park Township, Illinois, part of metropolitan Chicago. He lived there until his arrest in December 1978 and, according to Gacy, committed all his murders there.", "Gacy was active in his local community and helpful towards his neighbors; he willingly loaned his construction tools and plowed snow from neighborhood walks free of charge. From 1974 to 1978, he hosted themed annual summer parties. These events were attended by up to 400 people, including politicians and business associates.", "Second marriage and divorce \nIn August 1971, shortly after Gacy and his mother moved into the house, he became engaged to Carole Hoff, whom he had briefly dated in high school. Carole and her two young daughters from a previous marriage moved into Gacy's home soon after. They were married on July 1, 1972. His mother moved out of the house shortly before the wedding.", "By 1975, Gacy had told his wife that he was bisexual. After the couple had sex on Mother's Day that year, he informed her this would be \"the last time\" they would do so. He began spending most evenings away from home, only to return in the early morning with the excuse he had been working late, or conducting business meetings. Carole observed Gacy bringing teenage boys into his garage in the early hours and also found gay pornography and men's wallets and identification inside the house", ". When she confronted Gacy about these items, he informed her angrily that it was none of her business.", "In October 1975, after a heated argument, Carole asked Gacy for a divorce. He agreed although, by mutual consent, she continued to live at the West Summerdale house until February 1976. On March 2, the Gacys' divorce—decreed on the false grounds of Gacy's infidelity with women—was finalized.", "PDM Contractors\nIn 1971, Gacy established a part-time construction business, PDM Contractors (for \"Painting, Decorating, and Maintenance\"). With the approval of his probation officer, Gacy worked evenings on his construction contracts while working as a cook during the day. Initially, he undertook minor repair work, but later expanded to include projects such as interior design, remodeling, and landscaping. In mid-1973, Gacy quit his job as a cook so he could commit fully to his construction business.", "By 1975, PDM was expanding rapidly and Gacy was working up to sixteen hours per day. In March 1977, he became a supervisor for PE Systems, a firm specializing in the remodeling of drugstores. Between PE Systems and PDM, Gacy worked on up to four projects simultaneously and frequently traveled to other states. By 1978, PDM's annual revenue was over $200,000.\n\nClown", "Clown\n\nThrough his membership in a local Moose Club, Gacy became aware of a \"Jolly Joker\" clown club, whose members regularly performed at fundraising events and parades in addition to voluntarily entertaining hospitalized children. In late 1975, Gacy joined the clown club and created his own characters \"Pogo the Clown\" and \"Patches the Clown\", devising his own makeup and costumes. He described Pogo as a \"happy clown\", whereas Patches was a \"more serious\" character.", "Gacy seldom earned money for his performances and later said that acting as a clown allowed him to \"regress into childhood\". He performed as both Pogo and Patches at numerous local parties, political functions, charitable events, and children's hospitals. Gacy's voluntary public service as a clown throughout the years of his murders led to him being known as the \"Killer Clown\".", "Employees\nMuch of PDM's workforce consisted of high school students and young men. Gacy would often proposition his workers for sex, or insist on sexual favors in return for lending his vehicles, financial assistance or promotions. Gacy also claimed to own guns, once telling an employee, \"Do you know how easy it would be to get one of my guns and kill you—and how easy it would be to get rid of the body?\"", "In 1973, Gacy and a teenage employee traveled to Florida to view a property Gacy had purchased; while there, Gacy raped the employee in their hotel room. After returning to Chicago, this employee drove to Gacy's house and beat him in his front yard. Gacy told his wife he had been attacked for refusing to pay him for poor quality painting work.", "In May 1975, Gacy hired 15-year-old Anthony Antonucci. Two months later, he went to Antonucci's home, knowing the youth had an injured foot. The two drank a bottle of wine, then watched a heterosexual stag film before Gacy wrestled Antonucci to the floor and cuffed his hands behind his back. One cuff was loose and Antonucci freed his arm while Gacy was out of the room. When Gacy returned, Antonucci—a high school wrestler—grappled with him, obtained the key, and cuffed Gacy's hands behind his back", ". Gacy threatened Antonucci, then calmed down and promised to leave if he was freed. Antonucci agreed and Gacy left. Antonucci continued working for PDM for nine months after this incident, and Gacy made no further attempts to assault him.", "On July 26, 1976, Gacy picked up 18-year-old hitchhiker David Cram and offered him a job with PDM; he began work the same evening. On August 21, Cram moved into his house. The next day, Cram and Gacy had several drinks to celebrate his 19th birthday, with Gacy dressed as Pogo. Gacy conned Cram into donning handcuffs, his wrists cuffed in front of his body rather than behind. He swung Cram around while holding the chain linking the cuffs, then said he intended to rape him", ". He swung Cram around while holding the chain linking the cuffs, then said he intended to rape him. Cram kicked Gacy in the face and freed himself.", "A month later, Gacy appeared at Cram's bedroom door intending to rape him, saying, \"Dave, you really don't know who I am. Maybe it would be good if you give me what I want.\" Cram resisted, straddling Gacy, who left the bedroom, stating, \"You ain't no fun.\" Cram moved out on October 5 and left PDM (although he periodically worked for Gacy over the following two years). Shortly afterwards, another employee, 18-year-old Michael Rossi, moved in. Rossi had worked for PDM since May 23, 1976", ". Rossi had worked for PDM since May 23, 1976. He lived with Gacy until April 1977. Rossi sometimes assisted Gacy in clowning at grand openings of businesses: Gacy as Pogo and Rossi as Patches.", "Politics\n\nGacy entered local Democratic Party politics, initially offering use of his employees to clean party headquarters at no charge. He was rewarded with an invitation to serve on the Norwood Park Township street lighting committee, subsequently earning the title of precinct captain.", "In 1975, Gacy was appointed director of Chicago's annual Polish Constitution Day Parade. Through his work with the parade, which he would supervise until 1978, Gacy met and was photographed with First Lady Rosalynn Carter wearing an \"S\" pin, indicating a person given special clearance. The event later became an embarrassment to the United States Secret Service.", "Murders", "Gacy murdered at least 33 young men and boys, 26 of whom he buried in the crawl space of his house. His victims included people he knew and random individuals lured from Chicago's Greyhound Bus station, Bughouse Square, or off the streets with the promise of a job with PDM, an offer of drink and/or drugs, or money for sex. Some victims were grabbed by force; others were conned into believing Gacy (who often carried a sheriff's badge and had spotlights on his black Oldsmobile) was a policeman", ". Gacy usually lured a lone victim to his house, although on more than one occasion Gacy had what he called \"doubles\"—two killed in the same evening.", "Inside Gacy's home, his usual modus operandi was to ply a youth with drink, drugs, or generally gain his trust. He would then produce a pair of handcuffs to \"show a magic trick\", sometimes as part of a clowning routine. He typically cuffed his own hands behind his back, then surreptitiously released himself with a hidden key. He then offered to show his intended victim the trick. With his victim restrained, Gacy proceeded with rape and torture", ". With his victim restrained, Gacy proceeded with rape and torture. He frequently began by sitting on or straddling his victim's chest before forcing the victim to fellate him. Gacy then inflicted acts of torture including burning with cigars, making his captive imitate a horse as he sat on their back and pulled on makeshift reins around their necks, and violation with foreign objects such as dildos and prescription bottles after he had sodomized his captive", ". Gacy frequently manacled his captives' ankles to a two-by-four with handcuffs attached at each end, an act inspired by the Houston Mass Murders. He also taunted many victims throughout their abuse, and was known to have partly drowned several in the bathtub before repeatedly reviving them.", "Gacy typically murdered his victims by placing a rope tourniquet around their neck and progressively tightening it with a hammer handle. He referred to this as the \"rope trick\", frequently informing his victim, \"This is the last trick.\" Occasionally, the victim convulsed for an \"hour or two\" before dying, although several victims died by asphyxiation from cloth gags stuffed deep in their throats. Except for his two final victims, all were murdered between 3:00 and 6:00 a.m", ". Except for his two final victims, all were murdered between 3:00 and 6:00 a.m. Gacy usually stored the victims' corpses under his bed for up to 24 hours before burying them in the crawl space, where he periodically poured quicklime to hasten decomposition. Some were taken to his garage and embalmed prior to burial.", "Murder of Timothy McCoy", "Gacy's first known murder occurred on January 3, 1972. According to Gacy's later account, following a family party the previous evening, he drove to the Civic Center in the Loop in the early morning to view a display of ice sculptures. He then lured 16-year-old Timothy Jack McCoy from Chicago's Greyhound Bus Terminal into his car. McCoy was on his way to his father's home in Omaha, Nebraska, and informed Gacy his bus to Nebraska was not due until noon", ". Gacy took McCoy on a sightseeing tour of Chicago and then drove him to his home with the promise that he could spend the remainder of the night and be driven back to the station in time to catch his bus. Prior to McCoy's identification, he was known as the \"Greyhound Bus Boy\".", "Gacy claimed he woke early the following morning to find McCoy standing in his bedroom doorway holding a kitchen knife. He jumped from his bed and McCoy raised both arms in a gesture of surrender, accidentally cutting Gacy's forearm. Gacy disarmed McCoy, banged his head against the bedroom wall, and kicked him against his wardrobe. McCoy kicked Gacy in the stomach, doubling him over. Gacy then grabbed McCoy, wrestled him to the floor and stabbed him repeatedly in the chest.", "As McCoy lay dying, Gacy claimed he washed the knife in his bathroom, then went to his kitchen and saw the makings of breakfast on the table. McCoy had set the table for two; he had walked into Gacy's room to wake him while absentmindedly carrying the knife. Gacy buried McCoy in his crawl space and later covered his grave with a layer of concrete", ". Gacy buried McCoy in his crawl space and later covered his grave with a layer of concrete. In an interview several years after his arrest, Gacy said that immediately after killing McCoy, he felt \"totally drained\", yet noted that as he stabbed McCoy and as he listened to the \"gurgulations\" and gasping, he had experienced a mind-numbing orgasm. He added: \"That's when I realized that death was the ultimate thrill.\"", "Second murder\nGacy said he committed murder for the second time around January 1974. This victim remains unidentified; he was strangled and placed in Gacy's closet before burial. Gacy later stated that bodily fluids leaked from the victim's mouth and nose, staining his carpet. Gacy regularly stuffed rags, the victim's own underwear, or a sock into the mouths of subsequent victims to prevent such a leakage.\n\nMurder of John Butkovich", "Murder of John Butkovich\n\nOn July 31, 1975, John Butkovich, an 18-year-old PDM employee, disappeared. Butkovich's car was later found abandoned with his jacket and wallet inside and the keys in the ignition.", "The day before his disappearance, Butkovich had confronted Gacy over outstanding back pay. Butkovich's father called Gacy, who claimed he was happy to help search for his son but was sorry Butkovich had \"run away\". When questioned by police, Gacy said Butkovich and two friends had arrived at his house demanding the overdue pay, but they had reached a compromise and all three had left", ". Over the following three years, Butkovich's parents called police more than 100 times, urging them to investigate Gacy further.", "Gacy later admitted to encountering Butkovich exiting his car, waving to attract his attention. According to Gacy, Butkovich approached him, stating, \"I wanna talk to you.\" Gacy invited Butkovich into his car, then invited him back to his home, ostensibly to settle the issue of his overdue wages. At his home, Gacy offered Butkovich a drink, then conned him into allowing his wrists to be cuffed behind his back. Gacy later confessed to having \"sat on the kid's chest for a while\" before he strangled him", ". Gacy later confessed to having \"sat on the kid's chest for a while\" before he strangled him. He stowed Butkovich's body in his garage, intending to bury the body later in the crawl space. When his wife and stepdaughters returned home earlier than expected, Gacy buried Butkovich under the concrete floor of the tool room extension of his garage in an empty space where he had intended to dig a drain tile.", "Cruising years\nIn addition to being the year his business expanded, Gacy freely admitted that 1975 was also when he began to increase the frequency of his excursions for sex with young males. He often referred to these jaunts as \"cruising\". Gacy committed most of his murders between 1976 and 1978, as he largely lived alone following his divorce.", "Although Gacy remained gregarious and civic-minded, several neighbors noticed behavioral changes after his 1976 divorce, including seeing him keeping company with young males, hearing his car arrive or depart in the early morning, or seeing lights in his home switch on and off in the early hours. One neighbor later recollected that, for several years, muffled high-pitched screaming, shouting, and crying had repeatedly awakened her and her son in the early morning", ". She identified the sounds as emanating from a house adjacent to theirs on West Summerdale Avenue.", "1976", "One month after his divorce was finalized, Gacy abducted and murdered 18-year-old Darrell Samson. He was last seen alive in Chicago on April 6, 1976. Gacy buried him under the dining room, with cloth lodged in his throat. On May 14, 15-year-old Randall Reffett disappeared shortly after returning home from a dental appointment. Hours after Reffett was last seen by his family, 14-year-old Samuel Stapleton vanished as he walked home from his sister's apartment", ". He and Reffett were close acquaintances; they were buried together in the crawl space, and investigators believe the two were murdered the same evening.", "On June 3, Gacy killed 17-year-old Michael Bonnin, who disappeared while traveling from Chicago to Waukegan. Gacy strangled Bonnin with a ligature and buried him under the spare bedroom. Ten days later, Gacy murdered 16-year-old William Carroll and buried him in a common grave in the crawl space. Carroll seems to have been the first of four victims known to have been murdered between June 13 and August 6, 1976", ". Three were between 16 and 17 years old, and one unidentified victim appears to have been an adult.", "On August 5, 16-year-old James Haakenson is last known to have phoned his family, possibly from Gacy's home. Haakenson died of suffocation. His body was buried in the crawl space beneath 17-year-old Rick Johnston, who was last seen alive on August 6.", "Gacy is thought to have murdered two unidentified males between August and October 1976. On October 24, Gacy abducted and killed teenage friends Kenneth Parker and Michael Marino: the two were last seen on Clark Street in Chicago. Two days later, 19-year-old construction worker William Bundy disappeared after informing his family he was to attend a party. Bundy died of suffocation. Gacy buried the body beneath his master bedroom. Bundy had apparently worked for Gacy.", "Between November and December 1976, Gacy murdered 21-year-old Francis Alexander. His last contact with his family was a phone call to his mother sometime in November. He was not reported missing as his family believed he had moved to California shortly thereafter. Alexander was buried beneath the room Gacy used as his office.", "In December 1976, 17-year-old Gregory Godzik disappeared. His girlfriend last saw him outside her house. Godzik had worked for PDM for less than three weeks when he disappeared. He had informed his family that Gacy had had him \"dig trenches for some kind of (drain) tiles\" in his crawl space. Godzik's car was later found abandoned. His parents and older sister contacted Gacy about Godzik's disappearance", ". His parents and older sister contacted Gacy about Godzik's disappearance. Gacy claimed that Godzik had expressed a wish to run away from home; he also claimed to have received an answering machine message from Godzik shortly after he had disappeared. When asked if he could play the message for Godzik's parents, Gacy said he had erased it.", "1977\nOn January 20, 1977, Gacy lured 19-year-old John Szyc to his house on the pretext of buying his Plymouth Satellite. He later confessed to strangling Szyc in his spare bedroom, claiming Rossi was asleep in the house the following morning. Gacy later sold the car to Rossi for $300.", "Two months later, on March 15, 20-year-old Jon Prestidge disappeared. Prestidge was last seen leaving a Near North Side restaurant. He was buried in the crawl space above the body of Francis Alexander. Shortly before his disappearance, Prestidge had mentioned he had obtained work with a local contractor. Gacy murdered one additional unidentified youth and buried him in the crawl space in the spring or early summer of 1977. On July 5, Gacy killed 19-year-old Matthew Bowman", ". On July 5, Gacy killed 19-year-old Matthew Bowman. Bowman's mother last saw him at a suburban train station; he had intended to travel to Harwood Heights for a court appointment.", "The following month, Rossi was arrested for stealing gasoline while driving Szyc's car. The gas station attendant noted the license plate and police traced the car to Gacy's house. When questioned, Gacy told officers that Szyc had sold the car to him in February, saying he needed money to leave town. A check of the VIN confirmed the car had belonged to Szyc. The police did not pursue the matter further, although they did inform Szyc's mother that her son had sold his car.", "By the end of 1977, Gacy had murdered six more young men between the ages of 16 and 21. The first of these was 18-year-old Robert Gilroy, the son of a Chicago police sergeant, last seen alive on September 15. Gilroy lived four blocks from Gacy's house. He was buried in the crawl space. On September 12, Gacy had flown to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to supervise a remodeling project, and did not return to Chicago until September 16", ". Because Gacy was in another state at the time Gilroy was last seen, this is cited to support Gacy's claim of assistance from one or more accomplices in several homicides. Ten days after Gilroy was last seen, 19-year-old former U.S. Marine John Mowery disappeared after leaving his mother's house. Gacy strangled Mowery and buried his body beneath the master bedroom.", "On October 17, 21-year-old Russell Nelson disappeared; he was last seen outside a Chicago bar. Nelson was looking for contracting work. Gacy murdered him and buried him beneath the guest bedroom. Less than four weeks later, Gacy murdered 16-year-old Robert Winch and buried him in the crawl space. Twenty-year-old Tommy Boling disappeared on November 18 after leaving a Chicago bar. On December 9, 19-year-old U.S", ". On December 9, 19-year-old U.S. Marine David Talsma disappeared after telling his mother he was to attend a rock concert in Hammond, Indiana. Gacy strangled Talsma with a ligature and buried him in the crawl space, close to John Mowery.", "On December 30, Gacy abducted 19-year-old college student Robert Donnelly from a Chicago bus stop at gunpoint. Gacy drove him to his home, where he raped, tortured, and repeatedly drowned Donnelly to unconsciousness in a bathtub as he made statements such as, \"Aren't we playing fun games tonight?\" Donnelly later testified at trial that he was in such pain that he asked Gacy to kill him. Gacy replied \"I'm getting 'round to it", ". Gacy replied \"I'm getting 'round to it.\" After several hours, Gacy drove Donnelly to his workplace and released him, warning him that if he complained to police, they would not believe him.", "1978", "Donnelly reported the assault, and police questioned Gacy on January 6, 1978. Gacy admitted to having had a \"slave-sex\" relationship with Donnelly, but insisted everything was consensual, adding that he \"didn't pay the kid\" the money he had promised him. The police believed him and filed no charges. The following month, Gacy killed 19-year-old William Kindred, who disappeared on February 16 after telling his fiancée, who knew Gacy, that he was going to a bar", ". Kindred was the final victim buried in the crawl space.", "On March 21, Gacy lured 26-year-old Jeffrey Rignall into his car. Gacy chloroformed him and drove him to his house, where his arms and head were restrained in a pillory device affixed to the ceiling and his feet locked into another device. He raped and tortured Rignall with instruments including lit candles and whips and repeatedly chloroformed him into unconsciousness. Gacy then dumped Rignall in Chicago's Lincoln Park, unconscious but alive.", "Rignall managed to stagger to his girlfriend's apartment. Police were informed of the assault but did not investigate Gacy. Rignall was able to recall the Oldsmobile, the Kennedy Expressway and particular side streets. He and two friends staked out the Cumberland exit of the Expressway and, in April, Rignall saw the Oldsmobile, which he and his friends followed to 8213 West Summerdale. Gacy was arrested on July 15; he faced trial for assault and battery against Rignall.", "By mid-1978, the crawl space had no room for further bodies. Gacy later confessed to police that he considered stowing bodies in his attic, but had been worried about complications arising from \"leakage\". Therefore, he chose to dispose of his victims off the I-55 bridge into the Des Plaines River. Gacy stated he had thrown five bodies into this river in 1978, one of which he believed had landed on a passing barge; only four were ever found.", "The first known victim thrown from the bridge was 20-year-old Timothy O'Rourke. He was murdered in mid-June after leaving his apartment to purchase cigarettes. Shortly before his disappearance, O'Rourke had told his roommate a contractor on the Northwest Side had offered him a job. On November 4, Gacy killed 19-year-old Frank Landingin. He was last seen alive by his father walking along Foster Avenue; his naked body was found close to an inlet in the Des Plaines River by two duck hunters on November 12", ". On November 24, 20-year-old James Mazzara disappeared after Thanksgiving dinner with his family. Mazzara had informed his sister the day before that he was working in construction. He was last seen walking in the direction of Bughouse Square.", "Murder of Robert Piest\n\nOn the afternoon of December 11, 1978, Gacy visited the Nisson Pharmacy in Des Plaines, to discuss a potential remodeling deal with the store owner, Phil Torf. While he was within earshot of 15-year-old part-time employee Robert Piest, Gacy mentioned his firm often hired teenage boys at a starting wage of $5 per hour—almost double the pay Piest earned at the pharmacy.", "Shortly after Gacy left, Piest's mother arrived at the store to drive her son home so the family could celebrate her birthday together. Piest asked his mother to wait, adding that \"some contractor wants to talk to me about a job\". He left the store at 9:00 p.m., promising to return shortly.", "Piest was murdered shortly after 10:00 p.m. at Gacy's home. Gacy later stated that at his house, he gave Piest a soft drink before asking whether there was anything he \"wouldn't do for the right price\", to which Piest replied that he did not mind working hard. In response, Gacy stated \"good money\" could be earned by hustling, although Piest was dismissive. Gacy then duped Piest into donning handcuffs", ". Gacy then duped Piest into donning handcuffs. Gacy's subsequent statements regarding the events varied, although in one of his initial statements, he claimed Piest failed to resist as he removed the boy's trousers. He also stated that as he placed the rope around Piest's neck, the boy was \"crying, scared\". Gacy admitted to having received a phone call from a business acquaintance as Piest lay dying.", "Investigation\nWhen Piest failed to return, his family filed a missing person report with the Des Plaines police. Torf named Gacy as the contractor Piest had most likely left the store to talk to. Lieutenant Joseph Kozenczak, whose son attended Maine West High School like Piest, chose to investigate Gacy further. A check of Gacy's criminal background revealed that he had an outstanding battery charge in Chicago and had been imprisoned in Iowa for the sodomy of a 15-year-old boy.", "Kozenczak and two Des Plaines police officers visited Gacy at his home the following evening. Gacy indicated he had asked one of the youths working at the pharmacy—whom he believed to be Piest—whether there were any remodeling materials behind the store. He was adamant, however, that he had not offered Piest a job, and had only returned to the pharmacy shortly after 8:00 p.m. as he had left his appointment book", ".m. as he had left his appointment book. Gacy promised to come to the station later that evening to make a statement, indicating he was unable to do so at that moment as his uncle had just died. When questioned as to how soon he could come to the police station, he responded, \"You guys are very rude. Don't you have any respect for the dead?\"", "At 3:20 a.m., Gacy arrived at the police station covered in mud, claiming he had been involved in a car accident. On returning to the police station later that day, Gacy denied any involvement in Piest's disappearance and repeated that he had not offered him a job. Gacy reiterated that he had returned to the pharmacy in response to a phone call from Torf informing him he had left his appointment book at the store. Detectives had already spoken with Torf, who denied calling Gacy", ". Detectives had already spoken with Torf, who denied calling Gacy. At the request of detectives, Gacy prepared a written statement detailing his movements on December 11.", "First search warrant", "Suspecting Gacy might be holding Piest at his home, Des Plaines police obtained a search warrant on December 13", ". This search revealed several suspicious items, including several police badges; a starter pistol; a syringe and hypodermic needle; handcuffs; books on homosexuality and pederasty; pornographic films; capsules of amyl nitrite; a dildo; a two-by-four with two holes drilled into each end; bottles of Valium and atropine; several driver's licenses; a blue hooded parka; and underwear too small to fit Gacy. They also found a class ring engraved with the initials J.A.S", ". They also found a class ring engraved with the initials J.A.S. and a Nisson Pharmacy photo receipt in a trash can, alongside a section of nylon rope.", "Surveillance", "The Des Plaines police confiscated Gacy's Oldsmobile and other PDM work vehicles. Surveillance teams (consisting of officers Mike Albrecht and David Hachmeister, and Ronald Robinson and Robert Schultz) monitored Gacy as the investigation continued. The following day, investigators received a phone call from Michael Rossi, who informed the investigators of Gregory Godzik's disappearance and the fact that another PDM employee, Charles Hattula, had been found drowned in an Illinois river earlier that year.", "On December 15, Des Plaines investigators obtained further details of Gacy's battery charge, learning the complainant, Jeffrey Rignall, had reported that Gacy had lured him into his car, then chloroformed, raped and tortured him before dumping him in Lincoln Park. In an interview with Gacy's former wife the same day, they learned of the disappearance of John Butkovich. The same day, the class ring was traced to a John Alan Szyc", ". The same day, the class ring was traced to a John Alan Szyc. An interview with Szyc's mother revealed that several items from her son's apartment were also missing, including a Motorola TV.", "By December 16, Gacy was becoming affable with the surveillance detectives, regularly inviting them to join him for meals in restaurants and occasionally for drinks in bars or at his home. He repeatedly denied involvement with Piest's disappearance and accused the officers of harassing him because of his political connections or his recreational drug use", ". Knowing these officers were unlikely to arrest him on anything trivial, he taunted them by flouting traffic laws and succeeded in losing his pursuers more than once. That afternoon, Cram consented to a police interview, in which he revealed that, because of his poor timekeeping, Gacy had once given him a watch, explaining he got it \"from a dead person\".", "Investigators conducted a formal interview of Rossi on December 17. He informed them Gacy had sold him Szyc's vehicle, explaining that he had bought the car from Szyc because he needed money to move to California. A further examination of Gacy's Oldsmobile revealed a small cluster of fibers in the trunk, suspected to be human hair. That evening, three trained search dogs were used to determine whether Piest had been present in any of Gacy's vehicles", ". One laid on the passenger seat of Gacy's Oldsmobile in what the dog's handler informed investigators was a \"death reaction\", indicating Piest's body had been present.", "That evening, Gacy invited detectives Albrecht and Hachmeister to a restaurant for a meal. Early on December 18, he invited them into another restaurant where, over breakfast, he discussed his business, his marriages and his clowning. During the conversation, Gacy remarked: \"You know... clowns can get away with murder.\"", "By December 18, Gacy was beginning to display signs of strain from the constant surveillance: he was unshaven, looked tired and anxious and was drinking heavily. That afternoon, he drove to his lawyers' office to prepare a $750,000 civil suit against the Des Plaines police, demanding that they cease their surveillance. The same day, the Nisson Pharmacy photo receipt found in Gacy's kitchen was traced to 17-year-old Kimberly Byers, a colleague of Piest at Nisson Pharmacy", ". Byers stated that she had borrowed Piest's parka earlier in the evening and had placed the receipt in the pocket just before she returned the coat to Piest as he left the store.", "Second search warrant\nThe same evening, Rossi was interviewed a second time. This time he was more cooperative. He informed detectives that in the summer of 1977, at Gacy's behest, he had spread ten bags of lime in the crawl space of Gacy's house.", "On December 19, investigators began compiling evidence for a second search warrant for Gacy's house. The same day, Gacy's lawyers filed the civil suit against the Des Plaines police. The hearing for the suit was scheduled for December 22. That afternoon, Gacy invited the surveillance detectives inside his house again", ". That afternoon, Gacy invited the surveillance detectives inside his house again. As officer Robinson distracted Gacy with conversation, officer Schultz walked into Gacy's bedroom in an unsuccessful attempt to write down the serial number of the Motorola TV set they suspected belonged to John Szyc. While flushing Gacy's toilet, the officer noticed a smell he suspected could be that of rotting corpses emanating from a heating duct", ". The officers who had searched Gacy's house previously had failed to notice this, as the house had been cold.", "Investigators interviewed both Cram and Rossi on December 20. When questioned as to where he believed Gacy had concealed Piest's body, Rossi replied Gacy may have placed the body in the crawl space. Rossi agreed to submit to a polygraph test. He denied any involvement in Piest's disappearance or any knowledge of his whereabouts", ". He denied any involvement in Piest's disappearance or any knowledge of his whereabouts. He soon refused to continue the questioning, and Rossi's \"erratic and inconsistent\" responses while attached to the polygraph machine rendered Kozenczak \"unable to render a definite opinion\" as to his truthfulness. Rossi did, however, further discuss the trench digging he did in the crawl space and remarked on Gacy's insistence that he not deviate from where he was instructed to dig.", "Cram informed investigators of Gacy's attempts to rape him in 1976. He stated that after he and Gacy had returned to his home after the December 13 search, Gacy had turned pale after seeing a clod of mud on his carpet and had immediately entered the crawl space to look for evidence of digging. When asked whether he had been to the crawl space, Cram replied he had once been asked by Gacy to spread lime down there and had also dug trenches, which Gacy had explained were for drainage pipes", ". Cram stated these trenches were wide, long and deep—the size of graves.", "Confession", "On the evening of December 20, Gacy drove to his lawyers' office in Park Ridge to attend a scheduled meeting, ostensibly to discuss the progress of his civil suit. Gacy appeared anxious and disheveled and immediately asked for an alcoholic drink. Sam Amirante fetched a bottle of Seagrams whiskey, and Gacy immediately drank two cupfuls", ". Sam Amirante fetched a bottle of Seagrams whiskey, and Gacy immediately drank two cupfuls. Amirante—by this stage dubious of Gacy's claims of innocence—then asked Gacy what he had to discuss with them, placing a copy of the Daily Herald on his desk and stating: \"You said you had something new to tell me! Something important!\" Gacy picked up the newspaper, pointed to the front-page article covering the disappearance of Robert Piest and said, \"This boy is dead. He's dead. He's in a river.\"", "Gacy then proceeded to give a rambling confession that ran into the early hours of the following morning. He began by stating he had \"been the judge... jury and executioner of many, many people\", and that he now wanted to be the same for himself. He said he had murdered \"at least thirty\" victims, most of whom he had buried in his crawl space, and had disposed of five other bodies in the Des Plaines River", ". Gacy dismissed his victims as \"male prostitutes\", \"hustlers\" and \"liars\", adding he sometimes awoke to find \"dead, strangled kids\" with their hands cuffed behind their back. He had buried their bodies in his crawl space as he believed they were his property.", "As a result of the alcohol he had consumed, Gacy fell asleep midway through his confession. Amirante immediately arranged a psychiatric appointment for Gacy that morning. On awakening several hours later, Gacy shook his head when informed by Amirante he had confessed to killing approximately 30 people, saying, \"Well, I can't think about this right now. I've got things to do.\" Ignoring his lawyers' advice regarding his scheduled appointment, Gacy left to attend to his business.", "Gacy later recollected his memories of his final day of freedom as being \"hazy\", adding he knew his arrest was inevitable and that he intended to visit his friends and say his farewells. After leaving his lawyers' office, Gacy drove to a gas station where he handed a small bag of cannabis to the attendant, who immediately handed the bag to the surveillance officers, adding that Gacy had told him, \"The end is coming (for me). These guys are going to kill me", ". These guys are going to kill me.\" Gacy then drove to the home of a fellow contractor and friend, Ronald Rhode. Gacy hugged Rhode before bursting into tears and saying, \"I've been a bad boy. I killed thirty people, give or take a few.\" Gacy left Rhode and drove to Cram's home to meet with Cram and Rossi. The surveillance officers noted he was holding a rosary to his chin, praying while he drove along the expressway.", "After talking with Cram and Rossi, Gacy had Cram drive him to a scheduled legal meeting. Cram informed the surveillance officers that Gacy had told him and Rossi that he had confessed to over 30 murders with his lawyers the previous evening. Gacy then had Cram drive him to Maryhill Cemetery, where his father was buried.", "As Gacy drove to various locations that morning, police outlined the formal draft of their second search warrant, specifically to search for the body of Robert Piest in the crawl space. On hearing from the surveillance detectives that, in light of his erratic behavior, Gacy might be about to commit suicide, police decided to arrest him on a charge of possession and distribution of cannabis in order to hold him in custody, as the formal request for a second search warrant was presented. At 4:30 p.m", ". At 4:30 p.m. on December 21, the eve of the hearing of Gacy's civil suit, a second search warrant was granted. After police informed Gacy of their intentions to search his crawl space for the body of Piest, Gacy denied the teenager was buried there, but confessed to having killed in self-defense a young man whose body was buried under his garage.", "Armed with the signed search warrant, police and evidence technicians drove to Gacy's home. They found Gacy had unplugged his sump pump, flooding the crawl space with water; they replaced the plug and waited for the water to drain. Evidence technician Daniel Genty then entered the crawl space, crawled to the southwest area and began digging. Within minutes, he uncovered putrefied flesh and a human arm bone", ". Within minutes, he uncovered putrefied flesh and a human arm bone. Genty shouted to the investigators that they could charge Gacy with murder, adding, \"I think this place is full of kids.\" A police photographer uncovered a patella in the northeast corner. The two then began digging in the southeast corner, uncovering two lower leg bones.", "The victims were too decomposed to be Piest. As the body in the northeast corner was unearthed, a crime scene technician discovered the skull of a second victim alongside this body. Later excavations of the feet of this second victim revealed a further skull beneath the body. Because of this, technicians returned to the trench where the first body was unearthed, discovering the rib cage of a fourth victim, confirming the scale of the murders.", "Arrest", "After being informed that the police had found human remains in his crawl space and that he would now face murder charges, Gacy told officers he wanted to \"clear the air\". In the early morning hours of December 22, and in the presence of his lawyers, Gacy provided a formal statement in which he confessed to murdering approximately 30 young males—all of whom he claimed had entered his house willingly. Some victims were referred to by name, but Gacy claimed not to know or remember most of the names", ". Some victims were referred to by name, but Gacy claimed not to know or remember most of the names. He claimed all were teenage male runaways or male prostitutes, the majority of whom he had buried in his crawl space. Gacy claimed to have dug only five of the graves in this location and had his employees (including Gregory Godzik) dig the remaining trenches so that he would \"have graves available\"", ". When shown a driver's license issued to a Robert Hasten which had been found on his property, Gacy claimed not to know him but admitted that this license had been in the possession of one of his victims. In January 1979, he had planned to conceal the corpses even further by covering the entire crawl space with concrete.", "When questioned specifically about Piest, Gacy confessed to luring him to his house and strangling him on December 11. He also admitted to having slept alongside Piest's body that evening, before disposing of the corpse in the Des Plaines River in the early hours of December 13. On his way to the police station, he had been in a minor traffic accident after disposing of Piest. His vehicle had slid off an ice-covered road and had to be towed free.", "Accompanied by police, his lawyers, and his older sister, Gacy was driven to the I-55 bridge on December 23 to pinpoint the precise spot where he confessed to having thrown the body of Robert Piest and four other victims into the river. Gacy was then taken to his house and instructed to mark his garage floor with orange spray paint to show where he had buried the individual he had supposedly killed in self-defense, whom he named as John Butkovich", ". To assist officers in their search, Gacy drew a rough diagram of his basement to indicate where their bodies were buried. Twenty-six bodies were unearthed from Gacy's crawl space over the next week; three others were also unearthed elsewhere on his property. As the flooring and walls of the property were dismantled, additional evidence including identification cards and further deviant sex books were discovered.", "Trial\nGacy was brought to trial on February 6, 1980, charged with 33 murders. He was tried in Cook County, Illinois, before Judge Louis Garippo; the jury was selected from Rockford because of extensive press coverage in Cook County.", "At the request of his defense counsel, Gacy spent over three hundred hours with doctors at the Menard Correctional Center in Chester in the year before his trial. He underwent a variety of psychological tests to determine whether he was mentally competent to stand trial. Gacy attempted to convince the doctors that he had multiple personality disorder", ". Gacy attempted to convince the doctors that he had multiple personality disorder. He claimed to have four personalities: the hard-working, civic-minded contractor, the clown, the active politician, and a policeman called Jack Hanley, whom he referred to as \"Bad Jack\". When Gacy had confessed to police, he claimed to be relaying the crimes of Jack, who detested homosexuality and viewed male prostitutes as \"weak, stupid and degraded scum\"", ". His lawyers opted to have Gacy plead not guilty by reason of insanity.", "In his opening statement, one of Gacy's defense attorneys, Robert Motta, remarked: \"The insanity defense has been looked [upon] as an escape; a defense of last resort. The defense of insanity is valid and it is the only defense that we could use here, because that is where the truth lies ... because if [Gacy] is normal, then our concept of normality is totally distorted.\" Presenting Gacy as a Jekyll-and-Hyde character, the defense produced several psychiatric experts who had examined Gacy", ". Three psychiatric experts at Gacy's trial testified they found him to be a paranoid schizophrenic with multiple personalities.", "The prosecutors presented the case that Gacy was sane and in full control of his actions. They produced several witnesses to testify to the premeditation of Gacy's actions and the efforts he took to escape detection. Those doctors refuted the defense doctors' claims of multiple personalities and insanity. Cram and Rossi testified that Gacy had made them dig drainage trenches and spread bags of lime in his crawl space", ". Both said Gacy looked periodically into the crawl space to ensure they and other employees they supervised did not deviate from the precise locations he had marked.", "On February 18, Robert Stein testified that all the bodies recovered from Gacy's property were \"markedly decomposed [and] putrefied, skeletalized remains\", and that of all the autopsies he performed, thirteen victims had died of asphyxiation, six of ligature strangulation, one of multiple stab wounds to the chest and ten in undetermined ways. When Gacy's defense team suggested that all 33 deaths were caused by accidental erotic asphyxia, Stein called this highly improbable.", "Jeffrey Rignall testified for the defense on February 21. Rignall wept repeatedly while describing Gacy's torture of him in March 1978. During specific cross-examination relating to the torture, Rignall vomited and was excused from further testimony. On February 29, Donald Voorhees testified to his ordeal at Gacy's hands and his assault at Gacy's behest. Voorhees felt unable to testify but did briefly attempt to do so before being asked to step down", ". Voorhees felt unable to testify but did briefly attempt to do so before being asked to step down. Robert Donnelly testified the week after Voorhees, recounting his ordeal at Gacy's hands in December 1977. Donnelly was visibly distressed as he recalled the abuse.", "During the fifth week of the trial, Gacy wrote a personal letter to Judge Garippo requesting a mistrial for reasons including that he did not approve of his lawyers' insanity plea; that his lawyers had not allowed him to take the witness stand (as he had wanted to do); that his defense had not called enough medical witnesses, and that the police were lying with regard to verbal statements he had allegedly made to detectives after his arrest and that, in any event", ", in any event, the statements were \"self-serving\" for use by the prosecution", ". Judge Garippo addressed Gacy's letter by informing him that both counsels had not been denied the opportunity or funds to summon expert witnesses to testify, and that, under the law, he had the choice whether he wished to testify, and was free to indicate as much to the judge.", "Closing arguments", "On March 11, final arguments by both prosecution and defense attorneys began. Prosecuting attorney Terry Sullivan outlined Gacy's history of abusing youths, the testimony of his efforts to avoid detection and describing his surviving victims—Voorhees and Donnelly—as \"living dead\". Referring to Gacy as the \"worst of all murderers\", Sullivan stated, \"John Gacy has accounted for more human devastation than many earthly catastrophes..", "... I tremble when thinking about just how close he came to getting away with it all.\"", "After the state's four-hour closing, counsel Sam Amirante spoke for the defense. Amirante accused Sullivan of scarcely referring to the evidence in his own closing argument, and of arousing hatred against his client. He attempted to portray Gacy as \"driven by compulsions he was unable to control\", contending the State had not met their burden of proving Gacy sane beyond a reasonable doubt", ". Amirante then urged the jury to put aside any prejudice they held against his client and asked they deliver a verdict of not guilty by reason of insanity, adding that Gacy was a danger to both himself and to others, and that studying his psychology and behavior would be of benefit to science.", "On the morning of March 12, William Kunkle continued to argue for the prosecution. Kunkle referred to the defense's contention of insanity as \"a sham\", arguing that the facts of the case demonstrated Gacy's ability to think logically and control his actions. Kunkle also referred to the testimony of one of the doctors who had examined Gacy in 1968 and had concluded he was an antisocial personality, stating that had the recommendations of this doctor been heeded, Gacy would not have been freed", ". At the close of his argument, Kunkle removed photos of Gacy's 22 identified victims from a display board and asked the jury not to show sympathy but to \"show justice\".", "The jury deliberated for one hour and fifty minutes. Gacy was found guilty of 33 charges of murder; he was also found guilty of sexual assault and taking indecent liberties with a child, both in reference to Robert Piest. At the time, his conviction for 33 murders was the most for which any person in U.S. history had been convicted.", "In the sentencing phase of the trial, the jury deliberated for more than two hours before sentencing Gacy to death for each murder committed after the Illinois statute on capital punishment came into effect in June 1977. His execution was set for June 2, 1980.", "Death row\nOn being sentenced, Gacy was transferred to the Menard Correctional Center, where he remained on death row for 14 years. Isolated in his prison cell, Gacy began to paint. He drew inspiration from a wide range of sources for his artwork, depicting subjects as diverse as clowns (including himself as Pogo or Patches), Christ, birds, skulls, his own home, and John Dillinger. Gacy's paintings have been displayed at exhibitions and sold at auction.", "Before his trial, Gacy initiated contact with journalist Russ Ewing, to whom he granted numerous interviews between 1979 and 1981. Ewing later collaborated with author Tim Cahill to publish the book Buried Dreams. The information Gacy divulged to Ewing regarding the circumstances of his first murder would prove instrumental in establishing the identity of his first victim.", "On February 15, 1983, Henry Brisbon, a fellow death row inmate known as the I-57 killer, stabbed Gacy in the arm with a sharpened wire. He received treatment in the prison hospital.", "After his incarceration, Gacy read numerous law books and filed voluminous motions and appeals, although he did not prevail in any of them. His appeals related to issues such as the validity of the first search warrant granted to the Des Plaines police on December 13, 1978, and his objection to his lawyers' insanity plea defense", ". Gacy contended that, although he had \"some knowledge\" of five of the murders (those of McCoy, Butkovich, Godzik, Szyc and Piest), the other 28 murders had been committed by employees who had keys to his house while he was away on business trips.", "In mid-1984, the Supreme Court of Illinois upheld Gacy's conviction and ordered his execution by lethal injection on November 14. Gacy filed an appeal against this decision, which was denied by the Supreme Court of the United States on March 4, 1985. The following year, Gacy filed a further post-conviction petition, seeking a new trial. His then-defense lawyer, Richard Kling, argued that Gacy had been provided with ineffective legal counsel at his 1980 trial", ". This petition was dismissed on September 11, 1986.", "Gacy appealed the 1985 decision that he be executed. The Illinois Supreme Court upheld his conviction on September 29, 1988, setting a new execution date of January 11, 1989. After the U.S. Supreme Court denied Gacy's final appeal in October 1993, the Illinois Supreme Court formally set an execution date for May 10, 1994.\n\nExecution", "On the morning of May 9, 1994, Gacy was transferred to Stateville Correctional Center to be executed. That afternoon, he was allowed a private picnic on the prison grounds with his family. For his last meal, Gacy ordered a bucket of KFC, a dozen fried shrimp, french fries, fresh strawberries and a Diet Coke. That evening, he received the last rites from a Catholic priest before being escorted to the Stateville execution chamber.", "In the hours leading up to Gacy's execution, a crowd estimated at over 1,000 gathered outside the correctional center; a vocal majority were in favor of the execution, although a small number of anti-death penalty protesters were present. Some of those in favor of the execution wore T-shirts hearkening to Gacy's previous community services as a clown and bearing satirical slogans such as \"No tears for the clown\".", "Before the execution began, the chemicals used to effect the execution solidified unexpectedly, clogging the IV tube. The execution team replaced the clogged tube and the execution resumed. The entire procedure took 18 minutes. Anesthesiologists blamed the problem on the prison officials' inexperience at conducting an execution. This error apparently led to Illinois' adopting an alternative method of lethal injection", ". This error apparently led to Illinois' adopting an alternative method of lethal injection. One prosecutor at Gacy's trial, William Kunkle, said, \"He got a much easier death than any of his victims.\"", "According to published reports, Gacy was a diagnosed psychopath who did not express any remorse for his crimes. His final statement to his lawyer before his execution was that killing him would not compensate for the loss of others, and that the state was murdering him. His final spoken words were reported to be \"Kiss my ass\", although prosecutor William Kunkle stated in 2020 that these words were spoken to a prison official, and were not part of any official statement prior to Gacy's execution.", "After Gacy's death was confirmed at 12:58 a.m. on May 10, 1994, his brain was removed. It is in the possession of Helen Morrison, a witness for the defense at Gacy's trial, who has interviewed Gacy and other serial killers in an attempt to isolate common personality traits of violent sociopaths. His body was cremated.", "Victims\nOnly 28 of Gacy's victims have been conclusively identified. The youngest were Samuel Stapleton and Michael Marino, both 14; the eldest were Francis Alexander and Russell Nelson, both 21.\n\nCrawl space", "Crawl space \n\nCook County medical examiner Robert Stein supervised the exhumations of the victims buried on Gacy's property. The crawl space was marked in sections and each body was given an identifying number. The first body recovered from the crawl space was assigned a marker denoting the victim as Body 1. He was identified as Jon Prestidge on January 6, 1979. No cause of death could be determined.", "John Butkovich was labelled as Body 2; he was among the first to be identified, on December 29, 1978. On December 23, investigators returned to unearth the three corpses which had been buried in the same trench as Body 1. Body 3 (John Szyc) was buried in the crawl space directly above Body 4 (Gregory Godzik); both were identified December 29, 1978", ". Body 5 was buried directly beneath Body 1; this victim was discovered below the surface of the soil, indicating he was the first to be buried in this common grave.", "The search was postponed over Christmas. Four more bodies were unearthed on December 26. Body 6 (Samuel Stapleton, identified through dental records November 14, 1979) and Body 7 (Randall Reffett, identified through X-rays April 12, 1979) were buried in the same grave. Reffett was found in a fetal position with a cloth gag in his mouth, leading investigators to conclude he most likely died of asphyxiation", ". Body 8 (Matthew Bowman, identified January 29, 1979) was found with the tourniquet used to strangle him around his neck. Body 9 (Timothy McCoy, identified via dental records and a distinctive belt buckle in May 1986) was found beneath a layer of concrete and had several stab wounds to the ribs and sternum, suggesting he was Gacy's first victim.", "On December 27, eight more bodies were discovered. Body 10, buried beneath the entrance to Gacy's home, remains unidentified; he is estimated to have been between 17 and 21 years old and between and (). Both Body 11 and Body 12 were found with ligatures around their necks and buried beside each other in the center of the crawl space; on September 11, 1979, they were identified as Robert Winch and Tommy Boling, respectively", ". Body 13 (still unidentified) was found beneath the spare bedroom; he is estimated to have been between 17 and 22 years old and between and (). Bodies 14 and 15 were recovered from a common grave; both were found with their head and upper torsos inside separate plastic bags. They were identified using dental records and radiology images as Michael Marino and Kenneth Parker on March 29, 1980 (too late to include among the victims identified before Gacy's trial)", ". Body 16 (Russell Nelson, identified January 6, 1979) was found with a cloth rag lodged deep in his throat, causing him to die of suffocation. The seventeenth victim (identified as David Talsma using radiology images on November 16, 1979) was found with a ligature around his neck.", "The following day, four more bodies were exhumed. Body 19 was buried directly beneath Gacy's master bedroom; Body 18 (Michael Bonnin, identified January 6, 1979) was located beneath the spare bedroom, and found with a ligature around the neck. Body 20 (John Mowery, identified through dental records January 27, 1979) was buried in the northwest corner of the crawl space.", "By December 29, six more bodies were unearthed. Bodies 22, 23, 24, and 26 were buried in a common grave beneath Gacy's kitchen and laundry room, with Body 25 (Robert Gilroy, identified January 6, 1979) located beneath Gacy's bathroom. Body 26, still unidentified, was estimated to have been between 23 and 30 years old and approximately () in height. Body 22 (identified using dental records as William Carroll on March 17, 1979) was found beneath Gacy's kitchen with cloth-like material lodged in his throat", ". Two socks were recovered from the pelvic region. He was buried directly beneath Body 21, recovered the previous day; this victim, who remains unidentified, is estimated to have been aged between 15 and 24 years old and approximately () in height. The bones of victims 23 (identified as Rick Johnston January 1, 1979) and 24 were commingled; cloth was found inside the mouth of Bodies 24 and 26. Body 25 was found beneath Gacy's bathroom with cloth lodged in the throat", ". Body 25 was found beneath Gacy's bathroom with cloth lodged in the throat. The final victim recovered from the crawl space (William Kindred, identified May 16, 1979) was also found beneath the bathroom, with cloth lodged deep in his throat.", "Operations were suspended due to the Chicago Blizzard of 1979, but resumed in March despite Gacy's insistence that all the buried victims had been found. On March 9, Body 28 was found wrapped in several plastic bags and buried beneath the patio in Gacy's backyard. Gacy's likely second murder victim and still unidentified, he stood approximately () and is estimated to be aged between 14 and 18. On March 16, Body 29 (Darrell Samson, identified November 18, 1979) was found beneath the dining room.", "All the victims discovered at Gacy's house were in an advanced state of decomposition. Dental records and X-ray charts helped Stein identify the remains. Twenty-three were identified via dental records and two via skeletal trauma. These identifications were supported with personal artifacts found in Gacy's home.", "The head and upper torso of several bodies unearthed beneath Gacy's property had been placed in plastic bags. In some cases, bodies were found with foreign objects such as prescription bottles lodged in their pelvic region, the position of which indicated the items had been thrust into the victims' anus. Stein concluded 12 victims recovered from Gacy's property died of asphyxiation. Gacy's vacant house was demolished in April 1979.\n\nDes Plaines River", "Des Plaines River \n\nThe victim found downstream from the I-55 bridge on June 30 was not connected initially to Gacy. On January 9, 1979, this victim was identified using fingerprint records and a distinctive tattoo as Timothy O'Rourke. An autopsy was unable to rule out strangulation as the cause of death. This victim was numbered 31. Following Gacy's arrest, investigators discovered he was a further victim.", "Frank Landingin's cause of death was certified at autopsy as suffocation through his own underwear being lodged down his throat. His body was also identified via fingerprint records. A bond slip issued to Landingin the day before his death was found at Gacy's home; he was assigned victim number 32.", "On December 28, one further body linked to Gacy was found from the I-55 bridge. This victim was identified two days later as James Mazzara, whom Gacy confessed to having murdered shortly after Thanksgiving. Mazzara had been strangled with a ligature.", "On April 9, 1979, a man walking along a Grundy County towpath discovered a decomposed body tangled in roots on the edge of the Des Plaines River. The body was identified via dental records as being that of Robert Piest the same evening. An autopsy revealed that \"paper-like material\" had been shoved down his throat, causing him to suffocate.", "Unidentified victims\nFive victims have never been identified. Based on Gacy's confession, the location of the victims buried in the crawl space, and forensic analysis, police determined the most likely dates for when his unidentified victims were killed.\n January 3, 1972 – July 31, 1975. Body 28. Backyard. Male aged 14–18.\n June 13 – August 5, 1976. Body 26. Crawl space. Male aged 23–30.\n August 6 – October 5, 1976. Body 13. Crawl space. Male aged 17–22.", "August 6 – October 5, 1976. Body 13. Crawl space. Male aged 17–22.\n August 6 – October 24, 1976. Body 21. Crawl space. Male aged 15–24.\n March 15 – July 5, 1977. Body 10. Crawl space. Male aged 17–21.", "In the fall of 1979, forensic expert Betty Pat Gatliff used the skulls of the remaining unidentified victims to create facial reconstructions.\n\nRecent identification efforts", "Recent identification efforts\n\nIn October 2011, Cook County sheriff Thomas Dart announced that investigators, having obtained DNA profiles from the unidentified victims, were to renew their efforts to identify them. At a press conference Sheriff Dart stated investigators were seeking DNA samples from across the United States related to any male missing between 1970 and 1979.", "So far the identification of three victims has been confirmed, numerous other missing youths have been ruled out as being victims of Gacy, and four unrelated cold cases dating between 1972 and 1979 have been solved. Updated facial reconstructions of Bodies 10 and 13 were released in 2018.", "In November 2011, William Bundy was identified through DNA testing. Shortly after Gacy's arrest, Bundy's family had contacted his dentist in the hope of submitting his dental records for comparison with the unidentified bodies, but the records had been destroyed after his dentist had retired. In July 2017, 16-year-old James Haakenson was identified using DNA testing. Francis Wayne Alexander was most recent victim to be identified, via forensic genealogy in October 2021.", "Possible additional victims\nAt the time of Gacy's arrest, he had claimed to investigators that the total number of murder victims could be as high as 45. However, only 33 victims were ever linked to Gacy. Investigators excavated the grounds of his property until they had exposed the substratum of clay beneath the foundations, finding 29 bodies.", "Shortly after his arrest, Gacy informed investigators that after he had assaulted and then released Jeffrey Rignall in March 1978, he began to throw his murder victims into the Des Plaines River. He confessed to having disposed of five bodies in this manner; however, only four bodies recovered from the Des Plaines River were linked to him. When asked whether there were more victims, Gacy stated, \"That's for you guys to find out.\"", "Disputed DNA and dental tests conducted between 2012 and 2016 indicate that neither body found in the common grave in Gacy's crawl space and identified as those of Kenneth Parker and Michael Marino in 1980 was actually Marino. Marino's mother had always doubted her son's identification because the clothing found on Body 14 was inconsistent with what he had worn when she last saw him. DNA testing conducted on the exhumed body of Parker has proven that Marino's body had not been mistaken for his", ". In addition, the dental X-ray conducted on the victim identified as Michael Marino had revealed he had all of his second molars; a dental X-ray conducted on Marino in March 1976 revealed one molar had not erupted. The original identification of the body has been disputed because the exhumed body had neither an upper nor lower jaw bone. Nonetheless, the orthodontist who had identified Marino's remains has stated his conviction in the accuracy of his findings.", "On May 23, 1978, 25-year-old Charles Antonio Hattula was found drowned in the Pecatonica River near Freeport, Illinois. He had been missing since May 13. Hattula was an employee of PDM and had been linked to the initial investigation of Gacy after Michael Rossi informed investigators of both Godzik's disappearance and Hattula's death", ". Moreover, Rossi had stated that Hattula was known to have conflicts with Gacy, and when he had \"failed to show up at work\", Gacy had informed him and several other employees that he had drowned. At the time of Hattula's death, no more bodies could be stored in Gacy's crawl space, which leaves a possibility he had disposed of Hattula's body in the Pecatonica River", ". However, Des Plaines authorities had contacted Freeport during their investigation into Gacy, and were told Hattula had fallen to his death from a bridge. Hattula's death has been officially ruled as asphyxia by drowning.", "Retired Chicago police officer Bill Dorsch stated he had reason to believe there might be more victims buried in the grounds of an apartment building on West Miami Avenue in Chicago, where Gacy had been the caretaker for several years. In 1975, Dorsch—then a Chicago police officer—observed Gacy (whom he knew on a casual basis) holding a shovel in the early morning. When Dorsch confronted him, Gacy said he was doing work that he was too busy to do during the day", ". When Dorsch confronted him, Gacy said he was doing work that he was too busy to do during the day. Dorsch also said that several other residents of West Miami Avenue stated they had seen Gacy digging trenches at the property in the early to mid-1970s. Gacy was then still married to Carole Hoff. In March 2012, Cook County Sheriff's officials submitted a request to excavate the grounds of this property", ". The Cook County State's Attorney denied the request, citing a lack of probable cause, including the results of a 1998 search of the property. However, the sheriff's office noted that in 1998, a radar survey suggested fourteen areas of interest within the grounds, yet only two of these had been excavated; four of those remaining were described as being \"staggeringly suggestive\" of human skeletons", ". A second request to excavate the grounds was granted in January 2013, and a search of the property was conducted in the spring. Both FBI sniffer dogs and ground-penetrating radar equipment were used, but no human remains were found.", "Potential accomplices", "One of the first things Gacy told investigators after his arrest was that he had not acted alone in several of the murders: he asked whether \"my associates\" had been arrested. When questioned whether these associates had participated directly or indirectly in the killings, Gacy replied, \"Directly\". He later claimed Cram and Rossi were involved in several of the murders", ". He later claimed Cram and Rossi were involved in several of the murders. Some defense attorneys and investigators researching the possibility Gacy had not acted alone in several of the murders have said there is \"overwhelming evidence Gacy worked with an accomplice\".", "In the 1980s, Gacy informed FBI profiler Robert Ressler that \"two or three\" PDM employees had assisted in several murders. Ressler believed there were unexplained avenues to the case and that Gacy had killed more than 33 victims in multiple states. Gacy neither confirmed nor denied Ressler's suspicions", ". Gacy neither confirmed nor denied Ressler's suspicions. Jeffrey Rignall, who had been assaulted and tortured by Gacy in March 1978, was adamant that at one point during his ordeal, a young man with brown hair had watched his abuse, and that he saw a light come on elsewhere in the house.", "Three days before his arrest, two officers followed Gacy to a bar where he met two employees—Michael Rossi and Ed Hefner. An anxious Gacy was observed walking with the two out of earshot of the officers to talk before returning closer. Gacy said to both young men: \"You'd better not let me down, you fuckers. You owe it to me.\" The officers then overheard sections of a hushed conversation between Gacy and the two during which Rossi asked Gacy, \"And what? Buried like the other five?\"", "In interviews from death row, Gacy said that at the time of his arrest, three PDM employees were also considered suspects in the murders—all of whom he said were in possession of keys to his house. In addition to Cram and Rossi, Gacy named his former employee Philip Paske, who was a close associate of John Norman and an acquaintance of Cram. In the late 1970s, Norman operated a nationwide sex trafficking ring based in Chicago known as the Delta Project", ". At least two victims believed to have been murdered by Gacy (Kenneth Parker and Michael Marino) had last been seen alive close to where Norman lived. This led to speculation that Gacy had been connected to this trafficking ring.", "Gacy claimed that he was not in Chicago when sixteen of the identified victims disappeared. In 2012, two Chicago lawyers said travel records show that he had been in another state at the time of three of the murders, implying he had one or more accomplices.", "Investigators note that Robert Young, the traveling companion with whom victim Russell Nelson was visiting Chicago at the time of his disappearance, gave differing accounts of his disappearance. Young filed a missing person's report with Chicago police before unsuccessfully requesting money from Nelson's parents to finance a search. When Nelson's brothers arrived in Chicago to search for him, Young offered them a job with PDM. Young was never summoned to testify at Gacy's trial.\n\nAmber Alert", "In 1984, Sam Amirante authored procedures that were incorporated by the Illinois General Assembly into the Missing Child Recovery Act of 1984. At the time of the Gacy murders, Illinois police had to wait 72 hours before initiating a search for a missing child or adolescent; the Missing Child Recovery Act removed this waiting period. Other states subsequently adopted similar procedures. As a result, a national network aimed at locating missing children was gradually formed", ". As a result, a national network aimed at locating missing children was gradually formed. This has since developed into the Child Abduction Emergency—commonly known as an Amber Alert.", "Films and documentary", "The made-for-TV film To Catch a Killer, starring Brian Dennehy as Gacy, was released in 1992. The film is based largely on the investigation of Gacy following the disappearance of Robert Piest, by Des Plaines Police.\n A feature film, Gacy, was released in 2003. This film cast Mark Holton in the role of Gacy and depicts his life after he moved to Norwood Park in 1971 until his arrest in 1978.", "The made-for-TV film Dear Mr. Gacy, released in 2010, stars William Forsythe as Gacy. The film is based on the book The Last Victim by Jason Moss. The film focuses on the correspondence between Moss and Gacy before Gacy invited Moss to visit him on death row in 1994.\n The 2010 horror film 8213: Gacy House is based on paranormal investigators spending a night in the house built on the former site of 8213 W. Summerdale.", "The Discovery Channel broadcast an episode relating to Gacy's crimes in the true crime series The New Detectives: Case Studies in Forensic Science. This documentary features an interview between Gacy and FBI profiler Robert Ressler.", "The Investigation Discovery channel has broadcast two documentaries about the Gacy murders. The first was commissioned for the Most Evil series, a forensics program in which forensic psychiatrist Michael Stone analyzes murderers and psychopaths. The second is featured in the Evil Lives Here series. This program explores how Gacy's actions affected his family; Gacy's sister and niece are among those interviewed.\n The Biography Channel broadcast a 45-minute documentary on Gacy's crimes.", "The Biography Channel broadcast a 45-minute documentary on Gacy's crimes.\n The television program, Psychic Investigators, broadcast an episode entitled \"What Lies Below\". This program focuses on the consultation between Detective Joseph Kozenczak and psychic Carol Broman, whom Kozenczak had met on December 17, 1978, to discuss the whereabouts of the body of Robert Piest.", "The Lifetime Movies network series Monster in My Family broadcast \"Killer Clown: John Wayne Gacy\" in August 2015. The episode features Karen Kuzma, Gacy's sister, and her daughter, and focuses on formative events in Gacy's life that may have initiated his later crimes.", "The documentary series John Wayne Gacy: Devil in Disguise. Commissioned by Peacock, the first episode was broadcast in March 2021. This six-part series includes interviews with Gacy, investigators responsible for his apprehension, and Cook County Sheriff Thomas Dart.", "Conversations with a Killer: The John Wayne Gacy Tapes. Commissioned by Netflix and directed by Joe Berlinger, this series includes previously unreleased recordings of conversations between Gacy and his lawyer. The first of this three-part series was broadcast on April 20, 2022.", "See also\n Capital punishment in Illinois\n List of homicides in Illinois\n List of people executed in Illinois\n List of serial killers by number of victims\n List of serial killers in the United States\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCited works", "Further reading \n Killer Clown: The True Story of John Wayne Gacy, by Aimee Baxter. \n John Wayne Gacy: Hunting a Predator, by John Borowski. \n Johnny and Me: The True Story of John Wayne Gacy, by Barry Boschelli. \n A Question of Doubt: The John Wayne Gacy Story, by John Wayne Gacy. \n The Chicago Killer: The Hunt for Serial Killer John Wayne Gacy, by Joseph R. and Karen M. Kozenczak. \n Unfinished Nightmare: The Search for More Victims of Serial Killer John Wayne Gacy, by Chris Maloney.", "The Last Victim: A True-Life Journey into the Mind of the Serial Killer, by Jason Moss.\n 29 Below, by Jeffrey Rignall and Ron Wilder. \n Destination Gacy: A Cross-Country Journey to Shake the Devil's Hand, by Nancy Rommelmann.", "External links\n\n Archived FBI files relating to John Gacy\n 1993 Decision of Gacy's case by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, rejecting his federal appeal\n John Wayne Gacy's Other Victims: A website detailing the ongoing investigation by Detective Bill Dorsch into the possibility Gacy had committed other murders", "1942 births\n1994 deaths\n \n1970s murders in the United States\n20th-century American LGBT people\n20th-century executions by Illinois\n20th-century executions of American people\nAmerican bisexual people\nAmerican clowns\nAmerican male criminals\nAmerican male painters\nAmerican murderers of children\nAmerican people convicted of child sexual abuse\nAmerican people convicted of sodomy\nAmerican people of Danish descent\nAmerican people of Polish descent\nAmerican rapists\nBisexual men\nCatholics from Illinois", "American people of Polish descent\nAmerican rapists\nBisexual men\nCatholics from Illinois\nCatholics from Iowa\nCrimes in Chicago\nCriminals from Chicago\nExecuted American serial killers\nExecuted people from Illinois\nIllinois Democrats\nIowa Democrats\nLGBT people from Illinois\nLGBT Roman Catholics\nPeople convicted of murder by Illinois\nPeople executed by Illinois by lethal injection\nPeople from Waterloo, Iowa\nPeople with antisocial personality disorder\nSerial killers from Illinois\nTorture in the United States", "Serial killers from Illinois\nTorture in the United States\nViolence against men in North America" ]

[ "Lewis Burwell \"Chesty\" Puller (June 26, 1898 – October 11, 1971) was a United States Marine Corps officer. Beginning his career fighting guerillas in Haiti and Nicaragua as part of the Banana Wars, he later served with distinction in World War II and the Korean War as a senior officer. By the time of his retirement in 1955, he had reached the rank of lieutenant general.", "Puller is the most decorated Marine in American history. He was awarded five Navy Crosses and one Distinguished Service Cross. With six crosses, Puller is second behind Eddie Rickenbacker for citations of the nation's second-highest military award for valor. Puller retired from the Marine Corps in 1955, after 37 years of service. He lived in Virginia and died in 1971 at age 73.", "Early life", "Puller was born in West Point, Virginia, to Matthew and Martha Puller. Puller was of English ancestry; his ancestors who came to America emigrated to the colony of Virginia from Bedfordshire, England in 1621. His father was a grocer who died when Puller was 10 years old. Puller grew up listening to old veterans' tales of the American Civil War and idolizing Thomas \"Stonewall\" Jackson", ". He wanted to enlist in the United States Army to fight in the Border War with Mexico in 1916, but he was too young and could not get parental consent from his mother.", "The following year, Puller attended the Virginia Military Institute but left in August 1918 as World War I was still ongoing, saying that he wanted to \"go where the guns are!\" Inspired by the 5th Marines at Belleau Wood, he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps as a private and attended boot camp at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot, Parris Island, South Carolina", ". Although he never saw action in that war, the Marine Corps was expanding, and soon after graduating he attended its non-commissioned officer school and Officer Candidates School (OCS) at Quantico, Virginia. Graduating from OCS on June 16, 1919, Puller was appointed second lieutenant in the reserves, but the reduction in force from 73,000 to 1,100 officers and 27,400 men following the war led to his being put on inactive status 10 days later and given the rank of corporal.", "Interwar years\n\nUnited States occupation of Haiti\nCorporal Puller received orders to serve in the Gendarmerie d'Haiti as a lieutenant, seeing action in Haiti. While the United States was working under a treaty with Haiti, he participated in over forty engagements during the ensuing five years against the Caco rebels and attempted to regain his commission as an officer twice. In 1922, he served as an adjutant to Major Alexander Vandegrift, a future Commandant of the Marine Corps.", "Supply run\nPuller received orders to deliver supplies to Mirebalais and Lascahobas. These two small towns were located in a region where there was a significant presence of Caco guerrillas under the command of Benoît Batraville, who was a high ranking insurgent leader. Puller's supply party consisted of twenty-five mounted Haitian Gendarmes along with the pack animals. Puller kept his force moving rapidly to avoid risking an ambush or night attack by the Caco.", "Later on, the small force of Gendarmes led by Puller ran into an equally surprised column of about one hundred Cacos coming from the opposite direction around a bend in the road. Puller ordered a charge and spurred his horse forward to attack the Cacos. The Gendarmes charged beside him and scattered the Cacos, who used guerilla tactics and therefore seldom stood their ground if attacked by a significant force", ". The Cacos fired a handful of shots at the onrushing American-led Gendarmes and then dispersed to make pursuit more difficult. With the burden of the pack mules, Puller could not pursue the evasive Cacos. After the clash ended, one dead Caco bandit was found.", "This skirmish was Puller's first engagement in the occupation and showed his adeptness at aggressive action and effective leadership from the front. Puller and his force of Gendarmes reached Mirebalais and delivered the supplies needed by the town. The next day, Puller made a 34-hour round trip to Lascahobas to deliver the final supplies and then returned to Port-au-Prince completing his supply run.", "Ambushing the Cacos", "Puller was assigned a new duty to begin offensive operations against the Cacos. Puller inherited a force of one hundred Gendarmes who were supported unofficially by about the same number of female camp followers. Puller's assigned chief assistant was acting Second Lieutenant Augustin B. Brunot, a Haitian who was fluent in English", ". Brunot, a Haitian who was fluent in English. Other pro-American Haitians added to Puller's force were newly commissioned lieutenants Lyautey and Brunot, and a Haitian private named Jean Louis Cermontout, who Puller recruited with the promise of promotion after seeing him return from a successful patrol with the severed heads of two Cacos bandits.", "Brunot and Lyautey advised Puller on how to combat the Cacos insurgents. They advised him that daylight patrols had little chance of encountering the Cacos, as they hid during the day, only emerging from hiding to ambush government patrols if they had superior numbers. Chance encounters such as Puller's supply run were rare because the Cacos knew the terrain and had good intelligence of constabulary activities", ". They advised him that the Cacos encamped at night and that night patrols would have a better chance of surprising them. When Puller and his unit, following this advice, patrolled along a ridge-top trail one night, he observed campfires and heard drums nearby. Puller with Lyautey and some Gendarmes went to scout, while Brunot remained with the rest of the Gendarmes. The noise turned out to be a celebration at a Cacos guerrilla encampment", ". The noise turned out to be a celebration at a Cacos guerrilla encampment. After returning, Puller came up with a plan to ambush the Cacos at dawn.", "Puller placed the main body of men in a line facing the bandit camp and sent the smaller crews with three Lewis machine guns to the flank in a position where they covered the enemy rear, setting an L-shaped ambush. After Puller's force of Gendarmes got into position, Puller executed the ambush", ". After Puller's force of Gendarmes got into position, Puller executed the ambush. As Puller had predicted, when the main body of men opened fire at first light, the surprised Cacos bandits fled from the source of immediate danger into the fields of fire of the machine guns, where all seventeen were killed. Dozens of machetes and a large flock of gamecocks were found. Puller and his Gendarmes celebrated their victory and feasted on abandoned supplies while using the game cocks for cockfighting", ". Puller later participated in more patrols as he gained experience and learned the peculiarities of small wars.", "Further operations against the Cacos, October–November 1919", "Puller would conduct more offensive operations to suppress the Cacos. On October 28, 1919, Puller went on a patrol with Brunot and a mixed force of fifteen American Marines and Gendarmes. They would stay out ten days, at which time another group would relieve them. The unit, using night movements, made contact on October 31 with a small band, killing two of the enemy and capturing four rifles, several machetes, and some swords. On November 1, they arrested three suspected bandits.", "Infiltrating and raiding a Cacos camp, November 4, 1919", "On the afternoon of November 4, 1919, Puller and his men entered a small village of grass shacks ten miles west of Mirebalais. A priest told Brunot that a high ranking Cacos insurgent leader named Dominique Georges had a camp about fifteen miles away. He and his men decided to take this opportunity to kill or capture Dominique Georges. Despite heavy rain, Puller took a small patrol of Marines and Gendarmes out immediately", ". Despite heavy rain, Puller took a small patrol of Marines and Gendarmes out immediately. Puller, Brunot, and Private Cermontout Jean Louis scouted out ahead of the small column during the night when they came upon the remains of a bonfire, indicating a bandit guard post. A Cacos sentry armed with a rifle challenged Puller's group. The sentry could not see them clearly as it was very dark and his bonfire had been put out by the rain", ". Brunot replied in his Haitain accent \"Cacos\", at which the guard let them through. Puller, Brunot, and Jean Louis were able to infiltrate the Cacos camp and came upon a clearing with many huts and lean-tos. Puller and Jean Louis took firing positions on the ground after Puller sent Brunot to gather the rest of the patrol to assault the camp. Puller aimed his rifle at a man he later believed was Georges, but waited for the main attack instead of firing", ". A Caco challenged the two prone figures, so that Puller had to shoot the Caco, starting the battle. The marines and gendarmes rushed forward, but the estimated two hundred Cacos scattered, with Puller and Jean Louis firing as fast as they could at fleeing figures. After the government forces had possession of the camp, they found one dead Caco. Puller's patrol took twenty seven rifles, swords, and machetes, and several dozen gamecocks", ". Puller's patrol took twenty seven rifles, swords, and machetes, and several dozen gamecocks. Among the booty was George's personal rifle, identified by his initials in the stock. Puller and his patrol spent the night at the camp and then withdrew safely to their base at Mirebalais.", "Patrol and raid, November 9, 1919\nOn November 9, Puller and Brunot led a patrol of thirty-three Gendarmes. Just before dawn they found a camp and attacked it. This time Puller and his fellow Gendarmes killed ten Cacos and captured two rifles. After the raid of the Cacos camp, they safely withdrew to Mirebalais by a circuitous route and fell into garrison routine for a few days.", "Further patrol operations\nAfter the successful assassination of Charlemagne Péralte by Herman H. Hanneken in a raid, Benoît Batraville became the next leader of the Cacos. Puller and Brunot each took a part of the company out on a patrol. Brunot spotted a Caco force that turned out to be Batraville's, but before Brunot could get his force into position for an attack, the Cacos broke camp and melted away. Puller had better luck, with two Cacos killed and sixteen captured.", "Ending of the fighting in Haiti", "The Cacos rebellion collapsed altogether when a Marine patrol killed Batraville on May 19, 1920. A month later, the last significant Caco leader surrendered. More patrols by the Gendarmes and American Marines in the following year killed a further eighty-five Cacos. Later on in September 1920, Herman H. Hanneken penetrated a Caco camp in disguise, arresting five chiefs while killing another. By June 1921, a government military commander declared the country to be \"completely tranquil.\"", "Return to the United States\nPuller returned stateside and was finally recommissioned as a second lieutenant on March 6, 1924 (Service No. 03158). After completing assignments at the Marine barracks in Norfolk, Virginia; The Basic School in Quantico, Virginia; and with the 10th Marine Artillery Regiment in Quantico, Virginia, he was assigned to the Marine barracks at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in July 1926 and in San Diego, California, in 1928.", "United States occupation of Nicaragua", "In December 1928, Puller was assigned to the Nicaraguan National Guard detachment, where he was awarded his first Navy Cross for his actions from February 16 to August 19, 1930, when he led \"five successive engagements against superior numbers of armed bandit forces.\" He returned stateside in July 1931 and completed the year-long Company Officers Course at Fort Benning, Georgia, thereafter returning to Nicaragua from September 20 to October 1, 1932, and was awarded a second Navy Cross", ". Puller led American Marines and Nicaraguan National Guardsmen into battle against Sandinista rebels in the last major engagement of the Sandino Rebellion near El Sauce on December 26, 1932.", "Patrolling, June 4–6, 1930", "After Puller inherited command of Nicaraguan Guardia Nacional called Company M, he was prepared to conduct operations against the Sandinista rebels, and immediately departed on a patrol. Puller moved eastward for a five-day sweep, but soon received orders to head northeast. The patrol moved by day and camped each night in a village. In the afternoon of June 4, the company was at San Antonio cooking a steer in preparation for a trek into the uninhabited area around Mt. Kilande", ". Kilande. After hearing some gunshots to the north, Puller sent thirteen men of the Guardia to investigate a thousand yards beyond the town. The Guardia encountered six rebels who may have been Sandinistas and a firefight occurred. The Guardia killed one rebel while the other five fled. The rebel bandit was armed with a Springfield rifle and Colt revolver", ". The rebel bandit was armed with a Springfield rifle and Colt revolver. On June 6, the patrol moved toward the village of Los Cedros when it encountered an equally surprised force of Sandinistas who were on top of a brush covered hill that sloped about 175 yards down to the trail. The Sandinistas opened fire on the patrol and the patrol returned fire. Without hesitation, Puller dashed up the rise while yelling for his men to charge", ". Without hesitation, Puller dashed up the rise while yelling for his men to charge. Puller's men joined in the attack and fired their weapons while charging the enemy position. Puller and his Guardia were able to avoid being hit by small arms fire and crude improvised grenades thrown by the rebels. The rebels were routed and fled. Puller and his men realized they stumbled onto an insurgent camp. Seven dead rebel bodies were found and Puller's force suffered no casualties", ". Seven dead rebel bodies were found and Puller's force suffered no casualties. Puller's patrol found two rifles, one pistol, and ten machetes. They also found rosters and papers in the rebel camp, which revealed that two of the seven dead rebels were leaders of the group. After that, Puller's company returned to Jinotega.", "Further operations, June 12-July 12, 1930", "Puller departed on a new patrol on June 12. Puller's patrol searched fruitlessly and found nothing. Puller and his men arrived back at their base at June 20. At June 24, Puller, William \"Ironman\" Lee, and their men joined forces with another government patrol of thirty men under the command of Lieutenant M.K. Chenoweth. Together the combined American-Nicaraguan force left Jinotega. At Santa Fe, Puller picked up an additional fifteen Guardias", ". At Santa Fe, Puller picked up an additional fifteen Guardias. After patrolling, Puller's men had encountered lone bandits on two occasions and killed them both. Puller's large group operated for nearly two more weeks, often split into two patrols with one following the other at a distance. The reinforced unit finally returned to base on July 12.", "Attempted ambush against the rebels, further pursuit, and raiding a rebel camp, November 6–27, 1930", "Puller and his Company M went out on a patrol again on November 6, 1930. Puller, Lee, and twenty-one men left Jinetoga to search for the enemy. The patrol picked up a trail of about thirty bandits who were pillaging small ranches near Santa Isabel. Puller's patrol caught sight of the enemy at 9:00 A.M. on November 19 pursuing them for three miles, and wounding at least one of them. Puller's patrol decided to surprise the bandits", ". Puller's patrol decided to surprise the bandits. The patrol set up an ambush hiding themselves along a trail when a manager of a local finca spotted them and walked up to them to provide them information on a rebel band. With the ambush compromised by the finca manager, the patrol moved on. Puller's patrol reported into Corinto Finca on November 20 for supplies and pack animals, then left on the same day to check out a report of a rebel concentration near Mt. Guapinol", ". Guapinol. Puller and his patrol struggled through heavy rains, muddy trails, and flooded rivers. On the morning of 25 November, the patrol came across a bandit trail. The Guardia under Puller followed this trail and at 10:30 A.M., the point sighted about ten rebels amongst some fallen trees. Puller's men opened fire and the enemy fled. Further along the trail, the pursuers came upon the rebel camp which had four buildings with log barricades in front and a hundred-foot cliff in the rear", ". There were at least forty or so rebels who fought briefly. Then the rebels threw their belongings and three wounded men into the ravine and then clambered down on ropes and ladders, which they pulled down after themselves. By the time some of the Guardia worked their way down into the draw the enemy had disappeared. Puller's patrol found two dead bandits and some supplies. Puller was certain that the three wounded bandits who had gone over the cliff had died", ". Puller was certain that the three wounded bandits who had gone over the cliff had died. Puller's force captured documents which showed that one of their previous operations on August 19, 1930, wounded a minor chief of the rebels. After raiding this rebel camp, Puller's unit withdrew and returned to Jinotega on November 27 after three weeks of hard patrolling.", "Patrol and Raid against the rebels September 20–26, 1932", "Puller discovered a trail which seemed to be used by rebels. Puller, along with Lee, gathered 40 Guardia Nacional members for a raid like patrol against the rebels. Puller, Lee, and the Guardia left on September 20. After traveling a long distance, the patrol came by the northwest from the bank of Auyabal river. On September 26, Puller's patrol was ambushed by the rebels", ". On September 26, Puller's patrol was ambushed by the rebels. Lee used a Lewis machine gun to keep the enemy pinned down while the Guardia Nacional worked their way up the slope opposite the rebel ambush party. When they gained the crest, they were able to fire directly into the rebel emplacements. Puller's men penetrated the center of a rebel encampment, killing at least 16 rebels. Of Puller's force, two men were killed and four wounded", ". Of Puller's force, two men were killed and four wounded. In order to obtain medical care for the wounded, Puller immediately withdrew back to Jinotega. During Puller's withdrawal, his patrol was ambushed twice, but suffered no more casualties and fought off the ambushers. Puller's Guardia killed at least eight more rebels. Puller's force arrived back at Jinotega on September 30 after their raid on the rebel encampment.", "Final battle in Nicaragua 26 December 1932", "There were rumors that Sandinista rebels were planning an attack on a ceremony that was going to commemorate the completion of the LeónEl Sauce railway. An expedition of eight American marines and 64 Nicaraguan National Guardsmen led by Puller were sent to El Sauce on the 26 December 1932. As Puller's force of American marines and Nicaraguan national guard were traveling some distance in their train to their destination, they were ambushed by the rebels from both sides of the tracks. Puller and William A", ". Puller and William A. Lee quickly with their troops immediately engaged the rebel ambushers. After a firefight of one hour and ten minutes, the Marines and Guardia Nacional were able to drive off the rebels. Puller's victorious force had suffered three dead and three wounded for the Guardia Nacional. The rebels suffered thirty one killed and lost 63 live horses to capture by Puller's force. The ceremony went on as planned two days later, while Puller and Lee got promoted.", "Aftermath\nAfter his service in Nicaragua, Puller was assigned to the Marine detachment at the American Legation in Beijing, China, commanding a unit of China Marines. He then went on to serve aboard , a cruiser in the Asiatic Fleet, which was commanded by then-Captain Chester W. Nimitz. Puller returned to the States in June 1936 as an instructor at The Basic School in Philadelphia, where he trained Ben Robertshaw, Pappy Boyington, and Lew Walt.", "In May 1939, he returned to the Augusta as commander of the on-board Marine detachment, and then back to China, disembarking in Shanghai in May 1940 to serve as the executive officer and commanding officer of 2nd Battalion, 4th Marines (2/4) until August 1941. Major Puller returned to the U.S. on August 28, 1941. After a short leave, he was given command of 1st Battalion, 7th Marines (1/7) of the 1st Marine Division, stationed at New River, North Carolina (later Camp Lejeune).\n\nWorld War II", "World War II\n\nEarly in the Pacific theater, the 7th Marines formed the nucleus of the newly created 3rd Marine Brigade and arrived to defend Samoa on May 8, 1942. Later they were redeployed from the brigade and on September 4, 1942, they left Samoa and rejoined the 1st Marine Division at Guadalcanal on September 18, 1942.", "Soon after arriving on Guadalcanal, Lt. Col. Puller led his battalion in a fierce action along the Matanikau, in which Puller's quick thinking saved three of his companies from annihilation. In the action, these companies were surrounded and cut off by a larger Japanese force. Puller ran to the shore, signaled a United States Navy destroyer, the , and then directed the destroyer to provide fire support while landing craft rescued his Marines from their precarious position. U.S", ". U.S. Coast Guard Signalman First Class Douglas Albert Munro—Officer-in-Charge of the group of landing craft, was killed while providing covering fire from his landing craft for the Marines as they evacuated the beach and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for the action, to date the only Coast Guardsman to receive the decoration. Puller, for his actions, was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Combat \"V\".", "Later on Guadalcanal, Puller was awarded his third Navy Cross, in what was later known as the \"Battle for Henderson Field\". Puller commanded 1st Battalion, 7th Marines (1/7), one of two American infantry units defending the airfield against a regiment-strength Japanese force. The 3rd Battalion of the U.S. Army's 164th Infantry Regiment (3/164) fought alongside the Marines", ". The 3rd Battalion of the U.S. Army's 164th Infantry Regiment (3/164) fought alongside the Marines. In a firefight on the night of October 24–25, 1942, lasting about three hours, 1/7 and 3/164 sustained 70 casualties; the Japanese force suffered over 1,400 killed in action, and the Americans held the airfield. He nominated two of his men (one being Sgt. John Basilone) for Medals of Honor", ". He nominated two of his men (one being Sgt. John Basilone) for Medals of Honor. Puller was wounded himself on November 8, 1942, suffering arm and leg wounds during a Japanese attack on his command post. His injuries were serious, requiring surgery, and command of 1/7 was temporarily assigned to Major John E. Weber of 3/7. Puller was released from the hospital and resumed command of his battalion on November 18.", "Puller was then made executive officer of the 7th Marine Regiment. While serving in this capacity at the Battle of Cape Gloucester, Puller was awarded his fourth Navy Cross for overall performance of duty between December 26, 1943, and January 19, 1944", ". During this time, when the battalion commanders of 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines (3/7) and later, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines (3/5), were under heavy machine gun and mortar fire, he expertly reorganized the battalion and led the successful attack against heavily fortified Japanese defensive positions. He was promoted to colonel effective February 1, 1944, and by the end of the month had been named commander of the 1st Marine Regiment", ". In September and October 1944, Puller led the 1st Marine Regiment into the protracted battle on Peleliu, one of the bloodiest battles in Marine Corps history, and received his first of two Legion of Merit awards. The 1st Marines under Puller's command lost 1,749 killed and wounded out of approximately 3,000 men, but these losses did not stop Puller from ordering frontal assaults against the well-entrenched enemy", ". The corps commander had to order the 1st Marine Division commanding general to pull the annihilated 1st Marine Regiment out of the line.", "During the summer of 1944, Puller's younger brother, Samuel D. Puller, the executive officer of the 4th Marine Regiment, was killed by an enemy sniper on Guam.\n\nPuller returned to the United States in November 1944, was named executive officer of the Infantry Training Regiment at Camp Lejeune and, two weeks later, commanding officer. After the war, he was made director of the 8th Reserve District at New Orleans, and later commanded the Marine barracks at Pearl Harbor.\n\nKorean War", "At the outbreak of the Korean War, Puller was once again assigned as commander of the 1st Marine Regiment. He participated in the landing at Inchon on September 15, 1950, and was awarded the Silver Star Medal. For leadership from September 15 through November 2, he was awarded his second Legion of Merit. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross from the U.S", ". He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross from the U.S. Army for heroism in action from November 29 to December 4, and his fifth Navy Cross for heroism during December 5–10, 1950, at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. It was during that battle that he said the famous line, \"We've been looking for the enemy for some time now. We've finally found him. We're surrounded. That simplifies things.\"", "In January 1951, Puller was promoted to brigadier general and was assigned duty as assistant division commander (ADC) of the 1st Marine Division. On February 24, however, his immediate superior, Major General O.P. Smith, was hastily transferred to command IX Corps when its Army commander, Major General Bryant Moore, died. Smith's transfer left Puller temporarily in command of the 1st Marine Division until sometime in March", ". He completed his tour of duty as assistant commander and left for the United States on May 20, 1951. He took command of the 3rd Marine Division at Camp Pendleton in California until January 1952, and then was assistant commander of the division until June 1952. He then took over Troop Training Unit Pacific at Coronado, California. In September 1953, he was promoted to major general.", "Post-Korean War life\nIn July 1954, Puller took command of the 2nd Marine Division at Camp Lejeune in North Carolina until February 1955 when he became Deputy Camp Commander. He suffered a stroke, and was retired by the Marine Corps on November 1, 1955, with a promotion to lieutenant general.", "His nickname was related to the way his barrel chest stood out due to his aggressive stance, with legends claiming that a steel plate had been inserted by surgeons to treat a battle wound. In a handwritten addition to a typed 22 November 1954 letter to Major Frank C. Sheppard, Puller wrote, \"I agree with you 100%. I had done a little soldiering previous to Guadalcanal and had been called a lot of names, but why 'Chesty'? Especially the steel part??\"", "Relations", "Puller's son, Lewis Burwell Puller, Jr. (generally known as Lewis Puller), served as a Marine lieutenant in the Vietnam War. While serving with 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines (2/1), Lewis Jr. was severely wounded by a mine explosion, losing both legs and parts of his hands. Lieutenant General Puller broke down sobbing at seeing his son for the first time in the hospital. Lewis Jr. won a 1992 Pulitzer Prize for his autobiography, Fortunate Son: The Healing of a Vietnam Vet. He committed suicide in 1994.", "Puller was father-in-law to Colonel William H. Dabney, USMC (retired), a Virginia Military Institute (VMI) graduate, who was the commanding officer (then Captain) of two heavily reinforced rifle companies of the 3rd Battalion, 26th Marines (3/26) from January 21 to April 14, 1968, in Vietnam. During the entire period, Dabney's force stubbornly defended Hill 881 South, a regional outpost vital to the defense of the Khe Sanh Combat Base during the 77-day siege at the Battle of Khe Sanh", ". Dabney was recommended for the Navy Cross for his actions on Hill 881 South, but his battalion executive officer's helicopter carrying the recommendation papers crashed and the papers were lost. It was not until April 15, 2005, that Colonel Dabney received the Navy Cross during an award ceremony at Virginia Military Institute.", "Puller was a distant cousin to U.S. Army General George S. Patton.\n\nHe was an Episcopalian and parishioner of Christ Church Parish in Saluda and is buried in the historic cemetery there next to his wife, Virginia Montague Evans.", "Decorations and awards\nPuller received the second-highest U.S. military award six times (one of only two persons so honored): five Navy Crosses and one U.S. Army Distinguished Service Cross. He was the second of two U.S. servicemen (after U.S. Navy submarine commander Roy Milton Davenport) to ever receive five Navy Crosses.\n\nPuller's military awards include:", "First Navy Cross citation\nCitation:", "For distinguished service in the line of his profession while commanding a Nicaraguan National Guard patrol. First Lieutenant Lewis B", ". First Lieutenant Lewis B. Puller, United States Marine Corps, successfully led his forces into five successful engagements against superior numbers of armed bandit forces; namely, at LaVirgen on 16 February 1930, at Los Cedros on 6 June 1930, at Moncotal on 22 July 1930, at Guapinol on 25 July 1930, and at Malacate on 19 August 1930, with the result that the bandits were in each engagement completely routed with losses of nine killed and many wounded", ". By his intelligent and forceful leadership without thought of his own personal safety, by great physical exertion and by suffering many hardships, Lieutenant Puller surmounted all obstacles and dealt five successive and severe blows against organized banditry in the Republic of Nicaragua.", "Second Navy Cross citation\nCitation:", "First Lieutenant Lewis B. Puller, United States Marine Corps (Captain, Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua) performed exceptionally meritorious service in a duty of great responsibility while in command of a Guardia Patrol from 20 September to 1 October 1932. Lieutenant Puller and his command of forty Guardia and Gunnery Sergeant William A", ". Lieutenant Puller and his command of forty Guardia and Gunnery Sergeant William A. Lee, United States Marine Corps, serving as a First Lieutenant in the Guardia, penetrated the isolated mountainous bandit territory for a distance of from eighty to one hundred miles north of Jinotega, his nearest base", ". This patrol was ambushed on 26 September 1932, at a point northeast of Mount Kilambe by an insurgent force of one hundred fifty in a well-prepared position armed with not less than seven automatic weapons and various classes of small arms and well-supplied with ammunition. Early in the combat, Gunnery Sergeant Lee, the Second in Command, was seriously wounded and reported as dead", ". The Guardia immediately behind Lieutenant Puller in the point was killed by the first burst of fire, Lieutenant Puller, with great courage, coolness and display of military judgment, so directed the fire and movement of his men that the enemy were driven first from the high ground on the right of his position", ", and then by a flanking movement forced from the high ground to the left and finally were scattered in confusion with a loss of ten killed and many wounded by the persistent and well-directed attack of the patrol", ". The numerous casualties suffered by the enemy and the Guardia losses of two killed and four wounded are indicative of the severity of the enemy resistance. This signal victory in jungle country, with no lines of communication and a hundred miles from any supporting force, was largely due to the indomitable courage and persistence of the patrol commander. Returning with the wounded to Jinotega, the patrol was ambushed twice by superior forces on 30 September", ". On both of the occasions the enemy was dispersed with severe losses.", "Third Navy Cross citation\nCitation:", "For extraordinary heroism as Commanding Officer of the First Battalion, Seventh Marines, First Marine Division, during the action against enemy Japanese forces on Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, on the night of 24 to 25 October 1942. While Lieutenant Colonel Puller's battalion was holding a mile-long front in a heavy downpour of rain, a Japanese force, superior in number, launched a vigorous assault against that position of the line which passed through a dense jungle", ". Courageously withstanding the enemy's desperate and determined attacks, Lieutenant Colonel Puller not only held his battalion to its position until reinforcements arrived three hours later, but also effectively commanded the augmented force until late in the afternoon of the next day. By his tireless devotion to duty and cool judgment under fire, he prevented a hostile penetration of our lines and was largely responsible for the successful defense of the sector assigned to his troops.", "Fourth Navy Cross citation\nCitation:", "For extraordinary heroism as Executive Officer of the Seventh Marines, First Marine Division, serving with the Sixth United States Army, in combat against enemy Japanese forces at Cape Gloucester, New Britain, from 26 December 1943 to 19 January 1944. Assigned temporary command of the Third Battalion, Seventh Marines, from 4 to 9 January, Lieutenant Colonel Puller quickly reorganized and advanced his unit, effecting the seizure of the objective without delay", ". Assuming additional duty in command of the Third Battalion, Fifth Marines, from 7 to 8 January, after the commanding officer and executive officer had been wounded, Lieutenant Colonel Puller unhesitatingly exposed himself to rifle, machine-gun and mortar fire from strongly entrenched Japanese positions to move from company to company in his front lines, reorganizing and maintaining a critical position along a fire-swept ridge", ". His forceful leadership and gallant fighting spirit under the most hazardous conditions were contributing factors in the defeat of the enemy during this campaign and in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.", "Fifth Navy Cross citation\nCitation", "For extraordinary heroism as Commanding Officer of the First Marines, First Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against aggressor forces in the vicinity of Koto-ri, Korea, from 5 to 10 December 1950. Fighting continuously in sub-zero weather against a vastly outnumbering hostile force, Colonel Puller drove off repeated and fanatical enemy attacks upon his Regimental defense sector and supply points", ". Although the area was frequently covered by grazing machine-gun fire and intense artillery and mortar fire, he coolly moved along his troops to insure their correct tactical employment, reinforced the lines as the situation demanded, and successfully defended the perimeter, keeping open the main supply routes for the movement of the Division", ". During the attack from Koto-ri to Hungnam, he expertly utilized his Regiment as the Division rear guard, repelling two fierce enemy assaults which severely threatened the security of the unit, and personally supervised the care and prompt evacuation of all casualties. By his unflagging determination, he served to inspire his men to heroic efforts in defense of their positions and assured the safety of much valuable equipment which would otherwise have been lost to the enemy", ". His skilled leadership, superb courage and valiant devotion to duty in the face of overwhelming odds reflect the highest credit upon Colonel Puller and the United States Naval Service.", "Distinguished Service Cross citation\nCitation:", "The President of the United States of America, under the provisions of the Act of Congress approved July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Colonel Lewis B", ". \"Chesty\" Puller (MCSN: 0-3158), United States Marine Corps, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United Nations while serving as Commanding Officer, First Marines, FIRST Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces in the vicinity of the Chosin Reservoir, Korea, during the period 29 November to 4 December 1950", ". Colonel Puller's actions contributed materially to the breakthrough of the First Marine Regiment in the Chosin Reservoir area and are in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service.", "Silver Star citation\nCitation:", "The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Silver Star (Army Award) to Colonel Lewis B. \"Chesty\" Puller (MCSN: 0-3158), United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity while Commanding the First Marines, FIRST Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces during the amphibious landing resulting in the capture of Inchon, Korea, on 15 September 1950 in the Inchon-Seoul Operation", ". His actions contributed materially to the success of this operation and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the Military Service.", "Namesakes and honors\nIn addition to his military awards Puller has received numerous honors due to his Marine Corps service:\n On October 26, 2017, a groundbreaking ceremony was held for the Puller Veterans Care Center located in Vint Hill, Fauquier County, Virginia. The facility was named in honor of Puller and his wife.\n The frigate was named after him.", "The frigate was named after him.\n The headquarters building for 2nd Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team on Yorktown Naval Weapons Station in Yorktown, Virginia, is named Puller Hall in his honor.\n Route 33 in Middlesex County, Virginia, is named General Puller Highway. It is the county in which Puller is buried.\n On November 10, 2005, the United States Postal Service issued its Distinguished Marines stamps in which Puller was honored.", "The Marine Corps' mascot is perpetually named \"Chesty Pullerton.\" (e.g. Chesty XIII). He is always a purebred English Bulldog.\n In 2012, Military Sealift Command announced that a Mobile Landing Platform will be named after Puller, .", "Death and legacy\n\nFollowing his retirement Puller lived in Saluda, Virginia, where he was later buried after his death on October 11, 1971, at Christ Church Cemetery next to his wife.\n\nPuller remains a well-known figure in U.S. Marine Corps folklore, with both true and exaggerated tales of his experiences being constantly recounted among U.S. Marines.", "A common practice in U.S. Marine Corps boot camp is to end one's day with the declaration, \"Good night, Chesty, wherever you are!\" Another common encouragement is \"Chesty Puller never quit!\"\n\nIn U.S. Marine Corps recruit training and OCS cadences, Marines chant \"It was good for Chesty Puller/And it's good enough for me\" as well as \"Tell Chesty Puller I did my best.\"—Chesty is symbolic of the esprit de corps of the Marines.\nAlso, the recruits sing \"Chesty Puller was a good Marine and a good Marine was he.\"", "U.S. Marines, while doing pull-ups, will tell each other to \"do one for Chesty!\"\n\nPuller insisted upon good equipment and discipline; once he came upon a second lieutenant who had ordered an enlisted man to salute him 100 times for missing a salute. Puller told the lieutenant, \"You were absolutely correct in making him salute you 100 times, Lieutenant, but you know that an officer must return every salute he receives. Now return them all, and I will keep count.\"", "While on duty in Hawaii and inspecting the armory, Puller fined himself $100 for accidentally discharging a .45 caliber pistol indoors, although the charge for his men was only $20.\n\nA section of Virginia Highway 33 running from West Point to the Gloucester County community of Glenns is named Lewis B Puller Memorial Highway.", "In popular culture\n The book Marine!: The Life of Chesty Puller, , is about his life as a Marine.\n The book Chesty Puller's Rules of Success, , written by Bill Davis, Col, USMC (ret) explores 20 of Puller's \"self-imposed principles of action\" he gleaned from numerous meetings with the legendary General.", "The biography 'Chesty: The Story of Lieutenant General Lewis B. Puller, USMC, , by Col. Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR, won the Marine Corps Heritage Foundation's 2001 General Wallace M. Greene Award: Best Marine Corps History Book of the Year.\n John Ford directed Chesty: A Tribute to a Legend a 1976 film documentary.\n In the HBO miniseries The Pacific (2010), Puller is played by the American actor William Sadler.", "In the HBO miniseries The Pacific (2010), Puller is played by the American actor William Sadler.\n In the Sidney J. Furie film The Boys in Company C'' (1978), Drill Instructor Staff Sergeant Loyce played by R. Lee Ermey puts his Marine Corps recruits to bed with the line 'Good night Chesty, wherever you are' in reference to Chesty Puller.", "See also\n\n List of historically notable United States Marines\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n Marine Corps History Division LtGen Lewis B. Puller Biography\n Devildog.com Recorded interview with Lieutenant General Lewis Burwell \"Chesty\" Puller", "1898 births\n1971 deaths\nUnited States Marine Corps personnel of World War II\nUnited States Marine Corps personnel of the Korean War\nMilitary personnel from Virginia\nPeople from West Point, Virginia\nAmerican military personnel of the Banana Wars\nRecipients of the Air Medal\nRecipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)\nRecipients of the Legion of Merit\nRecipients of the Order of Military Merit (Korea)\nRecipients of the Navy Cross (United States)\nRecipients of the Silver Star", "Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)\nRecipients of the Silver Star\nUnited States Marine Corps generals" ]

[ "In the 2020s, LGBTQ representation in animated series and animated films became more pronounced than it had in the 2010s, or 2000s when it came to Western animation. This included series like The Owl House, Harley Quinn, Adventure Time: Distant Lands, RWBY, and Dead End: Paranormal Park. Series like She-Ra and the Princesses of Power, Steven Universe Future, The Hollow, and Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts, which had various LGBTQ characters, came to an end in 2020, and Gen:Lock came to an end in 2021", ". An upcoming season of Hazbin Hotel was hinted at, while an animated adaption of Lumberjanes was in development.", "Trends", "In 2020–2021 GLAAD report, DuckTales was described as featuring two dads in an episode, with some episodes centering on \"an alien named Penumbra\" who the episodes' director and writer confirmed as a lesbian, and the show The Owl House was noted as making headlines for a bisexual character named Luz, and her crush, Amity, who is lesbian, who have a \"romantic storyline", ".\" GLAAD described The Loud House as featuring Luna Loud, a bisexual character, and Summy, her girlfriend, along with Howard and Harold McBride, \"the two Dads of the protagonist's best friend Clyde.\"", "GLAAD pointed to a few series on the platform like Harley Quinn, with Harley Quinn as bisexual and had a growing relationship with Poison Ivy, Doom Patrol which has a gay man named Larry Trainor/Negative Man and a character, Danny, who uses they/them pronouns, and Young Justice which features \"LGBTQ characters Aqualad and Halo", ".\" GLAAD also pointed out that the streamer aired an episode of Adventure Time: Distant Lands which focuses \"on queer couple Bubblegum and Marceline\" and the announcement that an animated series based on Lumberjanes was ordered. It is worth noting that Young Justice is a young adult animation, while Doom Patrol is for adults and Adventure Time: Distant Lands is for all-ages.", "In August 2021, Insider found in their analysis of 259 LGBTQ cartoon characters stretching back to the 1980s, that \"only 10 out of just 70 identified people of color...had leading roles\" and a significant proportion lacked \"explicit racial specificity,\" with what the writers called a \"fictional combinations of real-world cultures\" and had a mix of \"nonhuman racial metaphors,\" which young children wouldn't understand", ". In September 2021, Abbey White, one of the writers of the Insider article, said in The Hollywood Reporter's \"Hollywood Remixed\" podcast that children's animation is \"arguably at the forefront of our conversations about non-binary identity and gender non-conforming identities,\" breaking down gender binaries reinforced in the media, and noted the animated series which are stepping up, even when it comes to non-binary characters. They also noted even adult animation has \"gay, trans, non-binary characters.\"", "Animation for adults", "Adult animation series in the 2020s include Magical Girl Friendship Squad: Origins, Magical Girl Friendship Squad, Castlevania, The Hollow, Disenchantment, Harley Quinn, Duncanville, The Great North, HouseBroken, Star Trek: Lower Decks, Solar Opposites, M.O.D.O.K., Tuca & Bertie, and Rick and Morty, all of which have LGBTQ characters. However, series such as Hoops and The Venture Bros. were cancelled, while LGBTQ characters appeared in indie animations such as Ollie and Scoops and Helluva Boss", ". They premiered on SYFY's TZGZ, Netflix, DC Universe, HBO Max, Fox, YouTube, and elsewhere.", "Magical Girl Friendship Squad and Syfy\n\nOn January 1, Magical Girl Friendship Squad: Origins entered the fray and premiered on Syfy. Six episodes of the adult animation, inspired by Sailor Moon and other magical girl anime, began airing on Syfy. The series, written by Diana McCorry who created Human Kind Of, features two women, Alex and Daisy, with the latter a lesbian who sleeps with a woman during the show.", "The series appeared in a new iteration on September 26, named Magical Girl Friendship Squad, with some new cast members and longer episodes. In the latter show, Daisy is unambiguously queer as she has slept with \"every barista\" at the local coffee shop. In the second and third episodes of the main show, \"The Cool S\" and \"Agony Solstice\", a sticker with the transgender pride flag is shown on Daisy's laptop", ". She is later shown to have an ex-girlfriend in the fourth episode, \"Anti-Fungal Spit Skanks,\" a classic-style anime character, named Yolanda, who works at urgent care center in the city. In the episode \"The Real World,\" Pansy, who calls herself Daisy's \"monogamous live-in girlfriend\" is introduced, but she only exists in the dimension created by Nut's sister, Gloriana.", "On November 1, 2020, Hallie Cantor, a writer for the show, responded to a question on whether Daisy is trans, stated that they hadn't yet \"identified her as trans or cis,\" meaning that she could either be a cisgender lesbian or trans lesbian. On December 4, 2020, Krystal Downs, director for Magical Girl Friendship Squad said that Daisy is lesbian in a tweet", ". However, Anna Akana, who voiced Daisy, said that Daisy is a cisgender bisexual woman like herself, and dismissed comments by fans saying that Daisy was transgender, saying that implication was incorrect.", "Castlevania, Disechantment and beyond\n\nIn March 2020, one of the series directors of Castlevania, Sam Deats, confirmed that Alucard was bisexual and Taka as gay. In the view of Vanity Fair, casually queer characters were \"part of the story's fabric from the very beginning.\"", "On May 8, 2020, the second season of The Hollow, which premiered in May 2019, aired. The first episode of that season, titled \"Home,\" features one of the show's protagonists, an Asian girl named Mira, was shown to be adopted by her two fathers, Paul and Curtis, and a brother named Miles. Curtis is a Black man, while Paul is a White man. Paul also appear in two other episodes \"Race,\" \"Hollow Games,\" while Curtis only appears in \"Race", ". Paul also appear in two other episodes \"Race,\" \"Hollow Games,\" while Curtis only appears in \"Race.\" The second episode featured a Hispanic boy named Adam, who was revealed to homosexual, saying that Mira, a female protagonist, is \"not his type\" and telling Kai \"dude, I'm gay.\" Prior to this, in the trailer for Season 2 the LGBT pride flag was seen in his room, leading some fans to speculate he was gay", ". Some critics stated that while this was somewhat clear in season one, there is little or no \"romantic entanglement\" for the show's characters in the show's second season, with the show focusing on \"difficult and dramatic friendships\" instead. The show was cancelled on August 31, 2020.", "On December 12, 2020, a mature adult animation, Hoops was cancelled by Netflix after its first season received low ratings and negative reviews. Hoops was described as \"puerile comedy ... perfect for Trump's America,\" not funny, and \"crude, rude, and aimless.\" The animation had a gay character named Scott on the school's basketball team.", "On January 15, 2021, Part 3 of Disenchantment was released on Netflix. David Opie of Digital Spy said that the series is different from The Simpsons and doing something that the latter series \"struggled with for over three decades", ".\" Opie observed that some LGBTQ+ fans from the beginning of the show picked up \"on some queer vibes\" and it later teased that Bean, voiced by Abbi Jacobson, might be flirting with people of the same sex as her,\" but then in part 3 of the show, in the episode \"Last Splash,\" it was confirmed that Bean \"is indeed queer\" and that she likes mermaids, talking with Mora, a mermaid. She talks with Mora about \"past relationships, science, history, daily life, and a variety of other topics", ".\" Another pop culture reviewer, Burkely Hermann, concurred with Opie, but saw deeper queer themes throughout the show. This includes a married woman casually admitting she is a lesbian, a griffin who has a masculine appearance but is a lady, a homosexual relationship between two supporting characters (Odval and Sorcerio), along with an implied relationship between two others. Lady Bowmore, a female explorer in the steampunk city of Steamland, is described as liking Bean and that she likes her back", ". Hermann disagrees with Opie's argument about the storyline with Mora, noting that Bean says that the time with Mora was \"so hot I didn't even care about the sand\" and argues the show is a step forward for Matt Groening when it comes to \"inclusive storytelling.\"", "Jacobson later voiced a queer protagonist, Katie, in the April 2021 animated film, The Mitchells vs. the Machines. In the film, Katie wears a rainbow pride flag pin and talks about it taking a while to figure herself out, and at the end of the film, she has a girlfriend at film school in Los Angeles named Jade.", "On September 2, 2021, Netflix released an adult animated comedy series called Q-Force, about a group of undervalued LGBT superspies, and is centered on a gay secret agent who is like James Bond, Steve Maryweather (also known as Agent Mary), as they try to prove themselves on personal and professional adventures. The series received mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 25% approval rating with an average rating of 3.2/10, based on 12 reviews", ".2/10, based on 12 reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, \"Q-Forces heart is in the right place, but dated stereotypes and a general lack of humor make this animated action adventure fall flat.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 45 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "Harley Quinn and DC Universe", "On May 15, 2020 Harley Quinn episode \"There's No Place to Go But Down\" premiered. In the episode, Harley Quinn saved her partner-in-crime, Poison Ivy, both kissed each other after they escaped from prison. The critic who reviewed the episode stated that Harley and Poison's romance is \"slow burn\" one, adding that this love affair could turn into a \"more realistic exploration of how it feels to fall in love with a friend or to have an awkward hookup with a workmate", ".\" In another episode, Clayface, a member of Harley's villain crew, was revealed as gay character who had a crush on a male student.", "In June 2020, the season 2 finale of Harley Quinn aired. In the episode, Poison Ivy had her wedding with Kite Man, a person she didn't love, interrupted. By the end of the episode, Harley Quinn and Ivy realize their feelings for each other, kissing and \"finally embracing that they're soul mates\" as Renaldo Metadeen of CBR put it", ". Heather Hogan at Autostraddle added that the bisexual love of Poison and Harley is canon, calling the second season \"one of the most gratifying gay seasons of television\" she has ever watched.", "On June 18, 2020, Batgirl, Wonder Woman and a number of other heroes from DC Comics appeared in an image posted on the Twitter account of DC Kids for pride month.", "Cancellation of The Venture Bros.\nIn September 2020, The Venture Bros., which had been slated to be renewed for an eighth and final season was cancelled. This was first asserted by show illustrator Ken Plume on September 5, then later confirmed by series creator Jackson Publick, with season 8 being axed. On September 7, 2020, Adult Swim stated that they were working to \"find another way to continue the Venture Bros. story\".\"", "The show had featured LGBTQ characters like openly gay Colonel Horace Gentleman, a lesbian character named Virginia \"Ginnie\" Dunne, and a gay couple: The Alchemist and Shore Leave. A number of creators weighed in on the decision. For instance, Owl House creator Dana Terrace criticized the cancellation, as did animator Bryan Brinkman, DuckTales producer Frank Angones, and other fans of the show.", "A direct-to-video film continuation The Venture Bros.: Radiant Is the Blood of the Baboon Heart was released on July 25, 2023. The film features Shore Leave and The Alcemist.\n\nYouTube and independent animations\nIn September 2020, independent animator Vivienne Medrano had expressed support in shipping two male characters in an animated short featuring characters from a webcomic she worked on, titled ZooPhobia, after Benjamin Diskin shipped them together.", "On October 21, 2020, the Ollie and Scoops episode \"Tutor Suitor,\" displayed an anxious Ms. Bellie Bivvins has a crush on a science teacher, Ms. Wendy Whippleworth. In the episode, they both get together in the end, with the help of the series protagonists Ollie and Scoops", ". Series creator Nico Colaleo, who had created Too Loud a few years before, described how Bellie wanted to tell \"her crush how she feels\" with butterflies from her tummy as the \"physical manifestation of her anxiety\" and praised fan art of Bellie and Wendy.", "On October 31, 2020, the first season of Medrano's Helluva Boss would be released on YouTube. Helluva Boss has various LGBTQ characters, specifically a bisexual demon named Moxxie, and a pansexual demon named Blitzo. Stolas is also presumably bisexual as he is married with a wife and a daughter, but also has sex with Blitzo.", "Duncanville, The Great North, and Fox", "On February 16, 2020, Duncanville began broadcasting on Fox. The show would feature the protagonist, Duncan, having a crush on his reportedly genderfluid classmate, Mia, who works at a pizzeria and sticks her finger in each pizza to \"silently protest the company's anti-gay stance.\" On March 22, the show would reportedly have an unnamed gay couple in episode \"Sister, Wife", ".\" On March 22, the show would reportedly have an unnamed gay couple in episode \"Sister, Wife.\" The show was later described as part of a new respect by FOX for \"female-led adult cartoons,\" along with Bless the Harts, The Great North, and HouseBroken.", "In January 2021, the adult animated sitcom titled The Great North began airing on Fox. One of the characters, Ham Tobin, played by Paul Rust, is the middle son of Beef Tobin and is openly gay. Ham is a teen trying to find his place in the world and comes out to his family as gay, even though he did so in the past. Also, Crispin Cienfuegos is a teen who works at a smoothie bar", ". Also, Crispin Cienfuegos is a teen who works at a smoothie bar. Judy originally had a crush on him until the episode \"Pride & Prejudance Adventure\" when it is revealed that Crispin is gay and is into Judy's brother Ham. He and Ham became a couple. Crispin is voiced by gay actor Julio Torres.", "Star Trek: Lower Decks", "On October 8, 2020, the creator of Star Trek: Lower Decks, which aired on CBS All Access, Mike McMahan confirmed that Captain Amina Ramsey was Beckett Mariner's former lover at Starfleet Academy, even though it wasn't explicit, saying that \"every Starfleet officer is probably at the baseline bisexual\" in a sense, and that they did not \"intentionally mean for anybody to be strictly heteronormative or straight or cis", ".\" However, he promised to do better in the show's second season, saying they would dig into it more, saying that the show could, in the future, more explicitly state \"things that the writers always knew about Mariner.\"", "In the season 2 episode of Star Trek: Lower Decks, \"We'll Always Have Tom Paris\", which aired on August 26, 2021, Mariner tells Tendi that she has dated \"bad boys, bad girls, bad gender non-binary babes, [and] ruthless alien masterminds,\" meaning that she could be pansexual. In the September 23, 2021 episode, \"Where Pleasant Fountains Lie,\" it is implied that Andy Billups, who works as the chief engineer aboard the U.S.S", ".S.S. Cerritos, and the prince of Hysperia is asexual because he had no interest in having sex with either the male guard or the female guard. One reviewer argued that the show itself has LGBTQ representation at its center, mostly focusing on Mariner, but also on Billups, noted an interview where Boimler's voice actor Jack Quaid said that his character could be queer, noted the role of Jennifer Sh'reyan in the show's season two finale, and connected it other LGBTQ representation in the Star Trek franchise.", "In October 2021 interview with Gizmodo, McMahan said that Mariner and Sh'reyan, a woman shown in the Season two finale, would be dating in the show's third season. He said that this fits with Mariner beginning to open up more as her character develops through the show.", "Other adult animations\nIn early December 2020, a 2D-animated series titled \"Highlands Shadow,\" directed by Paula Boffo and produced by Ojo Raro, was premiered at Ventana Sur's Animation! This eight episode long series aims at a young adult audience, addresses \"gender and LGBTIQ+ issues,\" by focusing on Juana, \"a girl from Humahuaca whose sister Marisol has been captured by a human trafficking cartel,\" who allies with \"two haunted machetes\" and becomes a superheroine.", "In March 2021, the creators of Hulu's Solar Opposites, Justin Roiland and Mike McMahan, confirmed that Korvo and Terry are a romantic couple in a committed relationship. Roiland also described both as genderless aliens which asexually reproduce but are not asexual. In the same month, The series Invincible features William Clockwell, Mark Grayson's best friend, has a crush on Mark's dad Omni-Man. He is voiced by gay actor Andrew Rannells", ". He is voiced by gay actor Andrew Rannells. In the episode \"You Look Kinda Dead\", he visits Upstate University for the weekend to visit Rick Sheridan, his ex-boyfriend who turns into a cyborg called an \"Reaniman\" by young mad scientist D.A. Sinclair.", "On April 27, 2021, the voice actor of Melissa Tartleton, on Hulu's M.O.D.O.K., Melissa Fumero, said that her bisexuality of the character she voices would have been explored in the show's second season, including the introduction of her girlfriend. However, the series was cancelled after one season in May 2022.", "On June 13, 2021, the second season of Tuca & Bertie began airing on Adult Swim. The first season had premiered on Netflix in May 2019. Tuca is a female anthropomorphic toucan who has shown interest in both men and women. In the Season 2 premiere \"Bird Mechanics\", she is shown making out with a woman. From the episode \"Nighttime Friend\" on, she tries to get into a serious relationship with a woman named Kara. However they break up in the Season 2 finale \"The Flood\"", ". However they break up in the Season 2 finale \"The Flood\". Some reviewers called the cartoon \"imaginative,\" and has gender parity in its writers room, while the two protagonists, Bertie and Tuca try to \"build a healthier relationship with one another.\"", "In the first episode of Season 5 of Rick and Morty, which aired on June 20, 2021, it was confirmed that the father of Morty, Jerry Smith, is queer because he, and Beth, his wife, have a threesome with the King of the Ocean, otherwise known as Mr. Nimbus. Jerry has feelings for Mr. Nimbus, and due to the fact he has a wife, it means he is either pansexual or bisexual, with both he and Beth in a \"sex-positive place\" in their relationship, according to Jerry's voice actor, Chris Parnell", ". The fact he is queer was already hinted in the episode \"Total Rickall.\"", "On September 17, 2021, Chicago Party Aunt began airing on Netflix. In this animated adaptation of the Twitter account of the same name, Daniel, Diane Dubrowski's nephew, foregoes going to Stanford University and spends a \"Gap Year\" instead, and had just realized that he is gay. The series also features Gideon, Diane's boss at Borough. His mother is unaware that he is gay. Gideon is voiced by drag queen RuPaul Charles.", "On October 29, 2021, Jackson Publick, the creator of The Venture Bros., shared an image of the script for an upcoming film based on the series which is entitled \"Long-form Special.\"", "On November 7, 2021, Arcane, aimed at a \"16+\" audience like the League of Legends video game it is based on, premiered on Netflix. In the series, Caitlyn Kiramman, a recurring character, is attracted to Vi, a woman from the undercity, despite their different circumstances. Show writer Amanda Overton said that the relationship between Caitlyn and Vi is \"naturally developing,\" with writers honoring the lived experiences of both characters", ". Overton said that in Piltover, where Caitlyn lives, there is no word for describing those who are gay or any homophobia, meaning that Caitlyn could \"marry any gender or race suitor,\" with such a person becoming \"part of her house.\" Additionally, in the episode \"Everybody Wants to Be My Enemy\", Vi tells Caitlyn \"you're hot, Cupcake.\" Overton said that this line was added to bring clarity to her character and showed that she loves women", ". Vi later moves in with Caitlyn, and in the show's ninth episode, Vi's sister, Jinx, describes Caitlyn as Vi's girlfriend. The show was renewed for a second season on November 20.", "Santa Inc., which premiered on HBO Max on December 2, 2021, featured Goldie, an openly bisexual reindeer who is a member of Santa Claus' \"B-Team\".\n\nOn January 28, 2022, The Legend of Vox Machina, based on campaign one of the Dungeons & Dragons web series Critical Role, started airing on Amazon Prime Video. It features LGBTQ characters like the twins Vex'ahlia \"Vex\" and Vax'ildan \"Vax\" Vessar, who are both bisexual, along with Keyleth of the Air Ashari and Scanlan Shorthalt who are queer.", "Young adult animation\nThe 2020s would see the continuation and premiere of young adult animated series on RoosterTeeth, Netflix, and other platforms. This included LGBTQ characters in RWBY, Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts, She-Ra and the Princesses of Power, The Dragon Prince and a gay coded character in Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure.", "Recorded by Arizal and RWBY\nOn September 21, 2020, Yssa Badiola of Recorded by Arizal hosted a RTX panel with Christine Marie Cabanos, Joshua Kazemi, and Kdin Jenzen, the latter who moderated. Toward the end of the panel, Jenzen asked about LGBTQ characters in the show. Badiola said that if there was a full season, while Arizal's sexuality (and gender) would be explored, and that there were a \"lot\" of LGBTQ characters in a \"show proper\" they originally pitched.", "On December 26, 2020, Kdin Jenzen, the voice actor for May Marigold, talked about confirmation of May as trans on screen in the December 19, 2020 RWBY episode, \"War\", the eighth episode of Volume 8 of RWBY. \"I think my favorite part of May Marigold's story, overall, is that she found herself before she found herself,\" Jenzen, who is a trans woman herself, told CBR in January 2021.", "Kipo and She-Ra", "Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts aired on Netflix from January to October 2020. It became a shining example of expanded representation. In the first season of Kipo, which streamed on January 10, Benson said outright he was gay, saying he only liked the series protagonist, Kipo, in a platonic way. He developed a crush on a male character, Troy, in the show's 10th episode. Gizmodo described the show as having \"casual queerness", ". Gizmodo described the show as having \"casual queerness.\" Benson has been described as the \"first kids' animated character to directly identify as gay in dialogue.\" In August 2021, Insider said that Benson became the \"first Black lead character, and only the second-known animated kids character\" apart from a character in 6teen to identify \"as gay in dialogue.\" Sechrist also hinted at Troy being pansexual, but it was never confirmed in the show.", "On May 15, 2020, the final season of She-Ra and the Princesses of Power premiered on Netflix. The stakes were higher than ever before, with more danger than the previous season, according to Stevenson, as the season has \"a core of optimism to it\" with the characters discovering who \"they are and following the path that each of them has", ".\" In an interview with Nerdist, Stevenson said that she wanted to represent points of view not usually seen in media, trying to explore them while being as \"honest and as real as possible,\" adding that while crafting queer representation is different from \"studio to studio, show to show,\" recommending that people who want such representation have to approach it \"without any fear,\" saying that sometimes people hold back because they are scared, and called for increased LGBTQ+ representation", ". The show was also praised for a \"multiseason queer story arc,\" and having a trans male character named Jewelstar who was voiced by Alex Blue Davis, a trans man. Another reviewer summarized Stevenson saying that she seeded hints toward the Catra/Adora pairing throughout the show, with the hope that once it was clear to viewers, it would be \"too late for higher-ups to stop it.\" Others argued that the show's season five finale changed TV with a \"groundbreaking moment\".", "High Guardian Spice\nIn October 2021, the creator of High Guardian Spice, Raye Rodriguez, a Cuban-American trans man, was described as being \"passionate about telling diverse and inclusive stories\" and noted as wanting to share \"fantastical stories about queer, diverse and relatable characters,\" implying that such characters would be in the series. It was also noted that he was developing animated series for Legendary TV and one for Warner Bros. Animation around a DC Comics character.", "When the series released on Crunchyroll on October 26, 2021, it included various LGBTQ characters. For example, Anise, the cousin of one of the protagonists, Sage, is married to an Elf woman named Aloe, with Anise voiced by a lesbian actress, Haviland Stillwell. Additionally, Professor Caraway, a professor at the High Guardian Academy, reveals in the third episode \"Transformations\", that he is revealed to be a trans man, and is voiced by Rodriguez", ". The show also includes LGBTQ cast members like trans woman Julia Kaye (who voices Snapdragon), gay man named Cam Clarke (who voices Neppy Cat and Sorrel), and ambiguously queer Julian Koster (who voices Slime Boy).", "In a November 2021 interview, Rodriguez noted the importance of representation, and voiced optimism for inclusivity in animation, praising Steven Universe for breaking \"so many boundaries.\" He also stated that the series centers on four girls who aren't princesses or chosen ones, but go on adventures, and said it is inspired by a lot of his close friendships", ". He further praised Crunchyroll for not having any pushback to LGBTQ representation in the show, even though there is homophobia and transphobia in the show's world, adding that in that world, \"people are generally a lot more chill about LGBTQ+ people than they are in real life.\"", "Other young adult animations\nOn February 28, 2020, Devon Giehl, lead writer of The Dragon Prince, said that the writers intended for the romantic interest between Amaya and Janai to start at the end of season 3, and explicitly confirmed them as lesbian characters who like each other.", "In September 2020, Amber Vanich, a story revisionist for Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure revealed that Cassandra \"Cass\" was gay coded, with sapphic looks toward the story's protagonist, Rapunzel, and that some of these feelings are shown in the episode about memory loss. She also said that there were many \"queer women who boarded scenes [of] Cassandra,\" and that women-love-women vibes were ingrained in every drawing she did of the character", ". These beliefs were also reflected by Klaudia Amenábar of The Mary Sue, calling Cass an \"extremely gay-coded sword lesbian best friend\" of Rapunzel. Earlier in the year, the series creator of Tangled, Chris Sonnenberg, said he'd be willing to produce a spinoff show focusing on Cass, \"if the call came.\" The year before, in November, he called Cass a strong female character and talked about the \"real friendship bond\" between her and Rapunzel in September of the same year.", "All-ages animation", "The 2020s saw the premiere of all-ages animated series on HBO Max, the Disney Channel, Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, and other platforms with LGBTQ characters. This included series which ended in 2020 like Steven Universe Future, and those which ended in 2021 included Adventure Time: Distant Lands, DuckTales, Big Hero 6: The Series, Carmen Sandiego, and City of Ghosts", ". Currently, ongoing all-ages animations with recurring LGBTQ characters include The Owl House, The Loud House, Rugrats, Ridley Jones, Dead End: Paranormal Park and The Proud Family: Louder and Prouder.", "Adventure Time: Distant Lands", "In the summer of 2020, the Adventure Time: Distant Lands series, the name for four hour-long streaming television specials based on the American animated television series Adventure Time, began streaming on HBO Max. On June 25, the first episode of that series dropped. This episode, titled \"BMO,\" introduced Y5, an anthropomorphic rabbit and teenage scientist between age 11 and 13 who lives in The Drift", ". Originally named \"Y4\", Y5 chooses her new name with BMO's encouragement and eventually becomes the robot's \"deputy.\" Y5 struggles with managing the expectations of her parents (voiced by Tom Kenny and Michelle Wong, respectively), and finds herself forced to disobey them in order to save the Drift—all the while discovering her own identity", ". Y5—with the titular robot's assistance—helps the citizens of the Drift defeat Hugo, and after their overlord is dethroned, she proposes a new form of social organization based on cooperation that will ideally allow the Drift to flourish.", "Voice actress Glory Curda later argued that Y5's story has a lot of context and is representative of coming out into your own identity and defining yourself with whatever terms are comfortable for you. Curda, in a Q&A on Reddit, said that after BMO left, Y5 grew and developed into \"a leader and trailblazer to help save the drift.\"", "On November 19, 2020, \"Obsidian,\" the second episode of Adventure Time: Distant Lands aired on HBO Max. It brought together Marceline \"Marcy\" Abadeer, Bonnibel \"Bonnie\" Bubblegum, and Glassboy, the latter who is voiced by Michaela Dietz, who voiced Amethyst in Steven Universe", ". In this special, Marcy, living with Bonnie, is anxious about revisiting the Glass Kingdom as it holds bad memories, but she and Bonnie are forced to confront this \"rocky past\" as they face off against an ancient, dangerous, and powerful dragon. Marcy is a confirmed bisexual character, as she dated male characters in the past, while Bonnie is more ambiguous, as her exact sexuality has not yet been confirmed", ". A few days before the premiere, Mey Rude described Bonnie and Marcy living a \"happy, gay life together\" which they always deserved, and predicted that the series would be full of \"action, brand new songs, and classic Adventure Time weirdness and heart.\" Before the episode even aired, writing for The A.V. Club, William Hughes gave this episode an A, calling it \"fan service at its finest\" with \"plenty of the usual lovely Adventure Time touches\".", "After the episode aired, Rebecca Long also gave a positive review of the episode in Polygon. She wrote that the episode gives fans the \"emotional payoff and answers\" they have been yearning for and that the special uses the plot to explore Marceline's childhood trauma, her romantic history with Bubblegum, how the two are interconnected, and fills in gaps about her past", ". Long also stated that while the special is not \"as offbeat\" as BMO, it is heavier in terms of emotional weight and plot, and making clear that \"romantic subtext\" in the original show has \"always been straight-up text", ".\" At the same time, she states that not all interactions between Bubblegum and Marceline are loving, that the special has flaws due to a conventional structure and storytelling, even with some \"inconsistencies in Princess Bubblegum's character design,\" but is still heartfelt and effective, complete with new music, with Marceline and Bubblegum having \"a shared future that feels real.\" Rosie Knight of IGN gave a similar assessment.", "Disney Channel\n\nIn January 2020, The Owl House began airing on the Disney Channel. The show dropped subtext and hints that several characters within the show are LGBTQ+.\n\nIn April 2020, the same month, DuckTales, premiered two characters, Indy and Ty, the guardians of Violet Sabrewing and the foster fathers of Lena Sabrewing, who were slated to be recurring characters. Also that month, an episode of T.O.T.S., \"Seas the Day,\" would feature a baby dolphin named Donny, adopted by a dolphin lesbian couple.", "On July 7, 2020, Dana Terrace, the creator of The Owl House, implied a romantic subtext between Amity and Luz, when responding to a fan who posted a screenshot from the upcoming episode \"Enchanting Grom Fright\" on Twitter, which showed one of the characters in the show, Amity Blight, putting her hands on the shoulders of Luz Noceda, the show's main protagonist, and looking into Luz's eyes. Claiming \"there is no heterosexual explanation\" for Amity's action, Terrace responded, \"there really isn't\"", ". On August 8, 2020, the episode, written by Molly Ostertag, aired, openly presenting and confirming Disney's first animated LGBT+ female non-recurring character. In previous episodes, Luz had shown interest in male characters but had begun to grow closer to Amity. On the other hand, Amity is shown to have a crush on Luz, confirming her to be lesbian or bisexual. In the episode, Luz and Amity dance together, while casting spells, to defeat \"Grom,\" a demon that manifests as their deepest fears", ". The animation supervisor for the show, Spencer Wan, hinted at this, referring to their intimate dance, which he storyboarded with Hayley Foster, as \"the gay thing\" and the first time he got to \"do anything even remotely queer.\" The following day, he posted an animatic of Luz and Amity's dance scene. Amity and Luz represent Disney's first animated LGBT+ female regular characters", ". Amity and Luz represent Disney's first animated LGBT+ female regular characters. In the August 2020 episode of The Owl House, titled \"Understanding Willow\", one of the main characters (Willow Park) is shown to have two dads named Gilbert and Harvey Park. Terrace confirmed Luz as bisexual and Amity as lesbian in a Reddit AMA in September 2020.", "On September 29, 2020, Samantha \"Sam\" King, a writer for the Season 3 episode of DuckTales, \"They Put a Moonlander On the Earth!\", confirmed that Lieutenant Penumbra is a lesbian character. However, King wished it had been more overt and said that people should continue to ask for better representation.", "On March 17, 2021, two days after the broadcast of the series finale of DuckTales, storyboard artist Sam King, admitted that, although she did not wish to \"become \"Word of Board Artist\" on every headcannon and ship\", she would permit fans to \"assume I think every character except, like, Lunaris, is LGBTQIA+ in some shape or another.\"", "On May 12, 2021, the reboot of the early 2000s animated sitcom, The Proud Family, which is titled The Proud Family: Louder and Prouder was announced. The series will include Barry and Randall Leibowitz-Jenkins as the adoptive parents of Maya Leibowitz-Jenkins, an interracial gay couple. Michael Collins, a recurring character from The Proud Family will come out as bisexual. The executive producers of the series, Bruce W", ". The executive producers of the series, Bruce W. Smith and Ralph Farquhar, said that the \"show never really went away\" and called it the \"perfect time to bring back this show.\" Screen Rant argued that the revival will break down barriers through inclusion of multicultural families and characters belonging to the LGBTQ+ community.", "On May 17, 2021, it was announced that The Owl House would be renewed for two more seasons. The SVP/general manager of Television Animation for Disney Channels, Meredith Roberts, said that the series creator, Dana Terrace, and her team, continue to \"push the envelope with epic and diverse storylines,\" and said they were \"eager to showcase more adventures in seasons two and three", ".\" Terrace revealed that season 2, which will directly follow the events of the season 1 finale, would consist of 21 episodes, divided into Season 2A (10 episodes) and 2B (11 episodes), while the third season will consist of three 44-minute specials.", "In early June 2021, in celebration of Pride Month, Disney unveiled new merchandise and tweeted an illustration. In response, Alex Hirsch, the creator of A Disney series, Gravity Falls, criticized Disney studio executives of cutting LGBTQ scenes from their shows. In his tweet, which was retweeted thousands of times he urged people to \"mercilessly\" spam the executives by saying is \"room for everyone under the rainbow\" if the executives claim LGBTQ+ characters are not \"Disney appropriate.\"", "On July 10, 2021, The Owl House episode \"Through the Looking Glass Ruins\" premiered on the Disney Channel. One reviewer, Mey Rude said that the episode pushes forward the relationship between Luz and Amity, with Amity putting her job as a librarian in jeopardy to help Luz, while the latter goes through trials to get Amity her job back, and Amity kissing Luz on the cheek", ". Rude also noted that the LGBTQ characters in the show are \"fleshed-out characters,\" pointed out the episode, directed by Bo Coburn, was co-written by Molly Ostertag and Terrace, with the former writing \"Enchanting Grom Fright\" and \"Wing It Like Witches.\" That episode was co-written by Rachel Vine. Another reviewer described the episode as delivering a \"definitive message that love transcends gender even in the world of children's animation", ".\" The same reviewer also said that fans shouldn't look to \"giant corporations for continual queer representation\" and expressed their frustration at the end of The Owl House after its third season airs. Another reviewer noted that Luz and Amity were beginning to \"understand their feelings for one another.\"", "On July 24, 2021, The Owl House episode \"Eda's Requiem\" featured a character named Raine Whispers, who goes by they/them pronouns and is voiced by transgender and non-binary actor Avi Roque. Raine is Disney's first non-binary character. In the episode, Eda Clawthorne is shown to have feelings for Raine. The subsequent episode, \"Knock, Knock, Knockin' on Hooty's Door\", which aired on July 31, reveals that Eda and Raine were formerly dating, before breaking up", ". The episode also has Luz and Amity asking each other out, officially becoming a couple. GLAAD praised the episode, saying they were excited to see a \"wonderful and affirming message\" from the series.", "On October 3, 2021, one of the creators of The Ghost and Molly McGee, Bob Roth, said there is LGBTQ representation in the show, which starts small and later includes main characters, and urged fans to \"let it unfold naturally.\" He also said that people were reading too much into the interactions between Libby and Molly McGee in one episode, assuming it is romantic. On October 5, 2021, the series introduced Ms. Roop, a history teacher at Brighton Middle School", ". On October 5, 2021, the series introduced Ms. Roop, a history teacher at Brighton Middle School. In the episode \"Mazel Tov, Libby!\", she is shown slow-dancing with a woman. In the following episode \"No Good Deed\", she is confirmed to be a lesbian and the woman she dance with is Pam, her wife. Ms. Roop is voiced by lesbian actress Jane Lynch.", "On October 5, 2021, in an AMA on Reddit, Dana Terrace, the creator of The Owl House, explained the show was cancelled not because of ratings or COVID-19 pandemic but rather because business people at Disney believed it did not fit \"into the Disney brand.\" She stated that this was the case due to the serialized nature of the show and an audience which \"skews older,\" rather than due to its LGBTQ+ representation, saying she wouldn't \"assume bad faith\" against those she works with in Los Angeles", ". She also noted that due to the pandemic, budgets were constrained, episodes were cut, and noted that she wasn't allowed to present a case for a fourth season, and said she believed there was a future for the show if Disney Television had \"different people in charge.\"", "In May 2022, after the series finale of Amphibia, creator Matt Braly confirmed that Sasha Waybright was bisexual. In the episode, she is shown to have a bisexual pride sticker in her car. She is voiced by Anna Akana who is a bisexual actress. The series also features Yunan and Lady Olivia, who are confirmed to be a lesbian couple in the show's finale, and implies, in the episode \"All In\" that Mr. X, who is voiced by a gay drag queen named RuPaul, is gay", ". X, who is voiced by a gay drag queen named RuPaul, is gay. Additionally, Ally and Jess, who run the internet video channel \"IT Gals\", describe themselves as \"just two girlfriends\", with an LGBT pride flag emoji. After the characters' debut, lead color designer Andy Garner-Flexner gave further confirmation that the two were in a romantic relationship. It was additionally stated that Ally's color palette was based on the pansexual pride flag, while Jess' was based on the bisexual pride flag", ". In The Owl House episode \"Clouds on the Horizon\", Luz and Amity kissed each other on the lips. It is the first same-sex kiss between the main characters in a Disney animated series.", "On June 29, 2022, the Baymax! episode \"Mbita\" featured the titular character starting a romantic relationship with another man named Yukio. He also appears in the sixth episode \"Baymax\". Mbita is voiced by gay comedian Jaboukie Young-White. The third episode \"Sofia\" features a transgender man recommending menstrual products to Baymax.", "On September 21, 2022, Firebuds was released on Disney Junior and Disney+. The series features Violet's moms Val and Viv and Axl's dads Arnie and AJ. Val is voiced by queer actress Natalie Morales and Arnie is voiced by gay actor Stephen Guarino.", "On October 15, 2022, The first The Owl House special \"Thanks to Them\" has Luz come out to her mother as bisexual. The special also reveals that Vee's campmate Masha is non-binary as they use they/them pronouns in their nameplate and their nails are painted in the colors of the non-binary pride flag.\n\nOn February 1, 2023, The Proud Family: Louder and Prouder episode \"BeBe\" confirmed Makeup Boy to be gay as he and Michael are shown to be dating. Makeup Boy is voiced by gay internet personality Bretman Rock.", "On February 11, 2023, the Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur episode \"The Borough Bully\" revealed Casey Calderon has two dads Isaac and Antonio Goldberg-Calderon. In a later episode \"Today, I Am a Woman\", Isaac and Antonio showed their wedding photo. It is the first Disney animated series to depict a same-sex wedding. Additionally, Brooklyn, a student at Lunella's school is a transgender girl. Brooklyn is voiced by non-binary actor Indya Moore", ". Brooklyn is voiced by non-binary actor Indya Moore. The episode also features LOS-307 (voiced by Asia Kate Dillon), a supercomputer who refers to themself as a non-binary machine. The series also features Tai, a non-binary teenager, voiced by non-binary actor Ian Alexander.", "On April 8, 2023, The Owl House series finale \"Watching and Dreaming\" revealed King's father \"Papa Titan\" to be bigender as he refers to himself as both a king and queen. On April 28, 2023, Willow Park and Hunter were confirmed to be pansexual and bisexual by series creator Dana Terrace.", "On May 6, 2023, The Ghost and Molly McGee episode \"The After(life) of the Party\" revealed Scratch's friend Geoff to be gay and has been in a relationship with another ghost named Jeff for 100 years. Geoff's sexuality and his relationship with Jeff had already been confirmed in the Chibi Tiny Tales short \"Molly, Scratch's Third Wheel\", in where they were shown with the other couples. Jeff is voiced by gay actor Vincent Rodriguez III.\n\nCartoon Network", "On March 27, 2020, the four-part finale of its limited epilogue series of Steven Universe, Steven Universe Future, aired on Cartoon Network. Sugar argued that the series made a point about shounen anime and kids cartoons, with the aftermath of victories generally not explored, stating that the series explores the aftermath of the victory in the Season 5 finale, with the protagonist, Steven, having to face his problems head-on", ". The series showed a character, Bismuth, have a crush on another character (Pearl) in the episode \"Bismuth Casual.\" The same month, a storyboarder for the show stated that Peridot was asexual and aromantic, despite her reservations that she is only a secondary creator on the show, pleasing fans, even though she said that she didn't believe Peridot was autistic", ". Before (and after this point) fans had shipped Peridot with various other characters, specifically Lapis Lazuli and Amethyst, some reviewers even seeing Peridot and Lapis in a \"close, loving relationship\" in 2018.", "In April 2020, the creator of DC Super Hero Girls, Lauren Faust, confirmed that everyone was on board with Jessica Cruz having two mothers and that she was glad it was approved.", "In July 2020, Tony Cervone, a producer of Scooby Doo! Mystery Incorporated confirmed that Velma is a lesbian while James Gunn, who wrote the screenplays of Scooby-Doo and Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, she was \"explicitly gay.\" She has feelings for Marcie \"Hot Dog Water\" Fleach. Some reviewers said that the statements by Gunn and Cervone confirmed what queer fans had thought of for years, and stated that sexuality is not static, but can evolve.", "In October 2020, Jones-Quartey confirmed that Professor Venomous and Lord Boxman of OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes were married at the end of the series.", "Nickelodeon\nIn February 2020, The Loud House, which broadcast on Nickelodeon, featured two lesbian characters. In an episode that month, Lainey, one of Lynn's roller derby team, is dating a girl named Alice. Chandni Parekh, who voiced Alice, said this showed that The Loud House is \"a pioneer and inspiring supporter of love & diversity in children's animation.\"", "On June 13, 2020, Nickelodeon promoted LGBTQ+ characters in shows such as SpongeBob SquarePants and The Legend of Korra. While some said this \"proved\" that SpongeBob was gay, Stephen Hillenberg, back in 2005, said he considered SpongeBob to be asexual, with one writer for Out writing that it is important to realize that those who are asexual and queer are \"just as welcome to dawn rainbows and celebrate Pride this month.\"", "In February 2021, Nickelodeon's Blue's Clues & You! featured an alphabet song in which the letter \"P\" stood for \"P is full of Pride!\" and featured multiple Pride flags. The same month, it was announced that Adventure Time: Distant Lands episode \"BMO\" had won a Kidscreen Award for Best One-Off, Special or TV Movie.", "Betty Deville, mother of Phil and Lil DeVille, appears in the Rugrats reboot series, which began in May 2021. In the original series, she was married to a man Howard DeVille. In the reboot, Betty is a gay single mother. Betty is voiced by queer actress Natalie Morales. Morales described the character as a \"single mom with her own business who has twins\" but still hangs out with her community and friends, even casually talking about her ex-girlfriend.", "In June 2021, Kevin Sullivan, a story editor for The Loud House told Insider that no one stopped him from using the word \"lesbian\" as part of a storyline involving Luna and Sam, her crush, and that he was proud of the whole episode. Sullivan added that the fact Luna wasn't more directly identified as lesbian was not due to pressure from Nickelodeon and that he is glad the team didn't push it further because Luna then becomes \"representative of so many more young people struggling with their identity.\"", "On October 6, 2022, Monster High: The Series premiered which features a non-binary Frankie Stein who uses they/them pronouns and Deuce Gorgon's moms Medusa and Lyra. Frankie is voiced by non-binary actor Iris Menas", "Other all-ages animations", "In February 2020, an episode of the children's television series, Clifford the Big Red Dog aired on Amazon Prime Video and PBS Kids. The episode, titled \"Dogbot,\" featured Dr. and Ms. Mulberry, the two moms of Samantha Mulberry. Dr. Mulberry, who is a veterinarian, is voiced by Maggie Cassella, a lesbian actress. The episode was nominated for a GLAAD Media Award but The Not-Too-Late Show with Elmo was nominated for the \"Outstanding Children's Programming\" award at the 32nd GLAAD Media Awards instead", ". In August 2021, Louise Mares, Communication Science professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison later criticized the episode, telling Insider that those kindergarteners who watched it had the takeaway to be \"nice to dogs with three legs\" but that the focus on human disability and acceptance was lost.", "In late August 2020, creator Sara Eissa talked about a pitch for her show, Astur's Rebellion, an action-adventure which \"follows the protagonist in her journey of rebellion and redemption,\" saying it was rejected \"due to bias against elements of diversity such as POC and LGBTQ+ main characters,\" implying that she was talking about Crunchyroll, and its then-upcoming show High Guardian Spice", ". She also talked about discourse around \"diverse\" in the animation industry, especially those pitching \"future shows,\" stating that the company (presumably Crunchyroll) would look at a show with \"diversity\" like people of color, female cast, brighter tones, and \"not give it a chance\" because it won't be profitable", ". She further criticized \"progressive looking white women\" for ruining the chances of people of color to pitch shows and argued that they only hire other White people, saying they are advertising diversity, not normalizing it, and stated that she will continue to work on Astur's Rebellion going forward.", "In February 2021, in Instagram Live interview, Duane Capizzi, the showrunner of Carmen Sandiego, said that it was intentional that Le Chevre (also known as Jean Paul) and El Topo (also known as Antonio) were together, and that they were always seen as a pair, and confirmed them as a couple, saying their philosophy was to \"show, and not tell.\" He also called them villains which are \"sweet,\" which you \"can't help but love", ".\" He also called them villains which are \"sweet,\" which you \"can't help but love.\" A few months later, an animator for the show said that they were \"given explicit directions\" to make Le Chevre and El Topo, in their scenes together, \"romantic and intimate.\"", "On March 5, 2021, the first season of City of Ghosts introduced Thomas, a 7-year old non-binary child, and skater, who goes by they/them pronouns. Thomas is voiced by transgender child actor Blue Chapman. In the fourth episode \"Tovaangar\", Jasper is shown to have two moms.", "In May 2021, it was reported that a non-binary okapi named Odee Elliott, would appear in the season 3 Pride-themed episode of Madagascar: A Little Wild, titled \"Whatever Floats Your Float.\" In the episode, none of the floats seem right for Odee, and Odde later sings a song titled \"Be Proud\" about being proud of your identity", ". Odee's voice actor, Iris Menas, a non-binary person, said the episode resonated with hir, calling it \"spot on,\" positively impacting those who are non-binary and everyone else, with the episode's biggest takeaway being \"acceptance and love and celebration", ".\" GLAAD consulted on the episode, with Jeremy Blacklow, GLAAD's director of entertainment media, saying that episode shows parents and kids that there is a \"place for everyone,\" and arguing that episode comes at a time that \"LGBTQ inclusion in kids and family programming is rapidly growing,\" specifically mentioning that DreamWorks Animation is working with GLAAD to \"ensure that all families are represented on-screen.\"", "On July 13, 2021, Ridley Jones, an animated series by Chris Nee, who created Doc McStuffins and Vampirina premiered on Netflix, part of a slate of animated preschool series on the streaming service, with others including Spirit Rangers and Ada Twist, Scientist, of which Nee is the showrunner. Ridley Jones includes Fred, a non-binary bison who prefers they/them pronouns, the first non-binary character in a kids show on Netflix. Fred is also voiced by Iris Menas as confirmed by Nee.", "In September 2021, it was reported that the preschool series on HBO Max, Little Ellen, would feature same-sex couples. On September 14, 2021, Larissa Logan Robin Frost, also known by their handle LariUmbreon, announced the cancellation of the planned animated adaptation of Rain. The series had been noted in December 2020 by Jocelyn Samara DiDomenick, the author of Rain who linked to a teaser trailer, announcing that it was in production", ". LariUmbreon on the other hand, had announced that she would have voiced the character, Rain. The official YouTube channel for the series described it as a \"story for boys, girls, and everyone in between.\"", "In June 2022, Dead End: Paranormal Park aired on Netflix. The series was originally scheduled for a Fall 2021 premiere. However, it was later revealed the series would be debuting sometime in 2022. On August 17, 2020, Margaret Evans interviewed Hamish Steele, creator of Dead End: Paranormal Park, about LGBTQ characters in his show", ". Steele explained how the show changed from its original iteration on Cartoon Hangover in 2014, and the graphic novels that followed it, stating that he is grateful for showrunners who fought for LGBTQ characters in their shows, adding that there was \"absolutely no pushback from Netflix about representation,\" while describing Barney as a trans male character", ". He also hoped that the show will help out \"more trans creators getting their chance to tell their stories\" while hinting at other LGBTQ characters in the show apart from Barney, noting the performance of Miss Coco Peru on the show as Pauline Phoenix.", "In February 2023, Work It Out Wombats! premiered on PBS Kids. The series was made with the intention of being diverse and representing all kinds of family dynamics, whether it be raised by grandparents (like the wombats) or having divorced parents with joint custody of their child (like Sammy the snake). This includes Duffy and Leiko, the lesbian kangaroo mothers of an adopted tarsier daughter named Louisa.\n\nAnimated films", "Animated films\n\nIn the 2020s, various animated films with LGBTQ characters were released on physical formats, in theaters, and on streaming platforms. This included LGBTQ characters in Superman: Red Son, Onward, Justice League Dark: Apokolips War, and Out. Some implied there were gay undertones in Luca.\n\nOn February 25, 2020, in the animated direct-to-video animated superhero film Superman: Red Son, Wonder Woman's bisexuality would be on screen, with her as a voice for the LGBTQ community.", "On March 6, 2020, Onward, computer-animated urban fantasy adventure film, was released. In the film, Officer Specter briefly appears and in one scene she discusses her girlfriend's daughter pulling her hair out. She is voiced by Lena Waithe, a lesbian actress.", "On May 5, 2020, the direct-to-video animated superhero film Justice League Dark: Apokolips War would premiere, featuring John Constantine and King Shark as characters. Constantine's voice actor, Matt Ryan, would describe Constantine Shark as in a gay relationship.", "On May 22, 2020, an animated short film titled Out premiered on Disney+. This short Pixar film revolves around Greg attempting to hide a framed photo of him and his boyfriend, Manuel, from his parents, out of fear for their disapproval. The seventh short film in the SparkShorts series, it is both Disney's and Pixar's first short to feature a gay main character and storyline, including an on-screen same-sex kiss.", "In February 2021, Deadline reported that the film adaptation of Nimona was cancelled due to the shutdown of Blue Sky Studios. Webcomics commenter Gary Tyrrell criticized the decision, saying, \"[Disney] could have allowed a very different kind of young heroine... I mourn for those who would have found a vision of themselves in an animated version\". Sources told CBR that the film was \"75% complete\"", ". Sources told CBR that the film was \"75% complete\". Anonymous staffers at Blue Sky interviewed by Business Insider bemoaned the cancellation of the film, calling it \"heartbreaking,\" arguing that the film \"didn't look like anything else in the animated world,\" and saying that they believe it will never \"be completed and released.\" A few staffers confirmed to BuzzFeed News that the film had an \"I love you\" scene between Blackheart and Goldenloin", ". In June 2021, Mey Rude, a writer for Out, said she still held out \"hope that this film...will find its way back to life somehow.\" In July 2021, Meggie Gates in Bitch, said the film would have been Disney's first \"legitimately queer film\" and could have been a turning point \"for how the corporation handles queerness\" but that the Disney chose to \"bury its gays\" by cancelling the film, a blow to queer Disney fans. In April 2022, it was announced Netflix revived the film and will be releasing it in 2023.", "In June 2021, Luca was released on Disney+. Some argued that the film felt \"gay\" even if not \"explicitly queer,\" and more ambiguous, comparing it to the 2020 animated film, Wolfwalkers. Others said that Luca and Alberto hiding their true sea monster identities as an allegory for people who are members of the LGBTQ+ community, feeling as though they need to hide their true selves in order to be accepted", ". The film's director, Enrico Casarosa, said this was unintentional and that his original vision for the film was to explore the time in a child's life before romance, but he has since welcomed the interpretation after the film's release, also stating: \"While I identify with pronouns he/him and I am a straight man, the themes of diversity, acceptance and inclusion in our movie are dear to my heart\".", "On March 10, 2022, Pixar employees argued that \"nearly every moment\" of openly gay affection was cut due to demands from Disney executives, even if creative teams and Pixar executives objected, arguing that these employees are being barred from creating queer content in animated films. Some critics countered that Pixar also downplayed queer moments in films like Luca and Turning Red.", "It was later reported in mid-March 2022 that a same-sex kiss in Lightyear, which was released on June 17, was reinstated, with the film featuring the studio's \"first-ever on-screen kiss between two characters of the same gender\" between Alisha Hawthorne and her wife Kiko. At the same time, Lilith, Eda's older sister in The Owl House, was confirmed to be aromantic asexual", ". Jade King of The Gamer noted that Cissy Jones said that her letter during a charity stream saying that Lilith didn't have any romantic attractions was \"basically canon,\" further confirming those identities.", "On October 4, 2022, the direct-to-video film Trick or Treat Scooby-Doo! depicted Velma Dinkley as a lesbian who has a crush on monster designer Coco Diablo who reciprocates. The film was received by media outlets and fans. Velma Dinkley had previously been depicted as a lesbian in the television series Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated which ran from 2010 to 2013.", "On October 28, 2022, Wendell & Wild was released on Netflix. The film features Raúl Cocolotl, a transgender boy in an all-girls Catholic school. He is the first transgender male character in a major animated film. Raúl is voiced by transgender actor Sam Zelaya.\n\nStrange World which was released on November 23, 2022, features Ethan Clade, who is the first gay lead character in a Disney animated film. Ethan Clade is voiced by gay comedian Jaboukie Young-White.", "Upcoming series", "In February 2020 it was reported that Michael Vogel, a gay development executive who worked on shows like Transformers Prime and My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, was working on a new 2D animated show for WildBrain titled Princess Alexander", ". The series would focus on themes of sexuality and gender while revolving around a young prince who finds out he has magical powers which \"have traditionally been exclusive to princesses,\" even though he has \"none of the natural skills that princes are supposed to have,\" leading to the entire kingdom and his family panicking at this discovery", ". Vogel said that this series targets those ages 6–9, serving as an allegory for acceptance of LGBTQ people, and that he is writing the \"22-minute origin story pilot\" while production was said to begin in summer 2020", ". WildBrain's EVP of content and current series Stephanie Betts was quoted as saying they want to \"tell stories that appeal to everyone in the audience\" while Vogel said that while many shows are doing a lot for diversity and inclusivity, to have a character \"dealing with these issues front and center\" is something he hasn't seen before.", "On August 15, 2020, Lena Dean of Bitch noted that writers and showrunners have wanted to push for onscreen queer representation, but said it still risky", ". She hoped that in the future there would be \"more meaningful representation\" especially for transgender, asexual, non-binary, and \"queer characters of color,\" noting that there is such a demand for audiences for this diversity, noting that in the past there were only \"background gay characters\" which meant that queer people couldn't see themselves as protagonists.", "On August 17, 2020, a queer writer, Taneka Stotts, who wrote 12 episodes of Steven Universe Future, along with episodes for My Little Pony: Pony Life, Craig of the Creek, and other shows, announced her role in an unannounced show on Twitter. She described herself as story editor on a show with \"great characters, upfront queerness, and big heart\" which was slated to premiere in 2022 but is currently delayed", ". She later clarified that it would be an animated show, and said that she wanted to be a showrunner in the future.", "The comic series, Lumberjanes was slated to premiere as an animated series on HBO Max, having Shannon Watters, Grace Ellis, Brooklyn A. Allen and ND Stevenson as showrunners. The original comic series is filled with LGBTQ characters, such as Jo, a trans female main character, and two other female main characters who identify as either bisexual or lesbian, Molly and Mal (both of whom have requited crushes on each other)", ". After the announcement of the series, fellow animators, like Matt Braly of Amphibia, Rad Sechrist of Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts, and Shadi Petosky of Twelve Forever and Danger & Eggs praised the development. There were similar sentiments from voice actors Liam O'Brien, Sam Riegel, Aimee Carrero, Felicia Day, and Cissy Jones, among others. On October 7, 2020, Stevenson told EW about the series, saying that his \"interest in lifting up and exploring queer stories\" is not going anywhere", ". He added that he is interested in \"telling central queer stories,\" having stories that are \"built around\" queer characters. The same EW story described the series as being in the \"early development\" stage with HBO Max. As of May 31, 2023, there has been no new information on the animated series since then, as AT&T sold Warner Bros. to Discovery, Inc. to merge as Warner Bros. Discovery in 2022 and the relaunch of HBO Max as Max in 2023.", "On October 17, 2023, it was announced an upcoming preschool animated series Rafi the Wishing Wizard will air on CBeebies. The series will be about Rafi, who is the daughter of a male same-sex couple.", "Timeline of key events\n May 15, 2020: She-Ra and the Princesses of Power premieres its final season on Netflix and ends with a confirmation of the queer romance between Catra and Adora.\n June 26, 2020: The season finale of Harley Quinn airs on DC Universe and is called \"one of the most gratifying gay seasons of television\" for the bisexual love story between Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy.\n August 7, 2020: It is announced that Hazbin Hotel will be developed into a fully-fledged animated series on A24.", "September 2, 2020: Dana Terrace, creator of The Owl House, confirms two LGBTQ characters in the show: Luz Noceda and Amity Blight.\n September 7, 2020: It is announced that The Venture Bros. has been cancelled and will not be renewed for an eighth season.\n September 9, 2020: The Venture Bros., slated to be renewed for an eighth and final season, is cancelled,\n October 7, 2020: It is announced that an animated series based on Lumberjanes is in early development.", "October 12, 2020: The final season of Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts premieres on Netflix.\n October 31, 2020: The first season of Helluva Boss premieres on YouTube.\n November 19, 2020: The second episode of Adventure Time: Distant Lands airs on HBO Max, focusing on the romantic relationship between Marceline \"Marcy\" Abadeer and Bonnibel \"Bonnie\" Bubblegum.\n December 19, 2020: May Marigold confirms she is a trans woman in the Volume 8 episode of RWBY, \"War.\"", "February 4, 2021: It is announced that the film adaptation of Nimona, with various LGBTQ characters, was cancelled due to the shutdown of Blue Sky Studios.\n May 17, 2021: It is announced that The Owl House would be renewed for two more seasons.\n April 30, 2021: The Mitchells vs. the Machines premieres on Netflix and has a subtle lesbian protagonist named Katie, voiced by Abbi Jacobson.\n July 31, 2021: Luz and Amity in The Owl House are confirmed as a romantic couple.", "July 31, 2021: Luz and Amity in The Owl House are confirmed as a romantic couple.\n August 26, 2021: Beckett Mariner tells her friend, Tendi, in an episode of Star Trek: Lower Decks that she is \"always dating bad boys, bad girls, bad gender non-binary babes, ruthless alien masterminds, bad bynars,\" implying she is pansexual.", "See also\n LGBT representation in animated web series\n LGBT representation in American adult animation\n LGBT children's television programming\n List of animated series with LGBT characters\n History of homosexuality in American film\n History of anime\n Media portrayals of bisexuality\n Media portrayal of lesbianism\n List of LGBT-related films by year\n Cross-dressing in film and television\n List of animated series with crossdressing characters\n List of anime by release date (1946–1959)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n \n\n2020s animated television series\nAnimated television series\nLGBT portrayals in mass media\nLGBT characters in animation" ]

[ "The following events occurred in August 1973:", "August 1, 1973 (Wednesday)", "Sheriff T. J. Flournoy reluctantly led deputies in closing \"Edna's Fashionable Ranch Boardinghouse\", in La Grange, Texas, United States. The house of prostitution had operated since 1844, before the Republic of Texas was admitted as a U.S. state. Texas Governor Dolph Briscoe had informed Flournoy that, if the county did not close the bordello, the Texas Rangers would do so, despite a petition to Briscoe from La Grange businessmen, the local newspaper and some residents", ". Flournoy told reporters, \"It's been there all my life and all my daddy's life and never caused anybody any trouble. Every large city in Texas has things 1,000 times worse.\" The story of the \"Chicken Ranch\" would become popularized in the ZZ Top song \"La Grange\" and dramatized in the 1978 musical and 1982 film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas.", "The Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) was inaugurated by the nations of Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.\nMilo Butler was sworn into office as the new Governor-General of the Bahamas, three weeks after the islands became independent; he was the first native Bahamian to hold the office.", "William E. Colby was confirmed as the new Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) by the U.S. Senate, 83 to 13, after Colby's pledge to not use the CIA solely against foreign nations and not within U.S. borders.", "The U.S. extended South Vietnam a loan of $50,000,000 for the purchase of industrial machinery, spare parts and other manufactured products as part of postwar economic reconstruction. The agreement was made between U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin and South Vietnam's Foreign Minister, Nguyen Phu Duc. On the same day, the Soviet Union pledged economic aid to the Viet Cong for machinery, food, medicine, consumer goods, and \"other materials necessary for normalizing the population's life.\"", "Died: Walter Ulbricht, 80, East German head of state who had served as the Chairman of the State Council since 1960, and had been the de facto leader of the Communist nation as First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany from 1950 to 1971.", "August 2, 1973 (Thursday)\nA flash fire killed 50 people at the Summerland amusement centre at Douglas, Isle of Man. The four-level building had 4,000 people inside at the time, where hundreds had been attending a rock concert, when a series of explosions went off and the fires began.", "Spiro Agnew, the Vice President of the United States, was notified by a federal prosecutor in Baltimore, George Beall, of a federal investigation, unrelated to the Watergate scandal, for possible violations of bribery, conspiracy and tax fraud arising from receipt of \"kickbacks\" from persons who benefited from his help. The Washington Post broke revealed on August 7 that Agnew was being accused of federal crimes.", "The nine-day Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 1973 opened with the prime ministers of 32 British Commonwealth nations, hosted at Ottawa by Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. On the first full day of business, the leaders vote, 31 to 0, to seek a total ban on atomic bomb testing. On August 9, the ministers voted unanimously in favor of black majority rule in Rhodesia.", "August 3, 1973 (Friday)", "Four residents were killed and 12 injured when the former Grand Central Hotel in New York City collapsed. At the time of its 1870 opening, it was New York City's most elegant lodging and the largest hotel in the U.S., but had deteriorated more than a century later and was a residential apartment building, the University Hotel, at the time of the accident. The eight-story, 400-room building fell shortly after 5:00 in the afternoon", ". The eight-story, 400-room building fell shortly after 5:00 in the afternoon. Most of the 308 persons registered as living at the building had escaped after rumbling began and plaster began falling, but 16 failed to heed warnings to get out.", "James Dreymala of Pasadena, Texas, age 13, became the final murder victim of serial killer Dean Corll. Dreymala had left his home on a bicycle and telephoned his parents to tell them that he was \"staying at an all night party.\" His body was found in a boat shed in Houston, along with the bicycle, five days later.\nBorn: Stephen Graham, English character actor known for This Is England and its sequels; in Kirkby, Lancashire", "August 4, 1973 (Saturday)\nThe Justicialist Party nominated former Argentine president Juan Perón and his wife Isabel Perón as candidates for President and Vice President of Argentina in advance of Argentina's presidential election scheduled for September 23. Mr. and Mrs. Peron accepted the nominations on August 18.\nThe Pekan Olahraga Nasional Games opened in Djakarta, Indonesia.\nDied: Sam Katzman, 72, American producer known for his successful low budget films\n\nAugust 5, 1973 (Sunday)", "The Soviet Union launched the Mars 6 probe from Baikonur Cosmodrome. The spacecraft would reach the planet Mars seven months later on March 12, 1974, releasing a lander which would return data for 224 seconds during its descent through the Martian atmosphere before crashing on the surface. Much of the data that was transmitted was unusable.", "The Black September terrorist group threw a hand grenade into a crowded passenger lounge at the airport in Athens and fired pistols, killing three people and injuring 55.\nIn Iceland, at a farm near Dragháls, in a group of Norse worshipers revived the tradition of the \"blót\" for the first time since the violent blood sacrifice had been outlawed in the year 1000. The group, the Ásatrúarfélagið held ceremonies in front of a plaster statue of the Norse god Thor.", "Born: Sean Sherk, American mixed martial arts competitor and UFC Lightweight champion 2006 to 2007; in St. Francis, Minnesota \nDied: Vander Broadway, 74, American female impersonator, high-wire performer and trapeze artist who was billed as \"Barbette\", took an overdose of painkillers to commit suicide.", "August 6, 1973 (Monday)\nWith 10 days left before the halt of U.S. bombing of Cambodia, a U.S. Air Force B-52 bomber mistakenly bombed a Cambodian Navy base at Neak Luong, killing more than 137 Cambodian servicemen and their families, and wounding 208.", "Skylab 3 astronaut Jack R. Lousma almost doubled the record for a space walk, spending 6 hours and 31 minutes outside of the Skylab space station above the Earth. Lousma had only expected to spend 3½ hours in deploying a sun shield but encountered difficulties in getting it set up. The previous record had been on June 7 when Charles Conrad Jr. of Skylab 1 and spent 3 hours and 23 minutes outside the space station.", "The Senate of Pakistan (the Aiwān-e-Bālā), with 45 members, met for the first time after a new constitution changed the unicameral Constituent Assembly to a bicameral parliament. Samia Usman Fatah took the oath of office as the first woman Senator in Pakistan.", "Musician Stevie Wonder and his friend, John Harris, were injured when their vehicle collided with a truck loaded with logs near Salisbury, North Carolina. Wonder was being driven to Durham, where he was scheduled to perform a concert at the Duke University arena. For four days, Wonder was in a coma caused by severe brain contusion.\nBorn: Vera Farmiga, American TV, stage and film actress; in Clifton, New Jersey\nDied:", "Born: Vera Farmiga, American TV, stage and film actress; in Clifton, New Jersey\nDied: \nFulgencio Batista, 72, former Cuban dictator overthrown by Fidel Castro at the end of 1958.\nJames Beck, 44, British television and film actor and comedian known for the role of Private Walker in the BBC sitcom Dad's Army, died suddenly from an attack of pancreatitis after making a public appearance.\nWilmoth Houdini (stage name for Frederick Wilmoth Hendricks), 77, Trinidadian-born U.S. calypso singer and recording artist", "August 7, 1973 (Tuesday)\nA plea for help over citizens band radio, by a boy by the name of Larry purporting to be stranded inside an overturned truck with his dead father in New Mexico, sparked a search-and-rescue mission in Albuquerque, New Mexico. A massive search would be undertaken for five days before being called off on August 12 with no further calls after that, and the Federal Communications Commission would eventually conclude that the broadcast had been a hoax.", "Zhores Medvedev, a biologist exiled from the Soviet Union and living in London, had his Soviet citizenship revoked and was ordered to surrender his passport to the Soviet Embassy. The next day, TASS, the Communist government's news agency, said that Medvedev had been \"fabricating, sending to the West and spreading slanderous materials discrediting the Soviet state and social system and the Soviet people.\"", "Hermine Braunsteiner became the first convicted Nazi war criminal in the U.S. to be extradited to West Germany for trial. She was found after Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal had learned that she was living in New York City as Mrs. Hermine Ryan.\nDied: José Villalonga, 53, coach and manager of the Spanish soccer football team", "August 8, 1973 (Wednesday)", "Police in Houston, Texas, learned for the first time of the murders committed by serial killer Dean Corll, after Corll's accomplice, Elmer Wayne Henley, led them to a shallow grave and told them that he had shot and killed Corll. In excavating the spot at a boat storage yard, excavations found the bodies of eight people, including those of three teenagers who had been missing. In the days that followed, more human remains would be found", ". In the days that followed, more human remains would be found. Henley, 17, and another accomplice, David Owen Brooks, 18, were indicted by a grand jury for murder six days later, on August 14.", "South Korean politician Kim Dae-jung, who had run against President Park Chung Hee in the 1971 South Korean presidential election and later fled to Japan, was kidnapped at gunpoint from the Hotel Grand Palace in Tokyo by the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA). Kim had just left a luncheon meeting the leader of the opposition Democratic Unification Party, Yong Il Dong, and another party official, Kim Kyung", ". As he walked into the hallway, Kim Dae-jung was surrounded by five men, who forced him into a hotel room, then drugged him and took him down to the hotel's parking garage. After being beaten up during five days during interrogations, Kim was released at his home five days later.", "Born: Scott Stapp (stage name for Anthony Scott Flippen), American singer and lead vocalist for the rock band Creed; in Orlando, Florida\nDied:George Wiley, 42, U.S. civil rights leader and founder (in 1966) of the National Welfare Rights Organization, was killed when he fell from his boat into Chesapeake Bay off of the coast of Dares Beach, Maryland.", "August 9, 1973 (Thursday)\nNear the Egyptian oasis town of Faiyum, 23 people were killed and 12 injured when the bus they were on fell into a canal after the driver swerved to avoid hitting a donkey.\nThe Soviet Union launched its Mars 7 interplanetary probe, with a goal of landing on the planet Mars. On March 9, 1974, the probe would reach Mars and release the lander, but because of a retrorocket failure, the lander would miss the atmosphere and instead fly past the planet at no closer than .", "The \"Nantua Pillar\", a high, 12,000 ton granite boulder that had served as a local landmark and had hung for more than a century over the French town of Nantua in the Ain département, fell from its mountainside location, 65 minutes after 1,500 of the town's 3,500 residents had been evacuated.\nEurope's first Tandy electronics store (branded in the United States as RadioShack) opened in Belgium in the Antwerp suburb of Aartselaar. \nDied:", "Died: \nNikos Zachariadis, 70, Leader of the Communist Party of Greece during the Greek Civil War, 1946 to 1949, who briefly declared the Provisional Democratic Government in parts of Eastern Greece adjacent to Yugoslavia and Albania\nDonald Peers, 65, Welsh popular singer known for \"In a Shady Nook by a Babbling Brook\"", "August 10, 1973 (Friday)\nThe Skylab 3 astronauts were able to capture the most detailed photograph of a solar flare up to that time.", "The Israeli Air Force intercepted Iraqi Airways Flight 006A shortly after it took off from the airport in Beirut with 74 passengers and a crew of eight, taking the group back home to Baghdad at the end of their vacation. Avoiding a repeat of the shootdown of a Libyan airliner earlier in the year, Israel successfully directed the Iraqi airplane to land at a secret airfield and held the group for eight hours", ". The Israeli forces had confused the flight with another Caravelle jet, Iraqi Airways Flight 006, which was believed to be bringing Palestinian guerrilla leaders to Lebanon from Vienna. Israel's act of forcing down a civilian airliner outside of its airspace was criticized worldwide, and even the U.S. joined in the UN Security Council resolution on August 15 condemning Israel, marking the first time in five years that the U.S. had sided against its ally.", "Born: \nLuis Lacalle, President of Uruguay since 2020; in Montevideo\nRoman Golovchenko, Prime Minister of Belarus since 2020; in Zhodzina, Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union\nDied: \nJean Hanson, 53, British biophysicist and co-discoverer of the \"sliding filament theory\" of muscle contraction from her microscopic study of muscle fibers, died of meningococcal septicaemia, an infection of the brain tissue.\nShwe U Daung, 83, popular Burmese mystery story author who created the fictional detective U San Shar", "Lillian Roxon, 41, Australian author and journalist known for the first encyclopedia of rock music, Lillian Roxon's Rock Encyclopedia, died of an asthma attack", "August 11, 1973 (Saturday)\nClive Campbell, a Jamaican-born American musician who performed under the stage name DJ Kool Herc, originated the hip hop music genre at a party that he and his younger sister Cindy Campbell had organized, the \"Back to School Jam\" held at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx in New York City.", "At Minsk, the Soviet Red Army announced that seven former soldiers had been convicted in court-martial proceedings of collaboration with German Nazi invaders of the Byelorussian S.S.R. (now Belarus) during World War II. Four were sentenced to death, and the others were given prison terms ranging from 10 to 15 years.", "In one of the rare clashes between warships during the \"Cod Wars\" between the UK and Iceland over fishing rights, the Iceland Coast Guard patrol vessel ICGV Óðinn rammed the Royal Navy frigate HMS Andromeda in the disputed area more than from the Icelandic coast.\nDied: \nPeggie Castle, 45, American character actress in film who specialized in portraying \"\"the other woman\", died of cirrhosis of the liver.", "Giorgio Vizzardelli, 50, Italian serial killer, committed suicide shortly after the end of his sentence.", "August 12, 1973 (Sunday)\nU.S. Golfer Jack Nicklaus won his 3rd PGA Championship, his 12th major title of the four major championships of golf. Nicklaus had most recently won the Masters Tournament (his 4th) and the U.S. Open (his 3rd) in 1972, and the British Open in (his 2nd) in 1970. Nicklaus finished four strokes ahead of Australia's Bruce Crampton, who had finished second to Nicklaus in 1972 in the Masters and the U.S. Open.\nBorn: Han Jae-suk, South Korean television actor; in Seoul\nDied:", "Born: Han Jae-suk, South Korean television actor; in Seoul\nDied: \nKarl Ziegler, 74, German biochemist and 1963 Nobel Prize laureate for his work in micromolecular chemistry.\nLarry G. Smith, 31, American race car driver and 1972 NASCAR Winston Cup Rookie of the Year, was killed in a crash at the Talladega 500 race in Alabama.\nDayanand Bandodkar, 62, Indian politician and the first Chief Minister of Goa, in office since its annexation in 1963", "August 13, 1973 (Monday)\nAll 85 people aboard Aviaco Flight 118 were killed, along with one person on the ground, when the Caravelle jet crashed into an abandoned farmhouse in Montrove in Spain while attempting to land at Alvedro Airport, in La Coruña at the end of its flight from Madrid.\nU.S. President Nixon's \"Phase IV\" of price control measures went into effect, ending a price freeze that had been in place as part of Phase III, as part of his controls under the Economic Stabilization Act of 1970.", "Saboteurs in the South American nation of Chile destroyed a high voltage transmission tower while President Salvador Allende was delivering a nationally-televised speech, cutting the power for 35 minutes in most of central Chile.\nThe first album of the southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd was released, almost nine years after the band had been formed, as MCA Records began sales of (pronounced 'Lĕh-'nérd 'Skin-'nérd).", "August 14, 1973 (Tuesday)\nZulfikar Ali Bhutto was sworn in as Prime Minister of Pakistan, as a new constitution took effect. Bhutto was replaced as president by Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, and the post of Vice President of Pakistan, held by Nurul Amin, was abolished.", "The U.S. Federal Reserve Board raised its discount rate to 7½ percent, the highest level up to that time for the minimum interest rate charged to American banks for short term loans of currency. Five days earlier, many major U.S. banks had raised their prime lending rate to a record high of 9¼ percent.", "The Venezuelan Supreme Court ruled that former President Marcos Perez Jimenez, who governed the South American nation from 1948 to 1958, was ineligible to run as a candidate in the presidential election scheduled for December 9.\nBorn: \nPaddy McGuinness, English comedian and TV presenter; in Farnworth, Lancashire\nSebastián Ortega, Argentine TV producer; in Buenos Aires", "August 15, 1973 (Wednesday)", "The American bombing of Cambodia halted at 10:45 in the morning local time (0445 UTC), after a final round of U.S. Air Force bombardment of suspected Khmer Rouge guerrilla enclaves. The halt, originally set for one minute after midnight Washington D.C., officially ended 12 years of American combat in Southeast Asia. During the six and a half months since the Vietnam ceasefire had gone into effect on January 28, the U.S. had dropped 240,000 tons of bombs on Cambodia in 34,410 raids at a cost of $442,800,000", ".S. had dropped 240,000 tons of bombs on Cambodia in 34,410 raids at a cost of $442,800,000. The final mission was flown by two A-7 Corsair jets, whose pilots were Major John Hoskins and Captain Lonnie Ratley. Captain Ratley's plane was the last to land at Korat Air Base in Thailand, but he told reporters that Major Hoskins had dropped the last bombs.", "The U.S. Department of Commerce announced that, for the first time in more than three years, the balance of payments in the country was positive, as the nation's income was greater than its outflow.", "U.S. President Richard M. Nixon delivered a nationally-televised address about the Watergate scandal for the first time, calling on the nation to end its \"continued backward-looking obsession with Watergate\" and to focus on \"matters of far greater importance to all of the American people.\" Nixon said that he had no prior knowledge of the attempt to place listening devices in Democratic Party headquarters and that he had no knowledge of an attempt to cover-up the scandal until March 21, 1973", ". He said also that he would not turn over his tape recordings of White House conversations because to do so \"would set a precedent that would cripple future Presidents by inhibiting conversations between them and those they look to for advice.\"", "In the Gulf of Tonkin off North Vietnam, the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier departed \"Yankee Station\", a fixed point at sea located from the coast of North Vietnam. Constellation was the last aircraft carrier to operate at the point, where American aircraft carriers had gathered since 1966.", "The ITV television network broadcast the first episode of the British situation comedy Man About the House, about single man Robin Tripp (Richard O'Sullivan) sharing a flat with two single women, Chrissy Paula Wilcox and Jo Sally Thomsett in a building owned by the Ropers (Yootha Joyce and Brian Murphy), with Robin pretending to be gay in order to avoid the owners' objections. The format would be adapted for American audiences as Three's Company in 1977.", "The members of the rock band \"Sick Man of Europe\" renamed the act \"Cheap Trick\", after playing a concert in Bettendorf, Iowa the evening before. Bassist Tom Petersson coined the new name after commenting that the British rock band Slade had \"used every cheap trick in the book\" during a concert that he had attended.\nBorn: \nSwadhin Kumar Mandal, Indian Bengali chemist\nLubna Azabal, Belgian film and TV actress; in Brussels", "August 16, 1973 (Thursday)\nAn armed Libyan attempted to hijack a Middle East Airlines Boeing 720, with 119 people aboard, as it was flying over Cyprus on a flight from Benghazi in Libya to Beirut in Lebanon. Pursuant to his demands, the plane landed in Israel at Lod International Airport in Tel Aviv, where he held a press conference and surrendered to the authorities. He was placed in an Israeli psychiatric hospital.", "Born: Garry Charles, English horror and fantasy novelist and filmmaker; in Bedford, Bedfordshire\nDied: \nSelman Waksman, 85, Ukrainian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\nVernon Rudolph, 58, American businessman who founded the Krispy Kreme doughnuts chain of stores and product lines.", "August 17, 1973 (Friday)\nU.S. baseball star Willie Mays, wrapping up his career with the New York Mets, hit the 660th and final home run of his Major League Baseball career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds.\nDied: \nConrad Aiken, 84, American poet and U.S. Poet Laureate, 1950 to 1952\nJean Barraqué, 45, French composer\nU.S. Navy Admiral Arthur W. Radford, 77, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1953 to 1957", "U.S. Navy Admiral Arthur W. Radford, 77, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1953 to 1957\nGünther Pancke, 74, German Nazi war criminal who had been charged with law enforcement during the German occupation of Denmark.\nPaul Williams, 34, former lead singer for The Temptations, committed suicide near his home in Detroit.", "August 18, 1973 (Saturday)\nAeroflot Flight A-13 crashed in the Soviet Union shortly after the An-24B turboprop took off from Baku, in the Azerbaijani SSR, to Fort-Shevchenko in the Kazakh SSR, killing 56 of the 64 passengers and crew. The left engine failed as the airplane lifted off, and as the pilot steered to the left in order to attempt an emergency landing, the left wingtip struck a cable at .", "In soccer football, Gordon Banks, the goalkeeper for the England national football team and for Stoke City F.C., announced his retirement from the sport on the eve of the new season. Described by the press as \"the world's greatest goalkeeper\", had lost the sight in one eye after a car accident in October.", "The annual All-American Soap Box Derby in Akron, Ohio was won by a 14-year-old boy from Boulder, Colorado, who finished the downhill race in his homemade unpowered car and won a $7,500 college scholarship. The victory was taken away two days later for cheating, after race officials found that the user's car had an electromagnet that allowed it to be pulled forward as the track's metal starting plate fell, allowing him a slight head-start against the other competitors.", "Born: Victoria Coren, English writer, television presenter and poker player, in Hammersmith, London, the daughter of journalist Alan Coren\nDied: Alice Stevenson, 112, the oldest resident of the United Kingdom ever, up to that time.", "August 19, 1973 (Sunday)\nA three-month ban on the sale of beef went into effect in the South American nation of Uruguay as a measure to boost the country's exports of beef. Sales of beef were still allowed for the military, for hospitals, and for charitable organizations.\nGeorge Papadopoulos was sworn in as President of Greece after his June 1 overthrow of the monarchy had been confirmed by voters in a referendum.", "Bruce Lee's final martial arts film before his death, Enter the Dragon, premiered in the United States 30 days after his death on July 20, and would become one of the most profitable movies of all time, with revenues of $400,000,000 after being filmed with a budget of $850,000. \nBorn: Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway; as Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby in Kristiansand", "Born: Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway; as Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby in Kristiansand\nDied: Willy Rey (stage name for Wilhelmina Rietveld), 23, Dutch-born Canadian model and Playboy magazine feature in February 1971, died of an overdose of barbiturates.", "August 20, 1973 (Monday)", "In the Kingdom of Laos, former Laotian Army General Thao Ma led 60 officers in an attempt to overthrow the government. Arriving in the capital, Vientiane, he and his group took over the Wattay International Airport and seized several AT-28 fighter bombers and tried, unsuccessfully, to bomb the home and office of Major General Kouprasith Abhay. While General Thao was still in flight, Royal Laotian troops retook the airport and his airplane was shot down as he was attempting to land", ". He was rescued and survived the crash, but then put into a truck where he was driven to Kouprasith's headquarters, where he was executed by one of Kouprasith's bodyguards. The Laotian government executed 11 other coup participants the next day by firing squad.", "The Politburo of the ruling Chinese Communist Party voted to dismiss four Politburo members, Huang Yongsheng, Wu Faxian, Li Zuopeng and Qiu Huizuo. The four would be replaced at the Central Committee meeting on August 30. \nMore than 200 people were killed in Mexico in a flash flood that swept through the city of Irapuato in Guanajuato state.", "U.S. President Nixon grabbed and shoved his White House Press Secretary, Ron Ziegler, into a crowd of reporters after getting angry at being followed. Nixon shouted, \"I don't want any press with me!,\" spun Ziegler around and shoved him, and yelled \"Take care of it!\" The incident was captured on film by a CBS News crew that had been covering Nixon's visit to a Veterans of Foreign Wars convention in New Orleans", ". A few years later, Ziegler would tell the Washington Journalism Review that Nixon apologized to him in front of the entire staff and said \"I'm sorry for what I did back there.\"", "De Temporum Fine Comoedia, the last work of Carl Orff, premièred at the Salzburg Music Festival by Herbert von Karajan and the Cologne Radio Symphony Orchestra and Chorus.", "August 21, 1973 (Tuesday)\nMajor Hubert O'Neill, the coroner in the inquest on the \"Bloody Sunday\" massacre, accused the British Army of \"sheer unadulterated murder\" after the coroner's jury returned an open verdict with no indictments recommended against anyone. On January 30, 1972, the British Army shot 26 unarmed civilians in Derry, and killed 14.\nBorn: \nSergey Brin, Soviet-born U.S. computer scientist who co-founded Google with Larry Page in 1998; in Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union", "Nikolai Valuev, Russian heavyweight boxer and the World Boxing Association champion from 2005 to 2009; in Leningrad, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union\nKen Noguchi, Japanese mountaineer who became, in 1999, the youngest person to scale the \"Seven Summits\" (the highest mountains on each of the seven continents); in Boston in the U.S. to a Japanese diplomat", "August 22, 1973 (Wednesday)", "The resignation of William P. Rogers as U.S. Secretary of State was announced by President Nixon, who said that he would nominate his National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger, to the position. Rogers, the only member of Nixon's first Cabinet who was still in office, formally departed on September 4 to return to a private law practice.", "In Chile the Chamber of Deputies voted overwhelmingly, 81 to 47, to condemn President Salvador Allende for violations of the South American nation's constitution during the attempts to suppress nationwide strikes. While the Deputies had sufficient votes in favor of an impeachment trial, and the Allende's opposition had 30 of the 50 seats in the Chilean Senate, the opposition Senators were still four votes short of the necessary 34 votes necessary for a two-thirds majority to remove Allende from office", ". The Chilean military would take their own action to remove Allende from office 20 days later.", "The crash in Colombia of an Avianca DC-3 killed 16 of the 17 people on board, after it crashed into a hillside following its departure from Villavicencio to Yopal.\nBorn: Kristen Wiig, American actress and comedienne known for Saturday Night Live, and film screenwriter known for Bridesmaids; in Canandaigua, New York", "August 23, 1973 (Thursday)", "The Norrmalmstorg robbery, the first criminal event in Sweden covered by live television, began in Stockholm as Jan-Erik Olsson entered the Kreditbanken bank on Norrmalmstorg Square, displayed a sub-machine gun, and took four employees hostage. After firing three shots and responding policemen, he demanded that the police release convicted robber Clark Olofsson, that the two be provided three million Swedish krona (equivalent at the time to $650,000 U.S", ".S.), and that they be provided a car and free passage to a flight out of Sweden, all of which was done. The police balked, however, at allowing the duo to take a hostage with them to the airport. Police would lock the two robbers and four hostages inside the bank's vault as the standoff continued, and would end the incident with a tear gas assault after five days", ". The incident would become famous for the origin of the term Stockholm syndrome, referring to hostages becoming sympathetic to their captors, in that the four hostages refused to testify against Olsson and Olofsson.", "A nationwide railway strike was called in Canada by the Associated Railway Unions. Canada's Parliament forced a settlement after nine days to end the strike.\nAn epidemic of cholera began in Italy from polluted seafood, as contaminated mussels caused several cases in Naples. By September 3, the illness had spread to West Germany and had killed 18 people in Italy alone.", "The Association of Tennis Professionals began publishing its weekly rankings of men's professional tennis players, using a computerized system based points assigned for a player's average finishes in the previous 52 weeks in tournaments (which were, in turn, assigned different values based on prized). The first rankings were done in advance of the U.S. Open, with Ilie Nastase of Romania at the top of a list of 186 players who had been in at least 12-tournaments in a year.", "August 24, 1973 (Friday)\nKing Mohammed Zahir Shah of Afghanistan, who had been overthrown on July 17 by Mohammed Daoud, announced from his exile in Rome that he was abdicating the throne in order to become a loyal citizen of the new republic. The abdication made the former crown prince, Ahmad Shah Khan, head of the Barakzai dynasty. \nBorn: \nDave Chappelle, American comedian and TV actor; in Washington, D.C.", "Born: \nDave Chappelle, American comedian and TV actor; in Washington, D.C.\nInge de Bruijn, Dutch swimmer who won four Olympic gold medals in individual events (in 2000 and 2004); in Barendrecht\nGrey DeLisle, American comedian and voice actress; in Fort Ord, California", "August 25, 1973 (Saturday)", "The receipt of a large number of letter bombs in the mail, all sent from West London, began with the sending to department stores of of explosives hidden in ordinary envelopes. According to Scotland Yard, each of the bombs \"was hidden inside a BBC music pamphlet\", with the explosive charge detonating as soon as the book was opened. On August 27, a bomb mailed to the British Embassy in Washington, D.C. exploded, causing a secretary to lose her left hand and mangling her right hand", ".C. exploded, causing a secretary to lose her left hand and mangling her right hand. and the British government issued a worldwide alert the next day.", "The North American Soccer League, the major professional soccer football league in North America, played its championship game, with a new team, the Philadelphia Atoms, defeating the Dallas Tornado, 2 to 0 before a crowd of 18,824 at Texas Stadium. Englishman John Best, playing for Dallas, made the first score, albeit for the other side on an accidental own goal at the 65 minute mark. Bill Straub, a U.S. player for the Atoms, made the other goal with five minutes to play.", "At the World University Games in Moscow, the U.S. national basketball team avenged the 51-50 loss of the U.S. in the 1972 Summer Olympics by beating the Soviet Union (whose team had six of the 1972 Olympic gold medalists), 75 to 67.\nA team from Tainan in Taiwan won the Little League World Series after Huang Ching-huy, who had pitched a perfect game at the beginning of the 8-team tournament, threw his third consecutive no-hitter, defeating the U.S. West team from Tucson, Arizona, 12 to 0.", "August 26, 1973 (Sunday)\nTwo days before he was scheduled to give a press conference in France to announce a challenge to Chad's dictator Francois Tombalbaye, Dr. Outel Bono was assassinated. Bono was getting into his car in Paris when a gunman fired two shots at him from a revolver. No person was ever arrested for the crime.", "The Ulster Volunteer Force terrorist group in Northern Ireland placed a time bomb outside of the St. Patrick's and St. Brigid's Church, timing it so that it would explode just as Roman Catholic worshipers were leaving the services. Church services ran late, and most of the intended victims were still in the building when the bomb exploded. Outside, however, 50 people were injured.", "The first Women's Equality Day in the U.S. was observed to commemorate the August 26, 1920, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which granted women the right to vote. On the same day, the National Women's Hall of Fame inducted its first 20 members.", "The last national elections in South Vietnam were held, as voters chose from four lists of candidates for the 30 seats of the Senate of the Republic of Viet Nam. President Nguyen Van Thieu's slate of Social Democratic Alliance candidates won the vote. \nBorn: Inder Kumar, Indian film actor; in Jaipur, Rajasthan state (d. 2017)\nDied: Robert Lelièvre, 30, French-born Danish folk rock musician and songwriter, committed suicide in Copenhagen.", "August 27, 1973 (Monday)", "The ruins of the famous U.S. Navy ironclad gunboat USS Monitor were found more than 110 years after the vessel had sunk in the Atlantic Ocean off of the coast of Cape Hatteras at North Carolina. On March 8, 1862, during the U.S. Civil War, the Monitor had defeated the CSS Virginia, the Confederate Navy's most powerful vessel, and an adaptation of the USS Merrimack, in a battle memorialized as \"Monitor vs. Merrimac\"", ". Merrimac\". Monitor sank in a storm less than 10 months later, on December 21, 1862, with the loss of 16 of its crew.", "All 42 people aboard and Aerocóndor Colombia turboprop airplane were killed when the Lockheed L-188A Electra airplane crashed into the side of a mountain three minutes after taking off from Bogota on a flight to Cartagena.\nThe Barringer Trophy, awarded for the longest distance soaring flight from any type of launching method other than airplane tow, was regained by its holder, Wallace Scott II, after a flight of from Odessa, Texas, to Kearney, Nebraska, in a Schleicher ASW 12.", "The 14-team National Hockey League announced that it would expand to 16 and realign from two divisions to four for the 1974-1975 season.", "August 28, 1973 (Tuesday)\nA 7.1 magnitude earthquake killed at least 539 people after striking the Mexican states of Veracruz and Puebla. Hardest hit were the city of Orizaba in Veracruz, where a 12-story-tall apartment building collapsed and killed over 100 people, and the town of Ciudad Serdán in Puebla.", "The Delhi Agreement between India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, was signed by the foreign ministers of the three adjacent nations in India in order to provide for the voluntary repatriation of persons held in each nation who wished to return home, including former Bengali East Pakistan (which became Bangladesh) bureaucrats and officers who had been interned in West Pakistan (which remained as Pakistan), as well as people in Urdu language speakers in Bangladesh who wished to relocate to Pakistan", ", as well as people in Urdu language speakers in Bangladesh who wished to relocate to Pakistan, and several thousand Pakistan prisoners of war incarcerated in India", ".", "American commercial diver Paul J. Havlena died of a pneumothorax from a pulmonary barotrauma while in saturation and conducting a bell dive from the pipe laying and derrick barge L.B. Meaders to perform non-routine maintenance on a pipeline in the North Sea. Havlena's death was caused by a malfunction in his breathing equipment, resulting in a pressure imbalance in his diving helmet.\nDied:", "Died: \n\"Joe Diamond\" (Natale Evola), 66, American mobster who had been the boss of the Bonanno crime family in New York City from 1968 to 1971\nFructuoso Orduna, 80, Spanish sculptor", "August 29, 1973 (Wednesday)\nThe British submarine Pisces III sank in the Atlantic Ocean south west of Ireland. In the deepest underwater rescue in history, the submarine was raised after a multi-agency rescue effort saved both crewmembers, Roger Mallinson and Roger Chapman, who had been trapped for 76 hours with a dwindling air supply in deep water.", "All 17 civilian passengers on a U.S. Air Force were killed in the crash of a Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, along with 7 of the 8 crew, as it was approaching the Torrejón Air Base near Madrid with the wives and children of USAF personnel.\nBorn: Tom Six, Netherlands filmmaker known for his trilogy of Human Centipede horror films; in Alkmaar", "August 30, 1973 (Thursday)", "In the African nation of Chad, President François Tombalbaye announced his policy of Authenticité, the Africanization of personal names and place names to replace those given when the area was under French colonial rule. The policy was similar to the authenticité policy introduced in 1971 by President Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo)", ". The Chadian dictator changed his name to N’Garta Tombalbaye, and the capital, Fort Lamy, was renamed as N'Djamena while Fort Archambault was changed to Sarh.", "The 10th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party, the de facto policy-making body of the People's Republic of China, was elected by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, with 21 full members and 4 alternate members. Vacancies in the full membership were filled as two new full members (Wang Hongwen and Hua Guofeng) were added, and three alternates (Ji Dengkui, Li Desheng and Wang Dongxing were promoted. Mao Zedong was re-elected as Chairman of the Party", ". Mao Zedong was re-elected as Chairman of the Party. To replace the vacated office of the single Vice Chairman, Lin Biao (who had been killed after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow Chairman Mao in 1971), five persons (Zhou Enlai, new member Wang Hongwen, Kang Sheng, Ye Jianying and Li Desheng were named as Vice Chairmen, with Wang being named as the third most powerful person in the Chinese Communist Party, behind Chairman Mao Zedong and Prime Minister Zhou Enlai.", "The last legal execution in Bolivia took place as convicted murderer Melquiades Suxo Quispe was put to death.\nDied: \nMichael Dunn (stage name for Gary Neil Miller), 38, diminutive (3'10\" or 117 cm tall) American TV, stage and film actor known for his recurring role on The Wild Wild West as the villain Dr. Loveless, and for his Oscar-nominated role in Ship of Fools, died of heart failure from cor pulmonale while in London for the filming of The Abdication.", "Jean Sénac, 46, Algerian author and poet, was murdered.\nLauren Ford, 82, American painter and children's book author", "August 31, 1973 (Friday)\nThe Soviet Communist Party newspaper Pravda published a letter from multiple members of the Union of Soviet Writers condemning writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and nuclear physicist Andrei Sakharov.\nDied: \nJohn Ford (professional name for John M. Feeney), 79, U.S. film director, winner of four Academy Awards for Best Director, known for The Informer, The Grapes of Wrath, How Green Was My Valley, and The Quiet Man", "Mary Merrall (stage name for Elsie Lloyd), 83, English stage, film and television actress", "References\n\n1973\n1973-08\n1973-08" ]

[ "Wolfenstein: The New Order is a 2014 action-adventure first-person shooter video game developed by MachineGames and published by Bethesda Softworks. It was released on 20 May 2014 for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360, and Xbox One. The game is the seventh main entry in the Wolfenstein series, set in an alternate history 1960s Europe where the Nazis won the Second World War. The story follows war veteran William \"B.J.\" Blazkowicz and his efforts to stop the Nazis from ruling over the world.", "The game is played from a first-person perspective and most of its levels are navigated on foot. The story is arranged in chapters, which players complete in order to progress. A morality choice in the prologue alters the game's storyline; some characters and small plot points are replaced throughout the two timelines. The game features a variety of weapons, most of which can be dual wielded. A cover system is present.", "Development began in 2010, soon after id Software gave MachineGames the rights for the franchise. The development team envisioned Wolfenstein: The New Order as a first-person action-adventure game, taking inspiration from previous games in the series and particularly focusing on the combat and adventure elements. The game attempts to delve into character development of Blazkowicz, unlike its predecessors—a choice from the developers to interest players in the story", ". They aimed to portray him in a heroic fashion.", "At release, Wolfenstein: The New Order received generally positive reviews, with praise particularly directed at the combat and the narrative of the game. Critics considered it a positive change to the series and nominated it for multiple year-end accolades, including Game of the Year and Best Shooter awards from several gaming publications. A stand-alone expansion, Wolfenstein: The Old Blood, was released in May 2015 and is set before the events of the game", ". A sequel, Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus, was released in October 2017.", "Gameplay\nWolfenstein: The New Order is an action-adventure and first-person shooter video game played from a first-person perspective. To progress through the story, players fight enemies throughout levels. The game utilizes a health system in which health is divided into separate sections that regenerate; if an entire section is lost, players must use a health pack to replenish the missing health.", "Players use melee attacks, firearms, and explosives to fight enemies, and may run, jump, and occasionally swim to navigate through the locations. Melee attacks can be used to silently take down enemies without being detected. Alternatively, players can approach enemies in direct combat, which often results in an intense firefight between the two parties.", "A cover system can be used in combat as assistance against enemies. Players have the ability to lean around, over, and under cover, which can be used as a tactical advantage during shootouts and stealth levels. The game gives players a wide variety of weapon options; they can be found on the ground, retrieved from dead enemies, or removed from their stationary position and carried around. Weapon ammunition must be manually retrieved from the ground or from dead enemies", ". Weapon ammunition must be manually retrieved from the ground or from dead enemies. Players have access to a weapon inventory, which allows them to carry as many weapons as they find. With some of these weapons, players have the ability to dual wield, giving them an advantage over enemies by dealing twice as much damage", ". Players can customize weapons through the use of upgrades; for example, a rocket launcher can be attached to the side of an assault rifle, and a wire cutting tool can be upgraded to a laser gun.", "Synopsis", "Setting and characters", "The New Order is set in an alternate universe where Nazi Germany have managed to deploy advanced technologies, enabling them to turn the tide against the Allies and ultimately win World War II, taking over most of the world. Its storyline is loosely connected to 2009's Wolfenstein and features returning characters Kreisau Circle leader Caroline Becker (Bonita Friedericy) and SS-Oberst-Gruppenführer Wilhelm \"Deathshead\" Strasse (Dwight Schultz), the nemesis of series protagonist, U.S", ".S. special forces operative Captain William \"B.J.\" Blazkowicz (Brian Bloom). The New Order has a branching narrative: during the prologue chapter, Deathshead forces Blazkowicz to decide the fate of one of his comrades. The player's choice as Blazkowicz will create two timeline versions of the game's storyline, where alternate characters are established as replacements for characters who otherwise would have significant roles in the plot.", "After the prologue chapter, either Scottish pilot Fergus Reid (Gideon Emery) or U.S. Army Private Probst Wyatt III (A.J. Trauth) survives and escapes Deathshead's compound. Blazkowicz suffers a severe head injury during the escape attempt and lapses into a persistent vegetative state. He is brought to a psychiatric asylum in Poland, where he is cared for by its head nurse Anya Oliwa (Alicja Bachleda), and her parents, who run the facility under the Nazi regime", ". Blazkowicz watches as Anya's parents are regularly forced to hand patients over to Nazi authorities, who deem them Untermenschen for their mental disabilities and take them to Deathshead for unknown experimentation. Blazkowicz and Anya enter into a romantic relationship throughout the game's narrative.", "Other major characters include Frau Engel (Nina Franoszek), the Commandant of an extermination camp in northern Croatia known as Camp Belica; Set Roth (Mark Ivanir), a member of a Jewish mystical secret society known as the Da'at Yichud who is incarcerated at Camp Belica; Bombate (Peter Macon), a Namibian prisoner of Camp Belica who assists Blazkowicz; and Max Hass (Alex Solowitz), a seemingly brain-damaged member of the Resistance who is looked after by former Nazi member Klaus Kreutz (Ken Lally).", "Plot", "In July 1946, Blazkowicz and his comrades take part in an air raid against a fortress and weapons laboratory run by Deathshead but are captured and brought to a human experimentation laboratory. Blazkowicz escapes from the laboratory's emergency incinerator, although he is severely injured. He is admitted to a Polish psychiatric asylum where he remains in a catatonic state. In 1960, the Nazi regime orders the asylum to be \"shut down\" and executes Anya's parents when they resist", ". Blazkowicz awakens from his vegetative state and eliminates the extermination squad before escaping with Anya. Blazkowicz and Anya drive to her grandparents' farm, where they inform him that the Nazis had defeated the United States in 1948 and that the members of the ensuing anti-Nazi Resistance have been captured. Blazkowicz interrogates a captured officer from the asylum, learning that the top members of the Resistance are imprisoned in Berlin's Eisenwald Prison", ". Anya's grandparents smuggle her and Blazkowicz through a checkpoint in Stettin before they travel to Berlin. During the train ride, Blazkowicz encounters Frau Engel for the first time. When they arrive, Anya helps Blazkowicz break into Eisenwald Prison, where he rescues the person he spared fourteen years prior (Fergus or Wyatt) and finds that the Resistance movement is led by Caroline, who was left paralyzed due to an incident at Isenstadt in 2009's Wolfenstein.", "The Resistance executes an attack on a Nazi research facility in London, bombing their operations base, and stealing secret documents and prototype stealth helicopters. The documents reveal the Nazis are relying on reverse-engineered technology derived from the Da'at Yichud, which created such inventions as energy weapons, computer artificial intelligence, and super concrete; however, it is revealed that someone is tampering with the super concrete's formula, making it susceptible to mold deterioration", ". The Resistance discovers a match with Set, who is imprisoned in Camp Belica. Blazkowicz agrees to go undercover inside Camp Belica and meets Set, who tells him that the Nazis have co-opted Da'at Yichud technology to mass-produce and control robots, and offers to help the Resistance in return for the destruction of the camp. Blazkowicz finds a battery for a device that controls Camp Belica's robots, which he and Set then use to incapacitate Engel, destroy the camp, and liberate its prisoners.", "Set reveals that the Nazis' discovery of one of the Da'at Yichud caches, which included advanced technology centuries ahead of its time, allowed Germany to surpass the Allies in military might. Set agrees to assist the Resistance by revealing the location of one such cache but states that the Resistance requires a U-boat to access it", ". Blazkowicz obtains a U-boat but discovers that it is the flagship of the Nazis' submarine fleet, and is equipped with a cannon designed to fire nuclear warheads, which requires keycodes from the Nazi lunar research facility to operate. Blazkowicz uses the Spindly Torque—a Da'at Yichud spherical device capable of destroying super concrete—to steal the identity of a Nazi lunar scientist and infiltrate the Lunar Base", ". He succeeds at obtaining the keycodes, but upon returning to Earth, he discovers that Engel has mounted an assault on the Resistance base, capturing some of its members on behalf of Deathshead.", "The Resistance use the Spindly Torque to break open Deathshead's compound. After liberating the compound's captives, Blazkowicz travels to the top of the tower, where Deathshead's workshop is located. Inside, Deathshead reveals to Blazkowicz that he possesses the preserved brain of the soldier Blazkowicz chose to die, putting it in a robot. The robot comes alive and assaults Blazkowicz, who defeats it, destroys the brain, and puts his friend to rest", ". Commandeering a larger robot mecha, Deathshead attacks Blazkowicz, who gets the upper hand and destroys the robot. He drags Deathshead out of the wreckage and attacks him, who pulls out and arms a grenade which kills himself and gravely wounds Blazkowicz. As he crawls towards a window, Blazkowicz mentally recites \"The New Colossus\" as he watches the Resistance survivors board a helicopter. Believing they have reached safety, Blazkowicz gives instructions to fire the nuclear cannon", ". Believing they have reached safety, Blazkowicz gives instructions to fire the nuclear cannon. After the credits, a helicopter is heard approaching.", "Development", "After developer MachineGames was founded, the employees began brainstorming ideas, and pitching them to publishers. In June 2009, MachineGames owner ZeniMax Media acquired id Software and all of its property, including Doom, Quake and Wolfenstein. Bethesda Softworks, who had previously declined a pitch from MachineGames, suggested that they develop a new game from a franchise acquired by ZeniMax", ". MachineGames inquired about developing a new game in the Wolfenstein series; the studio visited id Software, who approved of MachineGames' request for a new Wolfenstein game. By November 2010, paperwork was signed, allowing MachineGames to develop Wolfenstein: The New Order. Preliminary development lasted approximately three years.", "The existence of Wolfenstein: The New Order was first acknowledged by Bethesda Softworks on 7 May 2013, through the release of an announcement trailer. Prior to this, Bethesda teased the upcoming project by releasing three images with the caption \"1960\". Though originally due for release in late 2013, the game was delayed to 2014 in order for the developers to further \"polish\" the game", ". In February 2014, it was announced that The New Order would launch on 20 May 2014 in North America, on 22 May 2014 in Australia, and on 23 May 2014 in Europe. The Australian and European release dates were later pushed forward, resulting in a worldwide launch on 20 May 2014. All pre-orders of the game granted the purchaser an access code to the Doom beta, developed by id Software", ". In accordance with Strafgesetzbuch section 86a, the German release of The New Order had all Nazi symbols and references removed. The German software ratings board, Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle, later introduced the \"social adequacy clause\", which allowed the use of such imagery in relevant scenarios, reviewed on a case-by-case basis", ". Bethesda made the uncensored international version, which lacks German as a language option, available for purchase in Germany on 22 November 2019, while continuing to sell the censored and localised version separately. Following the game's release, MachineGames began developing Wolfenstein: The Old Blood, a standalone expansion pack set before the events of The New Order. It was released in May 2015.", "Gameplay design", "The initial inspiration for Wolfenstein: The New Order came from previous games in the franchise. Senior gameplay designer Andreas Öjerfors said that it was the \"super intense immersive combat\" that defined the previous games, so MachineGames ensured that this element was included in The New Order. The development team refer to the game as a \"first-person action adventure\", naming this one of the unique defining points of the game. \"It is the David vs Goliath theme\", Öjerfors explained. \"B.J", ". \"It is the David vs Goliath theme\", Öjerfors explained. \"B.J. against a global empire of Nazis.\" Öjerfors acknowledged that many aspects of the game's narrative are exaggerated elements of the Nazi Party: \"The larger than life leaders, strange technology, strange experiments.\" The team viewed the game as a \"dark-roasted blend of drama, mystery, humor\"", ".\" The team viewed the game as a \"dark-roasted blend of drama, mystery, humor\". Creative director Jens Matthies explained that they \"take perhaps the most iconic first-person shooter franchise in history and push it into a strange new world\".", "Wolfenstein: The New Order is the second game to use id Software's id Tech 5 engine, after Rage (2011). The game utilizes the engine to add a large amount of detail to the game world. The team often found it difficult to develop the game with 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second, particularly on complex environments, but \"we always made it work somehow\", said Matthies", ". He has said that the main advantages of the engine is the speed and the detailing, while its biggest disadvantage is dynamic lighting; \"on the other hand the static light rendering is really awesome, so you have full radiosity and can do really spectacular-looking things using that,\" he added. Senior concept artist Axel Torvenius said that one of the main inspirations for the art design of the game was films from the 1960s, calling out the James Bond movies", ". The design for the Nazis in the game was influenced by the aesthetics of the Nazis at the end of the World War II; \"it's blended with the style of the 1960s and the fashion ideals of how to express yourself visually\", Öjerfors explained. This viewpoint is influenced by the element of exaggeration, which is common throughout the game's design and has been acknowledged by the team as a development inspiration", ". Character models can be covered in up to a 256k texture; however, this is not used often in the game on individual characters, due to the difficulty of seeing it from a distance.", "Wolfenstein: The New Order only features a single-player mode. The team felt that dividing focus and resources across both a single-player and an online multiplayer mode would be less efficient. When questioned about the lack of an online multiplayer mode, Öjerfors explained that the decision was simple", ". \"If we could take every bit of energy and sweat the studio has and pour all that into the single-player campaign, it gives us the resources to make something very, very cool, compared to if we would also have to divert some of our resources to making multiplayer.\" Executive producer Jerk Gustafsson attributed the choice to the style of game the team is familiar with, stating that MachineGames is \"a single-player studio\".", "Characters and setting", "The team attempted to develop characters that offer a unique experience to the game. \"The overarching goal for us was about building an ensemble of genuinely interesting characters we wanted to interact with\", said Matthies. They strived to connect the thoughts and actions of all characters to the human experience, allowing players to know \"why a person is doing what they are doing\". Matthies feels that all characters, particularly the allies, contain some dimension of his own personality", ". \"They're an expression of something that is part of me that I think is interesting to explore\", he said.", "The game's playable character, William \"B.J.\" Blazkowicz, has been previously featured as the playable protagonist of all Wolfenstein games. When developing the character of Blazkowicz for The New Order, MachineGames considered his appearances in previous games in the series. When doing this, they realised that the character had never really developed at all throughout the games; \"He's just the guy that you play\", said Pete Hines, Vice President of PR and Marketing for Bethesda", ". The team discovered that they were interested in exploring his story, which is what they later invested in. Throughout the game, Blazkowicz communicates some of his inner thoughts through short monologues, many of which reveal that he has been traumatized by some of his experiences. \"We always loved the idea of a prototypical action hero exterior juxtaposed with a rich and vulnerable interior psychology\", said Matthies", ". One of the largest priorities for the team when developing the character of Blazkowicz was to \"reveal whatever needs to be revealed to [Blazkowicz] and the player\" simultaneously; Matthies felt that, despite the simplicity of this concept, it is rarely used in games. Prior to developing The New Order, the team had primarily worked on games that involved antihero protagonists. However, id Software wished Blazkowicz to be portrayed differently in the game", ". However, id Software wished Blazkowicz to be portrayed differently in the game. Matthies said, \"It's really important to [id] that BJ is a hero, and not an anti-hero.\" The team attempted to develop Blazkowicz into a character that players could relate to, as they felt that players are generally unable to relate to video game protagonists", ". \"The goal is not to have a protagonist that's so neutral that you can project yourself into them; the goal is to have a protagonist that is so relatable that you become them\", said Matthies. They tried to make players become \"emotionally in sync\" with Blazkowicz, using the morality choice in the game's prologue to do so.", "Wilhelm \"Deathshead\" Strasse, the game's main antagonist, has been previously featured as an antagonist of Return to Castle Wolfenstein (2001) and main antagonist of Wolfenstein (2009). For The New Order, the team achieved closure on his story; to do so in an effective way, they wanted to find an interesting angle to portray him: his personality is full of enthusiasm, and he appreciates life after his near-death experience in the previous game", ". When developing the Nazis, Matthies states that the team \"didn't want to cartoon-ify them\", instead opting to treat them seriously. Gideon Emery, who portrayed Fergus Reid, auditioned for his role in the game. He described Fergus as \"a tough as nails soldier, who gives [Blazkowicz] both support and a pretty hard time in the process\". Matthies felt that Fergus is a type of father figure to Blazkowicz, and that he \"only gives negative reinforcement\"", ". Conversely, he saw Wyatt as a \"sort of son surrogate\", as Blazkowicz is tasked as being his protector and mentor, and that he gives \"positive reinforcement\". Max Hass was inspired by the character of Garp from John Irving's novel The World According to Garp. \"Max was the most challenging character to cast, which seems counter-intuitive because he's a pretty simple guy on paper, but it took a tremendous actor to pull that off and a long time to find him\", Matthies said.", "A large aspect of the game is the alternate history in which it is set, where the Nazis won the Second World War. The team saw this aspect as an opportunity to create everything at a very large scale, with very few limitations; \"so many things that we can create, and work with, and expand on. So, I never really felt that we were limited\", said Öjerfors.\n\nMusic production", "Wolfenstein: The New Order makes use of an original score that reflects the alternate universe depicted in the game. \"We wanted to identify with different sounds that were kind of iconic, 1960s sounds, and then do our own twist on them to make a sound authentic enough that it felt realistic\", said Hines. The team placed a high importance on the game's music", ". The team placed a high importance on the game's music. During the game's development, composer Mick Gordon traveled to Sweden to meet with the team, and he spotted the game over three days, partly collaborating with both Fredrik Thordendal and Richard Devine. Gordon expressed the difference in composing the soundtrack for Wolfenstein: The New Order compared to other games: \"Usually you sign onto a project and then you're given a list of 150 battle cues to do.\"", "The team began searching for a genre on which to base the soundtrack. They initially sought inspiration from the music of Richard Wagner, who was admired by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. After studying Wagner's work, however, the team discovered that it did not necessarily fit with the game's tone. They searched for a style of music that would suit the Nazis, ultimately selecting distortion", ". They searched for a style of music that would suit the Nazis, ultimately selecting distortion. \"There's lots of analogue distortion types, there's all sorts of different pedals and valves and things that are really breaking up\", said Gordon. They also took inspiration from 1960s music, using analogue equipment such as tape machines and reel-to-reel machines. Gordon has said that the soundtrack is \"a tribute to all things guitar\"", ". Gordon has said that the soundtrack is \"a tribute to all things guitar\". In collaboration with each other, the team of musicians composed over six hours of music which scores the game. Matthies said, \"A lot of the score features odd time signatures yet it's all very groovy.\"", "Bethesda, AKQA, and COPILOT Music and Sound collaborated on the marketing campaign for Wolfenstein: The New Order to invent the fictional state-owned German record label Neumond Recording Company. The campaign was crafted to introduce the video game's alternate history in the form of pop music from the 1960s. The label promoted ten fictional German pop artists: seven original songs, and three covers reworked into German from their original versions", ". Each artist was given a full biography, and the singles were packaged with album cover artwork. The covered songs were featured in trailers but omitted from the game because the songs' owners did not want their work to be associated with Nazi imagery", ". The original songs created for the Neumond label were initially written in English to ensure that the lyrics reflected Wolfensteins alternate history without creating content that could be used for actual propaganda outside of the game, given the sensitive nature of the game's subject matter.", "Reception\n\nCritical response\n\nWolfenstein: The New Order was released to mostly positive reviews. Metacritic calculated an average score of 81 out of 100 based on 23 reviews for the Windows version, 79 out of 100 based on 18 reviews for the Xbox One version and 73 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version. Reviewers liked the game's concept, narrative and combat mechanics.", "The combat mechanics of the game received praise. Daniel Hindes of GameSpot felt that the intensity and variety of the combat in the game has granted the series \"a breath of fresh air\", and believes that it managed to fulfill his nostalgic expectations from the series. Ryan Taljonick of GamesRadar called it \"satisfying\". Simon Miller of VideoGamer.com lauded the game's shooting and stealth mechanics, naming the former as \"solid\"", ".com lauded the game's shooting and stealth mechanics, naming the former as \"solid\". Similarly, GameSpot's Hindes noted that the stealth was \"simple but effective\", and named it one of the best things about the game. Steve Boxer of The Guardian also called out the stealth, calling it \"decent\".", "Colin Moriarty of IGN considered the narrative and characters one of the best features, stating that it's where the game \"really shines\". Matt Sakuraoka-Gilman of Computer and Video Games called the narrative \"intelligently written, brilliantly voiced and highly polished\". Kotaku's Mike Fahey felt somewhat divided about the story, initially finding the attempts at emotion too obvious, but ultimately feeling satisfied, calling it \"spectacular\". He also praised the characterization of Blazkowicz in the game", ". He also praised the characterization of Blazkowicz in the game. GamesRadar's Taljonick also felt mixed about the game's characters, finding Blazkowicz interesting, but feeling as though the supporting characters were quite undeveloped, leaving players to forget about them during gameplay. Conversely, Matt Bertz of Game Informer noted that the attempts to give Blazkowicz more depth feel odd in reflection to his brutal actions during other parts of the game. VideoGamer", ". VideoGamer.com's Miller also felt negatively about the narrative, calling it \"awful\". Joystiq's Ludwig Kietzmann commented on the drastic changes in the narrative's pacing, feeling that it \"dragged down\" whenever the player is forced to search for ammunition; Steven O'Donnell of Good Game believed otherwise, feeling like he was \"gearing up and patching up\" after each fight.", "The game's use of an alternate history concept, with the Axis victory in World War II, was commended by many reviewers. IGN's Moriarty and GameSpot's Hindes called it \"interesting\", with the former naming it one of the standout points of the game. Jason Hill of The Sydney Morning Herald called the concept \"absorbing\", while Owen Anslow of The Mirror called it \"intriguing\". Destructoid's Chris Carter felt that the development team \"went all the way\" and spent a lot of time on the game's concept.", "The graphical design of the game received commentary from reviewers. GameSpot's Hindes praised the visual design, noting that it accurately captured the time period, while effectively depicting the alternate storyline in which the game is set. Taljonick of GamesRadar stated that the game's level design contributes to his enjoyment of the shooting sequences. He also praised the size of the levels, enjoying the possibility of participating in a large gunfight \"with some sort of plan\"", ". Kotaku's Fahey praised the level design for similar reasons, admiring the degree of detail in the game. Digital Spy's Liam Martin shared mixed commentary on the design, noting that the character models are animated well, but the game is \"hardly a shining example of next-gen graphical potential\". ABC's Alex Walker criticized the game's graphical design, commenting that the developers \"focus[ed] their attention\" on other aspects of the game.", "Most critics and commentators shared the opinion that The New Order was better than they were expecting from a Wolfenstein game. Jon Blyth of Official Xbox Magazine called the game an \"unexpected gem\", while ABC's Walker said that he \"never expected [to] enjoy [the game] so much\"", ". The Sydney Morning Heralds Hill said that the game ensures that the series is \"a relevant force again\", while Destructoid's Carter felt that the game \"does wonders for essentially rebooting the franchise without rendering all the previous stories moot\". Edge agreed, calling the developers \"brave\". Tom Watson wrote in New Statesman that The New Order was \"the big surprise of the year\" for \"modernis[ing] this old classic\", praising its graphics, game play, and plot.", "Sales", "Within a week of its release, Wolfenstein: The New Order became the second best-selling game of 2014 in the United Kingdom, behind Titanfall. The game topped the weekly UK charts in its first week, totaling a quarter of all games sold in the region and accounting for 36% of revenue. According to MCV, it was the 22nd best-selling game of 2014 in the UK. In the United States, the game was the fourth and seventh best-selling game of May and June 2014, respectively", ". The game was ranked the fifth and fourteenth best-selling digital PlayStation 4 game of May and June 2014, respectively. In its first week in Japan, the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 versions of the game were placed on the charts at 15th and 8th, respectively, collectively selling over 11,000 units. By June 2014, the game had sold almost 400,000 physical units in Europe, equating to over €21 million.", "Awards", "Wolfenstein: The New Order received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications. The game won Game of the Year from Classic Game Room, received nominations from the Golden Joystick Awards, Good Game, Game Informer, and IGN Australia, and received runner-up from Polygon. It was also placed on various lists of the best games of 2014: USA Today placed it at 9th, Eurogamer at 10th, and Ars Technica at 6th", ". The game also received nominations for Best Shooter from The Escapist, The Game Awards, Game Informer, GameTrailers, Hardcore Gamer, and IGN. It received nominations signifying excellence in storytelling from The Game Awards, the Golden Joystick Awards, IGN Australia, and the SXSW Gaming Awards. It achieved runner-up for Biggest Surprise awards from both Giant Bomb and the readers of Kotaku. It was also nominated for Best PC Game by IGN Australia, receiving runner-up by Kotaku readers", ". It was also nominated for Best PC Game by IGN Australia, receiving runner-up by Kotaku readers. The game was also nominated for Best Multiplatform from Hardcore Gamer, Best Console Game from IGN Australia, and Best PlayStation 3 Game, Best Xbox 360 Game, and Best Xbox One Game from IGN.", "Sequel \n\nAt E3 2017, Bethesda announced Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus, a sequel to The New Order. It was released on 27 October 2017.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "2014 video games\nAction-adventure games\nBethesda Softworks games\nDystopian video games\nExperimental medical treatments in fiction\nFirst-person shooters\nId Tech games\nMachineGames games\nNazis in fiction\nNazism in fiction\nPlayStation 3 games\nPlayStation 4 games\nRetrofuturistic video games\nSingle-player video games\nVideo games about terrorism\nVideo games about Nazi Germany\nVideo games developed in Sweden\nVideo games scored by Mick Gordon\nVideo games set in 1946\nVideo games set in 1960", "Video games scored by Mick Gordon\nVideo games set in 1946\nVideo games set in 1960\nVideo games set in Berlin\nVideo games set in Croatia\nVideo games set in Germany\nVideo games set in Gibraltar\nVideo games set in London\nVideo games set in Poland\nVideo games set in psychiatric hospitals\nVideo games set on the Moon\nVideo games with expansion packs\nWindows games\nWolfenstein\nVideo games about World War II alternate histories\nXbox 360 games\nXbox Cloud Gaming games\nXbox One games\nVideo game reboots" ]

[ "The term \"behind closed doors\" is used in several sports to describe matches played where spectators are not allowed in the stadium or venue to watch. The reasons for this may include punishment for a team found guilty of a certain act in the past, stadium safety problems, public health concerns, or to prevent potentially dangerous clashes between rival supporters", "Crowdless games are a rare occurrence in professional sports. When they do occur, it is usually the result of events beyond the control of the teams or fans, such as weather-related concerns, public health concerns, or wider civil disturbances unrelated to the game. For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic caused most sports leagues around the world to be played behind closed doors.\n\nExamples", "Brazil", "In Brazil, the practice of games without public access is known as \"closed gates\" (in Portuguese, portões fechados), even referred as such in the Brazilian Football Confederation's rulebook. Once it was applied to a whole tournament: two rounds of the Campeonato Catarinense second division in 2014 were behind closed doors because the competing clubs did not deliver the security checks for their stadiums", ". Sanitary reasons dictated the restriction in 2009, where two games of the Série D were played behind closed doors due to the H1N1 flu pandemic.", "North America", "The most prevalent example of North American teams playing without fans in attendance was as a consequence of public health measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Ultimately, these were determined by local health authorities which had the power to limit public gatherings. While the terms and duration of these measures varied by jurisdiction, as a general rule Canadian provincial measures were far more strict and kept in place considerably longer compared to those in U.S. states", ".S. states. Canadian authorities were also much less willing to grant exemptions for professional sports teams, with the exemptions granted being very limited in scope, in some cases, public health authorities threatened not to grant sufficient dispensation to allow the a sufficient gathering to permit a game to be played at all.", "A related issue affecting the leagues was travel restrictions, imposed at the federal, provincial and state levels, barring non-essential border crossings and/or mandating strict quarantine for border crossers, which would have restricted the availability of players if they frequently crossed the international border. The NHL, as the primarily U.S", ". The NHL, as the primarily U.S. based league with the most teams in Canada, responded to all of this by finishing the 2019-20 NHL season behind closed doors in restricted access \"bubbles\" in Canada and creating temporary divisions including the all-Canadian North Division for the 2020-21 NHL season.", "The National Football League, which was in its offseason at the start of the pandemic, was the only league able to complete its season in 2020 with minimal disruption to the schedule. Over time, public health authorities began to allow crowds again, first in limited numbers. One of the consequences of this was that Super Bowl LV, the first to be held in the stadium of a participating team, was also the least-attended Super Bowl in history", ". By the autumn of 2021, capacity crowds were generally allowed throughout the United States although some Canadian jurisdictions continued to limit attendance. By the spring of 2022, capacity limits were lifted in Canada as well.", "Several leagues have collective bargaining agreements which mandate that the players as a group receive a defined percentage of league revenues. This meant the owners had the legal right to recoup a portion of any lost ticket revenues, as in these leagues a portion of salaries is paid into escrow pending a final determination of revenue. In some cases, such as the NHL, the owners and players agreed to modify their CBA to defer this \"debt\" over several years", ". In Major League Baseball, which does not have such defined revenue sharing, players agreed to receive pro-rated salaries over a reduced 60 game schedule for the 2020 Major League Baseball season.", "Minor League Baseball and the Canadian Football League both cancelled their summer 2020 seasons rather than attempt to go crowdless (the CFL has substantial television revenue, but not enough to cover salaries and other gameday expenses, with no prospect of convincing provincial governments to allow crowds to attend games at this time this meant the league lost less money by not playing).", "Hooliganism has been less of a factor in North American sports than in the rest of the world. Local law enforcement in the United States and Canada are traditionally armed, unlike in some other countries", ". In addition, private security contractors working for either the team or a league, and national agencies such as the United States Department of Homeland Security take large roles in preventing situations of fan violence before they can occur by restricting access to known troublesome fans either at the gate or at the stage of selling tickets (such as \"do not sell\" lists)", ", along with heavy restrictions on bringing in items and screening with metal detectors and pat-down searches where bringing in a weapon or explosive device can result in immediate arrest and permanent banishment from a venue, and other examples such as the \"clear bag\" policy, which only allows spectators to bring in bags that can be easily seen through", ".", "Teams also have incentive to prevent fan violence due to forfeit rules which come with penalties to their records and playoff positioning, and league sanctions such as fines and the stripping of draft picks due to neglecting to create a safe environment for players, which in turn can affect teams for years beyond a violent event. Also sporting events in North America are considered to be more of a family-friendly and uniting affair, as sports fans tend to respect each other as fans of a common sport", ". In other countries around the world, sports matches are sometimes proxies for bitter and long-standing ethnic, political, and religious divisions; this is less so in the United States, where the broad variety of sports options manifests as different ethnic groups preferring different sports, reducing the chance at intercultural rivalry within a single sport", ". While racial segregation in the United States once extended to organized sports, the primary intent was to exclude blacks from playing on white teams and leagues altogether, so the result was often the organization of separate teams and leagues for black players, whom the white teams simply refused to play", ". When the \"color lines\" of each sport were finally broken, it was by formerly all-white teams signing black athletes instead of by admitting entire black teams, although numerous incidents of racist abuse by players and spectators did occur in the decades following integration.", "Furthermore, the much larger geographical footprint of the North American sports leagues mean that even fierce rivals are often based hundreds or even thousands of miles apart. For example, while the Dallas Cowboys are considered to be the bitter rivals of every other team in the NFC East, their nearest division rival is based almost from the Dallas metropolitan area by air, and over from Dallas by road", ". The only other NFL team in Texas by contrast is in the opposite conference, so, meaning under normal circumstances they will only play each other every four years. Fans elsewhere in the world can easily travel to most if not all of their league's stadiums by road or by train, and bus and rail carriers have evolved there to cater to the expected demand", ". In contrast, fans of the North American sports leagues would need to travel by air if they wanted to attend most of their team's road games, and though certain teams' fan bases are known for having large presences in opposing stadiums", ". In contrast to the local derbies of European soccer, some North American teams in the same metropolitan areas, especially in baseball and (gridiron) football, are separated into opposite conferences or leagues so that they are among the least frequent opponents on their schedules, inhibiting the development of a crosstown rivalry and allowing fans in a metropolitan area to support both teams with minimal conflict", ". Furthermore, unlike in most geographically smaller and more densely populated countries, teams are typically not required to (and typically do not) set aside whole sections of their stadiums for opposing fans and instead sells almost all tickets to the first takers, further disincentivizing them from traveling to away games.", "All of these reduce the chances of hooliganism, eliminate the need to segregate fans from opposing teams, and ultimately negate the threat of a closed-door game due as a consequence of fan violence. In rare circumstances where a serious incident has occurred (such the 2004 Pacers–Pistons brawl in the NBA), sports authorities have leaned toward identifying and excluding the specific people involved as opposed to indiscriminately punishing the wider, law-abiding fan base", ". In contrast to the rest of the world where \"behind closed doors\" games are given out as penalties for previous violations or to prevent potential violence (stadium safety issues, checkered history of rival supporters), such occurrences in North America have happened for entirely different reasons.", "History\n\nWorld Chess Championship 1972 \nPerhaps one of the first and most famous incidents of a sport being carried out behind closed doors was Game 3 of the World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík, Iceland, often referred to as the Match of the Century. Eventual winner Bobby Fischer, who was upset by the noise of film cameras, insisted he would not play unless it was behind closed doors. Sportingly, his opponent, Boris Spassky, obliged Fischer's request rather than claim a win by forfeit.", "1980–81 European Cup Winners' Cup\nAfter rioting by fans in the first leg against Castilla in Spain, West Ham United were forced to play the second leg at Upton Park in October 1980 to an empty stadium.\n\n1982–83 European Cup\nAfter rioting by fans in a semifinal at Anderlecht in Belgium the previous April, Aston Villa were forced to begin their defence of the European Cup at an empty Villa Park in a September 1982 first round match, with the match kicking off at 2:30 pm on a Wednesday afternoon.", "1987–88 European Cup\nAfter UEFA ban resulting from the incidents in the match between Real Madrid and Bayern Munich in a semifinal in Spain the previous April, Real Madrid were forced to play the match at home against Napoli in the European Cup at an empty Santiago Bernabeu Stadium on 16 September 1987.", "2007 Italian Football\nAs a result of a policeman being killed during rioting at a Serie A match between Catania and Palermo on 2 February, the Italian Football Federation suspended all Italian matches indefinitely. Subsequently, matches resumed but many clubs were ordered to play their games behind closed doors until their stadiums met with updated security regulations.", "2009 Italian Football\nJuventus were ordered to play a home game behind closed doors after their fans had racially abused Internazionale striker Mario Balotelli during a 1–1 Serie A draw in April 2009.", "2009 Davis Cup match in Sweden", "In March 2009, Sweden's Davis Cup tennis team was slated to host a qualifying match against Israel's team in the city of Malmö. The local authorities in Malmö, particularly the city's then-Mayor, did not want an Israeli team to play there and pushed to cancel the match", ". When the Swedish Tennis Association noted that a cancellation would result in Sweden suffering a forfeit loss and being eliminated from the Davis Cup altogether, it was agreed that the Sweden-Israel match would be played without spectators on", "\"security grounds\". Rioting outside the arena led to numerous arrests, and in the end Sweden lost to Israel and saw their 2009 Davis Cup run end anyway.", "2009–10 UEFA Europa League\nFC Dinamo București had to play two group stage home games behind closed doors after their match against FC Slovan Liberec on 25 August 2009 was abandoned in the 88th minute due to a pitch invasion by Dinamo fans.", "2009 Mexico Clausura", "During the penultimate round of league games all teams had to play with closed doors due to the H1N1 swine flu outbreak in infected cities. Several games taking place in areas which were badly affected by the outbreak were also played behind closed doors the following week", ". Games behind closed doors have been played regularly as a penalty for bad behavior of fans in Mexico, most recently an Apertura 2015 game in which Atlas hosted Querétaro at Estadio Jalisco because of last season quarterfinal game in which Atlas fans invaded the pitch against their hated rivals Guadalajara.", "2010–11 Heineken Cup", "In rugby union, the 2010–11 Heineken Cup pool stage match between Edinburgh and Castres at Murrayfield was played behind closed doors on 20 December 2010. The match was originally scheduled for 19 December, but was postponed due to heavy snow in Edinburgh that covered the pitch and created major access issues for potential spectators", ". The competition organiser, European Rugby Cup, decided to hold the rescheduled match behind closed doors to remove any possible danger to spectators attempting to travel to the match.", "Turkish Football in 2011–12", "Starting with the 2011–12 season, the Turkish Football Federation (TFF) instituted a modified version of this rule. The penalty for a team sanctioned for crowd violence is now a ban on both ticket sales to, and attendance by, males over age 12 (as spectators). Women, and children under age 12 of either sex, are admitted free. The first game under the new rule took place on 20 September 2011, when Fenerbahçe hosted Manisaspor at Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium in Istanbul", ". Over 41,000 women and children attended the match (plus a small number of men who had sneaked into the stadium). The experiment was so successful that the TFF planned to require that teams allocate an unspecified number of free tickets for women and children at all future club matches. Shortly thereafter, the TFF stated that it would reimburse clubs for free tickets given to women and children for regular league games (i.e", ".e., games not subject to crowd restrictions), and increased the upper age limit for \"children\" for the purposes of free ticketing to 15.", "Ajax–AZ, 2011–12 KNVB Cup\nA match between Eredivisie clubs Ajax and AZ in the fourth round of the 2011–12 KNVB Cup was replayed behind closed doors at Ajax's home ground, Amsterdam Arena, on 19 January 2012.", "In the original match, held at the same venue on 21 December 2011, Ajax held a 1–0 lead when a fan ran onto the pitch and launched a karate kick from behind against AZ goalkeeper Esteban Alvarado, who responded by attacking the fan before police and security arrived. When Alvarado was sent off for retaliating against his attacker, AZ left the pitch, and the match was abandoned. The KNVB rescinded the red card and ordered the match replayed in its entirety.", "After Ajax also apologised to their opponents, they were fined €10,000 for failing to provide adequate security to prevent the fan, who was serving a three-year stadium ban, from entering the arena. Ajax accepted the penalties, and announced that it had extended the fan's stadium ban by 30 years and banned him for life from the club and its season ticket list.", "2014 Urawa Red Diamonds \nOn 8 March 2014, the Urawa Red Diamonds were forced by the J.League to play their next game against Shimizu S-Pulse in front of only journalists and security as the Reds hung up a banner in Saitama Stadium which read \"JAPANESE ONLY\", which was deemed racist against fans.", "Barcelona–Las Palmas, 2017–18 La Liga", "Surrounding violence in Catalonia due to the 2017 Catalan independence referendum, the match between Barcelona and Las Palmas in the 2017–18 La Liga was played behind closed doors. Barcelona first requested the LFP to postpone their match which was to be played on the same day as the referendum. This request was declined by the LFP, saying that, if Barcelona refused to play the match, their six points would be deducted", ". To protect the fans, as well as in protest to LFP's decision, Barcelona played the match behind closed doors, a first at their stadium, Camp Nou. The match ended 3–0 in favor of Barcelona.", "Philippines–Qatar, 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup Asian Qualifiers", "As part of the sanctions handed to the Philippine men's basketball team in the aftermath of their involvement in their brawl against Australia during their home game on 2 July 2018, the Philippine national team was obliged to play their next home match in the second round of the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup Asian qualifiers behind closed doors with the succeeding two home games being placed under probation", ". The lone game that was played behind closed doors was their home game against Qatar on 17 September 2018 at the Smart Araneta Coliseum.", "Querétaro–Atlas riot \n\nOn 5 March 2022, a riot broke out among fans during a Liga MX football game between Querétaro F.C. and Atlas F.C., injuring at least 26 people.", "In the aftermath of the riots, Querétaro was ordered to play its home matches behind closed doors for up to a year, while also banning its supporters' group for three years, and the club's owners being required to divest the club, and be prohibited from league activities for five years. Liga MX's second-tier league, Liga de Expansión MX, ordered all matches league-wide to be played behind closed doors from 8–13 March 2022.\n\nMajor League Baseball", "On 28 April 2015, a Major League Baseball game between the Chicago White Sox and Baltimore Orioles was played behind closed doors due to security concerns. The death of African-American resident Freddie Gray while in police custody had led to ongoing riots and civil unrest in the city; the game was to have been the last game of a three-game series, but the first two had already been postponed due to the unrest. The game was also moved from the evening to the afternoon, as a 10 p.m", ". The game was also moved from the evening to the afternoon, as a 10 p.m. curfew would have required suspension of the game had it been played at its original time. The game was televised in the Baltimore and Chicago markets, and was also offered as the \"free game of the day\" on MLB's streaming service nationwide. Unofficially, some fans were able to watch the game through obstructed gates in left-center field, along with guests at the nearby Hilton Baltimore, which overlooks Camden Yards", ". MLB refused to acknowledge or record the attendance as zero, so as not to disturb the otherwise unbreakable record of 6 paying spectators who witnessed the Worcester National League team's penultimate game in 1882; instead, MLB recorded the attendance (as well as all of the later COVID-related crowdless games of 2020) as \"N/A\".", "This was the first time a major professional sporting event in North America was held in an empty venue; in Minor League Baseball, a 2008 Iowa Cubs game was played without public admittance due to flooding in Des Moines, Iowa, while a 2002 Charleston RiverDogs game featured an intentional \"Nobody Night\" stunt, where spectators could not take their seat in the stands (but were still allowed to be in other areas of the ballpark) until after the attendance count was made official in the fifth inning", ". Approximately 1,800 spectators were in attendance.", "PGA Tour Golf", "While large galleries consisting of thousands of fans are standard for top-level professional golf events in the United States, on 30 June 2012, the third round of the 2012 AT&T National at Congressional Country Club in Bethesda, Maryland was played without fans being admitted due to trees being downed and other storm damage caused by a derecho the night before", ". Additionally, the start of the third round was delayed to the early afternoon, instead of a morning start that is normal for a round of a golf tournament utilizing a stroke play format, in order to allow for the continuation of course clean-up efforts. This is the first of two recorded instances of any part of a PGA Tour event being played without a gallery present.", "In the 2016 Farmers Insurance Open at Torrey Pines Golf Course in the La Jolla community of San Diego, California, after inclement weather disrupted play on Sunday and several trees were ripped apart on the golf course, fans were barred from the premises for the Monday conclusion of the final round of the tournament due to safety issues. The 2018 edition of the same tournament also was finished behind closed doors on Monday", ". The 2018 edition of the same tournament also was finished behind closed doors on Monday. The sudden death playoff had reached five holes without a winner, and darkness made it impossible to complete the tournament. The event concluded Monday morning at 8:18 a.m. behind closed doors.", "Ice Hockey", "The Charlotte Checkers of the American Hockey League have played in two such \"behind closed doors\" games, both caused by severe winter storms when the opposing team and game officials had already arrived in the city. On 22 January 2016, the Checkers played against the Chicago Wolves behind closed doors because of a severe winter storm, and the same again on 17 January 2018, the Checkers played against the Bridgeport Sound Tigers behind closed doors as a result of inclement weather (ice and snow)", ". Both games were played at Bojangles' Coliseum.", "In 1985, a measles outbreak on campus led Boston University to hold home ice hockey games without spectators for a week, in order to control the disease's spread. Basketball games were also affected, and other large public events on campus were also temporarily banned.\n\nCOVID-19 pandemic", "COVID-19 pandemic\n\nGames without crowds were often the norm during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in the period before COVID-19 vaccinations were widely available, due to government-imposed restrictions on large gatherings to prevent spread of COVID-19. Many events that were not postponed or cancelled were held behind closed doors as broadcast-only events.\n\nSports", "Association football\nThe 2020 Indian Super League Final between ATK and Chennaiyin FC was forced to play behind closed doors on Saturday, 14 March 2020 In Fatorda Stadium, Margao, Goa, India\nThe UEFA Europa League match between Inter Milan and Ludogorets Razgrad in San Siro Stadium, Milan, Italy, as well as all football matches in Italy between 4 March and 3 April.\nThe 2020 AFC Cup match between Ceres–Negros and Bali United at the Rizal Memorial Stadium in Manila, Philippines.", "The final of the English FA Cup was held behind closed doors at Wembley Stadium in London, and played between Arsenal and Chelsea. The traditional pre-match performances of the National Anthem and cup hymn still took place.\nMajor League Soccer returned after the 2020 Major League Soccer season was suspended, playing the MLS is Back Tournament behind closed doors at ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex in Florida.", "The UEFA Europa League matches between Olympiacos and Wolverhampton Wanderers, and LASK and Manchester United.\nThe UEFA Champions League matches between Valencia and Atalanta, and Paris Saint-Germain and Borussia Dortmund. Despite the ban on fans inside the stadium, thousands gathered outside to cheer PSG as they beat Borussia Dortmund.", "Germany's Bundesliga announced plans to resume its 2019–20 season without spectators. On 6 May 2020, German Chancellor, Angela Merkel, gave approval for the Bundesliga, suspended since March 2020, to recommence in May 2020 with all remaining games to be played behind closed doors.\nSouth Korea's K League began its 2020 season on 8 May and Japan's J.League planned a mid-June return.", "Athletics\nThe 2020 Tokyo Marathon was held with only elite competitors allowed to attend.\nSimilarly, the London Marathon (originally scheduled for 26 April, but was postponed to 4 October) was also held only to attend elite competitors.", "Australian rules football\nThe 2020 AFL season played its first round of matches without spectators before suspending the season. This continued into the 2021 season, with many games late in the season played under heavily restricted crowds or no crowds at all, especially late in the home-and-away season after a new Victorian outbreak.", "Baseball\nJapan's NPB held preseason games without fans until the season was postponed prior to opening day. The league planned to return without fans by mid-June 2020.\nSouth Korea's KBO League began their 2020 season on 5 May without fans in attendance.\nTaiwan's CPB League began play on 11 April without fans. Starting 8 May, a maximum of 1,000 fans were permitted to attend games.", "Major League Baseball in the United States began its shortened 2020 season on 23 July and held without spectators. However, fans were allowed to attend the NLCS and World Series in Arlington, Texas. The Toronto Blue Jays, MLB's only Canadian team, were denied permission by the Canadian government to play their games in Toronto; their games were played in Buffalo, New York at Sahlen Field, the home of one of the Blue Jays' minor league affiliates.", "Basketball", "The 2020 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament and other associated tournaments were planned to be held without fan attendance. Additionally, the Big Ten Conference announced that all spring sports played by member schools would be held without fans. This executive order also resulted in the NCAA choosing to restrict attendance of this and women's basketball tournaments to the participants' families, outside of areas where public attendance has been fully restricted", ". Both tournaments themselves would suffer their first cancellation in the 81-year history, along with all other championships in winter and spring sports.", "On 11 March 2020, the National Basketball Association announced that a game between the Brooklyn Nets and the Golden State Warriors to be played at Chase Center in San Francisco during the regular matches of the 2019–20 season on the following day would start at its normal time of 10:30 p.m. EDT, with no fans being admitted", ".m. EDT, with no fans being admitted. This measure was taken due to concerns about the spread of COVID-19 in the Bay Area, which prompted most cities in the metropolitan area (including San Francisco) to issue a ban on public gatherings with 1,000 people or higher. The restrictions were made moot with the league suspending the season a few hours later after Rudy Gobert tested positive for COVID-19", ". From 30 July until 11 October 2020, the games resumed at ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex inside Walt Disney World near Orlando, Florida for the remainder of the season.", "The 2020 PBA season is the 45th season of the Philippine Basketball Association. Just three days after the opening ceremony, the season was suspended on 11 March, due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the enforcement of the enhanced community quarantine in Luzon. On 17 September, the PBA Board of Governors have approved a plan to restart the season on 11 October (originally on 9 October)", ". The Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases (IATF-ID) gave a provisional approval on 24 September. All games will be played in the \"PBA bubble\" inside the Clark Freeport Zone in Pampanga.", "The Toronto Raptors returned to playing all games behind closed doors effective 31 December 2021, after Ontario restricted indoor venues to a maximum of 1,000 spectators.", "Combat sports\n\nMixed martial arts\nONE Championship's King of the Jungle in Singapore.\nSince 14 March 2020, Ultimate Fighting Championship events have been held behind closed doors, such as UFC Fight Night 170 taking place in Brasília; subsequent events were cancelled and resumed on 9 May at UFC 249 in Jacksonville, Florida, United States and later events held at UFC Apex in Enterprise, Nevada near Las Vegas.", "Professional wrestling", "WWE moved all of its professional wrestling programs to a studio at its training facility in Orlando between 11 March 2020, and August 2020 with no audience, including its flagship event WrestleMania 36 (originally scheduled to be held at Tampa, Florida's Raymond James Stadium on 5 April)", ". In August, the promotion debuted an arena setup called the WWE ThunderDome to allow fans to virtually attend events; a similar setup for their NXT brand dubbed the Capitol Wrestling Center debuted in October, though with a small crowd of select live fans allowed", ". Rival promotion All Elite Wrestling similarly moved its weekly programs to a closed set, beginning 18 March at Daily's Place in Jacksonville, Florida (and a brief stint in April at a training warehouse in Georgia before returning to Daily's Place); the promotion began to a readmit a limited number of ticketed fans (10–15% capacity of venue) in late August 2020. Other promotions similarly began holding shows behind closed doors.", "Sumo\nThe Haru basho in Osaka, Japan. When the tournament went underway several wrestlers, used to fighting in a usually packed arenas, remark on how odd it is to fight in a virtually empty arena, with Enhō commenting, \"It’s like I can’t raise my fighting spirit...It made me wonder what I'm fighting for.\"", "Cricket\nThree of the 2020 Pakistan Super League matches in Karachi and one fixture in Lahore wereheld without an audience. The Final match in Lahore, was also rescheduled from 22 to 18 March. The matches in National Stadium, Karachi were announced to take place without an audience from 13 March. International players were also allowed to leave the tournament.\nIn Australia, a cricket match between New Zealand black caps and Australia's team was held without an audience on 13 March.", "In July 2020, the Wisden Trophy between England and West Indies was held, in which a series of 3 test matches was played between them. \nIn August and September 2020, Pakistan toured England to play a series of 3 test matches and 3 Twenty20 International matches, in \"bio-secure\" conditions behind closed doors.\nIn September 2020, Australia toured England to play a series of 3 ODI matches and 3 Twenty20 International matches, in \"bio-secure\" conditions behind closed doors.", "The 2020 Indian Premier League was played behind closed doors, and also moved to sites in the United Arab Emirates. The 2021 Indian Premier League was held under similar restrictions in India, but was later suspended and once again resumed at sites in the UAE in September, with spectators allowed at a limited capacity.", "Gaelic games\nUnlike other sports such as association football, the concept of \"behind closed doors\" as a form of punishment does not exist in Gaelic games such as football and hurling. It first emerged in the sports due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) first thought about playing games behind closed doors in March 2020 but decided against it at that time. The following month it had still not been given serious thought by the organisation. Opponents at this time included players such as Killian Young and managers such as Pete McGrath. On the night of 18 August 2020, the Government imposed new restrictions as the pandemic worsened, and games (which had just resumed) were forced behind closed doors as a result.", "The later rounds of the 2020 National Football League and 2020 National Hurling League and the entirety of the 2020 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and 2020 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship were played at grounds where spectators were not admitted. The 2020 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship Final was the first All-Ireland final to be played behind closed doors, followed less than two weeks later by the 2020 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final", ". Early rounds of the 2021 National Football League and 2021 National Hurling League were also played without crowds.", "Golf", "The 2020 Players Championship was scheduled to play on its second day as it was due to plan without spectators, organizers had to cancel the remainder of the event. This subsequently had the PGA Tour to suspend the event until 11 June. With the Masters Tournament (the first men's major championship of 2020) being rescheduled from April to November, while the PGA Championship and U.S", ".S. Open also being rescheduled to August and September, respectively from their usual May and June schedule, and the Open Championship cancelled for the first time since 1945. The PGA Championship became the first men's major of the season and was held behind closed doors.", "Likewise, the early LPGA season was merely affected by the pandemic as tournaments in Asia had cancelled early in response with the outbreak in China, as the LPGA Tour had to suspend until 30 July. With the ANA Inspiration tournament (the first women's major championship of 2020) being rescheduled from April to September, while the KPMG Women's PGA Championship and U.S", ".S. Women's Open also being rescheduled to October and December, respectively, with the Evian Championship (first rescheduled to 6–9 August after being postponed from the original July schedule) cancelled for the first time in its 26-year history. However, the AIG Women's British Open became the first women's major of the season and was held behind closed doors, took place on the usual August schedule and went on as planned.", "Gridiron football\n\nA match between the Seattle Dragons and LA Wildcats of the XFL was scheduled to be played behind closed doors; the league's decision came shortly after Washington state governor Jay Inslee announced a ban on public assemblies of over 250 people. The game was ultimately never played as the pandemic forced the league to prematurely terminate its 2020 season.", "During the 2020 NFL season, many games were played behind closed doors due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Some teams allowed a limited number of fans for some or all of their home games.", "Horse racing\nThe British Horseracing Authority announced on 16 March that all horse racing in the UK would be held behind closed doors until the end of March. Similarly, the annual Triple Crown races in the United States, including the Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes were all held behind closed doors. The Kentucky Derby and Preakness States were both moved from their usual May scheduling to September and October, respectively, with the Belmont Stakes being held on its usual June date.", "Ice hockey", "The Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League announced on 11 March 2020 that all of their remaining home games in the 2019–20 season at Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio would be played behind closed doors due to an executive order by Ohio governor Mike DeWine that banned public gatherings with an attendance of 1,000 people or more. This would subsequently become moot the following day when the NHL suspended its season", ". This would subsequently become moot the following day when the NHL suspended its season. Starting on 1 August, the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs commenced in the two bubble locations of Edmonton and Toronto with no fans present.", "During the 2020–21 NHL season, three U.S.-based teams began the season admitting a limited number of spectators, but by the end of the regular season only the seven Canadian teams were playing crowdless games", ". While the 2021–22 NHL season began with all teams hosting spectators at full capacity, by December 2021 all Canadian NHL teams became subject to provincial public health orders to control the spread of Omicron variant, with Quebec prohibiting spectators at all sporting events, and the owners of the Toronto Maple Leafs and Winnipeg Jets both enacted a behind closed doors policy after Ontario and Manitoba restricted arena capacity to a maximum of 1,000 and 250 people respectively", ". As part of a wider array of games postponed due to players being placed under COVID-19 protocol due to positive tests, the NHL postponed almost all games hosted by Canadian teams (and in some cases, moved games to the home arena of their American opponent) for a period, specifically citing attendance restrictions as reasoning.", "Motorsport", "In Formula One, the first scheduled Grand Prix of 2020 in Australia was cancelled, then the Bahrain Grand Prix (the second scheduled event of the Championship) which was expected to be media/TV-only event, was later postponed to 29 November 2020 and took place behind closed doors", ". The first few races of a rescheduled 2020 season, including two Grands Prix at Red Bull Ring (the Austrian and Styrian Grand Prix), the Hungarian and two Grands Prix at Silverstone, took place in \"bio-secure\" conditions behind closed doors.", "The 2020 Indianapolis 500 was held without fans in attendance. It was moved from Memorial Day weekend to 23 August to allow for the possibility of a limited number of fans, but eventually became a behind closed doors event. Several other 2020 IndyCar Series events were held behind closed doors depending on local jurisdiction regulations for event crowd capacities.", "NASCAR's Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500 and Dixie Vodka 400 races at Atlanta Motor Speedway and Homestead–Miami Speedway were not expected to admit fans; the events were later postponed. NASCAR resumed its season with The Real Heroes 400 at Darlington Raceway without fans in attendance", ". Throughout the remainder of the 2020 season, some tracks allowed a limited number of fans to attend races, the first of these tracks being Talladega Superspeedway on 22 June, Bristol Motor Speedway on 15 July, and New Hampshire Motor Speedway on 2 August, while other tracks held races without fans in attendance. The NASCAR All-Star Race at Bristol Motor Speedway admitted 30,000 fans; while this was one of the largest sporting events with in-person attendance since the start of the pandemic in the U.S", ".S., Bristol Motor Speedway has a total capacity of 162,000 (making it one of the largest sporting venues in the world).", "The 2020 24 Hours of Le Mans marked the first time no fans were in attendance.", "Multi-sport events", "Initially, the 2020 Summer Olympics (postponed to 2021 due to the pandemic) were approved for a maximum of 10,000 spectators or 50% capacity (whichever is lower) per-venue. On 8 July 2021, it was announced that Tokyo and the three prefectures (Chiba, Kanagawa and Saitama) would be placed under a new state of emergency from 12 July through 22 August due to rising cases in the area, and that spectators would be prohibited at all Olympic venues in the city", ". Organizers had already prohibited spectators and supporters from outside of Japan from attending the Games due to concerns over international travel restrictions. Fukushima, and Hokkaido would also prohibit spectators during the Games.", "Tennis", "The 2020 BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, California was postponed shortly before the beginning of the qualifying stage after a COVID-19 case was confirmed within Riverside County and the county's health department declared a public health emergency", ". Subsequently, both the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) and Women's Tennis Association (WTA) announced that their seasons would be suspended until at least 31 July, with the 2020 French Open being rescheduled to September and Wimbledon being cancelled for the first time since 1945. Furthermore, the US Open was played without spectators on the original late-August date as planned", ". Furthermore, the US Open was played without spectators on the original late-August date as planned. Additionally, the 2020 ATP Finals held in London (the final year London hosted the finals) was played without spectators as planned.", "Non-sporting events", "The 2020 Dansk Melodi Grand Prix in Copenhagen, Denmark (a qualification event to the Eurovision Song Contest 2020, which was later canceled) was held with no audience being admitted.", "The 2020 Geneva International Motor Show was cancelled days before its opening day due to Switzerland's self-imposed limit on gatherings of over 1,000 people. The Car of the Year award was presented live behind closed doors. A few car manufacturers who stayed, including Koeniggsegg, unveiled their models pre-recorded at the show.\nThe Miss Universe Philippines 2020 (a national pageant leading to the Miss Universe 2020) was held with no audience present.", "See also\n Catania football riot\n Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Juventus game behind closed doors\n Atalanta game behind closed doors\n Italian football to be played behind closed doors?\n Play games behind closed doors \n Italy backs closed-doors football\n Turkey must play behind closed doors after fight\n Dinamo handed default defeat\n\nClosed doors\nSports terminology\nImpact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports" ]

[ "Marriott Marquis Washington, DC is a luxury hotel located on Massachusetts Avenue NW, in NW, Washington, D.C., United States. The hotel is connected to the Walter E. Washington Convention Center across 9th Street NW via an underground concourse and receives significant business from convention attendees.\n\nThe hotel has of meeting room space, which includes a main ballroom and two smaller ballrooms. The building is topped by a glass-encased penthouse, and a outdoor event terrace.", "The hotel is owned by Capstone Development, the District of Columbia, ING Group, Marriott International, and Quadrangle Development Corporation. The operator is Marriott International. It opened on May 1, 2014, and has 1,175 rooms (which includes 49 suites), a lobby with multi-story atrium, and four dining outlets on the first floor. The hotel has 14 stories above ground, and four stories below.", "New convention center\nThe Washington Convention Center, Washington, D.C.'s second convention center, opened on December 10, 1982. However, by 1990, the facility's small size and a nationwide boom in the construction of convention centers had caused the convention center to see a dramatic drop in business. In May 1990, the city unveiled plans for a new $685 million, convention center. Ground was broken for the new Walter E. Washington Convention Center on 2 October 1998, and it opened in 2003.", "Proposed convention center headquarters hotel\n\nConsultant studies", "With few hotels near the new convention center, there was a need for a \"convention headquarters hotel\". In May 1999, Monument Realty proposed constructing a 1,000-room convention headquarters hotel on a lot it owned on a roughly triangular parcel bounded by New York Avenue NW, K Street NW, and 10th Street NW. Monument estimated the hotel would cost $206 million. In order to make the venture profitable, the cost would need to be reduced to $169 million. Monument sought $57", ". Monument sought $57.3 million in tax increment financing (TIF) but never received approval from the city for the funds. In late October 2000, Monument Realty sold the parcel for $43.2 million to Boston Properties. An office building, 901 New York Avenue, was built on the site. In fall 1999, the Washington Renaissance Hotel at 9th and I Streets NW applied for $25 million in TIF money to expand into a convention headquarters hotel", ". But city officials turned down this request, saying there was significant risk it would not produce the tax revenue to make the TIF financially viable. D.C. Councilmember Jack Evans introduced legislation to award the TIF to the Washington Renaissance Hotel, but it did not pass and the hotel's owner sold the land on which the expansion would have occurred. The hotel would have expanded onto an empty lot on the northwest corner of 7th and I Streets NW", ". The hotel would have expanded onto an empty lot on the northwest corner of 7th and I Streets NW. The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Building was constructed on this quarter-block site in 2004.", "To decide if a convention center headquarters hotel was economically feasible, two studies were conducted in 2000. First, the city commissioned a study by the Chicago firm of C.H. Johnson Consulting. Assuming a 71% occupancy rate and average room rate of $215 a night on 1,500 rooms, the Johnson study found the hotel would generate $135 million in gross revenues in its first year, resulting in a $34 million deficit", ". Nevertheless, the Johnson study called the convention headquarters hotel a \"necessary ingredient\", citing the size of the new convention center, the distance (nearly ) to the largest hotel, and the small size of nearby hotels. The Johnson study did not attempt to account for the economic impact of the hotel on other businesses in the city", ". Another study by PricewaterhouseCoopers, commissioned by the Washington Convention and Sports Authority (WCSA), found that in its fourth year of operation, the convention center would generate a demand for 55,500 more room nights than the city's existing hotels could accommodate. In time, PricewaterhouseCoopers concluded, the new convention center would generate demand for 500,000 room nights a year", ". However, the study also warned that any convention headquarters hotel would have to rely on non-convention meetings for a substantial portion of its business—putting it in competition with the smaller hotels in the city.", "Request for proposals for a new hotel", "By November 2000, discussion by private developers and the city focused less on whether to build a convention headquarters hotel but how large it should be. The new hotel needed 1,200 to 1,500 rooms and at least of meeting room space. It also needed to be within walking distance of the new convention center", ". It also needed to be within walking distance of the new convention center. The city hired a consulting firm to determine if it would be financially viable to build a $400 million hotel on the following sites: the old convention center, along Massachusetts Avenue NW, or New York Avenue NW. Several large hotel operators expressed interest in building the new hotel, including the Hyatt and Marriott chains. However, no additional action was taken at that time.", "Six months later, in April 2001, D.C. Mayor Anthony A. Williams announced he was issuing a request for proposals (RFPs) to build a 1,100-room, $200-million convention headquarters hotel near the site of the old convention center. Williams asked private developers to propose privately owned sites for the hotel", ". Williams asked private developers to propose privately owned sites for the hotel. If no privately owned site was available, Williams offered to build the hotel on the site of the old convention center, even though a consultant's report said that would limit the development potential of that site. Williams said a decision on a proposal would be made by the end of the year, and left open the possibility that the city would subsidize the hotel's financing", ". Real estate developer Kingdon Gould III said he was willing to build a hotel on an lot he owned at the corner of Massachusetts Avenue NW and 9th Street NW. Similarly, developer Douglas Jemal offered a site he owned at 7th Street NW and New York Avenue NW.", "Four proposals for the 1,000-plus room hotel, now priced at $300 million, were submitted by the August 2001 deadline. They included proposals by:\n Hilton Hotels & Resorts, Douglas Jemal, and Landmark Organization Inc. (a development company based in Austin, Texas) for a hotel on the northeast corner of 7th Street NW and New York Avenue NW\n Onyx International for a hotel on the north side of Massachusetts Avenue NW between 4th and 5th Streets NW", "Monument Realty for a hotel on K Street NW between 4th and 5th Streets NW\n Marriott International and Kingdon Gould III for a hotel along 9th Street NW between L Street NW and Massachusetts Avenue NW", "Although the city targeted making a decision by December 2001, the September 11 attacks caused a severe economic downturn in Washington, D.C., which caused the city to delay its decision on the RFP for more than a year.", "The award for the convention headquarters hotel went to Marriott International in October 2002. The award was not made until October 29, 2002. The mayor's office said the city would probably provide TIF financing to the project, which now was projected to have 1,500 rooms, of meeting room space, cost $500 million, and open in late 2006 or early 2007", ". The Marriott/Gould bid was chosen because the land parcel size, its location near the convention center, and the land, which was already owned by the partners. City officials said they intended to ask the Council for legislation to establish a nonprofit to sell TIF bonds and own the hotel. Marriott said it would buy $24 million of the bonds to create an ownership interest in the hotel, which it said would be built by JBG Smith", ". To keep interest on the bonds reasonable, the city stated it would also seek authority to divert up to $19 million in general sales tax revenue in the event the hotel didn't generate enough revenue to pay interest on the TIF bonds.", "Initial financing proposal", "The city's TIF financing proposal was controversial. Critics such as Charles W. McMillion, chief economist at the business consulting firm MBG Information Services, argued that the convention headquarters hotel would lead to lower sales tax revenue by reducing pressure on hotel room rates throughout the city and by keeping attendees away from local restaurants and retail businesses. The convention headquarters hotel, critics also noted, would not have enough attendance to make up the lost sales tax revenue", ". Executives at other hotel chains said the city's financing deal projected sales tax revenue of $40 million to $48 million a year, but a more reasonable estimate was $25 million to $30 million a year. City officials countered by pointing to the two studies conducted in 2000 which came to different conclusions, and by noting that the convention center had promised those booking large meetings at the site that a headquarters hotel would be open by 2007", ". Without the hotel, these groups could cancel completely, they said.", "On March 29, 2003, the $600 million Walter E. Washington Convention Center officially opened.", "It took more than a year for the city to work out its TIF proposal. On December 16, 2003, the mayor's office finally asked the Council to establish a nonprofit entity authorized to issue tax-exempt bonds and borrow $1 billion. Under the plan, $460 million of the bond issue would go toward building the convention headquarters hotel. The city said Tishman Realty & Construction, not JBG, would construct the hotel", ". The city said Tishman Realty & Construction, not JBG, would construct the hotel. The remaining bond issue would refinance the convention center's existing debt to take advantage of much lower interest rates. The bundled debt issue, the mayor's office said, made the bond issue more attractive to investors because it was backed by revenues from two entities rather than one", ". To further ensure that the bonds were accepted by Wall Street, the city agreed to guarantee a portion of bonds' interest with general sales tax revenue in case the hotel TIF did not cover the interest.", "Siting the hotel", "The Mariani controversy", "The mayor and city council were still negotiating over the TIF deal in March 2004, although both hoped to have legislation passed by May. Even as the Center for Exhibition Industry Research said a headquarters hotel was important for the success of the convention center, there was concern by other hotels in the city that the convention center had not generated enough room nights to justify its construction", ". The Washington Post business columnist Steven Pearlstein questioned in April 2004 if such a large hotel, questionably financed by the city, was really needed to make the convention center profitable. Pearlstein argued that two 500-room hotels, built solely with private financing, would be adequate.", "In April 2004, the D.C. City Council began debating whether the convention headquarters hotel should be built on the site of the old convention center. This proposal originated with local architect Ted Mariani, who proposed constructing a 1,500-room hotel with extensive meeting room space linked by a tunnel to the new convention center. Mariani convinced several members of the City Council that this would be the best use of the land. The Williams administration strongly opposed Mariani's plan", ". The Williams administration strongly opposed Mariani's plan. Over the next month, members of the Williams administration and city council staff met to discuss Mariani's proposal. Joe Sternlieb, head of the Downtown D.C. Business Improvement District; James A", ". Joe Sternlieb, head of the Downtown D.C. Business Improvement District; James A. Jemison, mayoral planning aide; and city development consultant Ron Kaplan met for two to three hours a day, three times a week, with council staff and offered to agree to a hotel and some meeting space so long as the council approved the deal by late June. But Council Chair Linda W. Cropp and Council Member Jack Evans (in whose ward the site was located) both favored the Mariani plan", ". On July 15, 2004, the two sides reached an agreement to proceed with the existing Williams plan. However, some city council members and WCSA opposed the agreement. Going a step further, WCSA commissioned a study of the old convention center site from the consulting firm Conventions, Sports & Leisure International (CSIL). WCSA said the report would be ready in August 2004.", "The WCSA report", "The CSIL report was complete in October 2004. The authority was to vote to accept the consultant's report on October 13, 2004, but delayed the vote after Mayor Williams asked for more time to negotiate a solution. The next day, Cropp, supported by the city's hospitality industry, again suggested that the old convention center site be used for a $450 million, 1,500-room convention headquarters hotel. With the two sides seemingly deadlocked, Greg Fazakerley, a local developer and former president of the D.C", ".C. Building Industry Association, stepped in at the end of October to assist the two sides in coming to an agreement. WCSA then scheduled a vote on the consultant's report for November 4.", "WCSA again delayed its vote until December, but released CSIL's report on November 4 under pressure from the other parties in the dispute. The report analyzed six sites for the potential convention headquarters hotel as well as financing options. On December 3, the WCSA board voted in favor of the Williams site, but said it would continue to study placing a hotel somewhere on New York Avenue NW. WCSA said a third option would be to build the hotel on the northeast corner of the old convention center site", ". Cropp was unhappy with WCSA's action, and the city council continued to defer action on the TIF plan.", "Resolution on the siting issue", "Resolution to the dispute came in June 2005, after more than a year delay. By April 2005, a majority of the city council had come to support the Williams proposal, and the council planned to approve the Williams plan on May 4. But Cropp convinced the council to put off the vote, arguing that the bill still gave the mayor absolute discretion over where to build a convention headquarters hotel", ". Williams submitted a revised agreement on May 24, and the council unanimously approved a plan to redevelop the old convention center site on June 6, 2005. The agreement said that of land on the northeast corner of the old convention center site would remain undeveloped pending council resolution of what to do with the property. Under the plan, the council also retained authority to change the site of the convention headquarters hotel at any time.", "Obtaining more land\n\nPurchase of the Pipefitters building", "Further complicating matters was a $30 million bid in August 2005 by Philadelphia-based real estate development company Lubert-Adler Management to purchase a parcel of land on the corner of 9th Street NW and Massachusetts Avenue NW. This land was owned by a trade union, the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry (the Pipefitters), and the union's American Federation of Labor Building, its historic, 90-year-old headquarters occupied the site", ". Marriott, Gould, and the city hoped to convince the Pipefitters to sell their building for the hotel development. To prevent the Lubert-Adler purchase, WCSA placed a $900,000 deposit on the Pipefitters' property, and pledged that the historic building would be incorporated into the new hotel rather than demolished. On August 22, the Pipefitters agreed to sell their parcel to WCSA for $30 million. This sale significantly strengthened the appeal of the Williams-preferred site.", "The convention headquarters hotel proposal received a major boost on September 11, 2005, when a second report by CSIL concluded that a $417 million, 1,200-room hotel with of meeting space and 600 parking spaces would be financially viable. CSIL said that a hotel constructed on the old convention center site would take 12 to 15 months longer to build and cost $12 million more. The report appeared to quash any further attempt to build on the old convention site.\n\nThe Gould land swap", "After council approval for Williams site, the city and Kingdon Gould III became locked in negotiations over Gould's land which would take nearly two years to resolve. The reason for the negotiations is not clear. Gould joined the original proposal by Marriott to build the hotel, and seemed willing to use his land for it. But at some point between October 2002 and January 2006, it became clear that private financing for the convention headquarters hotel could not be obtained with so many property owners", ". Gould was the smallest property holder and was not providing equity for the project, which led to negotiations to obtain his land.", "Initially, the city and Gould discussed two options: buying Gould's land outright, or permitting Gould to swap his land for city-owned land elsewhere. The two sides settled on a land swap, but negotiations stalled after Gould argued that his parcel (valued at $72.6 million) was more valuable than the city-owned parcel on the northeast corner of the old convention center site (valued at $75.9 million). Furthermore, Gould wanted zoning changes made to the old convention center site", ".9 million). Furthermore, Gould wanted zoning changes made to the old convention center site. City zoning laws required that 200 units of housing be built on the site. Gould wanted guarantees that he would receive a waiver for this regulation.", "On January 26, 2006, Gould agreed to swap a lot on the southeast corner of 9th Street NW and Massachusetts Avenue NW for a similar-sized city-owned lot at the site of the former convention center. The deal required city council approval, however. The agreement also said, in part, that the city would seek changes to restrictive zoning regulations on the old convention center site. Local zoning regulations required that 200 units of housing by built on the old convention site", ". Local zoning regulations required that 200 units of housing by built on the old convention site. The letter of intent signed by the two sides also made one of Gould's companies, PMI Parking, one of the largest parking lot and parking garage companies in the D.C. metro area, the manager of a parking garage at the new convention headquarters hotel and included late fee payments if the city did not act quickly to finalized the swap", ". Since the site preferred by Williams was not large enough for the planned hotel and the city-owned lots in the area not contiguous, Gould's land swap created a more unified site with fewer owners.", "By February 2007, the land swap agreement still had not been finalized. The zoning changes had not occurred, although city officials pledged they were coming. No agreement over parking garage management had been signed, either. The city declined to get involved in operation of the hotel, and advised Gould to negotiate with Marriott about parking garage management. The long negotiations triggered the late-fee clause that required the city to pay Gould $2.2 million", ".2 million. This, too, delayed the swap, since payment of fees greater than $1 million required city council approval. In September, Gould and the city public accused each other of stalling the deal.", "The Gould land swap deal was finally approved by the city council on November 1, 2007. It had taken 22 months to change local zoning regulations so Gould was exempted from building housing on the new site.", "Miscellaneous other land parcels\nThe city had trouble obtaining title to other pieces of the hotel site as well. Two small parcels on 9th and L Streets NW still remained in their owners' hands in early 2007. Although the city could have used its eminent domain powers (approved in June 2006), it instead engaged in negotiations over the price of the land. These negotiations took nearly two years. It was not until December 2006 that the city used its eminent domain powers to secure the land.", "First financing package", "With council approval of the siting plan complete in June 2005, the council came under pressure to approve the financing package for the convention headquarters hotel. But with little movement on the issue, Marriott and RLJ Development, the development fund owned by billionaire cable executive hedge fund owner Robert L. Johnson, said on September 11, 2005, that they were working on a plan to privately finance the hotel and avoid the city council altogether. But no private financing fell into place, either.", "In February 2006, Mayor Williams resubmitted to the city council his three-year-old proposal for public financing the convention headquarters hotel. With the likely cost of the hotel now at $650 million, Williams asked the city to sell $187 million in TIF bonds to WCSA, which in turn would sell WCSA bonds based on its own revenues as well as those of the TIF", ". WCSA would use its own bond sales to pay $187 million of the hotel's construction costs, with the remainder to be privately financed by Marriott and RLJ Development. The Williams proposal also leased the publicly owned land to Marriott and its partners for 99 years at a cost of $37 million. The deal permitted Marriott to build a 1,434-room hotel with of meeting space and 600 parking spaces. Additionally, Marriott would permit WCSA to build a meeting center on the site", ". Additionally, Marriott would permit WCSA to build a meeting center on the site. (WCSA said it would finance this center separately from the WCSA bond sale.) Although city chief financial officer Natwar Gandhi doubted the hotel would generate enough tax revenue to meet TIF needs, Marriott consultant MuniCap estimated the hotel would generate $44.2 million in tax revenue three years after its completion", ".2 million in tax revenue three years after its completion. To ensure that construction began by 2008, the legislation also contained eminent domain language allowing the city to obtain title to two small properties within the parcel which it had not yet acquired.", "Approval of this financing package was relatively swift. In June 2006, the council passed the Williams proposal. Only $135 million in TIF bonds were approved, but the eminent domain provisions were included as submitted.\n\nIn November 2006, Adrian Fenty was elected mayor of Washington, D.C., after Anthony Williams declined to seek a third term in office. Fenty was sworn into office in January 2007.\n\nSecond financing package and construction agreement", "Financial viability and financing concerns", "Concerns about the viability of the convention center headquarters hotel occurred again in 2007. Convention hotel room bookings in Washington, D.C., fell 13% in 2006 and were estimated to fall another 24% in 2007 and 29% in 2008, bringing into question the need for a headquarters hotel. In Baltimore, Maryland, a convention center headquarters hotel approved in 2006 failed to boost convention bookings", ". Furthermore, Gaylord Entertainment Company was constructing a 2,000-room hotel and meeting complex at its Gaylord National Resort & Convention Center in Prince George's County, Maryland, just across the city line. The Gaylord complex, the Washington Post said, was likely to draw business away from the proposed D.C. convention headquarters hotel", ".C. convention headquarters hotel. Reviewing these developments, Heywood Sanders, a professor of public administration at the University of Texas at San Antonio concluded that \"Putting in a hotel is no guarantee that it will improve the [Walter E. Washington Convention Center's] performance.\" But others defended the need for a convention headquarters hotel. Convention center officials and William Hanbury, president and chief executive officer of Washington Convention & Tourism Corp", ". (a nonprofit group promoting conventions and tourism in the city), blamed the bookings drop on the lack of a headquarters hotel. Hanbury estimated the loss of convention business at $200 million. Additionally, the Washington Post reported that hotel occupancy in the city was still so high that few hotels were willing to give conventions the significant rate discounts they usually received. This, too, was hurting convention center bookings.", "Other issues threatened to raise the cost of the hotel and put its viability in question as well. A new sticking point was how many rooms the hotel would have to set aside each night for convention business. Marriott and its finance partners wanted fewer rooms dedicated to convention business so that its operating margins would be higher. Marriott also wanted to build multiple mid-size meeting rooms rather a few large ballrooms", ". Marriott also wanted to build multiple mid-size meeting rooms rather a few large ballrooms. No agreement had been reached on these issues by February 2007, despite several months of negotiations. However, the two sides did agree that the underground portion of the hotel would include a meeting center that would include at least one ballroom and multiple meeting rooms", ". The long negotiations were, according to RLJ Development executives, leading to higher costs and could lead Marriott and its partners to ask for more public money. The negotiations did not seem to impede construction, however. Construction on the hotel was scheduled to begin in early 2010 in time for a late 2011 opening.", "Despite questions about the need for the hotel, private financing fell into place by February 2007. Marriott and RLJ Development announced that Quadrangle Development Corporation was joining the project as a financing partner for the hotel, whose cost had fallen to $550 million", ". Even though the city had not issued any approval for alley closures, historic building preservation, excavations down to below ground, or zoning changes, the addition of private equity investment in the hotel was considered a positive sign.", "Request for more public funds\n\nNot only did existing finance deals fall apart in 2008, but costs on the project rose. As the developers asked for additional public financing, the city's debt cap began to play a role in negotiations.", "In February 2007, RLJ Development officials warned that the excessive delay in approving the project was leading to higher costs, and might lead Marriott and its partners to seek additional public funding. City CFO Natwar Gandhi warned in June 2007 that the project risked breaching the city's voluntary debt cap of 12% of total expenditures. Washington, D.C., had a legal debt limit of 17% of expenditures", ". Washington, D.C., had a legal debt limit of 17% of expenditures. To improve the city's dismal bond rating and low interest payments, the city adopted a voluntary debt cap of 12%.", "Marriott asked for additional public financing in early September 2007. The cost of the facility had risen to $750 million, and a worsening economic climate made less credit available. Marriott and RLJ Development said that, without additional public funds, they would not turn a profit on the hotel. In response, council member Jack Evans (long a supporter of the hotel) suggested that the city cancel the project.", "A side-issue involved construction of the meeting center, agreed to in February 2006. At that time, Marriott agreed to let the city build this meeting center on part of Marriott-owned land just north of the convention headquarters hotel site. Marriott would build zoning-required housing on the rest of the land. But Marriott changed its mind, and asked the city to buy the parcel for $50 million. The city declined to do so, which put the February 2006 construction agreement in jeopardy", ". The city declined to do so, which put the February 2006 construction agreement in jeopardy. Even if the city did purchase the land, Marriott would be forced to lease it back for the convention headquarters hotel. The city said it would do so for $5 million a year, but Marriott balked and offered to pay $500,000 to $600,000 a year.", "Final construction agreement", "To save the project, Marriott agreed to scale back the size of the hotel. Shortly after the request for more public funding, District asked Marriott to cut the cost of the facility by reducing the number of rooms to about 1,000. Marriott agreed to build only 1,150 rooms, and to scrap the underground ballroom and meeting space (saving an estimated $100 million). Marriott and the city also resolved their dispute over the room set-aside for convention business", ". Marriott and the city also resolved their dispute over the room set-aside for convention business. This issue had been coming to a conclusion since early 2007, when Mayor Fenty gave Marriott a take-it-or-leave-it offer to reserve 80% of the rooms for the convention center, so long as convention center business was booked three years in advance. Marriott agreed to the 80% set-aside in September.", "The concessions by Marriott worked. On September 24, 2007, Marriott, WCSA, and the city signed an agreement to jointly finance the 1,150-room hotel.", "Design work", "Marriott released details about the hotel's ongoing design effort in October 2008, more than a year after the structure's specifications had been agreed to by the city. The company said the convention headquarters hotel would break ground in 2009 and open in 2012. Marriott planned for the hotel to have six restaurants, five at street-level. These first floor restaurants would include a traditional restaurant, a \"concept\" restaurant, a cafe, a sports bar, and an upscale liquor bar", ". Marriott submitted its plans to the D.C. zoning commission for approval in November 2008.", "The Marriott Marquis' design was submitted to the National Capital Planning Commission in late 2008. The designs outlined a 14-story, hotel with a glass and steel facade. The facade of the historic 1916 Pipefitters building would be incorporated into the facade. The design required digging below ground to build 1,000 parking spaces and two levels of usable space to accommodate of ballroom and meeting room space (which had been restored to the project)", ". The plans also called for a tunnel beneath 9th Street NW to link the hotel and the convention center. The commission, which had approval authority over the development, reported favorably on February 4. The same month, WCSA announced the underwriters for its forthcoming $187 million bond issue (of which $134 million would go toward the hotel).", "Third financing agreement", "Collapse of private financing", "As the recession deepened and the debt crisis worsened, the hotel's developers pleaded for yet more public funding. But in July 2008, city CFO Gandhi repeated his warning from June 2007 that the city would breach its debt cap by doing so", ". The city had already committed to public funding to redevelop the Southwest waterfront, the O Street Market mixed-use project, and the purchase of Skyland Shopping Center, and Gandhi warned that funding might need to be diverted from these and other projects or the city would be left with just $122 million to spend on development and infrastructure between 2008 and 2014", ". Marriott tried to calm the city's fears by saying it had not yet approached the capital markets to seek private financing, and would not do so until at least April 2009.", "Private financing for the hotel collapsed in June 2009. RLJ Development dropped out of the project some time between September 2007 and June 2009, but Marriott added Capstone Development led by a former Marriott executive, as a new financing partner. However, Marriott, Capstone, and Quadrangle Development were unable to find the funds needed to begin construction. In an attempt to rescue the project, on May 29, WCSA authorized the sale of $750 million in bonds to pay for the hotel", ". To issue these bonds, WCSA needed city council approval. But with the city facing an $800 million budget deficit in fiscal 2010 and a $1 billion deficit in 2011, such approval seemed unlikely.", "The city council began considering in June 2009 whether an additional $100 million in city financing might convince lenders or investors to join the project. On June 7, Capstone said it had $135 million in equity dollars in place, but needed $300 million in lending for that equity to be committed. In mid June, the city council considered transferring funding away from seven other city-backed development projects to fund the hotel, since the council refused to violate the city's debt cap", ". But several unnamed city council members were unwilling for the city to take a greater equity interest in the hotel after spending $700 million on constructing the new Nationals Park in March 2006.", "Third financing package", "On June 17, 2009, the city council and WCSA came to an agreement on a new financing plan crafted by city CFO Natwar Gandhi. Under the plan, the city would loan Marriott $80 million in return for Marriott, Capstone, and Quadrangle raising their equity contribution to $320 million from $135 million. To obtain the additional equity money, ING Clarion Real Estate Investment was added as a new partner in the project", ". The higher equity participation meant that Marriott would no longer need to seek private lending as part of the agreement—which meant construction could go forward without the long delay that would occur while seeking bank loans. The city's total contribution would be $267 million ($135 million in equity financing, $80 million in loans, and $52 million in WCSA bond refinancing), all to be raised by a joint city-WCSA bond issue.", "The D.C. City Council voted unanimously on June 29, 2009, in favor of the new financing package. The deal was revised somewhat from the June 17 agreement. The city agreed to issue $225 million in bonds (down from $267 million) in order to give Marriott $159 million in equity financing (an increase from $135 million). TIF revenues from the hotel project itself would pay for $135 million in equity financing, while the other $24 million in equity money would come from other TIF revenue sources in the city", ". WCSA would contribute a $25 million loan (payable over 25 years) as well as a one-time $22 million grant to build the hotel. The city also agreed to eliminate the requirement that a parking garage be built near the hotel.", "The June 29 financing deal passed a second and final vote by the council on July 14, 2009. A $2 million training program (to be paid for by the bond issue) was added to the city's bond issue. The money raised paid the construction contractor to train unemployed city workers in various skilled construction jobs while the hotel was built. Marriott officials said that, with the financing finally in place, groundbreaking would occur in late 2010 and the hotel to open 42 months later.\n\nJBG lawsuit", "JBG lawsuit\n\nInitiation of the lawsuit", "A subsidiary of JBG Smith, Wardman Investor LLC, filed a notice with the city's Contract Appeals Board in early 2009 to have the entire project set aside for being an \"invalid sole source procurement\". JBG argued that the original proposal required the hotel to be built on private land and financed with private money. JBG did not submit a proposal because it could not meet these conditions", ". JBG did not submit a proposal because it could not meet these conditions. Subsequently, the city negotiated only with Marriott, eliminated the private investment requirement, added $272 million in public financing, and gave Marriott an \"extraordinarily favorable\" lease. JBG argued that these changes so altered the terms of the project that it should be put out for public bid again. The appeals board said in July 2009 that JBG lacked standing to protest the award since it never bid on the job", ". Even if the company did have standing, the appeals board said, it lost the right to protest after the council passed legislation removing the project from the regular contracting process in 2006.", "JBG's motive for filing the lawsuit may not have been to contest the construction of the convention headquarters hotel, however. The lawsuit may have been prompted by a dispute between JBG and Marriott blocking the conversion of a portion of the Marriott Wardman Park, which JBG and CIM Group purchased from Thayer Lodging in 2005, into condominiums.\n\nConstruction of the Marriott Marquis was placed on hold on September 4, 2009.", "Construction of the Marriott Marquis was placed on hold on September 4, 2009. \n\nThe lawsuit continued through the fall of 2009 and into 2010. The D.C. Attorney General asked the court to dismiss the suit on October 11, but the court declined to do so on November 18. The city asked for a reconsideration of its motion on December 1, but the court declined to do so on January 6, 2010.", "Counter-suits", "Marriott counter-sued JBG on January 14, 2010, accusing JBG of tortious interference in its contractual relations. In support of its claim, Marriott told the court that JBG Cos. officials had threatened Marriott with a convention center lawsuit if it did not renegotiate its Wardman Park deal. The lawsuit significantly delayed financing of the project. No bonds were issued by mid-January 2010, and there were signs that ING Clarion might back out of the project if additional delays occurred", ". In an attempt to break the deadlock, Council member Jack Evans (a former real estate attorney) tried to mediate the dispute. On January 21, WCSA filed suit against JBG Cos. for tortious interference as well. The city followed suit with yet another tortious interference claim on February 18.", "On March 29, 2010, D.C. Superior Court Judge Natalia Combs Greene granted partial summary judgment and a motion to dismiss to Marriott, the city, and WCSA. A partial out-of-court settlement had already been reached by the parties giving JBG Cos. some limited ability to move forward on the condo project, but that agreement now seemed unnecessary given the court's ruling. Public officials were pleased with the court's ruling, and believed the convention headquarters project would move ahead quickly", ". The amended order can be viewed here. City officials said groundbreaking on the hotel would occur in May or June 2010, and WCSA officials said the construction bonds could brought to the market within 60 to 75 days.", "Resolution of the lawsuits", "But by June 2010 there was still no agreement over the JBG Cos. lawsuit. All parties had suspended litigation against one another three weeks prior to the district court's decision to give negotiations a chance. But JBG could still appeal the district court's ruling, which brought a halt to talks. With no resolution in sight, the city said on June 3 that it would resume litigation in two days if an agreement was not forthcoming. No resolution was reached, and litigation resumed on June 8.", "The parties in the various lawsuits resolved their legal dispute on July 1, 2010. The agreement permitted construction to go ahead on the convention headquarters hotel, but otherwise terms were not disclosed. The agreement precluded a legal appeal by all parties.", "The legal dispute had delayed construction on the convention headquarters hotel by another nine months. To get the project restarted, WCSA said it would release its $22 million grant to Marriott and its partners by the end of August 2010 so that ground preparation could begin immediately.\n\nConstruction of the hotel", "Construction of the hotel\n\nWCSA's bonds reached the market in November 2010. The bond issues included $66.5 million of tax-exempt Build America Bonds (BAB) recovery zone facility bonds, $90 million of taxable BAB recovery zone economic development bonds, and $20.1 million of BAB direct payment bonds—all of which went to fund the convention headquarters hotel. Another $71.8 million of taxable bonds refinanced existing WCSA debt.", "Ground was broken for Marriott Marquis Washington, DC on November 10, 2010. Officials announced that the four-star hotel would open in the spring of 2014. Construction was expected to take a full year longer than usual due to the deep excavation needed for the underground levels and the connecting tunnel with the convention center. The cost of the structure was estimated at $520 million.", "The business climate for the Marriott Marquis Washington, DC improved dramatically after ground was broken. On May 3, 2011, the hotel received its first convention-related business when the Association of the United States Army agreed to take space in the hotel for 2014, 2015, and 2016. By August 2012, the hotel secured 15 contracts for about 210,000 room nights through 2021", ". By August 2012, the hotel secured 15 contracts for about 210,000 room nights through 2021. In September 2011, Marriott announced it and Capstone Development would build a Courtyard by Marriott and a Residence Inn by Marriott on Marriott-owned land north of the Marriott Marquis. Together, the hotels would provide 500 rooms", ". Together, the hotels would provide 500 rooms. Marriott asked for $35 million in TIF funds from the city for the $172 million project, but the city, which was near its borrowing cap, said it was \"not entertaining new TIF applications right now.\" In June 2012, Marriott signed a $210 million contract to operate four hotels owned by Gaylord Entertainment. The agreement gave Marriott control over the Gaylord Resort Hotel at National Harbor, helping to reduce the competitive impact of that hotel", ". PKF Hospitality Research reported in July 2012 that demand for hotel rooms in Washington, D.C., was projected to outpace supply through 2016, even with the addition of the Marriott Marquis Washington, DC and other planned and under-construction hotels.", "Construction of the hotel began to rise above ground in August 2012, halfway through its construction schedule. Although engineers still had to dig, most of the foundations and below-ground ballroom and meeting room space were complete. Officials said the hotel had to dig a total of below ground. Construction officials said a platform would be built at grade which would support continuing construction below ground as well as construction above it", ". Marriott was given permission to place 17 mobile trailers on its unused lots north of the construction site in November 2012. The trailers served as temporary offices for the construction foremen and leaders. A grand opening date of May 1, 2014 was set.", "The hotel reported booking the annual meetings of the American Academy of Family Physicians (6,500 total attendees) for October 2014, the Family, Career and Community Leaders of America (5,000 total attendees) for July 2015, and the American Dental Association (40,000 total attendees) for November 2015.", "Design lawsuit", "The hotel's general contractor, Hensel Phelps Construction Co., alleged that Cooper Carry, the hotel's architect of record, failed to properly design the structure. Hensel Phelps identified 20 areas of concern, which included below-grade structures, ceiling materials, door hardware, duct work, the gutter and downspout systems for entrance canopies, the smoke control system, stairwells, the tops of walls in guestrooms, windows, and more", ". Hensel Phelps also claimed that Cooper Carry failed to perform its work in a timely manner, forcing the contractor to miss deadlines, and violated basic \"standard of care\" obligations. The two parties engaged in mediation, but were unable to come to an agreement. In October 2015, Hensel Phelps filed an $8.5 million lawsuit against Cooper Carry in federal court.", "Hotel opening and operation\n\nThe hotel opened on May 1, 2014, with a ribbon-cutting ceremony six weeks later. It was the 4,000th hotel for Marriott International, and with 1,175 rooms, the largest hotel in Washington, DC.\n\nExterior/structure\nThe 15-story building includes a 5,200 square-foot outdoor event terrace and seven below-grade levels housing event space, 400 parking spaces, and a tunnel to the Walter E. Washington Convention Center.", "The exterior of the Neomodern structure is glass and steel. It also incorporates the facade of the historic former headquarters of the American Federation of Labor Building, a Chicago school brick and limestone building built in 1916.", "Interior/amenities\nThe hotel features an atrium with a glass skylight, and a -high lobby sculpture. Roughly of space on the mezzanine overlooks the atrium. Six hospitality suites exist on the mezzanine level. Other amenities include a concierge level lounge with outdoor patio, and a two-story fitness center. The hotel has 1,175 guest rooms, including 46 suites. Two suites are very large \"Presidential suites\" and six are medium-sized \"Vice Presidential suites.\"", "Dining\nThe lobby has a large bar and lounge area, and there are four separate restaurant spaces. At opening, the restaurants were Anthem, The Dignitary, and High Velocity, while the final restaurant space was vacant.\n\nAnthem is a breakfast-and-lunch-only diner accessible from the hotel lobby serving burgers, sandwiches, and shakes inspired by the Hot Shoppes restaurants co-founded by J. Willard Marriott that preceded Marriott Corporation.", "The Dignitary is a cocktail lounge housed in the old Pipefitters Union building with a menu focused on whiskey.\n\nHigh Velocity is a sports bar with 36 flat-screen TVs and a ticker tape scrolling the latest sports scores visible from L Street and 9th Street.", "Arroz was a Spanish restaurant that recently closed. Celebrity chef Mike Isabella signed a deal to open a restaurant in the Marquis in 2016. Upon opening, the restaurant received three stars from food critic Tom Sietsema in The Washington Post. The operators of the restaurant filed for bankruptcy in December 2018.", "Meetings/events\nFour meeting levels are located underground.\n Meeting Level 1, just below the ground floor, contains small meeting rooms.", "Meeting Level 1, just below the ground floor, contains small meeting rooms.\n Meeting Level 2 below it contains the Marquis Ballroom, a room with no columns and high ceilings. The foyer of the ballroom receives natural light from the atrium above. A large delivery area in back permits large exhibits and automobiles to access the ballroom. The Walter E. Washington Convention Center is also accessible from this level via an underground concourse.", "Meeting Level 3 contains additional meeting room space, although these rooms are larger than those on Meeting Level 1.\n Meeting Level 4 contains two ballrooms, the Independence Ballroom and the Liberty Ballroom. Each ballroom has of column-free space, and -high ceilings. Numerous additional small meeting rooms are also located on this level.", "The Marquis has hosted many events, including weddings, charity events, political forums, religious conferences, and an inaugural ball.", "Employees\nThe Marquis had agreed to hire 51% of its employees from Washington, DC residents, and Marriott partnered with Goodwill of Greater Washington to create a hospitality jobs training program, hiring 178 District residents through the program by opening day.\nThe nearly 900 employees of the Marriott Marquis Washington, DC voted during their orientation, in a card check neutrality election, to join Local 25, UNITE Here which represents hotel workers in the Washington, DC metropolitan area.", "Rating\nIn March 2017, Cvent, an event management company, ranked the Washington Marriott Marquis 72nd in its annual list of the top U.S. hotels for meetings.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nMarriott hotels\nMarriott Marquis\nHotel buildings completed in 2014\nHotels established in 2014\n2014 establishments in Washington, D.C.\nModernist architecture in Washington, D.C.\nChicago school architecture in the United States" ]

[ "Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents. These agents include bacteria, viruses, insects, fungi, and/or toxins, and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-modified form, in much the same way as in biological warfare. Further, modern agribusiness is vulnerable to anti-agricultural attacks by terrorists, and such attacks can seriously damage economy as well as consumer confidence", ". The latter destructive activity is called agrobioterrorism and is a subtype of agro-terrorism.", "Definition", "Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or other harmful agents to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants. These agents are typically found in nature, but could be mutated or altered to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents can be spread through the air, water, or in food", ". Biological agents can be spread through the air, water, or in food. Biological agents are attractive to terrorists because they are extremely difficult to detect and do not cause illness for several hours to several days. Some bioterrorism agents, like the smallpox virus, can be spread from person to person and some, like anthrax, cannot", ". Bioterrorism may be favored because biological agents are relatively easy and inexpensive to obtain, can be easily disseminated, and can cause widespread fear and panic beyond the actual physical damage. Military leaders, however, have learned that, as a military asset, bioterrorism has some important limitations; it is difficult to use a bioweapon in a way that only affects the enemy and not friendly forces", ". A biological weapon is useful to terrorists mainly as a method of creating mass panic and disruption to a state or a country. However, technologists such as Bill Joy have warned of the potential power which genetic engineering might place in the hands of future bio-terrorists.", "The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans, but disrupt the economy, have also been discussed. One such pathogen is the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus, which is capable of causing widespread economic damage and public concern (as witnessed in the 2001 and 2007 FMD outbreaks in the UK), while having almost no capacity to infect humans.\n\nHistory\n\nBy the time World War I began, attempts to use anthrax were directed at animal populations. This generally proved to be ineffective.", "Shortly after the start of World War I, Germany launched a biological sabotage campaign in the United States, Russia, Romania, and France. At that time, Anton Dilger lived in Germany, but in 1915 he was sent to the United States carrying cultures of glanders, a virulent disease of horses and mules. Dilger set up a laboratory in his home in Chevy Chase, Maryland. He used stevedores working the docks in Baltimore to infect horses with glanders while they were waiting to be shipped to Britain", ". Dilger was under suspicion as being a German agent, but was never arrested. Dilger eventually fled to Madrid, Spain, where he died during the Influenza Pandemic of 1918. In 1916, the Russians arrested a German agent with similar intentions. Germany and its allies infected French cavalry horses and many of Russia's mules and horses on the Eastern Front. These actions hindered artillery and troop movements, as well as supply convoys.", "In 1972, police in Chicago arrested two college students, Allen Schwander and Stephen Pera, who had planned to poison the city's water supply with typhoid and other bacteria. Schwander had founded a terrorist group, \"R.I.S.E.\", while Pera collected and grew cultures from the hospital where he worked. The two men fled to Cuba after being released on bail. Schwander died of natural causes in 1974, while Pera returned to the U.S. in 1975 and was put on probation.", "In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced the eradication of smallpox, a highly contagious and incurable disease. Although the disease has been eliminated in the wild, frozen stocks of smallpox virus are still maintained by the governments of the United States and Russia. Disastrous consequences are feared if rogue politicians or terrorists were to get hold of the smallpox strains", ". Since vaccination programs are now terminated, the world population is more susceptible to smallpox than ever before.", "In Oregon in 1984, followers of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh attempted to control a local election by incapacitating the local population. They infected salad bars in 11 restaurants, produce in grocery stores, doorknobs, and other public domains with Salmonella typhimurium bacteria in the city of The Dalles, Oregon. The attack infected 751 people with severe food poisoning. There were no fatalities. This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century", ". This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century. It was also the single largest bioterrorism attack on U.S. soil.", "In June 1993, the religious group Aum Shinrikyo released anthrax in Tokyo. Eyewitnesses reported a foul odor. The attack was a failure, because it did not infect a single person. The reason for this is due to the fact that the group used the vaccine strain of the bacterium. The spores which were recovered from the site of the attack showed that they were identical to an anthrax vaccine strain that was given to animals at the time", ". These vaccine strains are missing the genes that cause a symptomatic response.", "In September and October 2001, several cases of anthrax broke out in the United States, apparently deliberately caused. Letters laced with infectious anthrax were concurrently delivered to news media offices and the U.S. Congress, alongside an ambiguously related case in Chile. The letters killed five people.", "Scenarios", "There are multiple considerable scenarios, how terrorists might employ biological agents. In 2000, tests conducted by various US agencies showed that indoor attacks in densely populated spaces are much more serious than outdoor attacks. Such enclosed spaces are large buildings, trains, indoor arenas, theaters, malls, tunnels and similar. Contra-measures against such scenarios are building architecture and ventilation systems engineering", ". In 1993, sewage was spilled out into a river, subsequently drawn into the water system and affected 400,000 people in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The disease-causing organism was cryptosporidium parvum. This man-made disaster can be a template for a terrorist scenario. Nevertheless, terrorist scenarios are considered more likely near the points of delivery than at the water sources before the water treatment. Release of biological agents is more likely for a single building or a neighborhood", ". Release of biological agents is more likely for a single building or a neighborhood. Counter-measures against this scenario include the further limitation of access to the water supply systems, tunnels, and infrastructure. Agricultural crop-duster flights might be misused as delivery devices for biological agents as well. Counter-measures against this scenario are background checks of employees of crop-dusting companies and surveillance procedures.", "In the most common hoax scenario, no biological agents are employed. For instance, an envelope with powder in it that says, “You've just been exposed to anthrax.” Such hoaxes have been shown to have a large psychological impact on the population.", "Anti-agriculture attacks are considered to require relatively little expertise and technology. Biological agents that attack livestock, fish, vegetation, and crops are mostly not contagious to humans and are therefore easier for attackers to handle. Even a few cases of infection can disrupt a country's agricultural production and exports for months, as evidenced by FMD outbreaks.\n\nTypes of agents", "Under current United States law, bio-agents which have been declared by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services or the U.S. Department of Agriculture to have the \"potential to pose a severe threat to public health and safety\" are officially defined as \"select agents.\" The CDC categorizes these agents (A, B or C) and administers the Select Agent Program, which regulates the laboratories which may possess, use, or transfer select agents within the United States", ". As with US attempts to categorize harmful recreational drugs, designer viruses are not yet categorized and avian H5N1 has been shown to achieve high mortality and human-communication in a laboratory setting.", "Category A\nThese high-priority agents pose a risk to national security, can be easily transmitted and disseminated, result in high mortality, have potential major public health impact, may cause public panic, or require special action for public health preparedness.", "SARS and COVID-19, though not as lethal as other diseases, was concerning to scientists and policymakers for its social and economic disruption potential. After the global containment of the pandemic, the United States President George W. Bush stated \"...A global influenza pandemic that infects millions and lasts from one to three years could be far worse.\"", "Tularemia or \"rabbit fever\": Tularemia has a very low fatality rate if treated, but can severely incapacitate. The disease is caused by the Francisella tularensis bacterium, and can be contracted through contact with fur, inhalation, ingestion of contaminated water or insect bites. Francisella tularensis is very infectious. A small number of organisms (10–50 or so) can cause disease. If F. tularensis were used as a weapon, the bacteria would likely be made airborne for exposure by inhalation", ". People who inhale an infectious aerosol would generally experience severe respiratory illness, including life-threatening pneumonia and systemic infection, if they are not treated. The bacteria that cause tularemia occur widely in nature and could be isolated and grown in quantity in a laboratory, although manufacturing an effective aerosol weapon would require considerable sophistication.", "Anthrax: Anthrax is a non-contagious disease caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. The ability of Anthrax to produce within small spores, or bacilli bacterium, makes it readily permeable to porous skin and can cause abrupt symptoms within 24 hours of exposure. The dispersal of this pathogen among densely populated areas is said to carry less than one percent mortality rate, for cutaneous exposure, to a ninety percent or higher mortality for untreated inhalational infections", ". An anthrax vaccine does exist but requires many injections for stable use. When discovered early, anthrax can be cured by administering antibiotics (such as ciprofloxacin). Its first modern incidence in biological warfare were when Scandinavian \"freedom fighters\" supplied by the German General Staff used anthrax with unknown results against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland in 1916. In 1993, the Aum Shinrikyo used anthrax in an unsuccessful attempt in Tokyo with zero fatalities", ". In 1993, the Aum Shinrikyo used anthrax in an unsuccessful attempt in Tokyo with zero fatalities. Anthrax was used in a series of attacks by a microbiologist at the US Army Medical Research Institute of Infection Disease on the offices of several United States Senators in late 2001. The anthrax was in a powder form and it was delivered by the mail. This bioterrorist attack inevitably prompted seven cases of cutaneous anthrax and eleven cases of inhalation anthrax, with five leading to deaths", ". Additionally, an estimated 10 to 26 cases had prevented fatality through treatment supplied to over 30,000 individuals. Anthrax is one of the few biological agents that federal employees have been vaccinated for. In the US an anthrax vaccine, Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA) exists and requires five injections for stable use. Other anthrax vaccines also exist. The strain used in the 2001 anthrax attacks was identical to the strain used by the USAMRIID.", "Smallpox: Smallpox is a highly contagious virus. It is transmitted easily through the atmosphere and has a high mortality rate (20–40%). Smallpox was eradicated in the world in the 1970s, thanks to a worldwide vaccination program. However, some virus samples are still available in Russian and American laboratories. Some believe that after the collapse of the Soviet Union, cultures of smallpox have become available in other countries", ". Although people born pre-1970 will have been vaccinated for smallpox under the WHO program, the effectiveness of vaccination is limited since the vaccine provides high level of immunity for only 3 to 5 years. Revaccination's protection lasts longer. As a biological weapon smallpox is dangerous because of the highly contagious nature of both the infected and their pox", ". Also, the infrequency with which vaccines are administered among the general population since the eradication of the disease would leave most people unprotected in the event of an outbreak. Smallpox occurs only in humans, and has no external hosts or vectors.", "Botulinum toxin: The neurotoxin Botulinum is the deadliest toxin known to man, and is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Botulism causes death by respiratory failure and paralysis. Furthermore, the toxin is readily available worldwide due to its cosmetic applications in injections.", "Bubonic plague: Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. Rodents are the normal host of plague, and the disease is transmitted to humans by flea bites and occasionally by aerosol in the form of pneumonic plague. The disease has a history of use in biological warfare dating back many centuries, and is considered a threat due to its ease of culture and ability to remain in circulation among local rodents for a long period of time", ". The weaponized threat comes mainly in the form of pneumonic plague (infection by inhalation) It was the disease that caused the Black Death in Medieval Europe.", "Viral hemorrhagic fevers: This includes hemorrhagic fevers caused by members of the family Filoviridae (Marburg virus and Ebola virus), and by the family Arenaviridae (for example Lassa virus and Machupo virus). Ebola virus disease, in particular, has caused high fatality rates ranging from 25 to 90% with a 50% average. No cure currently exists, although vaccines are in development", ". No cure currently exists, although vaccines are in development. The Soviet Union investigated the use of filoviruses for biological warfare, and the Aum Shinrikyo group unsuccessfully attempted to obtain cultures of Ebola virus. Death from Ebola virus disease is commonly due to multiple organ failure and hypovolemic shock. Marburg virus was first discovered in Marburg, Germany. No treatments currently exist aside from supportive care", ". No treatments currently exist aside from supportive care. The arenaviruses have a somewhat reduced case-fatality rate compared to disease caused by filoviruses, but are more widely distributed, chiefly in central Africa and South America.", "Category B\nCategory B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates.", "Brucellosis (Brucella species)\n Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens\n Food safety threats (for example, Salmonella species, E coli O157:H7, Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus)\n Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)\n Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei)\n Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci)\n Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)\n Ricin toxin from Ricinus communis (castor beans)\n Abrin toxin from Abrus precatorius (Rosary peas)\n Staphylococcal enterotoxin B\n Typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii)", "Staphylococcal enterotoxin B\n Typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii)\n Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses, for example,: Venezuelan equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis)\n Water supply threats (for example, Vibrio cholerae, Cryptosporidium parvum)", "Category C\nCategory C agents are emerging pathogens that might be engineered for mass dissemination because of their availability, ease of production and dissemination, high mortality rate, or ability to cause a major health impact.\n\n Nipah virus\n Hantavirus\n\nPlanning and response", "Nipah virus\n Hantavirus\n\nPlanning and response\n\nPlanning may involve the development of biological identification systems. Until recently in the United States, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some outbreaks, such as food poisoning due to E. coli or Salmonella, could be of either natural or deliberate origin.", "Preparedness", "Export controls on biological agents are not applied uniformly, providing terrorists a route for acquisition. Laboratories are working on advanced detection systems to provide early warning, identify contaminated areas and populations at risk, and to facilitate prompt treatment. Methods for predicting the use of biological agents in urban areas as well as assessing the area for the hazards associated with a biological attack are being established in major cities", ". In addition, forensic technologies are working on identifying biological agents, their geographical origins and/or their initial source. Efforts include decontamination technologies to restore facilities without causing additional environmental concerns.", "Early detection and rapid response to bioterrorism depend on close cooperation between public health authorities and law enforcement; however, such cooperation is lacking. National detection assets and vaccine stockpiles are not useful if local and state officials do not have access to them.", "Aspects of protection against bioterrorism in the United States include:", "Detection and resilience strategies in combating bioterrorism. This occurs primarily through the efforts of the Office of Health Affairs (OHA), a part of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), whose role is to prepare for an emergency situation that impacts the health of the American populace. Detection has two primary technological factors", ". Detection has two primary technological factors. First there is OHA's BioWatch program in which collection devices are disseminated to thirty high risk areas throughout the country to detect the presence of aerosolized biological agents before symptoms present in patients. This is significant primarily because it allows a more proactive response to a disease outbreak rather than the more passive treatment of the past.", "Implementation of the Generation-3 automated detection system. This advancement is significant simply because it enables action to be taken in four to six hours due to its automatic response system, whereas the previous system required aerosol detectors to be manually transported to laboratories. Resilience is a multifaceted issue as well, as addressed by OHA", ". Resilience is a multifaceted issue as well, as addressed by OHA. One way in which this is ensured is through exercises that establish preparedness; programs like the Anthrax Response Exercise Series exist to ensure that, regardless of the incident, all emergency personnel will be aware of the role they must fill. Moreover, by providing information and education to public leaders, emergency medical services and all employees of the DHS, OHS suggests it can significantly decrease the impact of bioterrorism.", "Enhancing the technological capabilities of first responders is accomplished through numerous strategies. The first of these strategies was developed by the Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) of DHS to ensure that the danger of suspicious powders could be effectively assessed, (as many dangerous biological agents such as anthrax exist as a white powder)", ". By testing the accuracy and specificity of commercially available systems used by first responders, the hope is that all biologically harmful powders can be rendered ineffective.", "Enhanced equipment for first responders. One recent advancement is the commercialization of a new form of Tyvex™ armor which protects first responders and patients from chemical and biological contaminants. There has also been a new generation of Self-Contained Breathing Apparatuses (SCBA) which has been recently made more robust against bioterrorism agents. All of these technologies combine to form what seems like a relatively strong deterrent to bioterrorism", ". However, New York City as an entity has numerous organizations and strategies that effectively serve to deter and respond to bioterrorism as it comes. From here the logical progression is into the realm of New York City's specific strategies to prevent bioterrorism.", "Excelsior Challenge. In the second week of September 2016, the state of New York held a large emergency response training exercise called the Excelsior Challenge, with over 100 emergency responders participating. According to WKTV, \"This is the fourth year of the Excelsior Challenge, a training exercise designed for police and first responders to become familiar with techniques and practices should a real incident occur", ".\" The event was held over three days and hosted by the State Preparedness Training Center in Oriskany, New York. Participants included bomb squads, canine handlers, tactical team officers and emergency medical services. In an interview with Homeland Preparedness News, Bob Stallman, assistant director at the New York State Preparedness Training Center, said, \"We're constantly seeing what’s happening around the world and we tailor our training courses and events for those types of real-world events", ".\" For the first time, the 2016 training program implemented New York's new electronic system. The system, called NY Responds, electronically connects every county in New York to aid in disaster response and recovery. As a result, \"counties have access to a new technology known as Mutualink, which improves interoperability by integrating telephone, radio, video, and file-sharing into one application to allow local emergency staff to share real-time information with the state and other counties", ".\" The State Preparedness Training Center in Oriskany was designed by the State Division of Homeland Security, and Emergency Services (DHSES) in 2006. It cost $42 million to construct on over 1100 acres and is available for training 360 days a year. Students from SUNY Albany's College of Emergency Preparedness, Homeland Security and Cybersecurity, were able to participate in this year's exercise and learn how \"DHSES supports law enforcement specialty teams.\"", "Project BioShield. The accrual of vaccines and treatments for potential biological threats, also known as medical countermeasures has been an important aspect in preparing for a potential bioterrorist attack; this took the form of a program beginning in 2004, referred to as Project BioShield. The significance of this program should not be overlooked as “there is currently enough smallpox vaccine to inoculate every United States citizen… and a variety of therapeutic drugs to treat the infected", ".” The Department of Defense also has a variety of laboratories currently working to increase the quantity and efficacy of countermeasures that comprise the national stockpile. Efforts have also been taken to ensure that these medical countermeasures can be disseminated effectively in the event of a bioterrorist attack. The National Association of Chain Drug Stores championed this cause by encouraging the participation of the private sector in improving the distribution of such countermeasures if required.", "On a CNN news broadcast in 2011, the CNN chief medical correspondent, Dr. Sanjay Gupta, weighed in on the American government's recent approach to bioterrorist threats. He explains how, even though the United States would be better fending off bioterrorist attacks now than they would be a decade ago, the amount of money available to fight bioterrorism over the last three years has begun to decrease", ". Looking at a detailed report that examined the funding decrease for bioterrorism in fifty-one American cities, Dr. Gupta stated that the cities \"wouldn’t be able to distribute vaccines as well\" and \"wouldn't be able to track viruses.\" He also said that film portrayals of global pandemics, such as Contagion, were actually quite possible and may occur in the United States under the right conditions.", "A news broadcast by MSNBC in 2010 also stressed the low levels of bioterrorism preparedness in the United States. The broadcast stated that a bipartisan report gave the Obama administration a failing grade for its efforts to respond to a bioterrorist attack. The news broadcast invited the former New York City police commissioner, Howard Safir, to explain how the government would fare in combating such an attack. He said how \"biological and chemical weapons are probable and relatively easy to disperse", ". He said how \"biological and chemical weapons are probable and relatively easy to disperse.\" Furthermore, Safir thought that efficiency in bioterrorism preparedness is not necessarily a question of money, but is instead dependent on putting resources in the right places. The broadcast suggested that the nation was not ready for something more serious.", "In a September 2016 interview conducted by Homeland Preparedness News, Daniel Gerstein, a senior policy researcher for the RAND Corporation, stresses the importance in preparing for potential bioterrorist attacks on the nation. He implored the U.S. government to take the proper and necessary actions to implement a strategic plan of action to save as many lives as possible and to safeguard against potential chaos and confusion", ". He believes that because there have been no significant instances of bioterrorism since the anthrax attacks in 2001, the government has allowed itself to become complacent making the country that much more vulnerable to unsuspecting attacks, thereby further endangering the lives of U.S. citizens.", "Gerstein formerly served in the Science and Technology Directorate of the Department of Homeland Security from 2011 to 2014. He claims there has not been a serious plan of action since 2004 during George W. Bush's presidency, in which he issued a Homeland Security directive delegating responsibilities among various federal agencies. He also stated that the blatant mishandling of the Ebola virus outbreak in 2014 attested to the government's lack of preparation", ". This past May, legislation that would create a national defense strategy was introduced in the Senate, coinciding with the timing of ISIS-affiliated terrorist groups get closer to weaponizing biological agents. In May 2016, Kenyan officials apprehended two members of an Islamic extremist group in motion to set off a biological bomb containing anthrax. Mohammed Abdi Ali, the believed leader of the group, who was a medical intern, was arrested along with his wife, a medical student", ". The two were caught just before carrying out their plan. The Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense, which comprises a group of experts on national security and government officials, in which Gerstein had previously testified to, submitted its National Blueprint for Biodefense to Congress in October 2015 listing their recommendations for devising an effective plan.", "Bill Gates said in a February 18, 2017 Business Insider op-ed (published near the time of his Munich Security Conference speech) that it is possible for an airborne pathogen to kill at least 30 million people over the course of a year", ". In a New York Times report, the Gates Foundation predicted that a modern outbreak similar to the Spanish Influenza pandemic (which killed between 50 million and 100 million people) could end up killing more than 360 million people worldwide, even considering widespread availability of vaccines and other healthcare tools. The report cited increased globalization, rapid international air travel, and urbanization as increased reasons for concern. In a March 9, 2017, interview with CNBC, former U.S", ". In a March 9, 2017, interview with CNBC, former U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman, who was co-chair of the bipartisan Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense, said a worldwide pandemic could end the lives of more people than a nuclear war. Lieberman also expressed worry that a terrorist group like ISIS could develop a synthetic influenza strain and introduce it to the world to kill civilians. In July 2017, Robert C", ". In July 2017, Robert C. Hutchinson, former agent at the Department of Homeland Security, called for a \"whole-of-government\" response to the next global health threat, which he described as including strict security procedures at our borders and proper execution of government preparedness plans.", "Also, novel approaches in biotechnology, such as synthetic biology, could be used in the future to design new types of biological warfare agents. Special attention has to be laid on future experiments (of concern) that:\n Would demonstrate how to render a vaccine ineffective;\n Would confer resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents;\n Would enhance the virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent;\n Would increase transmissibility of a pathogen;", "Would increase transmissibility of a pathogen;\n Would alter the host range of a pathogen;\n Would enable the evasion of diagnostic/detection tools;\n Would enable the weaponization of a biological agent or toxin", "Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology, however, are focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses (e.g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio) in the lab. The CRISPR/Cas system has emerged as a promising technique for gene editing. It was hailed by The Washington Post as \"the most important innovation in the synthetic biology space in nearly 30 years.\" While other methods take months or years to edit gene sequences, CRISPR speeds that time up to weeks", ". However, due to its ease of use and accessibility, it has raised a number of ethical concerns, especially surrounding its use in the biohacking space.", "Biosurveillance", "In 1999, the University of Pittsburgh's Center for Biomedical Informatics deployed the first automated bioterrorism detection system, called RODS (Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance). RODS is designed to collect data from many data sources and use them to perform signal detection, that is, to detect a possible bioterrorism event at the earliest possible moment. RODS, and other systems like it, collect data from sources including clinic data, laboratory data, and data from over-the-counter drug sales", ". In 2000, Michael Wagner, the codirector of the RODS laboratory, and Ron Aryel, a subcontractor, conceived the idea of obtaining live data feeds from \"non-traditional\" (non-health-care) data sources. The RODS laboratory's first efforts eventually led to the establishment of the National Retail Data Monitor, a system which collects data from 20,000 retail locations nationwide.", "On February 5, 2002, George W. Bush visited the RODS laboratory and used it as a model for a $300 million spending proposal to equip all 50 states with biosurveillance systems. In a speech delivered at the nearby Masonic temple, Bush compared the RODS system to a modern \"DEW\" line (referring to the Cold War ballistic missile early warning system).", "The principles and practices of biosurveillance, a new interdisciplinary science, were defined and described in the Handbook of Biosurveillance, edited by Michael Wagner, Andrew Moore and Ron Aryel, and published in 2006. Biosurveillance is the science of real-time disease outbreak detection. Its principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism).", "Data which potentially could assist in early detection of a bioterrorism event include many categories of information", ". Health-related data such as that from hospital computer systems, clinical laboratories, electronic health record systems, medical examiner record-keeping systems, 911 call center computers, and veterinary medical record systems could be of help; researchers are also considering the utility of data generated by ranching and feedlot operations, food processors, drinking water systems, school attendance recording, and physiologic monitors, among others.", "In Europe, disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak.\n\nResearchers have experimented with devices to detect the existence of a threat:", "Researchers have experimented with devices to detect the existence of a threat:\n\n Tiny electronic chips that would contain living nerve cells to warn of the presence of bacterial toxins (identification of broad range toxins)\n Fiber-optic tubes lined with antibodies coupled to light-emitting molecules (identification of specific pathogens, such as anthrax, botulinum, ricin)", "Some research shows that ultraviolet avalanche photodiodes offer the high gain, reliability and robustness needed to detect anthrax and other bioterrorism agents in the air. The fabrication methods and device characteristics were described at the 50th Electronic Materials Conference in Santa Barbara on June 25, 2008. Details of the photodiodes were also published in the February 14, 2008, issue of the journal Electronics Letters and the November 2007 issue of the journal IEEE Photonics Technology Letters.", "The United States Department of Defense conducts global biosurveillance through several programs, including the Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System.", "Another powerful tool developed within New York City for use in countering bioterrorism is the development of the New York City Syndromic Surveillance System. This system is essentially a way of tracking disease progression throughout New York City, and was developed by the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (NYC DOHMH) in the wake of the 9/11 attacks", ". The system works by tracking the symptoms of those taken into the emergency department—based on the location of the hospital to which they are taken and their home address—and assessing any patterns in symptoms. These established trends can then be observed by medical epidemiologists to determine if there are any disease outbreaks in any particular locales; maps of disease prevalence can then be created rather easily", ". This is an obviously beneficial tool in fighting bioterrorism as it provides a means through which such attacks could be discovered in their nascence; assuming bioterrorist attacks result in similar symptoms across the board, this strategy allows New York City to respond immediately to any bioterrorist threats that they may face with some level of alacrity.", "Response to bioterrorism incident or threat\n\nGovernment agencies which would be called on to respond to a bioterrorism incident would include law enforcement, hazardous materials and decontamination units, and emergency medical units, if available.", "The US military has specialized units, which can respond to a bioterrorism event; among them are the United States Marine Corps' Chemical Biological Incident Response Force and the U.S. Army's 20th Support Command (CBRNE), which can detect, identify, and neutralize threats, and decontaminate victims exposed to bioterror agents. US response would include the Centers for Disease Control.", "Historically, governments and authorities have relied on quarantines to protect their populations. International bodies such as the World Health Organization already devote some of their resources to monitoring epidemics and have served clearing-house roles in historical epidemics.", "Media attention toward the seriousness of biological attacks increased in 2013 to 2014. In July 2013, Forbes published an article with the title \"Bioterrorism: A Dirty Little Threat With Huge Potential Consequences.\" In November 2013, Fox News reported on a new strain of botulism, saying that the Centers for Disease and Control lists botulism as one of two agents that have \"the highest risks of mortality and morbidity\", noting that there is no antidote for botulism. USA Today reported that the U.S", ". USA Today reported that the U.S. military in November was trying to develop a vaccine for troops from the bacteria that cause the disease Q fever, an agent the military once used as a biological weapon. In February 2014, the former special assistant and senior director for biodefense policy to President George W. Bush called the bioterrorism risk imminent and uncertain and Congressman Bill Pascrell called for increasing federal measures against bioterrorism as a \"matter of life or death", ".\" The New York Times wrote a story saying the United States would spend $40 million to help certain low and middle-income countries deal with the threats of bioterrorism and infectious diseases.", "Bill Gates has warned that bioterrorism could kill more people than nuclear war.\n\nIn February 2018, a CNN employee discovered on an airplane a \"sensitive, top-secret document in the seatback pouch explaining how the Department of Homeland Security would respond to a bioterrorism attack at the Super Bowl.\"", "2017 U.S. budget proposal affecting bioterrorism programs \nPresident Donald Trump promoted his first budget around keeping America safe. However, one aspect of defense would receive less money: \"protecting the nation from deadly pathogens, man-made or natural,\" according to The New York Times. Agencies tasked with biosecurity get a decrease in funding under the Administration's budget proposal.", "For example:\n The Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response would be cut by $136 million, or 9.7 percent. The office tracks outbreaks of disease.\n The National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases would be cut by $65 million, or 11 percent. The center is a branch of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that fights threats like anthrax and the Ebola virus, and additionally towards research on HIV/AIDS vaccines.", "Within the National Institutes of Health, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) would lose 18 percent of its budget. NIAID oversees responses to Zika, Ebola and HIV/AIDS vaccine research.", "\"The next weapon of mass destruction may not be a bomb,\" Lawrence O. Gostin, the director of the World Health Organization's Collaborating Center on Public Health Law and Human Rights, told The New York Times. \"It may be a tiny pathogen that you can't see, smell or taste, and by the time we discover it, it'll be too late.\"", "Lack of international standards on public health experiments", "Tom Inglesy, the CEO and director of the Center for Health Security at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and an internationally recognized expert on public health preparedness", ", pandemic and emerging infectious disease said in 2017 that the lack of an internationally standardized approval process that could be used to guide countries in conducting public health experiments for resurrecting a disease that has already been eradicated increases the risk that the disease could be used in bioterrorism", ". This was in reference to the lab synthesis of horsepox in 2017 by researchers at the University of Alberta. The researchers recreated horsepox, an extinct cousin of the smallpox virus, in order to research new ways to treat cancer.", "In popular culture\n\nIncidents\n\nSee also\nBiodefence\nBiological Weapons Convention\nBiorisk\nBiosecurity\nProject Bacchus\nSelect agent\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading", "Resolution 1540 \"affirms that the proliferation of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons and their means of delivery constitutes a threat to international peace and security. The resolution obliges States, inter alia, to refrain from supporting by any means non-State actors from developing, acquiring, manufacturing, possessing, transporting, transferring or using nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their means of delivery\".\n NOVA: Bioterror", "NOVA: Bioterror\n Carus, W. Seth Working Paper: Bioterrorism and Biocrimes. The Illicit Use of Biological Agents Since 1900, Feb 2001 revision. (Final published version: )", "United States\n\n Recommended Policy Guidance for Departmental Development of Review Mechanisms for Potential Pandemic Pathogen Care and Oversight (P3CO). Obama Administration. January 9, 2017.\n\n \nTerrorism by method" ]

[ "The National Research and Innovation Agency (, BRIN) is a cabinet-level government agency formed by the Indonesian government in 2019. Originally a new agency attached to the Ministry of Research and Technology, which became the Ministry of Research and Technology/National Research and Innovation Agency, the agency was controversially separated and established as a new non-ministerial government agency directly under the President of Indonesia on 28 April 2021", ". On 24 August 2021, the agency gained cabinet-level status through enactment of Presidential Decree No. 78/2021. Under the new presidential regulation, the agency became the sole national research agency of Indonesia.", "The agency has been characterized as a \"scientific merger company\" for its controversial strategy of subsuming many pre-existing scientific agencies. , an Indonesian scholar and historian, noted that BRIN is a form of \"holding research institution\". BRIN chairman Laksana Tri Handoko claimed that the agencys is a \"Research Mothership\" that houses all the state research activities of Indonesia.\n\nIn September 2021, BRIN became a member of the International Science Council.\n\nHistory", "In September 2021, BRIN became a member of the International Science Council.\n\nHistory\n\nFormation \nOn 17 April 2018, Presidential Decree No. 38/2018 regarding the National Research Main Framework of 2017–2045 was signed by President Joko Widodo. The decree is intended to outline the national research policies and priorities for comprehensive sustainable development.", "Before BRIN existed, government research and development activities were scattered throughout various ministries and government institutes and were mostly pursuing short term outcomes. Not only that, research and development management was considered far from effective. In 2018, the Corruption Eradication Commission reported that, of the national government research funding of around 24.92 trillion rupiahs allocated for research (0.25% of Indonesia Bruto domestic product), only 43", ".92 trillion rupiahs allocated for research (0.25% of Indonesia Bruto domestic product), only 43.74% was spent on Research and Development (RnD) activities, while the rest went for operational costs (30.68%), service costs (13.17%), capital expenditure (6.65%), and education and training (5.77%). Fictitious research, overlapping research, and various misuse and mismanagement of funding was also reported. BRIN was formed with the intent to fix the problems in Indonesia's research ecosystem.", "In January 2019, BRIN's formation was suggested by Megawati Soekarnoputri, the fifth President of Indonesia and leader of Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, in a speech given to mark her party's 46th anniversary. In her speech, she suggested a research and innovation agency to direct and support the national research ecosystem, to promote national self-sufficiency.", "On 13 August 2019, Widodo signed Law No. 11 of 2019 concerning the National System of Sciences and Technology. Article 48 of the law laid the foundation of the future BRIN. After winning the election on 23 October 2019, he signed Presidential Decision No. 113/P/2019 on the formation of his cabinet. According to this, BRIN was to be attached to the Ministry of Research and Technology. On 24 October 2019, BRIN's temporary constituting document, Presidential Decree No. 74/2019, was signed", ". 74/2019, was signed. The constituting document specified that the organization of BRIN must be fixed within three months after the signing of the temporary document.", "Bambang Brodjonegoro, the Minister of Research and Technology, failed to set the structure of BRIN by the deadline; a further temporary extension was issued, to 30 April 2020. This deadline was also missed, creating uncertainty for Indonesian researchers.", "The uncertainty was due to conflicts between three ministries: the Ministry of Research and Technology, the Ministry of Law and Human Rights, and the Ministry of State Apparatus Utilization and Bureaucratic Reform. The People's Representative Council requested Joko Widodo to warn the ministries to work together and consolidate their efforts.", "Following a restructuring of the ministries in April 2021, BRIN was made a new, separate, non-ministerial agency. Laksana Tri Handoko, the former Chief of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, was appointed as the chairman of BRIN.", "Establishment as Indonesia's sole National Research Agency", "On 5 May 2021, Joko Widodo signed Presidential Decree No. 33/2021, effectively establishing BRIN as the sole national research agency and decreeing that all Indonesian national research agencies—such as the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), the (BPPT), the (BATAN), and the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN)—be subsumed into BRIN. As expected, BRIN was no longer positioned as a regulatory body, as any regulatory function remains with the ministry", ". Despite being signed on that day, the decree, which was backdated to 28 April 2021, was not published on government's law official channel, the Documentation Legal Information Network () until 29 May 2021, which made it officially in force, although it had already become known through the media.", "The organizational structure of BRIN was also greatly expanded by this decree. BRIN was now divided into two parts, the steering committee and the executive. The steering committee, whose members are, controversially, ex-officio, the members of the steering committee of the Pancasila Ideology Development Agency (BPIP); and the chairman of the BPIP steering committee is also the chairman of the BRIN steering committee", ". The executive, which oversees research and day-to-day activities, as directed by the steering committee, is headed by the chairman.", "The decree also granted the local government for each province and city the ability to have their own research and development departments become a part of the Regional Research and Innovation Agency () (BRIDA). While BRIDA offices would be responsive to local governments, BRIN would have the power to monitor, control, and evaluate the research in each BRIDA office", ". The decree mandated to every province and regencies and townships government must form their own BRIDA office in 2 years after the decree become effective. With currently there are 34 provinces, 416 regencies, and 98 townships in Indonesia, 548 BRIDA offices are expected to be formed at least until 2023.", "The government allocated Rp 6.6 trillion to fund BRIN for Fiscal Year 2022. The Fiscal Year 2022 funding was increased to Rp 10.51 trillion on 27 September 2021.\n\nOn 20 September 2021, it was revealed that more than 11,000 employees of the former Ministry of Research and Technology, LIPI, BPPT, LAPAN, and BATAN were being moved from their original institutions to BRIN.", "BRIN's research and development consolidation plans", "On 9 June 2021, the chairman of BRIN, Laksana Tri Handoko, announced a plan for BRIN to become expanded and integrated with the ministerial research and development divisions. The plan was not something new, as the issue already existed in 2018, with the Law of National System of Sciences and Technology discussed in the parliament", ". In April 2021, President Widodo intended that in the future, the work of the national research and development activities would be consolidated within BRIN, to preclude overlapping research efforts", ". In announcing this plan, BRIN, together with the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of National Development Planning of Indonesia, prepared 3 options: (1) full integration of those research and development divisions from the respective ministries to BRIN, with each ministry fully relinquishing their research and development responsibilities, with this plan being the most radical, given the required structural changes", ", with this plan being the most radical, given the required structural changes, which would be overseen by Ministry of State Apparatus Utilization and Bureaucratic Reform; (2) program transition, with only some of the funding and execution of ministerial research programs being relinquished to BRIN, or (3) partial transition, by which only part of the research arms within the ministerial research and development divisions would be relinquished to BRIN", ", with the staff retaining their place within their originating ministries", ". The third option was probably offered due to some ministries having their research and development divisions being combined with those concerned with human resources development, such as in the Ministry of Religious Affairs' Research, Development, Education, and Training Agency.", "To strengthen BRIN's ability to coordinate all national research with those at the regional and local levels, on 22 July 2021 the Ministry of State Apparatus Utilization and Bureaucratic Reform issued Circular No. B/295/M.SM.02.03/2021 on the reformation and transformation of research resources", ". B/295/M.SM.02.03/2021 on the reformation and transformation of research resources. The circular was addressed to all state-owned research institutions and regional and local research and development departments, and it mandated that those institutes coordinate their research and development under BRIN, and pushed for the formation of BRIDA offices by no later than 31 December 2022", ". On 12 August 2021, the Ministry of Home Affairs' Research and Development Agency—along with the Ministry of State Apparatus Utilization and Bureaucratic Reform, BRIN, the National Civil Service Agency, and the National Institute of Public Administration—held a symposium on Research Institution Reformation, where issues relating to research coordination under BRIN were discussed", ". The issues were: (1) the transfer of human resource from the institutions that were to be subsumed into BRIN, and (2) the difficulties involved in the formation of BRIDA. On the formation of BRIDA, the Ministry of Home Affairs offered its assistance to the regional and local governments in establishing their BRIDA offices.", "On 28 August 2021, BRIN, announced plans to cut off and dismantle redundant state research institutions and centers of excellence (COEs) in Indonesia to achieve efficiency in funding. BRIN also developed means to prevent the formation of such institutions in the future, to avoid redundant and needlessly costly research efforts.", "On 22 September 2021, the Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, a long-time subordinate agency of the Ministry of Research and Technology, officially become subordinate to BRIN. It was announced that it had become a \"research unit under the BRIN\". The name of the Eijkman Institute was later changed to the Eijkman Molecular Biology Research Center, under the Life Sciences Research Organization of the National Research and Innovation Agency", ". This was the first BRIN organizational capture after the consolidation.", "On 24 January 2022, BRIN announced that eventually 919 state research units from 74 ministries and non-ministerial research arms would be consolidated under the BRIN umbrella. These units would be consolidated to form 104 research centers scattered across 18 research organizations. 12 research organizations would be inaugurated on 1 February 2022 as the first batch of 2022 consolidations.", "Attempt to challenge BRIN status", "Two researchers, Eko Noer Kristianto and Heru Susetyo, submitted a judicial review to the Constitutional Court to challenge the government decision. The researchers claimed that BRIN's existence \"potentially raised uncertainties\" in the Indonesia scientific community and requested clarification on \"integration\" in laws regulating sciences in Indonesia. The case was initially registered as Submission Deed No. 34/PUU/PAN.MK/AP3/08/2021 to the Constitutional Court. The deed was later registered as Case No", ". 34/PUU/PAN.MK/AP3/08/2021 to the Constitutional Court. The deed was later registered as Case No. 46/PUU-XIX/2021 on 7 September 2021. The first review session was held on 21 September 2021. On 15 December 2021, the Constitutional Court decided to dismiss the case.", "Structural revision", "Presidential Decree No. 33/2021 clashed with existing laws, and scientists and lawmakers called for a revision of the constituting document. The biggest issues were clashes between Law No. 10/1997 (Nuclear Power) and Law No. 21/2013 (Law of Space), by which BATAN and LAPAN, respectively, were created, not through Presidential Decrees, such as created LIPI, BPPT, and other agencies. On 7 July 2021, the government announced that the presidential decree No", ". On 7 July 2021, the government announced that the presidential decree No. 33/2021 would be superseded and thus change BRIN's operation and structure. The replacement document was still being drafted at the time of the announcement, which did give a glimpse of the future changes", ". The announcement outlined 5 major points of revision: (1) Changes to the presidential decree's articles that conflicted with preexisting laws; (2) Clarification of the integration mechanisms; (3) Harmonization between BRIN and other scientific and scientific regulatory agencies; (4) Fixing inter-agency coordination issues; (5) Setting up 10 to 11 Technical Implementing Organizations under BRIN", ". What Technical Implementing Organizations would be subordinated under BRIN was unknown at the time, but there would be some demotions of currently preexisting organizations, and some others would be split off from preexisting organizations. The revision also defended BATAN and LAPAN being dismantled, although some parts of those institutions would join BRIN", ". Despite that, the said revision planned to clarify the differences between BRIN and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology in regulating science in Indonesia. The coordination between these two institutions on research matters with the House of Representatives (DPR) are yet to be made clear. As a result, currently consultation on research matters is split between two different commissions of the DPR.", "As part of the bargain made by preexisting agencies with BRIN, agencies subsumed into BRIN would still able to use their old designations when they do business, as the names were used for decades; and some active projects, contracts, and cooperations still retained the old names. For example, LAPAN would become the Aeronautics and Space Research Organization ( (ORPA)). Despite being known as ORPA, it can still use LAPAN on preexisting projects, contracts, and cooperations.", "On 30 July 2021, Joko Widodo issued Presidential Decree No. 62/2021, the permanent constituting document of Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology, to the government's Legal Documentation Information Network", ". The decree further cemented the ministry's regulatory oversight with regard to science, research, and technology through formation of the General Directorate of Higher Education, Research, and Technology, a miniaturized version of the Ministry of Research and Technology within the ministry body, not BRIN", ". While it made clear that BRIN would not have regulatory oversight anymore and vested that function in the ministry, the document still did not yet made clear the coordination between the ministry and BRIN. Nadiem Makarim himself asserted that BRIN is a partner of the ministry in performing research, not subordinate to the ministry.", "On 10 August 2021, as part of leaving the past, and the legacy of the Ristek era, behind, BRIN introduced a new logo. The change of the logo was announced at the same time of 26th National Technology Awakening Day celebration. The logo was drawn by Triawan Munaf [id], former chief of the Creative Economy Agency of Jokowi's previous Working Cabinet. The new logo was a stylized integration of the previous logos of LIPI, BPPT, LAPAN, and BATAN", ". The new logo was a stylized integration of the previous logos of LIPI, BPPT, LAPAN, and BATAN. At the ceremony, Chairman Handoko announced the finalization of the upcoming draft of the BRIN lineup.", "On 24 August 2021, the new BRIN temporary constitutional document, Presidential Decree No. 78/2021, was signed as the replacement to Presidential Decree No. 33/2021; it was published on 1 September 2021. Based on the new decree, the structure of the BRIN steering committee and its staff was overhauled, the Technical Implementing Organizations (now termed simply as Research Organizations) in BRIN were expanded, and the integration mechanism clarified", ". The new decree did not spare BATAN and LAPAN from disbandment, however; BATAN and LAPAN relinquished their power and rights granted by Law No. 10/1997 (Nuclear Power) and Law No. 21/2013 (Law of Space), respectively, to BRIN. The decree also provided mechanisms for local and regional government to form BRIDA offices. In the old constituting document, BRIDA offices were formed solely by their respective local and regional governments", ". In the new constituting document, BRIDA formation is jointly managed by local/regional governments and BRIN, with BRIN providing advice to the local government. The BRIDAs can be attached to the local/regional government research and development department. This new arrangement comparatively lessened the managerial burden on local/regional governments. It also better drew the dividing line between BRIN and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology", ". BRIN inherited much of the former Ministry of Research and Technology, except some responsibilities that had to be left to the new ministry. The decree also reconfigured the office of the Steering Committee, from its membership being drawn solely from BPIP steering committee members to being a mix of people from BPIP, the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of National Development and Planning, as well as academicians and professionals", ". The decree also raised the status of BRIN above that of a mere research and development agency. The decree officially gave BRIN the power and status of a ministerial office, as a cabinet-level agency (termed as ). The decree granted the BRIN Steering Committee increased power over BRIN activities and gave it the right to form Executive Assistance Task Forces to assist BRIN executives under \"special circumstances\"", ". BRIN also required to report its institutional performance biannually to the Steering Committee, and annually reported to the president. On 2 September 2021, acting executive officers of the Research Organizations were inaugurated. With their inauguration, LIPI, BPPT, LAPAN, and BATAN come to the end, but their integration process still continued, with its expected completion pushed back to one year after the enactment of Decree No.78/2021.", "On 3 September 2021, BRIN announced that it would be gradually filling positions, in September 2021, December 2021, and March 2022. The size of BRIN was yet to be disclosed to the public; on 6 September 2021, this was publicly made known.", "On 13 October 2021, after a period of controversy since May 2021, Megawati Soekarnoputri, Sri Mulyani, Suharso Monoarfa, Sudhamek Agung Waspodo Sunyoto, Emil Salim, I Gede Wenten, Bambang Kesowo, Adi Utarini, Marsudi Wahyu Kisworo, and Tri Mumpuni were inaugurated as BRIN Steering Committee members by President Widodo.", "Consolidation of research and development agencies within BRIN", "In an attempt to consolidate state research activities under BRIN, the Indonesian government changed several ministries affected by the reform. Some ministries, which did not want to lose their R&D institutions to BRIN, due to R&D being vital for decision making were made to rescale their R&D operations, while also contributing part of their unit and resources to BRIN. Most ministries would no longer perform large-scale research, except for policy making purposes", ". Most ministries would no longer perform large-scale research, except for policy making purposes. The reform also changed BRIN so that it could perform such large scale research.", "There were some exceptions. For example, the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology's Human Resources Research and Development Agency was allowed to much of its R&D due to the agency's specialized research in communication monitoring and policy making, research that is not innovative. Moreover the agency focuses largely on education and training", ". Moreover the agency focuses largely on education and training. On 24 November 2021, the agency only relinquished 30 researchers, 2 research programs, and their funding to BRIN, to be combinied with preexisting BRIN research agencies.", "BRIN's research scope is not without its limitations. In January 2022, BRIN decided to focus only on civilian research, for flexibility and ease in forming research collaborations. Defense and security research would not be within BRIN's scope due to the critical and secretive nature of such research", ". As a result, only the Defense Research and Development Agency of the Ministry of Defense was left out of the integration of ministerial research and development into BRIN, despite some of the researchers being transferred to BRIN. Also left out the integration were research and development agencies of the Indonesian National Armed Forces", ". This led into various units and researches formerly under LAPAN and BPPT, units that focused in military research and defense and security affairs, being kept out of BRIN and instead put under the Ministry of Defense. There was a plan to form a Defense Acquisition Institute (), a military counterpart of BRIN, which was intended to oversee all military research and development agencies", ". On 2 March 2022, the Ministry of Defense and BRIN signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) for research collaboration to bridge the gap between military and civilian researchers. On 17 June 2022, the Defense Research and Development Agency was replaced by the Agency for Defense Policy and Technology Development.", "The Research and Development Center of the Indonesian National Police would also not be liquidated. On 11 January 2022, the National Police signed a research collaboration MoU with BRIN, as most of its research partnerships had already been liquidated.\n\nPreceding agencies \nThis is a list of BRIN's predecessor agencies.", "Organization", "Presidential Decree No. 78/2021 overhauled and expanded the administrative structure of BRIN. The decree altered the BRIN Steering Committee and increased the Research Organizations of BRIN from the original 4 to 7, but less than the 11 originally planned. The Deputies structures was also altered to not be based on fields of expertise as before. On 6 September 2021, the full structure of BRIN was disclosed, citing Presidential Decree No. 78/2021 and Chairman of BRIN Decree No. 1/2021", ". 78/2021 and Chairman of BRIN Decree No. 1/2021. It was revealed that those 7 Research Organizations were formed from more than a dozen former research organizations. On 24 September 2021, Chairman of BRIN Regulation No. 1/2021 was fully published. The regulation specified BRIN's executive officers and deputies.", "The number of research organizations under BRIN is fluid and seems to always be changing; it was said they would amount to \"dozens\". Chairman of BRIN Regulation No. 4/2021 granted the Office of the Chairman of BRIN the power to form Research Organizations as the chairman deems necessary, with the approval of the Ministry of State Apparatus Utilization and Bureaucratic Reform", ". On 24 January 2022, it was announced that 12 approved research organizations, from a planned 18, would be finalized on 1 February 2022.", "The full structure of BRIN is as follows:", "Office of BRIN Steering Committee\nOffice of Chairman of BRIN Steering Committee (ex-officio office filled with the BPIP Chairman of Steering Committee)\nOffice of Vice Chairmen of BRIN Steering Committee (ex-officio office filled with the Minister of Finance and Ministry of National Development Planning)\nSecretary\nSteering Committees\nExecutive Assistance Task Forces\n Executives\n Office of Chairman of BRIN\n Office of Vice Chairman of BRIN\n Executive Secretariat\nBureau of Planning and Finance", "Office of Vice Chairman of BRIN\n Executive Secretariat\nBureau of Planning and Finance\nBureau of Law Affairs and Cooperation\nBureau of Organization Affairs and Human Resources\nBureau of State Properties Management Affairs and Procurement\nBureau of Public Communication, General Affairs, and Secretariat\n Deputy I (Development Policy)\nOffice of the Deputy I\nDeputy Secretary for Development Policy\nDirectorate of Human Development, Population and Cultural Policy", "Directorate of Human Development, Population and Cultural Policy\nDirectorate of Political, Legal, Defense, and Security Policy \nDirectorate of Economy, Manpower, and Regional Development Policy\nDirectorate of Environment, Maritime, Natural Resource, and Nuclear Power Policy\n Deputy II (Research and Innovation Policy)\nOffice of the Deputy II\nDeputy Secretary for Research and Innovation Policy\nDirectorate of Policy Formulation for Research, Technology, and Innovation", "Directorate of Policy Formulation for Research, Technology, and Innovation\nDirectorate of Measurements and Indicators for Research, Technology, and Innovation \nDirectorate of Policy Evaluation of Research, Technology, and Innovation\n Deputy III (Human Resources of Science and Technology)\nOffice of the Deputy III\nDeputy Secretary for Human Resources of Science and Technology\nDirectorate of Competency Development\nDirectorate of Functional Position Fostering and Professional Development", "Directorate of Functional Position Fostering and Professional Development\nDirectorate of Talent Management\n Deputy IV (Research and Innovation Infrastructure)\nOffice of the Deputy IV\nDeputy Secretary for Research and Innovation Infrastructure\nDirectorate of Scientific Collection Management\nDirectorate of Research Vessels Management\nDirectorate of Laboratory Management, Research Facilities, and Science and Technology Park\nDirectorate of Nuclear Facilities Management", "Directorate of Nuclear Facilities Management\nDirectorate of Strengthening and Partnership of Research and Innovation Infrastructure \n Deputy V (Facilitation of Research and Innovation)\nOffice of the Deputy V\nDeputy Secretary for Facilitation of Research and Innovation\nDirectorate of Management of Research Permit and Innovation, and Scientific Authorities\nDirectorate of Intellectual Property Management\nDirectorate of Repositories, Multimedia and Scientific Publishing", "Directorate of Repositories, Multimedia and Scientific Publishing\nDirectorate of Research and Innovation Funding\n Deputy VI (Utilization of Research and Innovation)\nOffice of the Deputy VI\nDeputy Secretary of Utilization of Research and Innovation\nDirectorate of Technology Transfer and Audit System\nDirectorate of Utilization of Research and Innovation by Industries\nDirectorate of Utilization of Research and Innovation by Government, Society, and Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises", "Directorate of Research and Innovation Partnership\n Deputy VII (Regional Research and Innovation)\nOffice of the Deputy VII\nDeputy Secretary of Regional Research and Innovation\nDirectorate of Regional Research and Innovation Policy\nDirectorate of Facilitation and Monitoring of Regional Research and Innovation \nDirectorate of Dissemination and Utilization of Regional Research and Innovation\nRegional and Local BRIDA offices\n Executive Inspectorate\nOffice of Main Inspectorate", "Regional and Local BRIDA offices\n Executive Inspectorate\nOffice of Main Inspectorate\nDivision of General Affair and Reporting\nInspectorate I (Internal Supervision of Main Secretariat, Research Organizations, and Centers)\nInspectorate II (Internal Supervision of Deputy I, II, III, and VII)\nInspectorate III (Internal Supervision of Deputy IV, V, and VI)\n Research Organizations (as disclosed on 24 January 2022)\nResearch Organization for Earth Sciences and Maritime", "Research Organization for Earth Sciences and Maritime\nResearch Organization for Life Sciences and Environment\nResearch Organization for Agriculture and Food\nResearch Organization for Health\nResearch Organization for Archaeology, Language, and Letters\nResearch Organization for Social Sciences and Humanities\nResearch Organization for Nuclear Energy\nResearch Organization for Governance, Economy, and Public Welfare\nResearch Organization for Energy and Manufacture", "Research Organization for Energy and Manufacture\nResearch Organization for Nanotechnology and Material\nResearch Organization for Electronics and Informatics\nResearch Organization for Aeronautics and Space\n Centers\nCenter of Data and Information (attached to Main Secretariat)\nCenter of Technology Services (attached to Main Secretariat)\nIndonesian Nuclear Technology Polytechnic\n Non-structural organizations (as disclosed 23 May 2022)", "Indonesian Nuclear Technology Polytechnic\n Non-structural organizations (as disclosed 23 May 2022)\nSecretariat of Indonesian IAEA Technical Cooperation National Liaison Officers (TC-NLO)\nIndonesian Space Agency (INASA)\nSecretariat of Biodiversity Scientific Authority\nSecretariat of Indonesian UNESCO Intergovernmental Hydrological Program\nSecretariat of Indonesian UNESCO Management of Social Transformation Project\nSecretariat of Indonesian UNESCO Man and Biosphere Project", "Secretariat of Indonesian UNESCO Man and Biosphere Project \nSecretariat of Indonesian UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission\nBRIN Council of Professors", "Reaction \nBRIN's formation was welcomed by many scientists, and politicians, who praised its being a separate, independent agency that reports directly to the president.", "However, there were fears that BRIN might become a political tool that would create a conflict of interest. BRIN's existence is closely tied to ex-president Megawati, and there was a rumor that Megawati wanted to be placed on BRIN's \"Directorial Committee\". The rumor become reality with the issuance of Presidential Decree No. 33/2021, which established the Steering Committee and making Megawati the ex-officio chairman.", "To prevent BRIN from become a political tool, the Indonesian Young Scientists Academy (Indonesian: (ALMI)) took three stances: (1) the government must base policy and decision making on what's good for science and technology; (2) preventing BRIN, science and technology institute and research centers, and universities from becoming state corporations, ensuring their neutrality and independence from the governing regime's political will and capitalist markets; and (3) ensuring BRIN's clear role as executor", ", not just as regulator, to prevent overlapping roles with ministries, and making clear BRIN's role as either independent agency of its own, or combining the existing government research and development agencies under the BRIN umbrella", ".", "Criticisms", "Potential conflicts of interest", "While it was desired by Indonesia's scientific community, the formation of BRIN was criticized due to its being coordinated with and sharing the same Steering Committee with BPIP. Critics are afraid that in doing so, BRIN becomes politicized and vulnerable to government intervention, which would threaten scientific freedom. This controversy arose largely because Megawati, a member of the BRIN steering committee, is also a political party leader", ". The opposition Prosperous Justice Party also lamented the decision, because the Steering Committee office was not mandated by Bill No. 11/2019 and thus did not have a legal basis. The Steering Committee's only basis was the Bill of Pancasila Ideology Direction, which supposedly became the legal basis for BPIP to grab power and which did not pass", ". The Prosperous Justice Party also criticized the combining of older state scientific institutes—such as LIPI, LAPAN, BPPT, and BATAN—because it not only would erase landmark Indonesia scientific institutions but also would clash with existing laws, primarily Law No. 10/1997 (Nuclear Power) and Law No. 21/2013 (Law of Space)", ". 10/1997 (Nuclear Power) and Law No. 21/2013 (Law of Space). The chairman, Laksana Tri Handoko, however, supported that the \"Steering Committee – Executive\" system, between BPIP and BRIN, is necessary for building \"responsible science-based policy making\" to guide national research programs that follow national interests and protect from irresponsible research that might be in conflict with national ideology and interests", ". The ruling Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle supported the decision, largely due to Megawati's contribution to the Indonesian scientific community, and as the party claimed, one of the people advocating for greater scientific funding for Indonesian research agencies", ". Yanuar Nugroho, political scientist and research advisor of the Centre for Innovation Policy and Governance think-tank based in Jakarta, commented that if the steering committee exists for organizational purposes, it will not be a problem, as their job will be just steering the organization and its policies", ". However, if the steering committee exists to control the direction of the growth and advancement of research, it may become the problem as it will be seen as an attempt of the government, whoever is in power, to monopolize the sciences based on government' point of view. Because Indonesia will nowt have only BRIN, BRIN has to be \"right and righteous\" first before fully operating.", "Liquidation strategy", "The current status of BRIN, and its expansion by \"eating\" older existing research agencies, was also criticized. Azyumardi Azra, an Indonesian Islamic scholar, lamented the agency's merging strategy that was expected to take place over a very short period of time. Such process would be very, and even if it is succeeded, the resulting organization would become so massive. BRIN's merger strategy would undermine the National System of Sciences and Technology outlined by Law No", ". 11/2019, which law mandated the independence of each scientific organization and synergy between the scientific organizations. The fear is that if many scientific organizations are all combined under BRIN, then BRIN would monopolize state-sponsored research. Not only that, with the status of only research and development agency, not a group of ministries as before, the bargaining power of BRIN would be weak", ". These issues were resolved with the issuance of the new temporary BRIN constituting document, Presidential Decree No. 78/2021.", "BRIDA formation \nNot only the formation of BRIN, the formation of BRIDA offices across Indonesia was also difficult, largely because regional and local research and development agencies had been so long neglected, lacking resources, with their researches limited by regional and local policy making and lack of innovation.", "Controversy over the liquidation of Balitbangtan", "During the hearing by Commission IV of the People's Representative Council on 25 August 2021, Syahrul Yasin Limpo, the Minister of Agriculture, expressed his concern about BRIN's plan to subsume the Ministry of Agriculture's Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development ( (Balitbangtan))", ". While its performance is not as well known as that of other research agencies, the Agricultural Research and Development agency is relatively large, with established networks of state agriculture research institutes responsible for research activities on more than 707.4 million hectares of land, and possessing greater manpower than all other Indonesian institutes of science combined. Endang S", ". Endang S. Thohari, former Ministry of Agriculture scientist, and one of the founders of Balitbangtan, who is currently a Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra) politician sitting on Commission IV, also lamented the government's decision to liquidate the agency she founded with Indonesian agricultural scientists", ". In the hearing, Limpo asked for the support of Commission IV to spare Balitbangtan from liquidation, or, if liquidated, that only basic research divisions be relinquished to BRIN, while specialized agricultural researches would still be done by Balitbangtan.", "Earlier, on 20 August 2021, the Research Professor Communication Forum of Balitbangtan also voiced the same concern. Tahlim Sudaryanto, agriculture professor and the head of the Research Professor Communication Forum submitted a forum report to the Ministry of State Apparatus Utilization and Bureaucratic Reform and the Ministry of State Secretariat. The forum report concluded that it is very hard to combine an agency as large as Balitbangtan with BRIN without disruption", ". The forum report offered two options: (1) soft integration, and (2) partial integration. If soft integration were chosen, BRIN would lack the power to control Balitbangtan, which would still be attached to the Ministry of Agriculture, although Balitbangtan programs and funding would be supervised by BRIN. While the option would not be as advantageous to BRIN, the option does strengthen BRIN and Balitbangtan in collaboration in the National Plan of National Research Priorities of 2020 – 2024 period", ". If partial integration were chosen, part of Balitbangtan would be relinquished to BRIN, and what remained with Balitbangtan would become a non-research institution under the Ministry of Agriculture with tasks assigned in the future. While this option is more advantageous for BRIN, the execution of the option must be not be rushed before the 31 December 2022 deadline, as mandated by Circular No. B/295/M.SM.02.03/2021. The report urged the government to change their deadline if the second option is chosen.", "On 21 September 2021, the Ministry of Agriculture made plans to disband Balitbangtan, despite previous ministry reluctance to do so, and relinquish all of it units to BRIN. As a replacement for Balitbangtan, the ministry set up an agency tentatively called the \"Agricultural Standardization and System Agency\" (Indonesian: (BSSP)), a regulatory and standardization agency", ". Along with the disbandment of Balitbangtan, part of the ministry's Food Security Agency was also relinquished to BRIN, while another part was expected to become an embryonic agency, the National Food Agency. On 21 September 2022, Balitbangtan was formally dissolved.", "Attacks from the Prosperous Justice Party", "BRIN's existence was not welcomed by Indonesian Islamist groups. The Islamist groups, led by the current Islamist parliamentary opposition party, Prosperous Justice Party (PKS), continuously attacked BRIN's existence, largely because of their dislike of Megawati and the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P). The PKS had made numerous attacks, called \"criticisms\", against the new institution since the beginning of the separation of BRIN from the Ministry of Research and technology", ". The Islamist party also used an Islamic-themed populist narrative in an attempt to delegitimize BRIN's existence and claimed that that BRIN's existence was part of a \"de-Habibie-nization project\", accusing the Widodo administration of attempts to \"remove landmarks left by Habibie and other Islamic scholars and scientists in building Indonesia research ecosystem\" and favoring a \"secular model of scientific development\" rather than a religious one", ". In Indonesian political history, Habibie was an Islamic scholar and the first president during the era. During his era Islamic puritanism and Islamic conservatism was given the \"living breath\" and opportunities, and Habibie had a good relationship with Indonesian Islamists and right-wing activists. For his role, Habibie was made the PKS party's patron in 2016; for the PKS Habibie is a \"scholar and democrat\".", "Friction with Commission VII DPR", "BRIN has been criticized for apparent inefficiency. Laksana Tri Handoko was involved in controversy with Commission VII DPR, which resulted in the Commission recommending his expulsion from BRIN, to be replaced by a more competent person and that BRIN be audited by the Audit Board of Indonesia (BPK)", ". One Commission VII DPR member, Syaikhul Islam Ali from the National Awakening Party, even asked that Laksana replacement not necessarily be a researcher, but a manager with the capability to be a chairman of BRIN. However, the DPR itself did not have power to do this. Despite that, Megawati ordered Handoko to remain and supported his leadership. The BPK finished their audit on 31 January 2023, but the BPK report is yet to be published.", "List of BRIN core leadership\n\nList of Steering Committee Members\n\nList of Chairmen\n\nList of Deputy Chairmen\n\nReferences\n\nScience and technology in Indonesia\n2019 establishments in Indonesia\n2021 establishments in Indonesia\nGovernment agencies of Indonesia\nGovernment agencies established in 2019\nGovernment agencies established in 2021\nMembers of the International Council for Science\nNational Research and Innovation Agency" ]

[ "(translated into English as Ultra Star God Gransazer or Super Star God Gransazer, also known as only Gransazer) is a tokusatsu superhero TV series produced by Toho Company Ltd. and Konami. The series aired on TV Tokyo from October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004, with a total of 51 half-hour episodes. This series is the first of Toho's \"Seishin (Star God)\" series.", "The premise of this series is similar to both the Super Sentai series and the manga/anime series Saint Seiya: there are 12 heroes, divided into four tribes, and each tribe has a giant transforming robot.\nThe events and characters are described below, using in-universe tone.\n\nPlot", "Some 400,000,000 years after an advanced human civilization was destroyed by aliens, 12 direct descendants of the civilization's warriors (called \"Sazers\") have their powers awakened and form four tribes: Flame, Wind, Earth and Water. Each Sazer is based on a Zodiac sign represented in an animal totem or spirit representation", ". Each Sazer is based on a Zodiac sign represented in an animal totem or spirit representation. At first, they wage war on each other, but after learning the truth of their ancestry and their reason for awakening, the Gransazer tribes unite to protect Earth from the Warp Monarch, an alliance of various alien species, from once again extinguishing all life on the planet.", "1st Arc: Karin Saeki and the 4 tribes (1–24)", "The archaeologist Ichiro Horiguchi has indeed discovered a crystal tablet that revealed the existence of this ancient civilization and Gransazers. As luck would have it, his assistant Mika (Mithras) happened to be a Gransazer belonging to the Flames Tribe, and they soon met the second member of this Tribe, the impetuous Tenma (Tarious) and also the third one Ken (Lion), who was also Mika's younger brother. Together, they go in search of the other three Tribes and the corresponding Chouseishins.", "Unfortunately for them, a scientist named Karin Saeki has meanwhile gathered the members of the Wind Tribe and convinced them that the Flames represents a threat to the Earth. Then start a race against the clock between the two camps to gather the members of the Tribe of the Earth and locate the Chouseishins, even destroying them to prevent the other camp from seizing them.", "The Earth Tribe quickly ranks side by side with the Flames, while Wind's members begin to have doubts about Karin's sincerity except for their leader, Remls, who is in love with her. And the result prove them right: Karin is actually an extraterrestrial planet Akelon sent to Earth by a mysterious sponsor to destroy the Gransazers. Her true nature revealed, Karin is transformed into a giant monster that is destroyed by Chouseishins three tribes finally reconciled.", "After Karin's defeat, the Impacters, a trio of extraterrestrial fighters uniting Logia, Lucia and Radia, are sent to Earth to destroy Leviathan, the Chouseishin of the Water Tribe, before the Gransazers find him. Unfortunately, all their attempts are turned against them. They first send an asteroid crashing on the island where it is hidden but Cloud Dragon (the ship carrying Chouseishins) destroys it and the debris free Leviathan from his hiding place", ". Radia then turns into a giant to destroy him but he is killed after the Water Tribe has appeared and taken control of Leviathan.", "For his part, Horiguchi discovered the existence of a fifth Chouseishin, Guntras, and tried to repair the apparatus to control it with the help of Professor Masaki Wakui and his assistant Shûichi Hoshiyama. Unfortunately, once the device is repaired, it is stolen by Shuichi who was in fact Logia disguised, who uses it to take control of Guntras he intends to explode inside the sun to destroy our solar system", ". The Gransazers happily fail his project and the control system is destroyed, making Guntras autonomous.", "Subsequently, the Gransazers discover that the other Chouseishins can combine with Guntras to form a giant dragon named Daisazer. Thanks to him, they manage to triumph over Lucia turned into an uncontrollable giant, then Dailogian, a giant robot driven by Logia. Vanquished, the latter commits suicide (apparently) using a device of self-destruction.\n\n2nd Arc: Various aliens (25–41)", "2nd Arc: Various aliens (25–41)\n\nUnlike the other parts which are characterized by a main plot spanning several episodes and by one or more main opponents, the third prefers to focus on independent stories in one or two episodes using the classic formula of \"one episode = an opponent\", with the exception of episodes 33, 34, 40 and 41, in which the Gransazers are once again confronted with a living Logia and drunk with revenge.", "The different episodes, however, have good suspense and carefully avoid the trap of repetitiveness. In addition, the fact that most of the episodes of this third part give the spotlight to only one Gransazer at a time makes it possible to flesh out characters that the series had difficulty to develop in the other episodes which privileged the team with the detriment of his members.", "This third part also introduces a last giant robot designed by the JSDF, Yuhi, and the Gran Vehicles, individual vessels that the Gransazers fly when they do not command their Chouseishins. Unfortunately, after the rise that marked the second part, it all seems a little light.\n\nFinal Arc: Bosquito and Wolf Manafu (42–51)", "The third and final part begins when an alien named Luka frees Bosquito, a particularly powerful and dangerous creature with the same powers as the Gransazers", ". Bosquito is finally defeated after four episodes, many civilian casualties and the sacrifice of Luka, while one of the Gransazers, Ran (Visuel), discovers a great affinity with the crystal tablet that reveals to her that the first Gransazers had been created to fight the Bosquitos who are the real ones responsible for the destruction of the ancient earth civilization", ", while the famous extraterrestrial fleet had actually intervened at the request of the space union Wolf Manafu to help Earth fight them after they took control of Chouseishins", ".", "Unfortunately, convinced that the current earthlings are descendants of Bosquitos, Wolf Manafu decides to launch a new attack on our planet, which is an opportunity to discover that their ships have hardly changed in 400 million years. As the fleet gets closer, the Japanese army and the Gransazers are contacted by Brighton, a \"peaceful\" envoy of Wolf Manafu, who tells them that Ran is actually a Bosquito", ". Horrified, she is ready to let Wolf Manafu execute her, unaware that it is a trick to eliminate her because she is the only one able to use the crystal tablet to communicate with the leader of Wolf Manafu.", "For the home run, writers set the bar in terms of threats, starting with Bosquito, a formidable predator whose new abilities are constantly being discovered and which will cause the death of many civilians (whereas in previous episodes the collateral victims of the battles of our heroes were generally ignored), before continuing with the threat of a fleet ready to exterminate the human race", ". It is also in this last part that the writers finally solve the questions asked at the beginning of the series by revealing the reasons for the battle that had opposed the Earth to Wolf Manafu while going against the expectations of the viewer, since unlike To the appearance, the squadron of Wolf Manafu did not fight Earthlings but Bosquitos.", "The GranSazers\nDescendants of the warriors from the ancient human civilization, they later learn that the GranSazers were created to protect Earth from the Bosquito. Each GranSazer is marked by a glowing symbol, corresponding to their astrological sign, on the back of their left hand. This symbol can turn into a Knuckle-Riser. By setting the Knuckle-Riser to \"Transformation Mode\", they can equip high-powered suits that transform them into GranSazers. Their transformation call is", "GranSazer is composed by 12 members split amongst four elements. When three members of the same element have been awakened and gathered, a Tribe is formed. When three members gather and set their Knuckle-Risers to ChouSeiShin Mode, they can summon a machine of incredible power called an . Once a Tribe's respective ChouSeiShin has been summoned, one member can set their Knuckle-Riser to \"Boarding Mode\" to \"Dive-In\" and board their ChouSeiShin", ". The one who is on their ChouSeiShin can change into a giant folding robot. The other two GranSazers would later pilot jetfighters called Gran Vehicles.", "Each GranSazer also has their own unique weapon, which can be summoned by setting their Knuckle-Riser to \"Arms Mode\". When piloting their respective ChouSeiShin, they can equip the ChouSeiShin with a large version of their personal weapon by setting their Knuckle-Riser to \"Sazer-Gear Mode\". They can also communicate with other Sazers by setting the Knuckle-Riser to \"Communication Mode\".", "The GranSazers can also perform a combination attack called \"Formation Zero\". The attack involves Sazer-Tarious, Sazer-Mithras, Sazer-Lion, Sazer-Dail, Sazer-Tragos and Sazer-Pisces all performing a sandwich jump kick on the enemy.", "Flame Tribe", "The are the first tribe to recognize the alien threat and the second to be fully assembled. From the very beginning, they were assisted by Professor Horiguchi, who helped them realize their duty as Gransazers. The Flame Tribe armoured suits are all bird-shaped with red-based colour and they pilot the Flame-Driver Grand Vehicles", ". This tribe is also the one and only tribe which two of their members (Tarious and Lion) can equip Garuda with a large version of their personal weapon by setting their Knuckle-Riser to \"Sazer Gear Mode\" rather than other tribes which only their leader (Remls, Tawlon and Gorbion) can use this mode on their ChouSeiShin.", "Sazer Tarious", ", born on December 14, 1983, is a rash postman, usually going in head first. He stumbled into being a Sazer after he was harassed by Sazer-Velsou; his temper and the powers within him made him transform. Immediately afterwards, he defeated Velsou. Often locking horns with Mika and the others, he doesn't quite like being made the leader, but he accepts the role. Tenma cares a lot about his comrades as well as about the world he lives", ". Tenma cares a lot about his comrades as well as about the world he lives. Despite frequently bickering with Mika, Tenma developed a serious crush on her as the show progresses.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Tenma transforms into , the Flame warrior under the sign of Sagittarius, his armour is shaped after a falcon in red colour. Sazer Tarious is the leader of Flame Tribe and also the leader of all 12 Gransazers.", "Sazer-Tarious' main weapon is the Falcon Bow, a bow and arrow set situated on the left wrist (in place of the Knuckle Riser). It can fire Flame-powered shots and even a continuous stream of fiery arrows. Its finishing attack called \"Burning Falcon\", which involves the shooting of a giant fiery arrow from the Falcon Bow. His second attack is the \"Cosmo Punch\", in which Sazer-Tarious jumps up, then spins towards his adversary before striking with a flaming outstretched fist.", "Sazer Mithras\n, born April 6, 1983, is the tomboyish elder sister of Ken and the wise member of the Flame Tribe. Having helped Professor Horiguchi with his research, she was the first Sazer to be awakened. Her cool and reserved attitude often clashes with the bright personality of Tenma, but when push comes to shove she proves to be a true friend and is fond of him as well.", "With her Knuckle Riser, Mika transforms into , the flame warrior under the sign of Aries, with a white and red armour shaped after a swan. Her main weapons are the \nSwan Sector, a pair of fans. Its finishing attack, known as the \"Brand Tornado\", resembles a blast from a flamethrower tornado.", "Mika later makes a cameo appearance in Justirisers Episode 35, when she injured Shouta because she thought that he was a stalker. When asked by Yuka, she said that she had such skills because she used them in what she used to do, being a 'friend of justice'.", "Sazer Lion\n, born August 3, 1986, is the younger brother of Mika by three years and last member of the Flame Tribe to be awakened; this happened when the Wind Tribe attacked the activated Garuda with Dolcross. He is the calm-and-collected pole of the tribe, a shy but caring and compassionate person who deeply loves his sister. After meeting Ran, he developed a crush on her, but he would never admit it.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Ken transforms into , the flame warrior under the sign of Leo, his dark red armour is shaped after a swallow with black colour on his arms. His main weapons are the Double Crescent, a pair of swords. Its finishing attack, called \"Hien Zan\" (Flying Swallow Slash), resembles a large wave of fire.", "Wind Tribe\nThe are the first tribe that is fully assembled, deceived by Akelon who disguised as Saeki Karin to attack the other GranSazers, especially Flame Tribe. After they realized they were being deceived, they turned against Karin and allied with the other GranSazers to defeat her. The Wind Tribe armoured suits are all insect-shaped with purple-based colours and pilot the Wind-Driver Grand Vehicles.", "Sazer Remls\nBack when he first met Karin, , born May 24, 1975, was awakened as Sazer Remls, tricked by the Akelon into fighting the Flame Tribe. Akira was the one who stood by Karin's side the longest, attacking his friends while still believing in and feeling for her. He may seem distant and cold but he is actually loyal and compassionate and if required, he can be a fierce fighter. He is the oldest GranSazer. He is also a doctor.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Akira transforms into , the wind warrior under the sign of Gemini, with armour shaped after a Japanese rhinoceros beetle in the colour of indigo (bluish purple). Sazer-Remls is also the leader of the Wind Tribe. Sazer-Remls' main weapon is the Iron Gale, a rifle cannon. Its finishing attack is called \"Final Judgement\", which is a concentrated ball of air. His second attack is the \"Remls Tornado\", a strong tornado blast from Remls' palm.", "Dentsuin later makes a cameo appearance in Justirisers Episode 30, as the doctor who assessed Mio's condition.", "Sazer Velsou", "Recruited and recited by Karin as well, , born January 23, 1979, is the ambitious sports instructor of the Wind Tribe, aware of her unknown skills and with a dislike towards weaklings. Along with that, she is also rather calculating and intelligent. It was she who first doubted the motivations of Karin and became the first to leave the evil scientist, to be joined by Jin soon after. Under her personal training, Tappei has now become a freedom fighter. She fell in love with Naoto (Sazer-Tawlon)", ". She fell in love with Naoto (Sazer-Tawlon). In the end of series, her marriage is shown with him.", "With her Knuckle Riser, Ryouko transforms into , the wind warrior under the sign of Aquarius; her magenta-coloured armour is shaped after a butterfly. Sazer-Velsou's main weapons are the Sel Cross, a pair of bucklers. Its finishing attack is called \"Full Moon Slash\", which is a vertical slash of magenta-tinted air that charges to the target. Sazer-Velsou's second attack is the \"Velsou Illusion\", a psychokinetic attack that disables her enemies.", "Sazer Dail\nThe final member of the Wind Tribe, , born September 25, 1978, was bad books by Karin and joined them looking for fun rather than being devoted to his mission. He enjoys having his powers and playing around with them, always up for a challenge. Despite that, he enjoys teamwork and thus was soon convinced by Ryoko that the Sazers have to work as one big team. He often shows up just in time to level the odds.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Jin transforms into , the wind warrior under the sign of Libra; his purple armour is shaped after a stag beetle. Sazer-Dail's main weapons are the Axe Tagger, axe-like tonfas. Its finishing attack is called \"Dai Senpuu Haa\" (Great Whirlwind Slash), which is a horizontal tornado blast.", "Earth Tribe", "The are the third tribe to fully awaken. This tribe is the most divided one because each of the three members has a personality that conflicts with the others sometimes. This tribe is also a different one which the last member to be awakened is a woman, instead of man in other tribes. Karin tried to enlist the Earth Tribe into her group, but failed, causing the Earth Tribe to fight together with the Flame Tribe", ". Their armoured suits are shaped after four-legged mammals with yellow and orange-based colours, piloting the Earth-Driver Grand Vehicles.", "Sazer Tawlon", ", born May 5, 1977, was once a famous and highly prized fighter who is now mostly retired from the spotlight, going back to teaching young talents the ways of self-defense. Often he is not to be found, for Naoto constantly seeks to become stronger and better, not just independently but in total isolation, despite the fact that he already is a powerhouse. He is also dedicated and tough. He would never give up, no matter how bad the odds are for him", ". He is also dedicated and tough. He would never give up, no matter how bad the odds are for him. In Justiriser episode 43, Naoto founded a gym where he meets Shouta, who reminds him of Tenma (Sazer-Tarious). When Shouta loses his Justi Powers, Naoto helps him regain his composure. He later sees Shouta become Riser Glen as he joins the other Justirisers and Demon Knight fighting their enemies, personally holding the Zokoals off before taking his leave", ". He fell in love with Ryoko (Sazer-Velsou) and they finally married on the last episode.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Naoto transforms into , the ground warrior under the sign of Taurus, whose armour is shaped after a bull in yellow colour. Sazer-Tawlon is the leader of the Earth Tribe. Sazer-Tawlon's main weapon is the Bull Cannon, a pair of shoulder cannons. Its finishing attack is called \"Matador Burst\", which is a charged shot.", "Sazer Tragos", "The second and most reliable member of Earth Tribe, , born January 3, 1978, is a serious, dedicated and faithful policeman with a strong sense of justice. Without his control, Gou transformed for the first time when he was attacked by Akaki Junya, a guy that believed to be most wanted suspect in a robbery case, who was also Ran's childhood friend. After Gou realized that he is awakened as an Earth warrior, he immediately aligned with the Flame Tribe and fought some duels with Jin (Sazer-Dail)", ". Within him, there is also a kind and honest side which came out when he was debating with Naoto on duty and priorities. He fell in love with the genius 18-year-old scientist, Professor Aya Stacy.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Gou transforms into , the ground warrior under the sign of Capricorn where his armour is shaped after a goat with colour of light orange. Sazer Tragos' main weapon is the Spiral Horn (derived from the shape of goat's horn), a drill arm. Its finishing attack is called \"Penetrate Thunder\", which is a thunder-like drill attack that requires him to jump at a height and dive immediately to attack the enemy.", "Sazer Visuel", "The last member of Earth Tribe to be awakened, , born September 22, 1983, is a quirky and college-going young woman who met the Sazers when her childhood friend was accused of a crime which Gou and his policeman partner, Nanami were investigating. At first, she was abducted by Karin and the Wind Tribe to be their ally, but she eventually fled. To protect Gou (Sazer-Tragos) from a trigger-happy criminal named Ryuji Naito, she transformed into Sazer-Visuel for the first time", ". Despite her seemingly carefree nature, she can be very serious and devoted and can tap into the Crystal Slab, eventually revealing the full story behind the Ancient War. When Warp Monarch begins its final assault, Ran originally fell for the deception that she was a descendant of the Bosquito, but it was later found out that she is the Communicator and thus can communicate Warp Monarch itself for Earth's sake.", "With her Knuckle Riser, Ran transforms into , the ground warrior under the sign of Virgo; her armour is shaped after a female leopard in orange colour. Sazer Visuel's main weapons are the Lady Claw, a pair of long and sharp claws. Its finishing attack is called \"Night Scratch\", which is a powerful claw slash.", "Water Tribe\nThe appeared after the Akelon incident and was the last tribe to be fully assembled. Led by the strict and mistrusting war photographer Makoto, this tribe fought a while on their own. After they being fully assembled and awakened their ChouSeiShin, Leviathan, they joined the other Sazers. The armoured suits of Water Tribe are all shaped with sea animals with blue-based colours, piloting the Aqua-Driver Grand Vehicles.", "Sazer Gorbion", ", born November 3, 1979, is Sazer-Gorbion the leader of the Water Tribe. His past as a war photographer made him grow cautious and mistrusting, and initially he only trust his tribe members and not other tribes. He makes his debut as a Sazer when Leviathan becomes endangered due to Radia's presence and motives and promptly saves Tarious from impending death", ". He refused to work in the big team for a while longer, and his generally high dedication to what he thinks is right is often, but not always, a blessing to the other Sazers.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Makoto transforms into , the water warrior under the sign of Scorpio; his armour is shaped after a shark in royal blue colour. Sazer-Gorbion's main weapon is the Blast Saw, a serrated broadsword. Its finishing attack is called \"Death Storm\", which calls forth a small tsunami. Sazer-Gorbion's second attack is known as \"Aqua Slasher\".", "Sazer Pisces", ", born February 26, 1986, is a caring and friendly nurse working at the same hospital as Akira. Right after their first encounter, Ai fell in love with him. Later that day, she and her long-time friend Tappei were attacked by Lucia, and Ai had to transform to protect herself. Just in time, she was saved by Akira (Sazer-Remls). Eventually she found out that Professor Wakui, a man she had known for years was her biological father, and this man was kidnapped by Logia. She followed them and freed him in time", ". She followed them and freed him in time. Ai has a more than kind nature, even feeling mercy for those who tried to kidnap and kill her; but she is also serious and devoted to her mission. She is the youngest GranSazer.", "With her Knuckle Riser, Ai transforms into , the water warrior under the sign of Pisces, whose armour is shaped after a whale in cyan colour. Sazer-Pisces' main weapon is the Aqua Blitz, a small gun. Its finishing attack is called \"Blink Shot\", which is a strong blast.", "Sazer Gans\nThe last Sazer to be awakened, , born June 30, 1983, is a kind guy who studies and takes care of some dolphins at an ocean theme park. He likes dolphins a lot. He likes to go surfing. His failure in transforming himself as a Sazer causing him to undergo training with Ryoko (Sazer-Velsou). The opportunity finally came, he managed to transform himself and join his tribe members, making the Water Tribe fully assembled. Tappei is gentle and open-minded, ready when he is needed.", "With his Knuckle Riser, Tappei transforms into , the water warrior under the sign of Cancer, his armour is shaped after a manta ray in sky blue. Sazer-Gans' main weapon is the Karnikos (Greek; Great Victor), a double blade halberd. Its finishing attack is called \"Taikai Shousetsudan (Ocean Roar Cut)\", which shoots a stream of water.\n\nAllies", "Allies\n\nProfessor Ichiro Horiguchi\n is a space archaeologist who has become famous for his scientific studies. His analysis of some ancient crystals lead him to discovering the secret of the Gransazers, the Chou Seishin, and the Gransazer War. Many have sought this knowledge. His assistant, Mika, was awakened as Sazer Mithras. Her new partners, Ken and Tenma, were awakened as Gransazers later. He guides the Sazers by giving them information and leads.", "Atsushi Misonogi\nAlthough is a bureaucrat, he is also very mysterious benefactor to Dr. Horiguchi's Gransazer research. Eventually, Misonogi reveals himself to be head of the Department of National Defense, using Horiguchi to track down the Gransazers for his country's gain. But after seeing the severity of the alien threat, Misonogi decides to support the Gransazers in any way he can.", "Masaki Wakui\n is Ai Uozumi's long lost father, who throughout Ai's childhood, he's only known by the name . He led the team which repaired the Guntroller.\n\nSouichiro Okita\n leads the strike team which assists the Sazers during battle. He also commands the robot Yuuhi using a special head piece.", "Jado", "belongs to the Stonian race of Planet , who were chosen by Warp Monarch to attack Earth using the Mad Stone, a bomb-like rock of plutonium that the Stonians left on Earth ages ago. Refusing to let Earth be destroyed, Jado went to Earth to obtain the Mad Stone, taking over the body of , an old friend of Ryouko from her college who died on his way to Tokyo after returning from Africa. But as a result of being forced to keep his host alive, Jado is weakening to the point that he would eventually die", ". Once Ryouko gives him the Mad Stone, the Stonian assigned to destroy Earth attacked him to regain the Mad Stone. Soon after, Takumi regained control over his body long enough before he and Jado leave Earth with the Mad Stone, detonating it in deep space and instantly vaporized.", "Freedo\n is an Intergalactic cop from Planet sent to kill Kriminal for his partner's sake. Fatally wounded, Freedo entered the body of Jin's friend to continue pursuit with Jin forced to partner with the alien to ensure Shinji's safety and help. Once Kriminal is dead, Freedo leaves Shinji's body and departs into the afterlife.", "Luka\nBeing of Planet , with the power to give her lifeforce to others, was sent to Earth by Belzeus to unknowingly unseal the Bosquito, summoning Gig Fighters to hold the monster off until Tarius arrives. After seeing that the Gransazers were nothing like the Bosquito and Tarious' resolve to protect the Earth, Luka questions her actions, and Tenma convinces her to leave Warp Monarch. However, in the end, Luka sacrifices herself to save Tenma's life.\n\nWarp Monarch", "Warp Monarch\n\nThe are an interstellar monarchy with various planets under them. The reason for Warp Monarch destroying the Earth's ancient civilization some 400 million ago was because of Bosquito running rampant on it. However, Belzeus, claiming that the humans are descended from the Bosquito, uses the Gransazers to encourage the Warp Monarch to finish the global genocide they started long ago.", "Akelon\nThe race were the first alien menace to battle the Gransazers, their abilities include stretching arms, super speed, and shooting blasts of lightning. But their greatest strength is the Crystal Lens, a technology that can either heal/revive an Akelon or turn it into a .", "Karin Saeki", "An Akelon who impersonated the deceased physicist (1-12, 46) upon her arrival on Earth, two decades ago, to survive within Earth's atmosphere. Acting as a guide to the Wind Tribe, she convinced them that the other Sazers were a threat to the planet and must be destroyed. Subtly, she built a relationship with Akira that ensured his loyalty to even further tie him to her", ". Once Ryouko and Jin leave her, Karin reveals her true Akelon identity to kill them until Tenma, Mika, and Gou arrives in time to fight her off. While overseeing Remls attacking his teammates, Karin fights Tarius until the Wind Tribe notice the explosion of their fight, with Akira seeing Karin for as she really is, revealing she fell in love with the human and offered to spare his life", ". But in spite of his own love for her, Remls is forced to kill her to save Tarious, knocking her off the building to her death.", "However, she came to life before her body could be autopsied by the national defense group. Making her way to Ryujin Mountain, Karin summoned her UFO to heal her injuries before going after Sazer Tawlon and severely wounding him to call out the Gransazers. After being manhandled by the Fire Tribe, Karin assumes her Nova-Beast form and destroys the city, as Garuda and Dolcruz are summoned to fight her", ". Though she had the upper hand against the two Chouseishin, Karin retreats to the valley hill to heal her burn injuries by Garuda, taking Akira into the beast for one last chance to join her before she resumes her attack. After Remls breaks free from her body, the assembled Gransazers managed to destroy Karin's UFO before she herself is destroyed by the three Chouseishin.", "Clo-Akelon", "From the remains of Karin, Tsubaki of the JSDF science division begins to secretly mass-produce stronger (28-29) that would serve as bio-weapons to ensure Japan would be a greater world power. Test Subject One was sent after Shiroi Kuga to reclaim the Crystal Lens when confronted by Tarius and was later destroyed. But once the Crystal Lens is back in Tsubaki's grasp, Test Subject Two turns on his creators upon being exposed to the Crystal Lens, stealing it while killing any soldier in his way of escape", ". But once losing the Crystal Lens, the Fire Tribe Gransazers arrive in time to drive the clone off with Tsubaki's platoon in pursuit. However, the Akelon Clone manages to reclaim the Crystal Lens and transforms into form. The monster was slowed down by Youhei, as it destroys the monster's crystal lens. The Chouseishin arrive, and Daisazer finishes the clone off.", "Ruby\nThough an agent of Warp Monarch, (46-51) intended to stop Belzeus' scheme by heading to Earth to find Ran. Though thought as an enemy because of Karin's actions, Ruby reveals she's on the Gransazers' side when she saves Ran. Wounded while protecting Ran from Algol, Ruby is taken the JSDF. Once healed, she help Ran awaken as the Communicator to become the vessel of communication between Earth and the Warp Monarch high council.", "The Impactors", "After Karin's death, the from Planet Impactor are entrusted with the mission to destroy Earth at all costs. The Impactors' culture is centered on honor and combat, using cards to switch between human form and fighting form. In the first part, Lucia and Radia were sent to use a meteor to wipe out Shinkujira Island, to destroy the final Chouseishin Leviathan before going after the other Chousishin. However, the meteor was hindered by Cloud Dragon and the fragments unearthed Leviathan instead", ". However, the meteor was hindered by Cloud Dragon and the fragments unearthed Leviathan instead. After the Water Tribe reveal themselves and awaken Levithan to kill Radia, Logia reveals himself. But after the plan with Guntras fails, the Impactors are ordered by the Warp Monarch to cease their attack on Earth.", "Logia", "(16-51) is the lead commander of the Impactors, entrusted with the mission to destroy Earth at all costs, following his kind's code of honor, and armed with the Hiro-Sniper gun. Assuming the guise of , he posed as Wakui's assistant to get the Guntroller to use Guntras in his Solar Annilation, using the giant robot's oxygen supply to make the sun go supernova and kill everyone. But Lucia was wounded in episode 21, and Logia saved her as he has feelings for her as well", ". But Lucia was wounded in episode 21, and Logia saved her as he has feelings for her as well. However, the Guntroller has fallen into the Gransazer's hand, the mission ends an absolute failure and ordered to fall back by his superior. However, Logia summons DaiLogian to Earth and use it to destroy the Gransazers once and for all for the sake of his fallen comrades, taking out Tawlon, Remls, before going after Gorbion in a plan to upset Tarious", ". But the Pisces and Gans' interference saved their leader as he decides to wait for the Flame Tribe for a match between Garuda and DaiLogia before the others arrive to form DaiSazer. But when defeated by Tarius, Logia turns himself into a suicide bomber to taking the Sazer with him as they leave Earth's orbit. However, Logia drops Tenma at the last second once realizing this action would go against his pride as an Impactor. The bomb however, went off and Logia went to Hell.", "However, he survived his suicide and resurfaces upon regaining Dailogian and his Hiro-Sniper from the JDSF's Scientific Research Lab, beginning his vendetta against the Gransazers by kidnapping Ryouko and Ran and capturing Tappei, leaving them at the mercy of a time-bomb while he goes after Tarius to personally kill him. But when the plan goes array, Logia summons DaiLogian to crush Tarius as the Yuuhi arrives to hold him at bay under reinforcements arrive in the GranVehicles and drive him off", ". Logia later resumes his attack at the JD Weapon Institute to get Okito and Yuuhi under his control to hold Daisazer while weakened. But the plan fails and Logia goes to hell again after Dailogian is damaged by Daisazer, found by Belzeus who offers him another chance by increasing his power and reviving Logia in return for the Crystal Slab by taking Mika and Professor Horiguchi as hostages to force Tenma to hand deliver it to him alone.", "Once he smashes the Crystal Slab, unaware that it's a fake, Logia fight Tenma to his heart's content until the other Gransazers arrive to free Mika as the Professor Horiguchi as they even the odds and force Logia to use DaiLogian to fight Daisazer until Belzeus is tired of Logia's arrogance, forcing him out of DaiLogian as it leaves under Belzeus control", ". Refusing to give up, Logia abducts Mika who tends to his wounds before he lets her go as he goes to hunt down the Belzeus-controlled DaiLogian and reclaim it as he and Tarious settle things in a one-on-one fist fight. But the fight ends in a draw as a satisfied Logia leaves, later returning to aid them in fighting Belzeus, though he still sees Tenma as an eternal rival", ". After that Logia realize that he was betrayed by Belzeus, he supports the rest of the Gransazers in their final battle before arresting Belzeus. At the end, and bids farewell to Tenma.", "Lucia", "(13-22), who came to earth along with Radia, is a swift and cunning fighter who assumes the form of a woman in her twenties with a red streak in her hair, wearing a green leotard and a cape. In her black-armored form, Lucia uses the V-Sword as both a boomerang and as a sword. She also loves Logia and would do anything for him. After Radia dies, Lucia swears to kill the Gransazers in spite of Logia ordering her not to act. She attacks Samura while he was tracking her, fighting Tenma and Gou", ". She attacks Samura while he was tracking her, fighting Tenma and Gou. After getting scarred by Ai, Lucia attempts to get revenge on her, both Ran and Mika arrive to Ai's aid and defeat Lucia, mortally wounding her and taking her to the hospital in hopes of healing her. But as her body is beyond human medicine, Lucia would eventually die were it not for Logia saving her after she learns that he has feelings for her as well. After being healed, Lucia learns that she is no longer to continue the mission", ". After being healed, Lucia learns that she is no longer to continue the mission. However, going against the order, she use Accelerator to increase her power, turning into a giant version of herself in spite that that Accelerator's", "long-term effect would make her into a mindless monster and eventually kill her. Though she over-powered the Chouseishin with her cloaking and clone abilities before enlarging herself even more, Lucia is outmatched by Daisazer with its pilots stopping it in time before it kills her. However, Lucia succumbs to the Accelerator's effect as dies, leaving behind her card for Logia to find.", "Radia", "(13-15), who came to earth along with Lucia, is a hot-headed and fierce fighter who assumes the guise of a blond haired man in silvery attire. He has romantic feelings for Lucia, though having ill feelings towards Logia in spite of his forced-respect for him. In his silver-armored fighting form, Radia uses the enormous Mega Axe in his armor. He presented an interest in the Gransazers, deeming them too weak to stand a chance against him in one-on-one fights", ". But Gorbion's interference forces Radia to escape, swearing a vendetta on Gorbion since. But when Lucia is wounded, Radia decides to complete the mission on his own, fighting Gorbion and Pisces until he enlarges into a giant as Gans arrives and the gathered Water Tribe awaken Leviathan. But Radia's pride is his undoing when he refuses to retreat from the fight and is killed by Leviathan.", "Bisil", "The underhanded (26-27) are sent to destroy Earth, sending an operative and a spy to test the first Stage in their dimensional transport system, using it to bring humans where they eventually disintegrate instantly. After the Gransazers learn of this plot, the Bisilians kill their operative before retreating to begin Stage Two. Once learning the location of the Dimensional Transport Machine, the others go to fight the Bisil Soldiers while Tarius activates the machine's self-destruct", ". Soon after, Garuda engages the Bisilian mothership in an aerial dogfight and destroys it.", "Asami Yoshioka\nA Bislian spy who assumed the guise of (26-27), a girl who died a six months ago of illness. She was said to hinder the Gransazers. From being with Ken and befriending him, Ayumi realizes that Earth shouldn't be destroyed though she is force. After Ran, Asami apologizes for deceiving him and is mortally wounded by a Bizal Soldier for betraying her race, revealing the location of the Dimensional Transport system as she thanks Ken with her dying breath, reduced to wisps of light.", "Omega", "A Warp Monarch android created in the Omega Project, (38-39) as anti-Gransazer weapon hidden within Earth after the battle eons ago in case the Gransazers resurface with a fail-safe built into him that would activate after seeing all twelve to self-destruct. Uncovered from a Croatian tomb and brought to the JSDF Weapons Institute, Omega whirled to life and when Mika touched him, having no memory of his past", ". He later began to explore Tokyo in search for Mika so she can help him gather data of the present-day society. By the time he meets Ran, Omega regains his memories of the past and is compelled to fight Mithras, unable to kill her. Confused, Omega decides to report to Warp Monarch, ordered to gather all the Gransazers after his AI is reprogramed without feeling and at full power", ". After getting the JSDF's secrets, Omega battles the Flame Tribe, Dail, Tragos, and Visuel before assuming a giant monster form to destroy Yuuhi. Mithras fights Omega in Garuda until the other Chousienshin are summon and Daisazer is formed and heavily damages Omega, restoring his AI as he apologizes to Mika and runs off as the entire Gransazer team runs to him as an act of redemption.", "Garbans\nFrom planet Garba, the are the final alien menace the Gransazers battle with.", "Belzeus", "(40-51) is a member of the Warp Monarch council and leader of both the Garban and the Earth Invasion Force, the one who set up the war after making his fellow member believe the human race descend from the Bosquito race. In truth he wanted to take over Earth to gain a vital place in conquering the universe. To that end, he creates supports to his claim by having using Logia to destroy Crystal Slab to hide the truth and Luka to resurrect the last Bosquito to give Warp Monarch to attack Earth in full fury", ". When both failed, Belzeus decides to capture Ran and kill her before her abilities as the Communicator fully manifest, sending his Garba soldiers to exterminate both her and Ruby. Belzeus then arrives on Earth to personally kill Ran, defeating Pisces, Velsou, and Tragos. But when Ran's power as the", "Communication are finally invoked and contacted to Warp Monarch's will, Belzeus' plans are revealed as Warp Moncarh allows the Gransazers to destroy both Cabryon and the Garban mothership. With his plans ruined, Belzeus is knocked out by Logia as he takes the Garban to be brought before the Warp Monarch council to face judgement.", "Brighton", "A Garban Emissary sent to Earth during a 3-day ceasefire, (46-48) fakes sympathy for Earth's safety by asking the JSDF to let him investigate the Gransazers, finding Ran as Communicator and claiming her to have Bosquito DNA so that he would give them reason to let him take her, thus leaving Earth with a Communicator to contact Warp Monarch. When ordered by Belzeus to kill Ran before her power can awaken, Brighton summons Algol to carry out the task", ". But when Algol fails, Brighton reveals his true colors as Troius sneak attacks the city. Later, while the others destroy Algol, Tarious goes after Brighton as the Garban pretends to beg for his life so he can kill Tarious with his guard down, only to be shot by Logia.", "Algol\nServing under Brighton, (46-48), is sent to kill Ran, though Ruby stops him when he overpowers Tarius and the Earth Tribe. After Brighton brings Ran to Algol, Tenma saves Ran as he battles Agol. When Ran finds Agol to have him kill her when Ruby interferes again as Tarious and Lion arrive to save the two. Algol later attacks the JSDF as the Gransazers arrive and kill him.", "Gorgion", "Sent by Belzeus to exterminate Ruby before she could awaken Ran's power, (49-50) attacks the JSDF before being hindered in his mission by Dail, who manages to defeat before injuring Velsou. But Tarious arrives to hold him off with aid from Gorbion and Relms as Mithras takes Ryouko and Ruby away. However, Logia turns the tables as he and Tarius double-team Gorgion and the Impactor about to kill him when Tarious' intervened, allowing Gorgion to escape", ". He is given one last chance to redeem himself by using Cabryon as a distraction to keep the Gransazers off his back while he kills Ruby without interference. After finding Ruby, Gorgion is halted by the Flame Tribe. But after an attempt to use Mithras as a shield, activates the bomb on his person to complete his mission.", "Gig Fighters\nThe foot soldiers of the Warp Monarch, the spawned from special devices often carried by its high-ranking members. They are often used to hassle the protagonists, or other duties such as supervise prisoners.", "Other aliens\n (25): From Planet , he has the power to enter peoples' bodies. He attempted to use the body of professor Hijikata to have Horiguchi leave the Gransazers. But the failed and Sturcus decides to possess the professor and destroy the team from the inside-out, only retreat after being hit by the Gransazers' Formation Zero attack.", "(31): A robotic alien from planet Kilardo, he assumes the form of a man in black and is sent to destroy the crystal recorder in the possession of Professor Aya Stacey, the eighteen-year-old Nobel-Prize winner. Once he succeeds, he tries to kill Aya and Gou when Tarious and Dail intervene before Tragos delivers the deathblow on the alien robot with Tarius finishing the Kilardoian off.", "(32): The ghost of an alien soldier who died during Warp Monarch's war against Earth. Filled with undying rage towards humans and unaware that he died, Fedora possessed the body of Henry Wakasugi to continue the orders he received ages ago. It was once his identity is revealed, Tarious uses the crystal slab to make Fedora realized that he's dead, leaving Henry's body to finally rest.", "(35): An alien from planet Gadaru armed with the Dead Spear, he was a scientist sent by Warp Monarch to convert humans into mindless slaves, using Ran's friends as test specimens in his research. But Ran's friends are freed from the Gadaruian's control as Tarious battles the alien and kills him with Visuel's aid.", "(36): An alien felon with no relation to Warp Monarch, he escaped to Earth to feed on the energy there. Armed with a pistol he stole from Freedo's partner, Kriminel can absorb any heat-based energy source to heal himself and increase his power, firing stored energy from the orbs on his chest. After losing to Dail, Kriminel attracts the Fire Tribe's attention as Tenma and Mika fight him and worsen the matter. But once Dail breaks Kriminel's barrier, Freedo delivers the death-shot.", "(37): A Warp Monarch agent from planet Gorfin, he enters the body of Mick the dolphin at the Sea Paradise aquarium to influence the other dolphins with his hyper frequency to attack humans with sound waves. But thanks to Mayu, Mick exorcises the Gorfinian as Gans fights before Tarious and Gorbion arrive and the dolphins use their own hyper frequency to weaken the alien as Gans finishes him off.", "(47-48): A giant alien monster sent from the Fleet to attack the Earth once the ceasefire ended. Dolcruz and Leviathan battle the beast with aid of the GranVehicles and Yuuhi. But the fight ends with Dolcruz heavily damaged, Yuuhi dismantled, and Tappei wounded. After Garuda got damaged as well, Guntras and Cloud Dragon intervene and destroy Troius.", "(50-51): Arriving in a fireball, Cabryon is used by Gorgion to attack the JSDF to draw the Gransazers out into the open to complete his mission. Carbion succeeds in damaging Guntras to keep the Gransazers from forming DaiSazer and wrecks the other Chouseishin while appearing to kill Tenma. But once Warp Monarch acknowledges the truth about Earth, the Chouseishin are restored and form DaiSazer to kill Cabyron.", "Bosquito", "The (42-45) is an alien construct that absorbs any lifeform in its grasp, for nourishment, into order to reproduce asexually, and able to assimilate the energy of its clone spawn when they die. It is feared across the universe, as Warp Monarch couldn't control the Bosqutio when it came to Earth, resulting in the birth of the Gransazers to counter it and the War that destroyed ancient human civilization along with the propaganda set up to link the Bosquito to Earth's people", ". Though nearly wiped out, the Bosquito was sealed away, within the Kabuto Mountain, until Luka revived it on Belzeus' order, with no idea who she was reviving, until it was too late. Being able to use any attack used by the Gransazers, the Bosquito overpowers the Flame Tribe and later attacks a village, feeding on the people there, before using the TV to find ideal locations to feed on next. After evading the Wind Tribe, the Bosquito reproduces a child before fighting the Gransazers and is killed by them", ". The surviving child began to feed when Makoto and Jin arrive and were attacked as Tauron arrives to support them before the Bosquito multiplies itself as the Flame Tribe arrive to counter the second Bosquito until Yuuhi blasts it. Absorbing its clone, the Bosquito takes the controls for Yuuhi and uses it against the Gransazers, stealing Garuda when the Flame Tribe summons it", ". Levithan and Gunceasar are summoned to weaken Garuda so eject the Bosquito, who starts to absorb the floral life energy to regain its strength and create two clones of itself. After the others destroy the clones, the orbs they left behind are reabsorbed into the original Bosquito as it evolves into a giant monster. After Tarius uses one of Lion's Crescents to take the ruby on its chest, the source of its power, the Bosquito is destroyed by DaiSazer.", "However, as revealed in the Seishin crossover (Chousei Kantai Sazer-X: The Movie), another Bosquito existed within the monster Bulgario, released when the monster was destroyed at sea, absorbing the JustiPower in Sazer Island, so it can duplicate itself and can disguise themselves as impostor Justirisers. They are all destroyed by Gransazers, Justirisers and Sazer-X but quickly absorbed into the phantom ship so that it would form into Mammoth-Bosquito dragon", ". The Mammoth-Bosquito is destroyed by Great-Lio (piloted by Lio-Sazer) using the final move, Howling Crush, which the power of Gransazers, Justirisers and Sazer-X combined into the finishing attack to destroy the monster.", "ChouSeiShin\n\nThe ChouSeiShin (Ultra Star Gods or Super Star Gods) are the most powerful weapons of the ancient Earth Civilization. They remained dormant on Earth until the GranSazers were awakened, and reactivated the long-lost relics.", "Each Tribe possesses one of the four ChouSeiShin, which can be summoned by setting all of their Knuckle-Risers to \"ChouSeiShin Mode\". One member of the Tribe can then \"Dive In\" and board the machine by setting their Knuckle-Riser to \"Boarding Mode\". Furthermore, by setting their Knuckle-Riser to \"Sazer Gear Mode\" the pilot can equip their ChouSeiShin with a large version of their personal weapon.", "Each ChouSeiShin has two modes, which can be switched between with a simple transformation. In \"Live Mode\", they resemble animals and possess incredible maneuverability. In Warrior Mode, they resemble bipedal mecha, losing most of their speed, but gaining immense attacking power.", "ChouSeiShin Garuda\n is the Flame Tribe's ChouSeiShin, the second to be awaken from its slumber in Hōō Mountain. \nIn Live Mode, Garuda is shaped after a phoenix and attacks with his guns located under its wings where its legs are, firing lasers and energy beams. Garuda can also tackle enemies after engulfing himself in flames.", "In Warrior Mode, Garuda mostly relies on the 'Garu Claw', which are his talons on the back of his fists, for close-range combat. He performs his finishing move \"Fire Bird Slash\" with them. Garuda can also summon a sword called Burning Saber for armed melee combat. Tarious' Sazer Gear equips Garuda with a giant version of the Falcon Bow, and Lion's Sazer Gear equips Garuda with giant versions of the Double Crescents.", "ChouSeiShin Dorcrus\n also known as Dorcrus or Dorcrus is the Wind Tribe's ChouSeiShin, the first to be awakened from its slumber in Kabuto Mountain. \nIn Live Mode, Dorcrus is shaped after a European rhinoceros beetle and attacks with his multitude of cannons as well as with full tackles.", "In Warrior Mode, Dorcrus uses his large array of cannons and blasters to perform various attacks. His finishing move, \"Herakles Hurricane\", fires his entire arsenal of cannons and blasters simultaneously. Remls' Sazer Gear equips Dorcrus with a giant version of the Iron Gale on his head, since Dolcruz does not have proper hands to hold objects (in theory).", "ChouSeiShin GunCaesar\n is the Earth Tribe's ChouSeiShin, the third to be awaken from its slumber in the Shishioh Desert. \nIn Live Mode, GunCaesar is shaped after a liger and attacks with his cannons as well as with his claws. \nIn Warrior Mode, GunCaesar uses his cannons, the Liger Riots, as hand blasters. He performs his finishing move, \"Gravity Burst\", with them. Tawlon's Sazer Gear equips GunCaesar with a giant version of the Bull Cannon.", "ChouSeiShin Leviathan\n Whale is the Water Tribe's ChouSeiShin, the last to be awaken from its slumber in Shinkujira Island Water when the Impactors arrive on Earth. \nIn Live Mode, Leviathan has a whale-like shape and uses his fins for ramming attacks, as well as firing his two cannons at the fins.", "In Warrior Mode, Leviathan is armed with the Maelstrom Blades which can be used for his finishing move \"High Tide Break\". Furthermore, he is equipped with the Ocean Shield which can be used for his another move \"Mirage Shield\" which can multiply for defence purposes. Gorbion's Sazer Gear equips Leviathan with a giant version of the Blast Saw.", "ChouSeiShin Guntras", "is controlled by an advanced AI, superior to the other ChouSeiShin to have a will of his own. Initially hidden away in the Andes, referred as the \"Great Shadow\" in Peruvian legend, Guntras resurfaced when his Guntroller is repaired and Logia controls him, planning to use Guntras' oxygen fuel supply to collide with the Sun and trigger a nova strong enough to evaporate Earth, after killing the GranSazers first", ". Tenma eventually got the Guntroller and freed Guntras, who joined up with Cloud Dragon as an ally to the Sazers. Later Guntras is revealed to be created to combine the four ChouSeiShin into one giant super robot (DaiSazer). Guntras is armed with an array of deadly weapons, among them a laser battery on his chest, a cannon on his forehead and missile launchers on his body", ". He can fire and immediately replace his fists in his Twin Crusher attack, and his powerful feet can create devastating shockwaves in his Land Shake attack.", "Fusion Beast-King DaiSazer", "Dragon/Megalosaurus is the assembled form of the four Tribes' ChouSeishin, along with ChouSeishin Guntras. Guntras forms the main body, head and feet; Garuda for chest, cranium, and back; Dorcrus for the legs; GunCaesar for the right arm and the shoulder cannons; and Leviathan for the left arm and the tail. Combined, DaiSazer has a very aggressive and archaic mind of its own. All four pilots have to focus to control DaiSazer", ". All four pilots have to focus to control DaiSazer. DaiSazer is a very deadly creature and it is armed with a deflector as well as a laser array on its chest, but DaiSazer mostly relies on brute force to deal with its opponents.", "Its attacks include: 'Rapid Sazer', which fires the shoulder cannons on its back; 'Blast Pressure', unleashing a blast of fire from Guncaesar's mouth on its right arm; 'God Sphere', firing energy beams from its eyes. Its finishing move is 'Hyper Burst', which unleashes the full power of Guntras and the 4 ChouSeiShin combined through the laser array on its chest.", "ChouSeiJuuren Cloud Dragon", ", translated into English as Ultra Star Beast Carrier Cloud Dragon, is as old as the ChouSeiShin, another remnant of the ancient civilization and residing within the ozone layer of the Earth to protect it from alien invaders, implanted with a DNA of humanity to start back up the human race and an AI modeled after a woman from ancient civilization. She only descends from the ozone layer if the ChouSeiShin are summoned or are in need of her help for repairs", ". The Cloud Dragon is designed for combat support and repairs the ChouSeishin after they suffered battle damage and rendered immobile as a result, in which a sky whirlpool is created to collect the damaged ChouSeiShin and loads them onto one of the 4 storage pads (for the ChouSeiShin of each Tribe in the order of Flame (Garuda), Wind (Dorcrus)", ", Wind (Dorcrus), Earth (GunCaesar) and Water (Leviathan) respectively) on its body for repairs and restoration in outer space (the first such repairs is done onto the Flame ChouSeiShin Garuda by restoring its damaged left wing), upon which they can be launched straight from the colossal Dragon's storage pads once fully repaired and when the Gransazers summon them", ". Prior to the final battle, Cloud Dragon formally introduces herself to the GranSazers before telling them they have the answer to stop the attack on Earth. The Cloud Dragon's attack is the Galactica Prominence Cannon, a devastating blaster capable of blowing an entire asteroid into pieces. Inside cloud dragon there are GranVehicle which is one for each tribe's member", ". Inside cloud dragon there are GranVehicle which is one for each tribe's member. GranVehicle of flame tribe is flame driver, wind tribe's vehicle is wind driver, earth tribe's is earth driver, and the water tribe's is aqua driver, which is one for each gransazer. With gransazers knuckle riser there is GranVehicle mode. The Sazers who dives in they on's their GranVehicle mode and says GranVehicle launch and dives in", ". The Sazers who dives in they on's their GranVehicle mode and says GranVehicle launch and dives in. on the cloud dragon the place where these GranVehicles launch is where Guntras stands in front is place where GranVehicles launch which is one for everyone. Cloud Dragon's Zodiac sign is unofficial 13th sign, Ophiuchus.", "Other mecha", "DaiLogian", "Dailogian is Logia's personal mecha. It is a black humanoid robot patterned after a wolf and its power is almost equal to Daisazer's. Unlike his subordinates, Lucia and Radia, Logia cannot grow into a giant; instead, he summons his mecha, which is always on standby in outer space, and which Logia alone can summon. It can absorb beam attacks through its chest and redirect them back to the opponents. It first fought with Daisazer and was defeated when Daisazer ripped off its arm", ". It first fought with Daisazer and was defeated when Daisazer ripped off its arm. The second time was when Logia and Tenma fought one on one in their respective mechas with Tenma barely securing the victory. After DaiLogian was defeated, it was taken by the Japan Self-Defense Force for study. It reactivated, then busted out of the Japan Self-Defense Force holding area, when Logia returned to Earth to seek vengeance against the Sazers. Afterwards, Logia used it as a mode of transport.", "Yuuhi\nThe (28-48)was the result of the JSDF reverse engineering DaiLogian so they can support the Gransazers' Chouseishin. Remote controlled by a voice-command headgear, the Yuuhi is launched from an underground bunker. It can access numerous weapons, a 120-mm dual cannon as well as two arrays of six missile launchers each. Prior to the final battle, Yuuhi was broken into pieces after fighting Troius.\n\nType-05 GS Assist Tank \"Asahi\"\nAsahi is Yuuhi's support mecha. It vaguely resembles an M4 Sherman.", "Type-05 GS Assist Tank \"Asahi\"\nAsahi is Yuuhi's support mecha. It vaguely resembles an M4 Sherman.\n\nEpisodes\n\nTV special and film\n\n Chouseishin Gransazer: Super Battle Memory\n Chousei Kantai Sazer-X the Movie: Fight! Star Warriors (Gekijōban Chōsei Kantai Sazer X: Tatakae! Hoshi no Senshitachi) (a Seishin team-up with the Justirisers and the Sazer-X)", "Songs\nOpening theme\n\"Life Goes On\"\nLyrics: U-ya Asaoka\nComposition: Eddy Blues\nArrangement: Kōichi Sawazaki\nArtist: U-ya Asaoka (Field of View)\nLabel: Tokuma Japan Communications Co., Ltd.\nEnding theme\n \nLyrics: 326 (Mitsuru Nakamura)\nComposition: Kyōhei Tsutsumi\nArrangement: Yoshimasa Inoue\nArtist: Asami Abe\nLabel: Universal Music KK\n\nCast", "Tenma Kudou / Sazer Tarious: 瀬川亮\n Mika Shidou / Sazer Mithras: 清水あすか \n Ken Shidou / Sazer Lion: 光兵武田 \n Akira Dentsuin/Sazer Remls: Hideaki Serizawa\n Ryoko Amemiya/Sazer Velsou: Maya Hoshino\n Jin Hakariya/Sazer Dail: Ren Matsuzawa\n Naoto Matsuzaka/Sazer Tawlon: Tomohide Takahara\n Ran Saotome/Sazer Visuel: Sayaka Isoyama\n Go Kamiya/Sazer Tragos: Soji Masaki\n Makoto Sorimachi/Sazer Gorbion: Hideki Okada\n Ai Uozumi/Sazer Pisces: Kumiko Ito\n Tappei Mikami/Sazer Gans: Takuma Sugawara", "Ai Uozumi/Sazer Pisces: Kumiko Ito\n Tappei Mikami/Sazer Gans: Takuma Sugawara\n Ichiro Horiguchi: Shoichiro Akaboshi\n Atsushi Misonogi: Shunsaku Kudō\n Soichiro Okita: Tomonori Yoshida\n Karin Saeki: Mika Chiba\n Impactor Logia: Shinnosuke Abe\n Impactor Lucia: Chisun\n Impactor Radia: Ryuji Takaoka", "Guest stars", "Junya Akaki (5–6): Gyo Miyamoto\n Officer Narumi (5–6): Kota Harukaze \n Professor Chujo (9): Hiroshi Koizumi\n Masaki Wakui (14–18): Masayuki Yui\n Detective Samura (16): Tom Saeba\n Ai's Mother: Momoko Haruna\n Kenta Sakaki (19): Seigo Kuwabara\n Professor Satoko Hijitaka (25): Shoko Ikeda\n Asami Yoshoka (26–27): Asari\n Seiji Tsubaki (28–29): Shota Yamaguchi\n Shiori Kuga (28–29): Satoko Takemoto\n Kojiro Kanuma/Ramon (30): Hiroshi Izawa\n Takumi Kawashima/Jado (30): Ryo Koseki\n Aya Stacy (31): Kumi Imura", "Takumi Kawashima/Jado (30): Ryo Koseki\n Aya Stacy (31): Kumi Imura\n Lisa Wakasugi (32): Chika Kumagai\n Henry Wakasugi/Fedora (32): Houka Kinoshita\n Yuji Kaga (33–34, 51): Kentaro Nakamura\n Shinji Nakao/Freedo (36): Hirofumi Taga\n Mayu (37): Yu Shinzaki\n Omega (38–39): Haruhiko Sato\n Luka (42–43): Eri Otoguro\n Brighton (46–48): Taichi Kuwabara\n Ruby (46–51): Marie Sada", "Voice actors\n\n Belzeus: Takashi Taniguchi\n Algol/Gorfinian: Ryuta Izumi\n Impactor's Superior: Tadashi Wakabayashi\n Bosquito/Kriminel: Sei Haga\n Gorgion: Hitoshi Yamano\n Kiladorian: Shuya Yoshimoto\n Gadaruian: Masaya Kato\n Freedo: Mark Okita\n Cloud Dragon: Marie Sada\n Narration: Soichro Tanaka (ep. 1), Yu Motomura (eps. 2–34), Daisuke Kiri (eps. 35–51)\n\nStunts", "Sazer Tarious: Hiromi Shinjo\n Sazer Mithras: Misako Nagashima\n Sazer Lion/Impactor Radia/Youhi: Koji Shirahama\n Sazer Remls/Impactor Logia: Wataru Fukuda\n Sazer Velsou/Impactor Lucia: Emiko Saito\n Sazer Dail: Yuji Kitahara\n Sazer Tawlon/Belzeus: Daisuke Terai\n Sazer Visuel/Akelon: Sakiko Akiyoshi\n Sazer Tragos: Kazuhiko Tai\n Sazer Gorbion: Hiyoyuki Matsusue\n Sazer Pisces: Ami Sakai\n Sazer Gans: Hideyoshi Iwata\n Garuda/DaiSazer: Koichi Tsunoda\n Dolcross: Naoki Ogura, Seisuke Ida", "Sazer Gans: Hideyoshi Iwata\n Garuda/DaiSazer: Koichi Tsunoda\n Dolcross: Naoki Ogura, Seisuke Ida\n GunCaesar: Koji Shirayama, Kyoichi Shiga\n Leviathan: Kyoichi Shiga\n Guntras/Dai Logian: Nobuhiko Tanabe\n Cabryon/Kyodai Teki: Shinya Iwasaki\n Monster Akelon: Tomohiro Nagata\n Bosquito: Hiromi Shinjo, Kazuhiko Tai", "References\n\nExternal links \n Toho's Official Gransazer Site\n TV Tokyo's Gransazers Site \n \n\n2003 Japanese television series debuts\n2004 Japanese television series endings\nChouseishin Series\nJapanese science fiction television series\nJapan Self-Defense Forces in fiction\nToho tokusatsu\nTokusatsu television series\nTV Tokyo original programming\nKonami" ]

[ "The M'Bona Cult is a system of religious beliefs and rituals which is currently restricted to the most southerly parts of Malawi, but which probably extended more widely, both in other parts of Malawi and adjacent parts of Mozambique. The cult is found mainly among the local Mang'anja people and its former extent reflected that people's wider past distribution", ". It aims to secure abundant rains at the appropriate season through the making of propitiatory gifts at cult shrines, and includes rainmaking rituals in the event of drought. It has been related to a number of other territorial cults among the Maravi cluster of related African peoples which aim to secure the well-being of the people of a particular area secure from drought, floods or food shortages", ". The cult is believed to be a long established one, although estimates of how long it has existed are speculative, as the earliest definite record of its existence dates from 1862.", "There are a number of debates about the sect. The first is what the essential nature of M'Bona is, whether a natural spirit, a deified single human or combination of several such people, a priest or other human intermediary with a god or even the personification of the suffering of the conquered people, whether this identity has changed over time, and whether the name M'Bona has been applied to what were originally different entities in different places", ". The second is whether the current stories about M'Bona are myths, created to explain the cult after it was formed, oral traditions with possibly a much distorted factual basis or a form of oral history from which actual past events can be recovered. The third is about the exact historical role of the M'Bona cult and whether its ritual practices as recorded in the 20th centuries are a continuation of those of earlier times.", "Much of the study of M'Bona was undertaken by Father Jan Matthew Schoffeleers (1928 – 2011), an anthropologist and researcher into African Religion, who was a Catholic missionary in the Lower Shire valley from 1955 to 1963 and then followed a largely academic career in Britain, Malawi and the Netherlands until his retirement in 1998. His extensive study of the cult began in the 1950s and he published eight books or papers on it between 1972 and 1992, besides two academic theses.", "Historical background", "From early sources", "A number of speculative reconstructions of the origin of the Maravi cluster of peoples suggest that they entered the area of central and southern Malawi in relatively small groups from the 14th century, and that the trade in ivory they developed with the Muslim traders based on the coast of Nampula and Zambezia provinces was central to the rise of centralised Maravi states in the late 16th and 17th centuries in an area they had long occupied. The later conflicts between these states", ". The later conflicts between these states. The political changes in the area between 1570 and 1640 were said to result from the disruption of that trade by the Portuguese, who had been excluded from that trade, and their African allies.", "However, there is no documentary evidence for a Maravi movement into the Lower Zambezi and Lower Shire river valleys before the late 16th century, let alone their forming organised states in that area before the 1570s, or for any substantial ivory trade between that area and the coastal Muslims", ". The earliest European account of those river valleys and its people relates to an expedition of 1569, which places the Makua people along the Lower Zambezi valley and the related Lolo people around Tete, with no indication of powerful Maravi states in the area. According to a further account of 1590, the Makua had recently lost control of the south bank of the Zambezi and the Lolo had been displaced eastward: these two groups then occupied roughly the same area of Zambezia province as today", ". There are also several contemporary or near-contemporary accounts which indicate a Portuguese involvement in a rather limited Zambezi ivory trade in the mid-16th century, probably involving the Makua people rather than the Maravi.", "Although these sources do not specifically name the invaders that displaced the Makua and Lolo, it seems that they came from the north and are plausibly interpreted as being Maravi and as forming the Lundu state, although the chiefly title of Lundu and the name Maravi are not recorded until 1616, and the title Kalonga, that of the most senior Maravi ruler, is recorded only from 1660", ". Rather than a Maravi empire being formed well to the north of the Zambezi and expanding southwards, as in several accounts, it is more probable that a number of related but rather small groups from north of the Zambezi entered Zambezia in the 16th century and coalesced into loosely connected Maravi chieftainships which were forced, when their further advance was prevented by the Portuguese, to recognise one or more paramount chiefs.", "In the early 17th century, according to Portuguese accounts recorded in 1648, an individual named Muzura, who had worked for the Portuguese, established himself as the overlord of the Maravi chieftainships on the north bank of the Zambezi with Portuguese support in 1608, and he retained this position until around 1635, defeating an attempt of the Lundu chief to revolt in 1622", ". One theory is that Muzura's successors adopted the title of Kalonga and ruled what came to be called the Maravi Empire, including three other substantial kingdoms or paramount chieftainships: Lundu along the Lower Shire, Kaphwiti in the Shire Highlands and Undi to the west of the Shire valley, in the area of what is now the Mozambique-Zambia border", ". Another is that the Kalonga state, whose main seat is believed to have been south of Lake Malawi, already existed but did not take part in the expansion into Zambezia so was unknown to the Portuguese in the early 17th Century. In this reconstruction, Muzura formed a state in the Mwanza area of the mid-Shire valley, between Lundu and Kalonga, which Kalonga took over by on his death, only then gaining paramountcy over the three chieftainships to the south", "The people of the Maravi cluster diversified over time to become, from north to south the Tumbuka, Chewa, Nyanja and Mang'anja, although these successors retained certain common beliefs.", "Pre-colonial 19th century", "At the end of the 18th century, the original Lundu kingdom among the Mang'anja people was based in the Lower Shire valley, but was vulnerable to aggression from Portuguese slave-traders", ". Over a half -century beginning in the early 19th century, an individual named Mankhokwe, who already controlled the Katchsi shrine in Thyolo District in the Shire Highlands, gained control of the Middle Shire and western Shire highlands He then claimed the paramountcy and title of Lundu, and attempted to gain control of the Khulubvi shrine", ". In the Lower Shire, another chief with the title Tengani built up a force able to resist the Portuguese threat, at least temporarily, and the original Lundu state and its title holder descended into obscurity.", "The situation of the Mang'anja in the 1860s, as described by members of David Livingstone's expedition or the Universities' Mission to Central Africa, was that there was a hierarchy of chiefs and headmen of varying power and influence. Theoretically, the paramount chief with the title Lundu was at the apex of this hierarchy, his prestige deriving from his control of one or more rain shrines, but his power over other major chiefs was limited", ". In practice, Mankhokwe, the pretender to the Lundu title had more power than the hereditary title-holder. Senior chiefs controlling significant areas were in theory appointed by the paramount but they had followings in the areas they controlled and, in some cases, also controlled rain shrines: as the provision of rain was central to Mang'anja religion and daily life, being the patron of such a shrine was a source of significant power", ". The nature of one shrine was described in 1862, when it was claimed that the spirit of a former chief, M'Bona, communicated with a prophetess in dreams.", "Although an Afro-Portuguese slave-trader, Paul Mariano II, managed to defeat Tengani, capture many slaves and destroy the Khulubvi shrine in 1862, Tengani survived with a reduced chiefdom and was later recognised by the colonial authorities as the senior Mang'anja chief", ". However some of the Kololo that Livingstone had brought from Botswana as porters for his Zambezi expedition, and left in the Shire Valley at the end of his expedition in 1864, established chieftainships along the Middle and Lower Shire valley outside Tengani's influence", ". Mankhokwe had to face Kololo pressure on the Middle Shire and Yao attacks in the Shire Highlands, so he and his people later migrated to the hills west of the Shire River, deserting the ancestral Mankhokwe rain shrine, which fell into disuse once its Mang'anja devotees had left the area. Paul Mariano II died in 1863 and was succeeded by his young son, Paul Mariano III", ". After Paul Mariano III reached adulthood, he reached an agreement with the Portuguese authorities in 1879 which left him in control of the Lower Shire Valley as far south as its confluence with the Zambezi, until a subsequent Portuguese governor attacked Mariano's stronghold in 1884-85, following which many of Mariano's chikunda, or native soldiers, moved into the area around the Khulubvi shrine, destroying villages and taking slaves until when, from 1889 onwards", ", destroying villages and taking slaves until when, from 1889 onwards, first a Portuguese expedition led by Alexandre de Serpa Pinto and later a British one under Henry Hamilton Johnston entered the area to quell the disorder", ". The Lower Shire Valley was divided between the two powers by an 1891 Anglo-Portuguese treaty The British Central Africa Protectorate that was set up in 1891 protected the Mang'anja people from further attacks by Mariano's former chikunda or the Kololo chiefs of the Middle Shire, and the protectorate authorities later recognised Tengani as protector of the Khulubvi shrine.", "The M'Bona Cult", "The nature of M'Bona", "The History of the M'Bona sect is closely bound up with that of the Mang'anja people, who currently live mainly in the north of Nsanje district and south of Chikwawa district in the Lower Shire valley of Malawi, and also in adjacent areas of Mozambique", ". However, before the migrations of the Yao and Lomwe into the north-western part of their former territory and the Sena in the south, all of which began in the mid-19th century, they had ranged from the mid-Zambezi valley near Vila de Sena through the Lower and Middle Shire valley and into the western part of the Shire Highlands.", "A description of the M'Bona cult dating from 1953 recounted then-current traditions of M'Bona who, it was claimed, possessed rainmaking powers and was a relative of the ruler who had the hereditary title of Lundu. M'Bona fled south because he had usurped the Lundu's power as a ruler and intermediary with the High God to ensure prosperity for his people. M'Bona had made rain during a drought after the Lundu had failed to do so, and was accused of witchcraft", ". During his flight, M'Bona was said to have rested in several places in southern Malawi, all within the area inhabited by the Mang'anja, before he was killed by his pursuers and beheaded. The places where he rested and that where he was killed were said to have become rain-shines after his death", ". Jan Matthew Schoffeleers, who studied the cult for other 30 years, notes the opposing traditions that an historical M'Bona was either a relative of the first Lundu, as in Rangeley's account, or a priest of the Khulubvi rain shrine who had been killed by the first Lundu when he destroyed that shrine, and he proposed a third possible explanation, that M’Bona was the personification of the suffering of the Mang'anja people conquered by the Lundu, rather than a single individual.", "Schoffeleers suggested that a change in Portuguese policy in the 1590s, which involved setting up forts in the Zambezi valley and employing African mercenaries called Zimba, who attacked uncooperative local rulers and raided for slaves, disrupted agriculture and caused widespread suffering throughout an area that included southern Malawi", ". These Zimba conquerors set up more centralised states, including one whose leader had the title of Lundu, and destroyed centres of possible resistance, including cult shrines, with the intention of replacing these by cult of his own ancestors, so combining secular and ritual power in a single office that he occupied instead of being separate", ". However, the alien Lundu had no means of communicating with the territorial spirits whose shrines his mercenaries had destroyed, so the original population regarded his rule, and his claim to possess rain-making powers, as illegitimate. Once the first Lundu was defeated in 1622 by the Portuguese who had turned against him, his claim to control the ritual activity of rain-calling ended. Although he and his successors retained political control, a form of dual authority was re-established", ". the Khulubvi shrine was restored but was rededicated to M’Bona, a martyr who Schoffeleers initially considered to be a historical person, but later either a priest of the shrine or a personification of the suffering of the conquered Mang'anja people.", "Schoffeleers initially claimed that the M'Bona rain shrine at Khulubvi in Nsanje District in the lower Shire Valley, where it is said M'Bona's head was placed after his killing, had been in existence since at least 1500 and was at the heart of a cult whose influence stretched as far as the Indian Ocean in the east, Tete in the west, the Shire Highlands in the north and the Lower Zambezi valley in the south, and that it gave rise to other M'Bona shrines", ". Subsequently, following excavation at the site by an archaeologist, the same scholar reported that material dating from between the 8th and 17th centuries had been found at Khulubvi", ". However, Schoffeleers considered that, before its destruction by the Lundu around 1600, its original form was as a shrine to the High God manifested as a python, whereas when restored it became a shrine to M’Bona, a martyr whose nature could be either that of a single individual or the personification of the suffering that the people conquered by Lundu suffered.", "Another scholar considers M'Bona to have originated as a river god or spirit of a type known in other parts of Zambezia, the area of the Zambezi and its tributaries, as much as a protector against floods as a provider of rain, adding that some of these precursors of M'Bona were female", ". In at least one 19th century case, M'Bona was a female spirit, and her husband was a snake, which Wrigley links to the widespread African mythological theme of the conflict of the eagle, representing lightning and flood, and the python, representing the rainbow and adequate rainfall, and protector against flood or drought. It seems unlikely that there was originally a single M'Bona cult with many shrines over a wide area so much as a range of shrines devoted to different versions of a widespread myth", ". Although the Khulubvi shrine was of considerable antiquity, its original form may have been that of a shrine to the python god, only later becoming a shrine of M'Bona.", "There are three rain-shrines in central Malawi among the Chewa people, another offshoot of the Maravi. The first was at Msinja, where its female founder was also said to be of a ruling lineage, the first in a line of priestesses and prophetesses called Makewana. However, In contrast to M'Bona, there was no suggestion that the first Makewana was or became a deity: instead she was said to be possessed by god. The two other minor rain cults were not associated with a ruling family and little is known of them", ".", "The reconstruction of Territorial Cults in Central Africa by Ranger described below suggests that most of these cults changed their nature over time, from shrines originally devoted to nature spirits with female priestesses or mediums, becoming shrines controlled by locally-powerful families, which reclassified the spirit as that of a deceased ancestor, and its priestesses as wives of that spirit", ". This suggests that Wrigley may be correct on the ultimate origin of the cult, and that the priestesses and prophetesses at the Msinja may be relics of more widespread former practice. However, Schoffeleers entirely dismisses Wrigley's claim that accounts of M'Bona are a myth, insisting on M'Bona having had some form of historical reality and dating his death to around 1600.", "Initially, when they met Livingstone's party and the UMCA missionaries, officials of the M'Bona cult were hostile to their exposition of Christian doctrines, regarding them as likely to undermine Mang'anja society", ". However, when many of the Mang'anja became Christians from the 1920s, particularly under the influence of Catholic missionaries, the M'Bona cult incorporated some Christian themes into its belief system, modifying the nature of the M'Bona myth by portraying M'Bona as a prophet and martyr, the black parallel of Jesus, and the saviour through his death of black people, as Jesus is for whites.", "Although most adherents to the M'Bona cult were Mang'anja, when Lomwe people with similar social structures moved into areas inhabited by Mang'anja people, they were also allowed to adopt the cult, although Sena people, who were immigrants from Mozambique as were the Lomwe, were not", ". In the south of Nsanje district, Sena residents began to outnumber the existing Mang'anja population in the first quarter of the 20th century, although most village headmen were Mang'anja, whose use of M'Bona shrines distinguished them from Sena villagers who had lower status.", "The Shrines", "The sacred sites currently associated with M'Bona and claimed to derive from Khulubvi are found at Nyandzikwi, Nkhadzi and Mwala in Nsanje District; Kaloga sacred cave in Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve, where sacrifices were offered in times of drought, disease or other calamities; Chifunda Lundu, the present day headquarters of Paramount Chief Lundu, Mtsakana and Konde Dzimbiri rain shrines, all three in Chikwawa district and a hut for the worship of M'Bona at Katchsi in Thyolo district", ". These are all, except for Katchsi, in the Shire valley to the west of the river, in a zone of around 120 km from north to south. Rangeley also mentions Dzambawe and Nyangazi, both in Mozambique as sites connected to M'Bona The principal Khulubvi rain shrine was destroyed an incursion from Mozambique in the early 1860s, but soon rebuilt.", "Rangeley and Schoffeleers have both given accounts of the M'Bona rites as they existed in the 1950s and 1960s, or as they had existed and were recorded in popular memory. Schoffeleers' more detailed account relates specifically to the Khulubvi shrine. The Khulubvi shrine and others were built in thickets, so not easily visible, and contained three huts, each rebuilt when it fell into decay, one for M'Bona, another for his spirit wife and the third for the wife's maidservant", ". \"Spirit wives\", were a common feature of all the shrines; permanently celibate women who traditionally served until death and received spirit messages} for their communities in the form of dreams. At Khulubvi and other shrines, a woman of marriageable age was traditionally selected as the spirit wife of M'Bona with the title Salima and supported by a handmaiden", ". After the 1880s, the position of Salima lost status and was filled by elderly widows, and the handmaiden was a young girl with the name Camanga who only served until puberty, although the post may earlier have been one for a woman of marriageable age . No spirit wives were recorded after the late 19th century.", "In some cases, M'Bona's spirit was said to communicate with Salima in dreams, in others the medium was a male officiant of the shrine. No women held the positions of Salima or Camanga in the 1950s, and the mediums at that time were male. Schoffeleers suggests that mediums associated with the cult at Khulubvi only began that association around 1900, after the line of spirit wives ended, when a female medium replaced Salima", ". Later mediums were usually male but included two females; some were descended from the first medium, others were relatives of a shrine guardian. Each shrine has one or more hereditary guardians or principals, of which Khulubvi had two competing ones from two chiefly lineages, and two officials responsible for its upkeep At Khulubvi the medium also has guardians and an interpreter of what the medium's utterances mean.", "There were three main M'Bona rites at Khulubvi, annual communal rain prayers, rebuilding the shrine and, formerly, the induction of a new spirit wife. Rain prayers, accompanied by libations of millet beer, are said to be offered in October and November each year at the end of the dry season, and again if there is a drought. Huts within the shrine are built out of insubstantial materials and never repaired but rebuilt, with an accompanying animal sacrifice, when the existing ones fall into decay", ". Rangeley says little about rites at the shrines, except that offerings of live animals, grain and beer were made to ensure plentiful rainfall.", "The cult declined during the early 20th century, and several shrines fell into disuse. However, following a widespread famine caused by a failure in the rains in 1949, it had a significant revival", "Revival and politics", "In the 1950s and until Malawi's independence in 1964, the Khulubvi rain shrine was associated with a chief whose title was Tengani. However, the Chief Tengani before independence was a supporter of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and also a committed Christian, who discouraged his people from using the shrine Since independence, holders of the Lundu title became the leading traditional authority in the Lower Shire", ". The Lundu chiefs, who were unimportant village headmen in the 1920s, and associated with the subsidiary shrine of Chifunda Lundu, claimed descent from the powerful Lundu chiefdom that was broken up in the early 19th century: the last chief of the original Lundu lineage was murdered in 1864 by some of the Kololo that David Livingstone brought from Botswana in 1862 as porters for his Zambezi expedition and left in the Lower Shire area at the end of the expedition in 1864", ". The current Lundu chiefs also claim that the Lundus before 1864 were patrons of the Khulubvi rain shrine, and although continuity between them and the 19th century Lundus is uncertain, the present title-holders are now recognised as patrons of that shrine.", "The Nyasaland famine of 1949, caused by a failure of the seasonal rains, was most severe in the south of the protectorate and led to a revival of the cult. In the aftermath of the famine, the colonial Agricultural Department introduced what it claimed were soil conservation techniques, more suited to sloping upland areas than the flat river valley. The M'Bona medium prophesied that use of these techniques would cause further drought", ". The M'Bona medium prophesied that use of these techniques would cause further drought. Although the administration imposed the regulations, this was the start of a period where the M'Bona medium opposed either the protectorate administration or the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland or both, culminating in the arrest and imprisonment of the medium during the 1959 State of Emergency.", "The Khulubvi shrine had a poor relationship with Molin Tengani, who retired in 1961. It hoped to improve this with his successor, Stonken Tengani, but he cut his links with the shrine in 1967.", "M'Bona as a territorial cult", "There is no consensus among archaeologists and historians on the origin of the Maravi people, but many believe that there was a mingling of early settlers and a later ruling group. The former, sometimes known as the Chipeta, had moved into the area around the south of Lake Malawi early in the second millennium, perhaps from the 11th century onwards and, although they did not form centralised states, their leaders had the clan name Banda", ". The later ruling group were said to be migrants from the Katanga region who, sometime between the 14th and 16th centuries, brought ideas of chiefly power into what had been a stateless population. These newcomers belonged the Phiri clan of the Chewa people, and this clan formed a number of centralised states", ". However, as the account of Muzura shows, the claim to Phiri ancestry could be assumed by a successful parvenu, and Phiri titles such as Lundu (and also Kalonga, if it predated the mid-17th century) could be appropriated by previous subordinates.", "The concept of a \"territorial cult\" is one where the spirit venerated relates to a particular area, not to a kinship group. The cult's main function is to secure the well-being of the local people through one or more of rain-making, the control of floods, maintaining the fertility of the soil or promoting success in fishing or hunting. These spirits may either be nature spirits or deified former human beings, some with one central shrine, others with several separate shrines", ". Some, but not all, if these cults involve spirit possession or mediumship. Territorial cults generally involve the whole community of a particular area, but are usually controlled by a local elite that provides priests, shrine guardians and other functionaries. This distinguishes territorial cults from ancestral cults that do not involve the whole community and spirit possession, which are not controlled by an elite and may spread a beyond an area", ". Within this diversity, Ranger believes there are common themes, and the originally single people that later split into separate Chewa, Tumbuka and Mang'anja groups initially shared a common belief in a High God, and in spirits that acted as intermediates between that god and mankind. They also believed that humans that were able to communicate with the spirits", ". They also believed that humans that were able to communicate with the spirits. Ranger also considered that these ideas were modified later, so that some territorial cult continue to venerate a High God while others venerate nature spirits of deified humans. In some cases, a territorial cult dominates an area to the exclusion of other cults, in other areas it co-exists with other cults, and in recent time with Christianity.", "Firstly, these ideas became attached to specific local sites and, in the absence of central leadership, local territorial cults formed, usually with a prominent family controlling the shrine and with priestesses \"married\" to a spirit intermediary acting as oracles or mediums. Secondly, before political organisation developed, there was some centralisation of local cults, with some accorded precedence over others", ". Thirdly, migrant members of the Phiri clan formed centralised states and took over control of many shrines, replacing the former guardian families with their officials and substituting deceased Phiri rulers or members of those rulers' families as the spirits of the shrine. The role of priestesses was often reduced, with their function as mediums either ceasing or being taken over by men", ". Finally, the status of various shrines rose of fell as the fortunes of the states controlling them changed, to create the variety observed in recent times. In particular, where a state was conquered, what was previously a High God of an independent people may become the shine of a divinized human being from the conquering rulers, as may had been the case when the area around the original M'Bona shrine was conquered by the Lundu.", "Before the Phiri rulers gained power, it is claimed, M'Bona was the title of the priestess, the wife of the spirit intermediary, with her main shrine in Thyolo district and a minor shrine in Nsanje district. The latter became associated with a chief with real or assumed Phiri ancestry and the title Lundu, and the name M'Bona was transferred to a deceased member of the Lundu family", ". As the Lundu chiefs grew more powerful, the Khulubvi shrine gained prominence and the former priestess was demoted to the status of the newly named M'Bona's wife. However, some memory of her function as a medium may have remained, until this was taken over by a male medium. As the Lundu state expanded, it absorbed other cult sites, where the name M'Bona was applied to nature spirits of the river, who were protector against floods", "Schoffeleers accepts that a generalised Central African belief in a High God with spirit intermediaries existed, adding that, in one particular instance, this belief was transformed into the story of a human martyr, and this later absorbed other cults. He also accepts it is impossible to know if there was a single rain priest called M'Bona who persecuted and murdered or whether one or more members of an M'Bona priesthood were murdered and that name was attached to one or all of them", ". Nevertheless, he argues that, as the story of M'Bona's life and death is not part of any cult ceremony, it is not a myth in the normal sense but an orally-relayed biography", "References", "Sources\n E. A. Alpers, (1975). Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa; changing patterns of international trade to the later nineteenth century. London, Heinemann..\n W. M. J. van Binsbergen (2011). In Memoriam: Matthew Schoffeleers (1928-2011). Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 455–463\n J McCracken, (2012). A History of Malawi, 1859–1966, Woodbridge, James Currey. .\n B. Meyer and R. Reis, (2006) Matthew Schoffeleers: Anthropologist and Priest. Etnofoor, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 23–46", "M. D. D. Newitt, (1982). The Early History of the Maravi, Journal of African History, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 145–162\n M. D. D. Newitt, (1995). A History of Mozambique, London, Hurst & Co, pp 276–7, 325-6. \n K. M. Phiri, (1979). Northern Zambezia: From 1500 to 1800. The Society of Malawi Journal, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 6–22\n W.H.J. Rangeley, (1952) Makewana - The Mother of All People, Nyasaland Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1952), pp. 31–50.", "W. H. J. Rangeley, (1953). M'Bona the Rainmaker, Nyasaland Journal, Vol. 6, No, 1 pp. 8–27.\n T. Ranger, (1973) Territorial Cults in the History of Central Africa, The Journal of African History, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 581–597\n M. Schoffeleers, (1972). The History and Political Role of the M'Bona Cult among the Mang'anja in T. O. Ranger and I. N. Kimambo (editors), The Historical Study of African Religion. Berkeley, University of California Press. .", "M. Schoffeleers, (1975). The Interaction of the M'Bona Cult and Christianity in T. O. Ranger and J. C. Weller (editors), Themes in the Christian History of Central Africa. Berkeley, University of California Press. .\n M. Schoffeleers, (1980). The Story of Mbona the Martyr in R. Schefold, J. W. Schoorl and J. Tennekes (editors), Man, Meaning and History: Essays in Honour of H.G. Schulte Nordholt. Leiden, Brill..", "M. Schoffeleers, (1987). The Zimba and the Lundu State in the Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries. The Journal of African History, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 337–355\n M. Schoffeleers, (1988). Myth and/or History: A Reply to Christopher Wrigley. The Journal of African History, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 385–390.\n J. M. Schoffeleers, (1992). River of Blood: The Genesis of a Martyr Cult in Southern Malawi, c. A.D. 1600. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press. .", "UNESCO, (2011). Khulubvi and Associated Mbona Sacred Rain Shrines, Tentative List of properties for nomination as World Heritage Sites (File WHTL 5602). https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5602/\n C. Wrigley, (1988). The River-God and the Historians: Myth in the Shire Valley and Elsewhere. The Journal of African History, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 367–383", "Religion in Malawi" ]

[ "The Campbell's Stores is a heritage-listed former warehouse building in the inner city Sydney suburb of The Rocks in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. The Victorian Georgian building previously served as store houses and maritime bonded warehouses. It was built from 1850 to 1861. It faces Campbells Cove, an inlet in the north-west of Sydney Cove", ". It was built from 1850 to 1861. It faces Campbells Cove, an inlet in the north-west of Sydney Cove. In the 1970s, along with the general decline of commercial shipping activities in Sydney Cove, the building was converted for use as tourist-orientated restaurants and bars.", "It is also known as Old Metcalfe Bond; Campbells Store. The property is owned by the Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority, an agency of the Government of New South Wales. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002.\n\nThe lease to the building is held by private hospitality company Tallawoladah Pty Ltd. From 2015 to 2018, the leaseholder undertook a refurbishment costing 32 million. Restaurants began opening in the refurbished building from autumn 2019.", "History \nRobert Campbell was born in Scotland, and went to India in 1798 to join his elder brother in the Calcutta business partnership of Campbell and Co. The firm had sent a speculative cargo to Sydney Cove in 1796. Robert Campbell followed in 1798, with another cargo. He bought land at Dawes Point overlooking Sydney Cove from John Baughan and commenced trading gradually building up a reputation as a shrewd but honest merchant.", "In September 1801, he married Sophia Palmer, sister of John Palmer, who became Commissary of New South Wales. By November 1801, some of Campbell's Storehouses were complete, as was a stone wall and small wharf at right angles to the main warehouse. It was claimed to be the first privately owned wharf in Australia. In 1802, Campbell and Sophia moved into Wharf House which was then incomplete. Beneath their house, vaults to store goods were excavated in the sandstone rock face", ". Beneath their house, vaults to store goods were excavated in the sandstone rock face. John Lewin's watercolour of 1808 showed the jetty completed out from the vaults, a two-storey storehouse and an access road to Wharf House running behind this jetty.", "Governor Lachlan Macquarie was anxious to grant land to settlers who were building large and substantial improvements on their Sydney leases. Hence on 29 June 1814, Robert Campbell was granted 3 acres, 3 roods, bounded on the south by the premises occupied by the Naval Officer, on the southwest by a road leading to Dawes Point Battery, and on the east by Sydney Cove, \"in consequence of his having erected thereon several large and expensive Buildings\". A right to make streets was reserved to the Crown.", "In May 1807, Campbell had been appointed Naval Officer and a magistrate. As a result of his sympathy for Governor Bligh, he was marked for persecution by the rebel administration after Bligh was deposed. Campbell was later restored to full control of his business by the arrival of Governor Macquarie in 1810, but he was forced to leave it in the hands of Charles Hook, when he went back to Britain to give evidence at the trials following the rebellion", ". He returned on 18 March 1815 to find his business bankrupt and many of his ships wrecked. He sought compensation from the government. Campbell operated as a commission agent until he was able to operate as merchant again. On 4 January 1822 Campbell formally received compensation from the government for the loss of his ships while he was in England from 1812–15. He built warehouses along the edge of the water, they were all complete by 1825 and they are shown in Stewart's 1825 copy of Harper's map of 1823", ". These are not the subject Campbell's Stores.", "Robert Campbell, senior, signed a partnership agreement with his sons who were gradually coming into the management of the firm in 1828. By about 1830 his son, John Campbell, had virtually taken over the business. Equipment for the wharf was also acquired. The Magistrates Returns of Manufactories, Mill etc, in 1831 showed Robert Campbell senior, of Campbell's Wharf, has one hydraulic pump at wharf. By 1838, R Campbell & Co was listed as possessing one crane.", "John Campbell officially took over as head of the firm in 1836, when it was in financial difficulty. On 6 May 1836, Campbell's Wharf was advertised for sale in the press. It was followed by an injunction to prevent the sale of Campbell's Wharf shortly afterwards. Whatever further action was necessary seems to have been successful, since the wharf remained in the hands of the Campbell family.", "Although control of the firm was largely in the hands of Campbell's sons, the title to the land on which the wharf was situated was in Robert's name, and so he continued to be involved in matters regarding the land. On 21 January 1841 Robert Campbell formally applied to the Colonial Secretary for permission to enlarge part of his wharf so that ships could unload at low tide, by using a large rock which could not be removed by dredging as the foundation for the enlargement of the wharf", ". The Colonial Engineer, George Barney, minuted that he could find no objection to the enlargement of the wharf. Over the years, the area of Campbell's Wharf increased as more land was reclaimed.", "On 29 June 1843, Robert Campbell senior, of George Street, Sydney, mortgaged the wharf to The Australian Trust Company for for three years with interest. The area was specified as being 3 acres 3 roods as in the 1814 grant. The need to mortgage the wharf indicated two alternative strategies being applied by the family to their interest. One was that they were mobilising all their available assets for improvements to their property and business to create a better liquidity", ". Alternatively, the dating of the mortgage, in the wake of one of the most devastating financial depressions in early Australia, may indicate an attempt to salvage their business using their land as a source of working capital. Whatever the reason for the initial mortgage, it was renewed again and again in following decades, so that the Campbell family did not hold complete equity in the wharf again", ". There eventually appears to have been some dispute between the Campbells and later mortgagees who took over the loan in later years. Only in 1877, after taking the matter to the Supreme Court, were the Campbells to regain possession of Campbell's Wharf again.", "Robert Campbell senior was not to know anything of these travails regarding the wharf. On 11 October 1845, he drew up his will leaving his property in six parts to be divided amongst his sons John, Robert, Charles, George, and daughter Sophia Ives Campbell and Arthur Jeffreys, the husband of his daughter, Sarah. On 15 April 1846, Robert Campbell senior died at Duntroon.", "The first rate assessment of the City of Sydney taken in 1845 showed the following structures on Campbell's Wharf: a house, stores, warehouse and wharf valued at . At the \"north end of Campbell & Co wharf\" were three stores plus an office and store, all of three storeys, with slate roofs, valued at each, two of which were vacant and two occupied by Smith and Campbell. Additionally, there was a cottage for the overseer George Atherden, and an empty timber woolshed", ". Additionally, there was a cottage for the overseer George Atherden, and an empty timber woolshed. The stores identified here appear to be the older stone stores on the waterfront built in the 1820s and not the subject stores which were constructed in the early 1850s", ". Between 25 August 1851 and 27 September 1852, the Sydney City Council Rate Assessment Book shows that on Campbell's Wharf, J Campbell had added five stores which were built of stone, with slate roofs, all provisionally assessed at a net value per annum of . These are the first five bays of Campbell's Stores.", "The 1858 Rate Assessment Book shows that the three-storey stone warehouses on the water's edge from the 1820s were still extant. Amongst the array of other wharf buildings were five warehouses of stone with slate roofs, built as two storeys with two rooms in them. Three operate as warehouses while two are conducted as a combined warehouse and office, with four rooms. Soon afterwards, construction of additional warehouse bays commenced", ". Soon afterwards, construction of additional warehouse bays commenced. A photograph from the MF Moresby Album dated between 1856 and 1860 showed ten bays with the base of the eleventh bay under construction and awaiting its roof, as well as what appear to be construction materials in front of it", ". The construction of the additional bays is confirmed by the 1861 Rate Assessment Book which shows that a further six bays had been added to the five bays of the warehouse which were extant in 1858, making eleven bays in all. All bays are of two storeys with two rooms in each. This work is further confirmed by the 1865 Trig Survey of Sydney, completed by the City Council as the prelude to constructing sewers.", "As construction work on the stores was being completed, Robert Campbell junior died at Duntroon, on 30 March 1859 leaving his elder brother John in charge of the firm.", "A wide range of tenants took up warehouse space at Campbell's Wharf, some of them in Campbell's Stores. In 1858-59, Sands Directory lists the following at Campbell's Wharf: Campbell & Co; Sugar Company's stores; JC Dibbs & Co, commission agents and wharfingers; Robert Nash, storekeeper; WH Eldred, Capt, Chili Flour Co; Chilian Consulate - Consul, WH Eldred", ". In 1861, it shows: Campbell & Co; Colonial Sugar Refining Co, stores; Peruvian guano stores; George Lloyd & Co stores; Robey & Co's stores; George Lewis custom house officer; and WH Eldred, broker & general agent. In 1863, it shows: 4. Merry Willis and Co, merchants; 3. Henry Fisher & Son, sugar factors; 2. Brown & Co, merchants; 1. EM Sayers & Co, merchants; Robert Nash; WH Eldred, merchant; 4", ". Brown & Co, merchants; 1. EM Sayers & Co, merchants; Robert Nash; WH Eldred, merchant; 4. Joseph Kendall, marine surveyor; JA Buttrey & Co, merchants; 5 and 6, Daniel Thacker & Co, merchants; 22 Campbell's stores; and John Campbell, merchant. Commercial tenants continued to occupy the stores. A photograph of 1870 showed the eleven bays of the completed warehouse", ". A photograph of 1870 showed the eleven bays of the completed warehouse. As late as 1875, the cemetery which had been established on part of Campbell's land in the 1790s before he took possession of the site was still visible at the rear of the store, where a tombstone of a marine, John Jones, who died in 1792 could be made out.", "A description of Campbell's Wharf in November 1875 stated that it had a landing area of which was backed by 22 very strong stone stores which, along with two sheds on the wharf, could hold . An accompanying engraving based upon some of the extant photographs showed eleven bays of the stores which are two storeys high.\n\nRelationship with the Australasian Steam Navigation Company", "Negotiations for the purchase of Campbell's Wharf by the Australasian Steam Navigation Company (ASN Co.) appear to have been well advanced by early 1876. The company's old wharf at Sussex Street had become too small for its expanding trade and it needed a newer more central one. On 18 February 1876, the company applied to the Minister of Lands to extend Campbell's Wharf, which they had recently purchased, by running out jetties on piles into the harbour", ". An accompanying diagram showed that they had already reached the specified limit for reclamation from the harbour. Their application was approved on 1 May 1876. A plan was drawn by Surveyor Wansborough of reclaimed land claimed for purchase by ASN Co. on 19 October 1877.", "In May 1876, the ASN Co. was stated by the company secretary to have bought Campbell's Wharf for . Before the sale could be finalised there were some impediments in the title which the Campbells had to eliminate, most notably the outstanding mortgage from June 1843 now held by the Liverpool and London and Globe Insurance Company of Sydney. John Campbell applied for the purchase of reclaimed land in front of Campbell's Wharf, measuring 2 roods 5 perches on 6 January 1877", ". The plan by JF Mann dated 4 January 1877 which accompanied the application showed the water frontage and some buildings but not Campbell's Stores. The plan showed the original High Water Mark as being in front of the stores. Since no limit had been laid down for the High Water Mark in this area, the application was accepted.", "A detailed press report of November 1877 outlined the changes made by the ASN Co. to Campbell's Wharf. It built a new wharf, under the superintendence of Thomas Macredie. A wharf 320 feet long was under construction with two jetties long. A new road wide was planned to join George Street running in front of the Mariner's Church. For construction of the wharfs, turpentine was used for all timber exposed to seawater, while ironbark and other hardwoods were used for the braces, beams and planking", ". A seawall was built from stone quarried from the company's old works at Pyrmont, as was stone for its new offices. An accompanying illustration showed Campbell's Store with eleven bays and two storeys. A proposal of 1878 to extend George Street North through the land of the ASN Co. appears to have been linked with the development by the company. Between 1877 and 1878, the tenancy of the stores changed. In 1877, they were called 'Campbell's Bonded Stores'. In 1878, the Sands Directory showed the ASN Co", ". In 1878, the Sands Directory showed the ASN Co.'s wharf here. On the site was \"The Metcalfe Bond and Free Stores\" with D. Murray as the warehouse keeper. The stores retained the name \"Metcalfe Stores\" thereafter.", "John Campbell was permitted to receive a Grant by Purchase of Reclaimed Land under the Crown Lands Act of 1 acre 1 rood and 22 perches of land reclaimed from Sydney Cove in front of Campbell's Wharf for , and the grant was issued on 17 December 1878. On 4 July 1879, he formally transferred title to the reclaimed land to the ASN Co. In October 1879, the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company leased the southern part of the wharf at per annum", ". On 15 February 1881, a further lease of part of the wharf to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company was signed.", "Parts of the land that had formed Campbell's property were hived off. In January 1880, a strip of land was sold to the City Council for to widen George Street North. Land facing George Street was put in the hands of various auctioneers for sale. Richardson and Wrench offered 19 lots between Horse Ferry Road and George Street for sale on 15 October 1880. To the east were shown \"Metcalfe Bonded and Free Stores\" on the sale plan. The company secretary reported that in May 1881, the ASN Co", ". The company secretary reported that in May 1881, the ASN Co. had sold 'Campbell's Garden' for .", "The company let the former Campbell's Stores, now known as the Metcalfe Bond Stores, to a variety of tenants. In 1882, J Upward appeared in the Sands Directories as the proprietor of the \"Metcalfe Bonded Stores\". A photograph of \"Metcalfe Bonded and Free Stores\" dating from the early 1880s shows J. Upward as the proprietor while the building still had two storeys", ". Upward as the proprietor while the building still had two storeys. When a survey of the area was completed by Charles Bullock for the Surveyor-General in December 1882, his plan showed the buildings as \"Bonded and Free Stores\" with the Branch Store of the Government Printing Office at the northern end.", "In September 1884, the ASN Co. accepted a contract for £30,000 for the building of new offices and four stores on the site of Campbell's old house. The stores known as Campbell's Stores were not demolished, probably since they were still relatively modern in layout and design being then only a little over thirty years old. Probably to enable them to finance the work, the company took out a mortgage on 31 March 1885 to the Australian Mutual Provident Society of their land.", "Rather than demolish Campbell's Stores, the company enlarged them. H. P. Dove's plans drawn for insurance companies about 1882 showed the Metcalfe Bond as a two-storey masonry building, with eleven bays, with each divided into two floors, bond or free. When the revisions to these plans were published in 1887, his plans showed the Metcalfe Bond as now being of three floors. It was still of eleven bays, but an extra level to each bay ensured there were three rooms", ". It was still of eleven bays, but an extra level to each bay ensured there were three rooms. Interconnecting doors were shown within each group of three bays.", "These works were completed before major changes in the ownership of the wharf. By 1886, the ASN Co. had become over-extended due to its efforts to match the competition and prices of its rival shipping firms. A major tactical blunder had been the purchase of Campbell's Wharf and the subsequent cost of rebuilding the wharf", ". While it allowed the company to make some welcome profits from the capital values of the land, especially from the sale of the strip of land facing George Street, the relocation of the company away from its original base in Darling Harbour took it away from the hub of the coastal shipping trade. Additionally, it had to pay a higher cartage charge on its goods from Circular Quay", ". Additionally, it had to pay a higher cartage charge on its goods from Circular Quay. Matters became ever more difficult for the company so that it made an overture to the Queensland Steam Shipping Company on 30 October 1886, which resulted in the amalgamation of the two companies to form the Australasian United Steam Navigation Company. It took over all assets of the ASN Co. except the engineering works. The company already had adequate wharfage and found Campbell's Wharf redundant", ". The company already had adequate wharfage and found Campbell's Wharf redundant. On 21 May 1887, the Australasian Steam Navigation Company, then in liquidation, offered Campbell's Wharf to the government for . It had sold all of its steam ships. Most of the wharf was described as leased. The description of the wharf included amongst its listing \"Eleven 3-story [sic] stores built of brick on stone\", which were known as the Metcalfe Bond and were let to J. Upward at with a lease running until July 1890", ". Upward at with a lease running until July 1890. The government responded on 26 July 1887 that it was only willing to offer for the ASN wharf, an offer which was later accepted by the shareholders of the company.", "Ownership by the Crown", "On 27 September 1887, the Government Surveyor, S. E. Perdriau surveyed the land and found that it comprised 3 acres 10 perches, of which 1 acre 2 roods and 28 perches were part of the 1814 grant and 1 acre 1 rood 22 perches were included in the 1878 grant of reclaimed land. A plan which was filed with the papers for the sale to the government and probably prepared by Perdriau showed all the buildings on the site. The formal conveyance of the wharf from the ASN Co", ". The formal conveyance of the wharf from the ASN Co. to The Crown occurred on 28 October 1887, for . The plan accompanying the deed showed that part of Campbell's 1814 grant, along Lower George Street, had been sold to J. W. Cliffe and W. Clarke. It also showed all buildings on the site. The Metcalfe Stores was shown as partially built on the reclaimed land and not wholly on the 1814 grant.", "The government demolished most of the buildings to build a Navigation Board slipway, leaving only the Metcalfe Bond stores. It ejected the P & O Company from its lease and leased the land to Blackwall and Company who demolished the P & O buildings and built new ones, which were occupied in 1888 by Flood and Company.", "The 1889 Detail Survey showed an outline of the Metcalfe Bond stores. The 1895 version of the survey showed the outline of the stores shown with Branch Office, Government Printing Office at the northern end. Re-decking of the old ASN Co. wharf was undertaken by the Public Works Department in 1890 at a cost of . Upward & Co. of Circular Quay continued to lease the Metcalfe Stores, at least until 1901.", "In 1901, the Sydney Harbour Trust took over the Stores. The 1901 Darling Harbour Resumption Plan shows the Metcalfe Stores as Bond and Free Stores with a branch of the Government Printing Office at the northern end. The survey appears to be based upon the 1895 Detail Survey. The same year, the Sydney Harbour Trust came to an agreement with Norddeutscher Lloyd to build it a new wharf measuring wide, with offices and other buildings which the company would lease for three years at per annum", ". Associated with this work was the reconstruction of the twin piers into a substantial central jetty, with full length sheds. Also in 1901, the Sydney Harbour Trust compiled a Register of Assets, which described for the former Campbell's Wharf, \"Two large store stone and brick, slate roof each three floors. The Southern Store has eleven divisions built of stone and brick. The Northern Store has four divisions built of Stone\". A memo regarding the Northern Store stated To be demolished", ". A memo regarding the Northern Store stated To be demolished. The tenant of the Southern Store was given as \"Upward & Coy\" at per annum payable monthly. The Sydney Harbour Trust maintained the Metcalfe Stores and did not demolish it in the wholesale removal of buildings which accompanied the building of the Norddeutscher Lloyd wharf. In 1902, it undertook repairs costing to Metcalfe's Bond Store. Small repairs were shown in later reports.", "During the twentieth century, a series of other modifications have been made. In 1932, a fire broke out in the northern addition to the Metcalfe Bond stores which housed part of the Government Printing Office and the offices of Metcalfe and Upward. Metcalfe and Upward moved after the fire to the second floor in the centre of the stores. The brick section damaged by the fire was later rebuilt", ". The brick section damaged by the fire was later rebuilt. In 1958, the southernmost bay of the Metcalfe Stores was removed to allow construction of the Overseas Passenger Terminal, leaving ten bays.", "The move of commercial maritime activities out of Sydney Cove and into Darling Harbour and Pyrmont affected Campbell's Stores in the twentieth century. During the late nineteenth century, Circular Quay developed as a terminus for sightseers and day-trippers. The mix of commercial and recreational activities was causing Sydney Cove to become heavily congested, particularly at weekends", ". One of the first acts of the Harbour Trust after it gained control of the area in 1901 was an attempt to relieve congestion by the resumption of foreshore land and constructing two jetties and a longshore wharf on the eastern side of Bennelong Point. The eastern side of the quay was devoted to recreational traffic by the 1930s and was completely remodelled for that purpose in the 1950s, commercial activity continued in the vicinity of Campbell's Wharf into the late 1950s and early 1960s", ". Yet the importance of that area for commercial shipping had declined and this was reflected in changing use patterns of Campbell's Stores. After the erection of the Overseas Passenger Terminal in the 1960s, the area was no longer used as a commercial shipping area, as all such activity had moved to Darling Harbour and Pyrmont", ". Campbell's Stores subsequently came into the control of the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority (later Sydney Cove Authority) after being handed over by the Maritime Services Board (successor to the Sydney Harbour Trust) in the 1970s. The Sydney Cove Authority later redeveloped the stores and paved the way for the Store's current use as a restaurant area", ". In the mid-1980s, substantial works were undertaken in the vicinity of Campbell's Stores as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations that included the removal of some of the wharfage near Campbell's Stores. In 1998, the Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority assumed control of the area including the Campbell's Stores.", "Description", "The site comprises the land to the north to the Park Hyatt Hotel, to the harbour sea wall to the east, and to the south east covering the site of the original Campbell Stores building. The new Metcalfe Stores, on the site of the Campbell gardens, is a related site. Campbell's Stores comprise eleven gable fronted, three storey high rectangular plan bays. The bays are oriented almost due east west and, when constructed, were built partially on reclaimed land and were only about from the wharf edge", ". The building as a whole is oriented almost due north-south. The northernmost bay (Bay 11) is of different materials and construction to the other ten bays and was the last built being completed about 1890s. It abuts the homogenous series of ten bays which are immediately to the south. Bays 1-10 are almost identical measuring wide and long. Bays 1-10 have a continuous front (east facade) and rear (west facade) with openings in both", ". Bays 1-10 have a continuous front (east facade) and rear (west facade) with openings in both. The ground floor in all bays is presently a concrete slab while Level 2 and Level 3 floors are timber boards on timber joists. The simple roofs are slate sheathed with lead capping and copper-lined trough gutters. Bays 1-10 are sandstone constructions both internally and externally to the top of Level 2, with brick above, including the gable ends", ". The first five bays to be constructed were built in 1851/52 and are the present Bays 6-10. A further three bays, which are the present Bays 3-5 were completed around 1858 and the final three bays were finished by 1860. Of these last three bays, the southernmost and the final one to be completed was demolished in 1958 to make way for the first overseas shipping terminal at Circular Quay. This left two bays, now known as Bays 1 and 2, and the remaining eight to form the group known as the Campbell's Stores", ". The building was stepped up towards the south with a rise of about between Bays 1 and 2 and Bays 4 and 5, the change in level being most evident by the string course at gable level and the second level sill course. When originally completed the building was only two storeys high.", "Note: This building contains a hydraulic hoist and single cylinder gas engine which are important items located within the building.", "Style: Maritime Georgian; Storeys: 3; Facade: Sandstone (Bays 1-10) to the top of Level 2, with brick above, including the gable ends. Bay 11 is brick.; Side Rear Walls: Sandstone; Internal Walls: Sandstone; Roof Cladding: The roofs are slate sheathed with lead capping and copper-lined trough gutters; Floor Frame: The ground floor in all bays is a concrete slab while Level 2 & 3 floors are timber boards on timber joists; Roof Frame: Timber.\n\nCondition", "As at 24 May 2006, externally, the building is in fair condition: there are cracks in the walls and sandstone pointing is required. Internally, some sections of sandstone walling on the lowest level are in a highly deteriorated condition. Also, much alteration which has caused damage to or obscured significant fabric and fitout work has been undertaken. The Campbell's Stores site has potential archaeological, scientific and research significance relevant to earlier uses and the development of the site", ". Timber gantries have been removed and are in storage at 190 Cumberland Street. Preventative maintenance has been undertaken to the remaining timbers. Potential archaeological resource.", "Archaeology Assessment Condition: Partly disturbed. Assessment Basis: Terraced into hill slope from Campbells Cove. Investigation: Archaeological Assessment", "Modifications and dates", "Sometime between 1882 and 1887, the third level was added to the stores. Unlike the lower two levels, this addition was in dry pressed, well consolidated brick, laid in English bond. The stone gable end was completely removed and replaced with brick. In or 1915 an additional bay was built on the northern end. In 1958, the southern bay was demolished for the construction of the Overseas Passenger Terminal. Since then, Campbell Stores have undergone at least two adaptations", ". Since then, Campbell Stores have undergone at least two adaptations. The first was sometime before 1970 and little is known of it. The newly established SCRA oversaw the most fundamental change in usage of Campbell's Stores from commercial to tourist uses, and the greatest change in fabric since the addition of the third level in 1883", ". The restoration, commenced in 1974/75 and completed 1978/79 was one of the first major restoration projects in Sydney, and included replacement of damaged sandstone and construction of a service tunnel along the full length of the western side of the building. In general, the work done in the 1970s has remained unchanged until today. Some remedial work has been undertaken to stonework in poor repair since 1996.", "2015–2018 redevelopment \nIn 2011 discussions were initiated between Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority (SHFA) and a Joint Venture comprising Dockside and Imperial Peking restaurant group. Dockside and Imperial Peking restaurant group are the major lessees within the Campbell’s Stores.", "By letter dated 19 November 2012 the existing lessees put forward submissions to SHFA including a Financial Offer for the re-development of Campbell’s Stores. Existing lessees formed a Special Purpose Vehicle, Tallawoladah (Pty Limited) for the purposes of the submission and ongoing negotiations", ". Following SHFA’s review of the Tallawoladah Financial Offer, SHFA confirmed an in principle agreement to proceed by separating the building and public domain works, including the lowering of the Promenade with the lowering of the Promenade to be within the NSW Government’s scope and at their risk. The in principle agreement set out terms including rent, rent escalation and period of lease for an Agreement to Lease", "The proposed renovation included:", "Removal of intrusive exterior elements and internal fit-outs of little significance: The overall significance of the Campbell’s Stores is to be recaptured with the removal the 1980s shade canopies and sail ship masts from the eastern elevation that fronts the promenade to Campbell’s Cove, removal of the 1980s south brick wall duct to Bay 1, and removal of the glazed pavilion at the north end of the Campbell’s Stores, referred to as Bay 12", ". The interior of Campbell’s Stores is to be cleared of numerous kitchen and amenity areas, goods lifts, stairways and all services, including redundant air-conditioning.", "These works will improve the presentation of the Campbell’s Stores with enhanced visibility, particularly from the promenade and the harbour, as well as the exposure of internal fabric and the facilitation of required conservation.", "Conservation and reconstruction works: The existing sandstone building will be sensitively conserved to highlight and celebrate the historic contribution of the Campbell’s Stores to the settlement of Sydney. A range of remediation works will address the current deterioration of the Campbell’s Stores building, including upgrading the existing subfloor stormwater infrastructure, the forecourt pavement levels and the provision of subfloor ventilation", ". The works also include the conservation of deteriorated fabric, replacement of the slates to the roof, and reconstruction of redundant internal wall and floor openings.", "These form part of the conservation works established by SHFA (and their consultants) to reverse the existing deterioration of the original building fabric, including the sandstone walls, which will make a significant contribution to the delivery of the key recommendations contained within the Conservation Management Plan prepared by Godden Mackay Logan in 2014 (for SHFA) and endorsed by the Heritage Council.", "Adaptive reuse and revitalisation: The adaptive reuse of Campbell’s Stores includes improved through site public access, new amenities and new services’ infrastructure for future kitchen fit-outs. Proposed adaptive reuse will be complemented by a new stand-alone canopy along the forecourt for patron amenity, and a new stand-alone structure to the north, referred to as ‘Bay 12’, which allows for the integration of the Campbell’s Stores into the precinct of The Rocks.", "The proposed adaptive reuse of the existing building for restaurants, cafes and bars will complete the planned conservation of the Campbell’s Stores to an ongoing viable use for future generations. The continued use of the building for restaurants is in accordance with the recommendations of the Conservation Management Plan, which seeks to maximise public access to the Campbell’s Stores to enable an appreciation of its heritage significance by a broad range of visitors.", "Heritage listing \nAs at 24 February 2005, Campbell's Stores and site are of State heritage significance for their historical and scientific cultural values. The site and building are also of State heritage significance for their contribution to The Rocks area which is of State Heritage significance in its own right.", "Campbell's Stores are a superb example of mid-nineteenth century warehouse buildings, now rare in Sydney. They are the only warehouses of their type remaining on the foreshores of Sydney Cove, the hub of commerce and international shipping transport until the late nineteenth century. As a memorable and easily recognisable landmark in The Rocks, visible from a wide area of Sydney Harbour, they have iconic value as a symbol of mid nineteenth century Sydney", ". Campbell's Stores have historic significance for their association with the Campbell family, one of the earliest and most influential free immigrant families in Australia. They are the surviving element of a complex of wharves and stores that began in 1801 with the construction by Robert Campbell of the first privately owned wharf in Australia", ". Later significant associations include the Australasian Steam Navigation Company, one of the most important commercial shipping and transport companies in Australian, and the Sydney Harbour Trust, established by the Government following of the bubonic plague scares of 1901", ". Campbell Stores is significant for its association with commercial Bond and Free store usage for over one hundred and twenty years, with each successive owner, including the Sydney Harbour Trust and Maritime Services Board, leasing sections of the Stores to a variety of merchant companies.", "The changes made to Campbell's Stores provide evidence of the changing commercial fortunes of maritime Sydney. The construction of the first five bays demonstrate economic growth following the 1840s depression, and the additional six bays demonstrate further economic growth, following the 1850s gold rushes", ". The construction of the third level by the ASN Co in the mid 1880s demonstrates a further period of economic growth and also of a change in the functional operation of the Stores, as evidenced by the inter-connection of the top floor spaces.", "The adaptive reuse of the building in the 1970s represents an early approach to the conservation of historic buildings. The continued subsequent use of the building for a series of restaurants demonstrates the changing uses of Sydney Cove from industrial purposes to largely tourist-related purposes. The design, form and materials of Campbell's Stores contribute to their aesthetic significance as a complex of buildings of high visual and sensory appeal", ". Their design elements reflect their original function in a simple but dignified manner. Their form is a coherent whole, made up of repetitive gabled bays combined with an undulating rhythm of door and window openings. The consistent use of sandstone, brick and slate materials reinforces this visual coherence and provides an appearance of solidity and quality.", "Campbell's Stores represent a surviving example of mid nineteenth century style warehouses; a building type once common around Sydney Cove, but now rare. The gabled bay form, cathead beams, hoists, goods aprons and doors are evidence of an older warehouse style. The form, bars on openings and lack of internal connections between bays evidence the security required for bond store use.", "Campbell's Stores have social significance for their contemporary role in cultural tourism. They are esteemed as an historic icon by Sydney-siders as well as international and domestic tourists, due to their appearance, location and use. Campbell's Stores have technical/research significance because of their potential to contribute further to our understanding of the early maritime activity around Sydney Cove and, in particular, within the Campbell's Wharf complex", ". They also have the ability to contribute further to our understanding of the use and operations of mid-nineteenth century warehouse buildings, particularly in relation to goods handling and the changes in technology that occurred over time. The remnant hoisting equipment of the Campbell's Stores building provides evidence of the changes of technology in goods handling and haulage that occurred during the nineteenth and twentieth century", ". The hydraulic hoisting equipment and the winches in particular are evocative of the industrial nature of the site and the hydraulic hoists are prominent examples within the Sydney area. They demonstrate the scale and efficiency of the industrial processes undertaken at Campbell's Stores during its use as dockside goods storage.", "High Significance Fabric: Original fabric from the first three phases of construction (up to ). Industrial items including the hydraulic hoist are also of high significance.", "Medium Significance Fabric: Bay 11 (Branch Stores Government Printer) , Bay 10 alterations made to facilitate the construction of Hickson Road, . New door openings made on Level 2 as a result of the construction of Hickson Road in . Low Significance Fabric: Reconstruction of fabric as part of 1970s restoration program (e.g. sandstone restoration of eastern ground floor facade). Fabric introduced to provide for new uses in 1970s works (e.g. service tunnel at rear, original restaurant, adaptation work, etc.)", ".g. service tunnel at rear, original restaurant, adaptation work, etc.).", "Campbell's Stores was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.\n\nThe place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.", "Campbell's Stores are a rare example of mid nineteenth century warehousing in Sydney and the only of its type remaining on the foreshores of Sydney Cove. Campbell's Stores provide evidence of the changing nature of activities around Sydney Cove, the importance of this area as the hub of commerce and international shipping transport until the late nineteenth century, and its recent role as a cultural focus of international importance", ". The construction of the first five bays of Campbell's Stores in 1851-52 demonstrate the improved and changing commercial fortunes of Sydney and the Campbell family from the late 1840s after the earlier depression. The construction of the additional six bays between 1858 and 1861 demonstrate further economic growth and the impact of the 1851 gold rushes, that resulted in an increased colonial population and the need in Sydney and NSW for commercial storage", ". The construction of the third level of Campbell's Stores by the Australasian Steam Navigation Company in the mid 1880s demonstrates a further period of commercial confidence in Sydney during a highly competitive period when the expansion and absorption of companies was reshaping the corporate structures of New South Wales shipping", ". The withdrawal of the ASN Co from Campbell's Stores in the late 1880s reflects the increasing dominance of Darling Harbour as the principal area of commercial shipping activity in Sydney. The hydraulic hoists and winches fixed to the building demonstrate some of the technological changes in late nineteenth-century handling of goods.", "The external fabric of the Campbell's Stores demonstrates four phases of technological change in the handling of goods in and around the building. The loading doors on the two lower levels and the cat-head beams of the manual handling phase were in use during most of the nineteenth century. The presence of loading doors on both levels demonstrates that each space, on the upper and lower levels of the bays, were separate from one another", ". The installation of hydraulic hoisting equipment following the addition of the third level to the Campbell Stores illustrates the goods handling and haulage technology introduced in the late nineteenth century. The hydraulic rams, the gas engine-driven winch and the two motor-driven winches were integral to the efficiency of third floor and demonstrate the development in hoisting equipment from the traditional cat-head hoist at the turn of the century", ". The internal layout of the Campbell's Stores clearly demonstrates the importance of the lifting devices to the efficiency of operations on all levels. By the twentieth century, all of level three of the Campbell's Store building was served by mechanical lifting equipment, and previously separate bays were linked by openings in the walls on the upper level.", "The acquisition of Campbell's Stores by the Government in 1887 is evidence of a broader government interest in controlling infrastructure and utilities, increasing interest in this area as a base for its own maritime activities. Evidence of the Government acquisition is provided by the establishment of the Branch Stores Office of the Government Printing Office, adjacent to the northern end of Campbell's Stores (now Bay 11)", ". The construction of Hickson Road and its impact on Campbell's Stores is evidence of work of the Sydney Harbour Trust and the changes that occurred in this area as a result of the bubonic plague scares of 1901. Evidence of the construction of Hickson Road is found in the alterations to the west facade of Bay 10 and the current alignment of Bay 11", ". Campbell Stores are significant for their association with commercial Bond and Free Store usage for over one hundred and twenty years from 1851 to , with each successive owner, including the Sydney Harbour Trust and Maritime Services Board, leasing sections of the Stores to a variety of merchant companies", ". The demolition of the southernmost bay of Campbell's Stores to facilitate construction of the elevated roadway for the Overseas Passenger Terminal development is evidence of a shift away from the traditional usage of this area. The fabric and use changes instigated by the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority in the early 1970s are further evidence of the increasing importance of The Rocks as a tourist destination and cultural area and an interest in historic buildings generally", ". This was one of the first major adaptive reuse and restoration projects undertaken in Sydney and it reflects the philosophical approach to conservation at the time. The existence of Campbell's Stores is indicative of the success of the \"green bans\" in the 1970s which prevented the wholesale redevelopment of The Rocks. The changes that have occurred since the 1970s in the fit-out of the leased areas for restaurant use reflect different aspirations and approaches to the recycling of historic buildings", ". The interior of the Waterfront Restaurant reflects an \"historic\" maritime character, the 'Imperial Peking'; and the \"Italian Village\" are based on a transformation of character using Asian and European cultural imagery, while respectively, \"Wolfies\" involves a contemporary fit-out which retains more of the original spatial character and finishes than the other examples.", "The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.", "Campbell's Stores are associated with the Campbell family, one of the first free immigrant families in Australia and one of the most influential. Campbell's Stores are a surviving element of an evolving complex of wharves and stores that began with the construction by Robert Campbell (Sen), the founder of the dynasty, of the first privately owned wharf in Australia, in 1801", ". Although Campbell's Stores were not built for Robert Campbell (Sen), they was erected for the firm he created which was then managed by his sons. The first five bays of Campbell's Stores demonstrate the consolidation of this pioneer commercial dynasty rather than the pioneering phase of that family's growth. Campbell's Stores were associated with one of the most important commercial shipping and transport companies in Australian history, the ASN Co", ". The construction of the third level of Campbell's Stores by the ASN Co. in the mid 1880s demonstrates the company's commercial confidence in Sydney. The withdrawal of the ASN Co. from Campbell's Stores in the late 1880s reflects the financial over-extension of the Company. The technology in use in the operation of the hydraulic hoisting equipment and winch is associated with the Clyde Industries Group, one of the earliest and largest manufacturing organisations in Australian history", ". The large wheels of the winches mounted on Level 3 in Bays 3 and 9, each bear an embossed inscription bearing the words \"Hudson Brothers Limited Clyde\". Hudson Brothers dominated the Australian manufacturing industry in the late nineteenth century and was later amalgamated into Clyde Engineering Co Ltd, responsible for rolling stock, steam locomotives and, most famously, the structural steel for the northern approaches to the Sydney Harbour Bridge.", "The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.", "Campbell's Stores are a superb example of mid-nineteenth century warehouse buildings; a building type now rare in Sydney. They have iconic value as a representation of early Sydney, particularly in the area around Sydney Cove and The Rocks. The iconic value of their distinctive form is evidenced by their adoption as the logo of the Sydney Cove Authority", ". They have landmark value as a dominant and easily recognisable form that is visible from a wide area of Sydney Harbour, the Harbour Bridge and North Sydney. The design, form and materials of Campbell's Stores contribute to a complex of buildings of high visual and sensory appeal. Their design reflects and describes the buildings' original function in a simple but dignified manner", ". Their form is a coherent whole made up of repetitive gabled bays combined with an undulating rhythm of door and window openings. The consistent use of sandstone, brick and slate materials reinforces this visual coherence and provides an appearance of solidity and quality. Campbell's Store have aesthetic significance at a technical level because their form and design details allow for an understanding of their original use", ". They also represent a surviving example of older style warehouses; a building type once common around Sydney, but now rare. The gabled bay form, cat-head beams, hoists, goods aprons and doors are typical of the older, mid-nineteenth century, warehouse buildings. The gabled bay form, external staircases, bars on openings and lack of internal connections between bays (on Levels 1 and 2) evidence its bond store use. This required secure and segregated spaces, not only between bays but also between levels", ". This required secure and segregated spaces, not only between bays but also between levels. The cat-head beams, goods aprons, pulleys, loading doors, hydraulic hoisting equipment and winches are demonstrative of the change from manual handling of goods to the use of hydraulic and other mechanical technology at Campbell's Stores during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries", ". The use of hydraulic hoisting equipment and mechanical winches became an integral part of the operations of the Stores, following the addition of a third level in the late nineteenth century. The hydraulic hoisting equipment and winches in particular are a prominent aesthetic element of the Campbell's Stores and are evocative of the industrial origins of this dockside site in Sydney Harbour", ". The functional design of the third level of the Campbell Stores is significant as it represents a transition in usage between the older style traditional warehouse form of self contained unit bays and the later, larger, warehouses with interconnected spaces. The adaptation of the earlier warehouse illustrates the application of new technology to an older building form", ". The original internal spatial volumes, timber floor and roof structure and other fabric associated with the original usage of Campbell's Stores is also significant as evidence of their warehouse use and of changes made to them over time for that use. The technology evident in this building such as the hydraulic hoisting equipment is evidence of technical innovation.", "The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.", "Campbell's Stores have social significance within the contemporary community resulting from their role in cultural tourism. They are esteemed as a well known and easily identifiable historic icon by Sydney-siders as well as international and domestic tourists. Its high level of recognition is due, in part, to its location in one of the key recreational and tourist areas in Sydney and because of its popular restaurant use and resultant public exposure", ". Its greatest exposure, though, is to the thousands of ferry commuters who pass by it daily on their way to and from work in the city.", "The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.", "Campbell's Stores have the potential to contribute further to our understanding of the early maritime operation that occurred around Sydney Cove, and in particular within the Campbell's complex (see Section 4.0). They also have the potential to contribute further to our understanding of the use and operations of mid-nineteenth century warehouse buildings, particularly in the area of goods handling and the changes in technology that occurred over time", ". The Campbell's Stores site has potential archaeological, scientific and research significance relevant to earlier uses and the development of the site. The archaeological significance may have been reduced due to disturbance from later alterations and refurbishment works to the site.", "The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.\n\nCampbell's Stores are a rare example of mid nineteenth century warehousing in Sydney and the only building of its type remaining on the foreshores of Sydney Cove and Sydney Harbour. The collection of late nineteenth-century goods handling equipment is a rare assembly of different types of such equipment in a single location, providing a unique opportunity for comparison and interpretation.", "The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.", "Campbell's Stores demonstrates the evolution and importance of Sydney Cove for maritime trading activities. The building is representative of a class of similar masonry warehouses that were once common on the shores of Sydney Harbour. The changes demonstrate the evolution of increasingly large warehouses in the second half of the nineteenth century, and the activities of the former Sydney Harbour Trust. The materials and construction are representative of mid-nineteenth century warehouses", ". The materials and construction are representative of mid-nineteenth century warehouses. It provides evidence for the lifting and storage of goods in nineteenth century maritime trade.", "The exterior of the Campbell's Stores Building displays the hydraulic hoisting equipment in use during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The hydraulic hoisting equipment is representative of a range of similar equipment in use in Sydney at the turn of the nineteenth century. The gas engine-driven winch and the motor driven winches are representative of the type scale and technology of mechanical lifting devices of the late nineteenth century in Australia", ". The winches manufactured by Hudson Brothers is representative of a wide range of mechanical equipment manufactured by this company for the domestic industrial market.", "See also \n\nAustralian non-residential architectural styles\nAustralasian Steam Navigation Company\nOverseas Passenger Terminal\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nAttribution\n\nExternal links", "References\n\nBibliography\n\nAttribution\n\nExternal links \n\nNew South Wales State Heritage Register\nThe Rocks, New South Wales\nCommercial buildings in New South Wales\nRestaurants in Sydney\nPubs in Sydney\nOffice buildings in Sydney\nRetail buildings in New South Wales\nArticles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register\n1861 establishments in Australia\nCommercial buildings completed in 1861\nNew South Wales places listed on the defunct Register of the National Estate" ]

[ "In July 2012, a storyline began in the British soap opera EastEnders in which the character Kat Moon, played by Jessie Wallace, embarks on an affair behind her husband Alfie Moon's (Shane Richie) back, with an unknown person. The suspects named were Ray Dixon (Chucky Venn), Michael Moon (Steve John Shepherd), Max Branning (Jake Wood), Derek Branning (Jamie Foreman) and Jack Branning (Scott Maslen). Ray was the first suspect to be eliminated, on 7 August, followed by Michael on 14 September", ". Ray was the first suspect to be eliminated, on 7 August, followed by Michael on 14 September. The mystery man was revealed as Derek in the 20 December episode. Richie dubbed the storyline \"Who's Been Sleeping with Kat?\", while critics referred to it is \"the who-copped-off-with-Kat saga\", \"Who Banged Kat?\", \"Who Shagged Kat?\" and the \"Kat Mystery Lover storyline\".", "The storyline received a mixed response from television critics. An Inside Soap reporter called it \"soap like we've never seen it before\" and the magazine's editor, Steven Murphy, said he was \"totally obsessed\" with the storyline, while Ellie Henman from Heat called it \"possibly one of the most gripping\" EastEnders storylines. Soaplife called it \"boring\" and \"ill-conceived\", and said that Kat's character had been damaged by the storyline", ". Kate White from Inside Soap found it \"hard to have sympathy\" with Kat, Sarah Dempster from The Guardian said it was a \"tedious\" storyline that \"nobody cares\" about, and Kevin O'Sullivan from the Daily Mirror called it \"dreadful\", \"ludicrous\" and \"far fetched\", citing similarities with a 2009 storyline in which Heather Trott (Cheryl Fergison) gets pregnant by an unknown man. Sophie Dainty from Digital Spy said the reveal was predictable and criticised the show for not explaining why Kat had the affair.", "Plot", "When Alfie Moon (Shane Richie), landlord of The Queen Victoria pub, decides to start a pub football team, he struggles to get people to sign up. His wife Kat Moon (Jessie Wallace) takes over as manager and flirts to get people to sign up. After the first match, they host a party and Kat flirts with her chef Ray Dixon (Chucky Venn), former lover Michael Moon (Steve John Shepherd) and brothers Max (Jake Wood), Jack (Scott Maslen) and Derek Branning (Jamie Foreman), sharing a close moment with each of them", ". While in the kitchen alone, an unseen person enters and he and Kat have sex. She feels guilty the next day and tries to ignore his calls and text messages. She finally responds to a phone call and meets him to ask him to leave her alone. However, as he walks away she changes her mind and they continue the affair. She then fears Alfie will find out so tries to end the affair again. Her lover sends her a mobile phone to contact him on, but she bins it", ". Her lover sends her a mobile phone to contact him on, but she bins it. However, when a romantic evening with Alfie goes wrong, she retrieves the phone and contacts her lover. She later receives a key to a nearby flat, and when Alfie pays more attention to the organisation of the football team, Kat heads to the flat to meet her lover, who is waiting. The affair continues with Alfie clueless. Kat hears that a fight has broken out between members of the football team, and fears that the truth has come out", ". However, it has not. The fight spills over into The Queen Victoria, and later, Kat tends to her lover's wounds. Alfie catches them but is none the wiser. The mystery man later leaves Kat a bandage with \"I love you\" written on in lipstick. Kat hides it in with some laundry. Alfie then asks Kat to move out following an outbreak of bed bugs in the pub. She does not want to go as she does not want to continue her affair, but she cannot resist", ". She does not want to go as she does not want to continue her affair, but she cannot resist. Alfie later finds the bandage, but assumes it is from Kat and sends her a message in the pub's window saying \"I love you 2\". Kat later ignores her lover's messages, and he tells her that he has got the message—that she is no longer interested. She throws away the key, but it is found by Jean Slater (Gillian Wright), who leaves it on the bar, thinking it belongs to a punter", ". Kat then takes it and later meets her lover at the flat. Kat ends up staying the night and gets her friend Kim Fox (Tameka Empson) to cover for her the next day. Kat receives flowers from her lover, and tells Alfie they are from her father, Charlie Slater (Derek Martin). Kat angrily telephones her lover, telling him she will always contact him. Alfie then grows suspicious, as Charlie would not send roses to Kat, and asks her to be honest with him. Kat then admits to having an affair", ". Kat then admits to having an affair. Alfie demands to know the details but Kat refuses to tell him who her lover is. Alfie ejects Kat from their home, where she meets Michael, to whom she discloses the affair. He urges Kat to fix her relationship, so she goes back to Alfie and says she will do anything to make it right. He gets her to phone her lover and tell him that the affair is over for good. After this, she smashes her phone and the couple go away on a \"make or break\" holiday.", "When they return, they find that their landlord Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden) has taken over the pub. He sacks them and forces them to move out. Kat pawns her mother's ring to pay rent to Phil, but he refuses to let them back so she tells him she is trying to fix her marriage following her affair, so he changes his mind. Kat then receives an envelope with a key and a note. She returns to the flat and writes \"Kat loves Alfie\" on the mirror in lipstick", ". She returns to the flat and writes \"Kat loves Alfie\" on the mirror in lipstick. When Derek, Jack and Max notice that Kat has had to pawn her mother's engagement ring, one of them buys it back for £2500 as a gift for her. However, it seems the affair is over until Kat receives the gift of a watch, with a note saying \"Miss you. Time we got together again x\". Kat's lover tries to convince her to meet him at the bedsit, but when she arrives, she erases his message of love from the mirror, and bins the key", ". However, he then pays for Alfie to go on a trip to Germany to buy Christmas supplies, texting Kat that he now has her to himself. She then receives a candle from him, with a note saying to light it in an upstairs window so he knows when to visit. She throws it away, but Jean inadvertently lights another one. Kat extinguishes it, but it is too late as her lover arrives and knocks on the cellar door, but Kat does not open it.", "After Alfie returns from Germany, Jean tells him to buy scented candles as Kat used one while he was away. He asks Kat where she got it from and she lies that it was from the local shop but he discovers they do not sell them. He then finds out Kat closed the pub early one night because it was \"quiet\" but worries it may have been for another reason. He then finds the ring that Kat pawned and asks Jean if she or Charlie lent Kat money, but they did not, and the pawnbroker refuses to tell him who bought it", ". The next day, he is suspicious when Kat leaves the pub and tells Michael that she is untrustworthy. Michael says Kat would not cheat again, revealing he knew about the affair, but he does not know who Kat was seeing. Alfie is in turmoil when Michael advises him not to pursue his suspicions. Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons) finds a key on the bar and leaves it in a glass, but Alfie later notices it has gone. As he hides a Christmas present in Kat's jewellery box, he finds the key hidden there with the ring", ". He then leaves, claiming he will be away overnight, and asks Jean and Roxy to look after the bar so Kat can have the night off. Roxy tells the three Branning brothers that Alfie is away, and shortly after, Kat receives a phone call. She heads out, unaware that Alfie is watching. Alfie watches Kat enter the bedsit and kicks the door open, where he sees lit candles and rose petals. He looks for Kat's lover but she is alone", ". He looks for Kat's lover but she is alone. He demands to know who she is seeing, reminding her that she claimed her lover lived miles away. Kat insists this was her only lie and says the affair is over but her lover kept pestering her and threatening to tell Alfie. Alfie brings out Kat's mother's ring and asks how her lover knew about it if she had not seen him. Kat reveals she had not seen him alone, so Alfie realises it is someone he knows", ". Kat reveals she had not seen him alone, so Alfie realises it is someone he knows. Alfie decides to stay until he arrives, but then sees a rental agreement. Kat quickly sets fire to it, but Alfie sees the name Mr Branning. She tells Alfie she refused to let the man in while he was in Germany, and refuses to reveal which of the three Branning brothers it is. Alfie says she makes him sick and goes to The Queen Victoria to find out the truth", ". Alfie says she makes him sick and goes to The Queen Victoria to find out the truth. While Kat searches for her phone in the bedsit, all three Branning brothers deny everything to Alfie. Kat then phones one of them and Alfie answers. Kat panics and runs to the pub. Alfie then returns the phone to its owner, Max, and attacks him. Kat stops Alfie, saying he has the wrong person. Alfie asks who it is, and Kat points at Derek smugly lighting a cigar.", "Alfie throws Kat out of the pub and Derek persuades her to go home with him, believing they can stay a couple but she insists she loves Alfie. Kat discovers that Derek has saved all her messages and is determined to play Alfie the last voicemail she left, in which she told Derek to leave her alone. Derek persuades her to let him do it, but he plays a different message and claims Kat has been pursuing him. Alfie punches Derek and gives him his wedding ring", ". Alfie punches Derek and gives him his wedding ring. Derek then tells Kat that Alfie is not interested and hands her the ring. On Christmas Day, Alfie tells Kat that he has moved on from her. Kat attends a Branning family dinner with Derek. She discovers Derek played Alfie the wrong message and has now deleted them all, so slaps him. Derek has a huge argument with Max and Jack and they force him out of the house with the help of Derek's son Joey Branning (David Witts), while Kat watches on", ". He then suffers a heart attack on the street as everyone walks away, and dies. Alfie divorces Kat. On the rebound, he marries Roxy, but leaves her on their wedding day, with Roxy's blessing, after realising he still loves Kat.", "Development", "Initial announcement", "On 6 June 2012, it was announced that Kat would embark on a long-running mystery affair with another Albert Square resident after becoming bored with the lack of attention at home. The identity of the mystery man was kept secret from the cast and crew, as well as viewers, and all scenes of Kat with her lover were filmed with an extra. Speaking of the storyline, Executive Producer Lorraine Newman said: \"The consequences are not only great for Kat and Alfie, but also for each individual suspect", ". The audience will join the cast and crew guessing across the summer and autumn as we eliminate the suspects one at a time, leading to one almighty explosion.\" Inside Soap said the storyline would become \"the biggest summer mystery in soap.\" After the storyline was announced, five suspects were revealed as potential love interests for Kat: Ray Dixon (Chucky Venn), Michael Moon (Steve John Shepherd), Max Branning (Jake Wood), Derek Branning (Jamie Foreman) and Jack Branning (Scott Maslen)", ". It was reported that the storyline would be part of a \"big year\" and be as gripping as the \"Who Shot Phil?\" storyline from 2001, \"with hints and red herrings all over the place to keep us guessing\".", "Wallace commented on the storyline, \"Before my break I had the baby-swap storyline, and towards the end of last year [2011], Kat was becoming very downtrodden. Now she's back on the scene fighting fit—it's almost like when Kat first showed up in 2000. She's come back with those feisty, tarty, funny and slightly cold sides she had", ". She's come back with those feisty, tarty, funny and slightly cold sides she had. It's actually a new Kat!\" She later told Inside Soap that the storyline was \"really exciting\", calling it \"cleverly written so no one knows who Kat's secret lover is—not even me or the mystery man himself. I love coming into work every day and discovering even more brilliant twists to the plot!\" She added, \"Everyone is going to love the excitement of the storyline", ". The scriptwriters have been brilliant at putting everyone in the frame. I can't wait to find out who it is!\", and said that Kat loves being the centre of attention when she charms each of the suspects to join the football team, especially as her marriage to Alfie has lost its spark. She said that \"Alfie has always loved Kat's sexy side, so he doesn't see any harm in [her flirting with other men]. It's just that Kat doesn't think he has the same interest in her that he used to", ". It's just that Kat doesn't think he has the same interest in her that he used to. Alfie just seems content with domestic life, and the passion has gone.\" Speaking of Kat's motivation for the affair, Wallace told Inside Soap that \"Kat feels deflated, as [she and Alfie] haven't had much alone time lately, but her mood is soon lifted when she hears the football lads chanting her name and goes back down to the bar. Later, she's cleaning in the kitchen when someone walks in", ". Later, she's cleaning in the kitchen when someone walks in. At first she thinks it's Alfie, but she's surprised to see it's one of the other team members. She invites him in—and one thing leads to another...\"", "Later development; first elimination", "Talking about the episode showing Kat's lover providing them with a flat to use, an EastEnders source told Inside Soap that Kat tries to resist him, but although she knows it is wrong, she cannot help herself. They said the flat \"really elavates things to a new level. This isn't just a dalliance any more—it's a full blown affair!\" Later, Alfie finds a key to the flat, about which a show source said, \"It's a foolish mistake, and it could well end up being Kat's undoing", ". With Alfie in possession of this key, the man can't get access to the flat—and if Alfie spots Kat with the same key, he'll be stunned.\" It was reported that the first suspect would be eliminated in the week of 4 August 2012, with an insider saying \"There'll be a moment with the penny drops—and we'll all cry 'It isn't him!' It'll be a very simple moment, but utterly conclusive.\" They added, \"at least eliminating someone at this stage will shorten the odds on the other four candidates", ". The intrigue is intense!\". All About Soap said that viewers would be \"stunned\". Ray was eliminated in the episode broadcast on 7 August, when he was shown interrupting a phone call between Kat and her lover. In mid-August, Newman said that the identity of Kat's lover would be revealed \"in the coming weeks\".", "Discussing the fight that breaks out involving Alfie and the suspects, among others, a source from the show told Inside Soap that \"Kat's heart is in her mouth! Everyone she cares about is involved\", adding, \"Who knows where it could end—and what might be said.\" Kat's lover leaves a bandage with \"I love you\" written on it, and the source said this means the affair is turning into something more serious, \"[making] it even more messy\"", ". They added \"There are interesting times ahead\", but said that nobody else would be eliminated at that time, and the stand-in was still used for filming. The source later said that the affair was \"turning into more than just sex\" and that Kat's lover \"seems to be giving Kat something that Alfie can't—and that's bad news for the Moons' marriage.\" Speaking of Kat and Alfie's relationship and the fact that Alfie finds the bandage, they said, \"Alfie hasn't got any idea at all about what Kat's up to [..", "...] so he isn't looking out for signs that she's cheating on him. In fact, he thinks they're in a good place right now. Finding the [bandage] might not have the impact Kat's fearing. If only Alfie opened his eyes, it might dawn on him that this sudden declaration of love scrawled in lipstick is quite bizarre, to say the least.\"", "Reveal to Alfie; second elimination", "In early September, it was reported that Kat would confess the affair to Alfie, but would refuse to name the man involved. Shane Richie spoke to Inside Soap, saying that Alfie has no reason to believe Kat is cheating on him, assumes she is just partaking in harmless flirtation, and fully trusts her. He opined that Alfie believes Kat would not lie to him after having affairs in the past, but does not believe her excuses when she receives flowers from her lover. This leads to Kat confessing", ". This leads to Kat confessing. Richie said that Alfie's \"heart [would] break in two\". Richie went on to describe the Moons' marriage as \"a bit staid\" because Alfie is \"set in his ways\" while Kat is \"out looking for a bit of fun.\" He explained that Alfie is very committed to Kat, and is \"in this marriage for the long run.\" He said that viewers may not want to see Kat and Alfie totally happy, describing them as \"like Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor [..", "...] They can't be with each other and they can't be without each other.\" He then promised that \"what happens to Alfie next is absolutely great!\" When asked what Alfie might do when he finds out who Kat is having the affair with, Richie said that he would get revenge, as \"everyone forgets Alfie's been in jail", ". Marriage has taken off his edge, but if he finds out his wife has been with one of his closest friends, well, any bloke would want to cut the other blokes knackers [testicles] off, wouldn't he?\" Richie added that the cast were \"thrilled\" with the storyline, saying that everyone involved is enjoying it. It was confirmed that viewers would not find out who Kat was having the affair with at this time, and that suspects would still be eliminated one at a time", ". Inside Soap then reported that a second suspect would be eliminated \"very soon\". Michael was then eliminated in the episode broadcast on 14 September, when Kat confessed her affair to him.", "Richie was interviewed in Soaplife and said that he thought it was important that no characters knew about the affair before Alfie did, because \"if Kat had confided in anyone that would mug Alfie off. He honestly never expected her to cheat again after everything they've been through.\" Asked if Alfie brought it on himself by not paying Kat enough attention, Richie said that he did not, and finding out leaves him shocked, heartbroken and angry, as he thinks they are making their marriage work", ". He said that Alfie is a one-woman man and if Alfie had cheated on Kat, \"it would be the end of his world [...]. He does genuinely believe in marriage.\" Asked if Alfie could forgive Kat, Richie said that although Alfie has always done so in the past, \"it's different [this time] so we'll have to wait and see.\" He stated that Kat's affair might be because she loves adventure and Alfie is more \"set in his ways\"", ". He said that what happens next is \"great\", the storyline leading up to Christmas 2012 was \"full on\" and that the scripts were \"getting the old acting juices going\".", "Further development", "Following the reports that Alfie would discover the affair, it was reported that several different storyline endings had been filmed, but that Wallace had been told the identity of Kat's lover, with a show source saying: \"The time felt right to finally tell Jessie, but she is still one of only a handful of people who knows the answer to the question on everyone's lips. [Show producer] Lorraine [Newman] was adamant this story was going to stay quiet for as long as possible", ". She has done everything in her power to let it play out on screen with total secrecy behind the scenes. It's created a real buzz as everyone's been trying to figure out who Kat's been bedding. Up until now, none of the cast were in the know, not even her on-screen lover. It really has been that cloak and dagger", ". Richie revealed that Wallace had found not knowing the identity of Kat's lover \"frustrating\" but that she was \"torn between whether she wanted to know or not, because if she had known, she was frightened she might give it away by just a look\", while Richie himself was happy not to know, \"because Alfie was in the same position\", adding that both actors were \"happy to let it play out, though, because Kat flirts outrageously with all three Branning brothers", ", though, because Kat flirts outrageously with all three Branning brothers, so we wanted the audience to make up their own minds about who the mystery lover was", ".\"", "It was reported that in late November 2012, Kat's lover would \"turn stalker\", with Inside Soap saying that \"there is no way that the mystery man is letting her get away so easily [after she tries to end the affair]. That's proved when he ups his game to get Kat to meet with him at their lovenest\". An insider told the magazine that Kat's man is \"persistent, ruthless and utterly fixated on her. This could be a very dangerous game for Kat to play", ". This could be a very dangerous game for Kat to play. Might the man who loves her completely destroy her life?\" It was also reported in November that Derek would be killed off from the series at Christmas, and it was speculated that he would be murdered", ". Alfie and Kat were both named as suspects, amongst many others, with Soaplife saying that if Derek is Kat's lover, he might turn violent if she continues to reject him and she might be forced to kill him, or Alfie might find out that Derek is Kat's lover and murder him in revenge, referring back to Richie's reminders that Alfie had been in jail and would want to harm Kat's lover. In fact, Alfie quickly became the favourite with bookmakers William Hill.", "Reveal", "In November 2012, a show source told Inside Soap that Christmas 2012 would \"bring serious drama to the Moons\" with the reveal of the mystery man's identity and the aftermath: \"the consequences will be felt across the Square. Who could blame Alfie if he kicked Kat to the kerb? She has treated him appallingly.\" It was revealed Kat would reveal the identity of her lover during an episode in which Kat and Alfie argue, Alfie attacks one of the suspects and Kat shouts that he has the wrong brother", ". An EastEnders source told the Daily Star: \"It's the question that has been on everyone's lips for months—who is Kat's secret lover? The big revelation was always going to be in the Queen Vic in front of everyone and it will not disappoint. Jessie [Wallace] and Shane [Richie] are both brilliant and this is one episode viewers will not want to miss. Alfie goes for one of the Branning brothers as he is convinced it's him who's been sleeping with his wife", ". Kat storms through the pub as he's got him on the floor and reveals the truth. We all got goosebumps as she yelled the line, 'You've got the wrong brother' [...] It really is classic [East]Enders.\" The source added, \"Sadly it doesn't look like [Kat and Alfie will] be able to get over this one.\" EastEnders confirmed that viewers would discover the identity of Kat's lover in the episode broadcast on 20 December 2012. Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said it would be a \"dramatic climax\" to the storyline", ". Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said it would be a \"dramatic climax\" to the storyline. On being told who Kat's lover is, Richie said he understood and found it clever, though he had previously thought it would be Michael or Ray. Richie told Radio Times that Alfie is still in denial about the affair but becomes Kat's \"stalker\", following her to the bedsit. He then pieces the evidence together and realises Kat is having an affair with someone he knows.", "Richie spoke to Inside Soap about Alfie's reaction, saying that when he discovers it is one of the three Branning brothers, it \"really tips him over the edge, and Alfie becomes a monster. He finally gets some balls and decides enough is enough. He tells Kat that he doesn't care about her anymore—he says she's filthy and disgusting. Alfie has kept going with Kat for the sake of their love and their history", ". Alfie has kept going with Kat for the sake of their love and their history. But if he can't forgive her for this latest indiscretion, there's no way they can keep their family together.\" He said that he and Wallace had \"a vested interest\" to get the scenes right, \"because our bosses gave us such a great opportunity. We spent a lot of time working on it—and I hope we've ticked every box", ". We spent a lot of time working on it—and I hope we've ticked every box.\" Richie called the bedsit scene \"fantastic\" and told the BBC, \"It's very rare you get a 15-minute scene with two people in one room\". He explained that he and Wallace spent a lot of time with the episode's director, Karl Neilson, \"just going over stuff, finding out where the emotions were, who was the victim, who was on the offensive, who was on the defensive\", where usually there are no rehearsals", ". Richie also revealed that the bedsit set was a \"tiny space\" that was purposely built for the episodes, which Richie said was \"quite claustrophobic\". He called it a \"square room [with] nowhere to hide\", with \"every blink of the eye, every look, every frown, every sigh\" being seen, adding \"if you're looking angry, it's there to be seen, you're naked to it\"", ". He said he \"loved\" that about filming the episode, and said, \"you work hard to try and be as good an actor as you can and then you're given an opportunity by the BBC and by EastEnders to step up to the mark. Lorraine [Newman] believing that two actors could do that—it's a bit of a pressure on your shoulders, but me and Jessie loved it.\" Richie and Wallace filmed the episode about two months before it was broadcast.", "Richie said that about halfway through the reveal episode, Alfie \"resigns himself to the fact that it's over between Kat and Alfie, there is no going back\", and said that Neilson said halfway through the 15-minute scene that Alfie would be thinking, \"I understand you've done this with somebody... We can get over this... What do you mean... it's been going on for months? We can get over it, because I know you don't love him... What, you love this guy? It's someone we know? Someone in the pub..", "... What, you love this guy? It's someone we know? Someone in the pub...?\", and said that Alfie needs to know who it is for his own peace of mind, though \"his whole life just crumbles in his hands\". Richie said that viewers would be surprised by the final reveal, stating that \"it's really interesting about how we play the Branning card as to which one of them it is", ". The way it's worded, you believe it's one brother in particular and then that all changes and you go, 'oh it's him!' Because we make people believe it's another Branning—the way its worded, the way I face up to one of them. The audience will all think it's one person in particular, but then I throw a curve ball and it all kicks off. It's great.\" Richie said that Alfie cannot understand why Kat is having an affair with Derek, which \"makes him sick\"", ". He also stated that viewers would find out in January 2013 why Kat had the affair with the person she did. He said: \"It's an ongoing story, which is really interesting, to see why Kat was with Alfie and why she went for this bloke because they both offer her different things.\" Richie speculated that the reason Kat had an affair with Derek is \"because Derek is the total polar opposite of Alfie\" and Kat is \"attracted to danger\", which is not like Alfie, and Kat is \"used to danger, she's used to excitement", ". What she got from Alfie was the fairytale, what she wanted was the nightmare\". However, the reasons for Kat having the affair were never explained on screen.", "Suspects", "In a poll on the website Digital Spy, which took place on the day the storyline was announced, Jack was revealed to be the early favourite by readers with 43.5% of the votes, followed by Ray with 20.1%. Derek was voted third, Michael fourth and Max came last with 8.8%. A poll run on the official EastEnders website showed Jack as the favourite with 33.7%, followed by Ray (24.9%), Michael (14.6%), Derek (14.5%) and Max in last place with 12.4%", ".7%, followed by Ray (24.9%), Michael (14.6%), Derek (14.5%) and Max in last place with 12.4%. A poll by Inside Soap put Ray as the favourite with 31% of the votes, followed by Derek on 24%, Jack with 19%, Max on 15% and Michael with 11%. After Ray's elimination, Inside Soap carried out another poll, which showed Jack in the lead with 43%, followed by Michael on 23%, Max on 18% and Derek with 16%. Following Michael's elimination, a poll from Digital Spy put Derek in the lead with 48", ". Following Michael's elimination, a poll from Digital Spy put Derek in the lead with 48.8% of the votes, followed by Max on 33.2% and Jack with 18%. Inside Soap published further poll results in December 2012, where Derek was well ahead of the other suspects with 72% of votes. Max was second with 19% and Jack had 9%.", "Derek Branning", "Derek is described by Inside Soap as \"a man who doesn't take no for an answer\", \"dangerous and edgy\" and \"the exact opposite of poor Alfie.\" The magazine said that if Derek chose to have an affair with Kat, he could end up back in prison if Alfie found out and would be taken away from his daughter Alice Branning (Jasmyn Banks)", ". They later said that Derek had previously declared that he and Kat were \"two peas in a pod\", which would \"make her very appealing to an egotist like Derek!\" They said that \"sparks would fly if Derek and Kat hooked up. He's got that dangerous edge that Kat loves, but Alfie lacks! And we all know that Derek's a man who's used to getting what he wants—every time..", "...\" Soaplife said that Derek is part of every other storyline and actor Foreman's contract was extended, so the chances of it being Derek are high, but they did not want it to be Derek. However, they later said they thought it would be Derek, as love is not Kat's motivation (ruling out Jack), and Derek is the only one who would not be cheating on a partner, saying the others \"would have to cheat on their other half [...] for no better reason than Kat has to cheat on Alfie (ie. none)", "...] for no better reason than Kat has to cheat on Alfie (ie. none). And that would be too far-fetched.\" They said Derek would probably enjoy the danger of being caught out by Alfie, and continued to rule out the other suspects, maintaining that they have seen nothing to change their minds that it is Derek", ". All About Soap wondered if Derek would have the time and inclination to woo Kat as he is struggling to bond with his children Alice and Joey Branning (David Witts), and opined that he would, and the fact that \"he's just the wrong side of dodgy, [he's] right up Kat's street", ". Walford's creepiest couple could be on the cards!\" They made him their joint third favourite for the affair, along with Ray, and later said that an affair between Kat and Derek would be \"very believable\" but \"more than a little bit gross\", noting that Derek is on a power trip and Kat loves to be dominated and as there is more to the affair than physical attraction, there would be a \"strong chance\" it would be Derek. Julie Emery of Heat said of the affair, \"Our money's on Derek. What a couple they'd make..", ". Julie Emery of Heat said of the affair, \"Our money's on Derek. What a couple they'd make...\"", "When there were only three suspects left in the frame, Inside Soap looked at them all and gave reasons why it can and cannot be each of them", ". They said that Derek is yet to have a romantic storyline despite being one of the biggest characters in the show; is the only one not already in a relationship; is very emotionally needy, opining that he would \"be quick to use the 'L' word where Kat [is] concerned\"; and that Kat's character could take a new direction as a gangster's moll, as Derek is \"the most dangerous man in Walford\"", ". However, they felt that because Derek is single, another heart would not be broken, meaning EastEnders would miss out on a \"good catfight\"; Kat may find him impossible to love because of all the \"unbelievable things\" he has done and Kat prefers men with a sense of fun; Derek would not worry what Alfie thought and may have got rid of him by now; and Derek may have too much going on with an upcoming storyline involving his son Joey and niece Lauren Branning (Jacqueline Jossa).", "In February 2016, Foreman revealed that he and Wallace were \"convinced\" that Derek would be revealed as Kat's lover, calling it a \"no-brainer\", but said it was \"a shame\" that the discovery of the relationship was left so late \"because he was in love with her\". He said it was \"rushed\" and said Derek became \"a Svengali character who wanted to lock up Kat in that flat\" instead of \"sitting in The Queen Vic showing her off\".\n\nJack Branning", "Jack and Kat were both involved in a baby-swap storyline, when Jack's wife Ronnie Branning (Samantha Womack) swapped her newborn baby, James Branning, who had died in his cot, with Kat's newborn baby Tommy Moon. Jack and Kat bonded when the truth was revealed. Inside Soap wondered if Jack may \"relish some new excitement in his life\" and went on to say that \"only Kat can understand the depth of Jack's pain at losing his baby boy, and they've been drawn together several times because of it already", ".\" They felt a romance between Kat and Jack was \"inevitable\" and Jack is one of the few single, eligible men in the show, but \"taking Kat from Alfie would ruin his good name forever.\" Referring to Jack, they later said \"if Kat was going to throw her marriage away for anyone, we figure it would have to be the hottest man in town... wouldn't it?\" Soaplife said that Jack has \"got to be the number one suspect\" and noted that there had been hints in 2011 that Kat and Jack would become lovers", ". Jack has previously cheated on Ronnie with her sister Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons), which Soaplife said means Jack would have \"no problems doing the dirty on sort-of-mate Alfie.\" However, Soaplife later said that Jack would not need to rent a flat, because he lives on his own. All About Soap called Jack a \"womaniser without a woman\", and due to their linked pasts, Jack would be the most likely suspect for Kat's affair.", "With just three suspects remaining, Inside Soap looked at them all and gave reasons why it can and cannot be each of them. They said that Jack and Kat's bond is undeniable since the loss of Jack's baby James; Jack has had a lot of recent sexual encounters, so it could be easy to imagine Kat being one of them; he is sensitive so is likely to start an affair that leads to love; he hasn't had a relationship since Ronnie went to prison; and as Jack is seeing Sharon, it would lead to \"EastEnders dream catfight\"", ". However, they wondered why Jack would pursue Sharon—with whom he appears smitten—if he is in love with Kat; Alfie has shown Jack \"real kindness\" over the baby swap and they could not believe that Jack would betray him; and Kat is not Jack's usual type, as he prefers \"a tragic blonde\" such as Ronnie or Sharon.", "Max Branning", "Max has a history of cheating, which Inside Soap said would make him the most obvious person, but as he has recently reunited with his former wife Tanya Jessop (Jo Joyner), it would be the worst thing he could do. However, the magazine said that \"Max thrives on passion and deceipt, so getting it on with Kat behind Tanya's back would be consistent", ".\" They also said he was busy with his own problems, but had form finding Slater (Kat's maiden name) women irresistible (he had an affair with Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner) years earlier). They said Kat's fiery personality would appeal to Max and \"he loves illicit liaisons with unsuitable partners\". They felt he was bound to mess up his relationship with Tanya, but thought it would more likely be something else that would do that", ". Soaplife said Max was \"least likely even though he has the track record and the matching morals of an alley cat.\" Actor Wood had previously promised a big storyline for Max, but Soaplife did not think this would be it", ". Soaplife later ruled out Max, asking \"why would he go for hamburger (Kat) when he has steak (Tanya) at home?\" All About Soap called Max a \"love rat\", but doubted that he would cheat on Tanya again, but as it's Max, \"all bets are off when it comes to the bedroom\", and said he was the second most likely suspect. In September 2012, Richie said he thought that Max was the most likely suspect, saying \"I think it's Max", ". You can't trust him!\" Wood stated that \"It would definitely be in keeping with Max for him to be having an affair. He's got a chequered history and women are his Achilles heel. So it would make a lot of sense for it to be him. It would be bad timing, though, because he's planning to get remarried!\"", "After Ray and Michael were eliminated, Inside Soap looked at the last three suspects and gave reasons why it can and cannot be each of them", ". They said that if it was Max, it would cause \"maximum drama\", bring \"the biggest aftershocks, \"rock Walford to its core\" and cause a \"fallout [that] would affect so many more people than the alternatives\"; Max already has a secret, but it could be a red herring to make viewers believe he cannot be Kat's lover; he has already had a lot of affairs, often with brunettes; and \"it's always Max", "!\" However, they thought that the secret he is keeping is already \"enough drama\"; he spent a long time to win Tanya back so they wondered if he would fall in love with another woman at the same time; he prefers younger women such as Tanya, who was his son Bradley Branning's (Charlie Clements) babysitter when he was married to his first wife, and Stacey, who was Bradley's girlfriend; and Max has had so many affairs that \"it might feel as though EastEnders is going over old ground", ".\"", "Michael Moon", "Kat previously cheated on Alfie with Michael and Michael is the father of Kat's child Tommy. Kat chose to stay with Alfie, but Inside Soap said there seemed to be \"unfinished business\" between Kat and Michael. Michael has a baby with his new wife, millionaire businesswoman Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks), and the magazine wondered if Michael would turn to Kat if things go badly at their wedding. They also thought that Michael still has feelings for Kat, but wondered if he would actually cheat on Janine", ". They called him \"a nasty bit of work\" but thought that starting an affair when his newborn baby, Scarlett Moon, is ill in hospital would \"really take the biscuit.\" They said the characters are drawn to each other and Kat hates Janine, but an affair would not be shocking enough as they have already had a relationship", ". Brooks is leaving the cast in 2012 for an extended break, so Soaplife said that something will happen to break Michael and Janine up, but thought an affair with Kat would be \"too much been-there-done-that to be equal to as big a reveal as 'Who Shot Phil?'.\" They later said that Michael would not risk Janine's fortune by cheating", ".\" They later said that Michael would not risk Janine's fortune by cheating. All About Soap thought Michael was the least likely suspect, as he has other things on his mind, although Kat \"shows a softer side\" to Michael when she gives him some baby clothes, but said that Kat hates Michael, \"which could prove a problem in the romance department.\" They also said Michael \"has a first-class degree in lying.\"", "Inside Soap Kate White later focused on Michael, saying that she could \"easily believe the worst of Michael Moon.\" She said it seems \"unimaginable\" that he would have the time or energy for an affair, but she \"still wouldn't put it past the slippery eel", ".\" She noted that Michael is the only suspect who has previously been involved with Kat, and that it was an emotional affair, rather than just a fling, so with Alfie being distant and Janine pushing Michael away, White said \"we don't reckon it would take much for these two to start seeing each other again", ".\" She said that Michael has the means, unlike some of the others, as he got Janine to tear up their prenuptial agreement before they married, and the flat that Kat's lover obtained could be listed on the books of Janine's property management business, Butcher's Joints. However, White went on to say, \"something tells us Kat would find it very difficult to live with herself if she was sleeping with a man whose baby is in a bad way", ". It seems too cruel for a mother who went through the agony of thinking she'd lost her child, so we're not sure at could cause another mum that degree of heartache. Then again, that other woman is Kat's loathed enemy, Janine", ". Then again, that other woman is Kat's loathed enemy, Janine.\" Shepherd said that Kat and Michael had \"nice chemistry\" and opined that Michael \"would have been very keen\" on a relationship with Kat, that \"the opportunity for Michael and Kat to team up has always been there, from the moment he arrived\" and that the writers are placed \"lots of little hints to insinuate that it could be Michael\". Michael was the second suspect to be eliminated, on 14 September 2012.", "Ray Dixon", "Ray is head chef at The Queen Victoria, is in a relationship with Kat's friend Kim Fox (Tameka Empson) and is trusted by Alfie, of which Inside Soap said an affair \"seems unimaginable, but might he surprise us with his actions?\" They called Ray \"eye candy\" for Kat, saying \"it's never a bad thing\" for her, and noted that she appreciates him as her head chef. For Kat to have an affair with Ray would not only mean betraying Alfie but also Kim", ". For Kat to have an affair with Ray would not only mean betraying Alfie but also Kim. They felt that Ray was the most obvious choice, and had not yet had a major storyline, and an affair would shock viewers and have a big impact on Ray's family life. They also said that they would not blame Kat for an affair with Ray as he is \"gorgeous, sensitive and has a six-pack to die for\"", ". Soaplife opined that Ray was the \"red herring\", as actor Venn has said he would like Ray to marry Kim and start a family, and later said that all hints were pointing to Ray, so \"it would be no kind of mystery if it is him.\" All About Soap said that Ray's \"flirty banter with Kat has sent her into a spin\", but were not sure Ray would be the one having the affair, especially after Kat picks Alfie for the football team over Ray, and made him joint third most likely, along with Derek", ". The magazine later opined that \"lovely\" Ray would not have it in him to cheat, but thought he may have tired of Kim's behaviour. Empson told Inside Soap that she was unsure if Kat would cheat on Ray as Kim is her best friend, while Venn said that \"Kat's a saucy minx, and what man wouldn't want to get involved with her? Ray is a loyal, caring father, but we all have our dark sides. There's a lot the audience hasn't seen yet, put it that way..", ". There's a lot the audience hasn't seen yet, put it that way...\" Venn also said, \"I would love it to be me—for the drama, of course. Why not? You can just imagine the kind of drama which would ensue with Kim. It'd be fight of the century, that one. Dynasty would have nothing on this!\" Ray was the first of the five suspects to be eliminated, on 7 August 2012.", "Other suspects", "Digital Spy wondered if there could be a further twist where one of the five named suspects is not the culprit, as the BBC said there would be \"at least\" five. Soaplife added Joey Branning (David Witts) as a wild card, saying, \"there hasn't been a good soap toyboy storyline in we can't remember how long. And when they're done and done good, they're very, very good. It would actually be the one affair we'd understand Kat's motivation for", ". It would actually be the one affair we'd understand Kat's motivation for.\" Jacqueline Jossa, who plays Max's daughter Lauren Branning, said that the cast were so \"desperate\" to know who Kat's lover was that she tricked them into believing it was Peter Andre, saying, \"No one at all knows who Kat's having the affair with, we're all talking about it on set. Some people have started winding other people up saying they've been told but they won't say who it is", ". I started a rumour around the set that it would be a celebrity guest appearance. I said it would be Peter Andre and some of the new cast believed it as well!\" However, Digital Spy reported that episodes in September 2012 would make it \"pretty much certain\" that Kat's lover is one of the named suspects. After the identity of Kat's lover was revealed, Richie said he would have loved it to have been Patrick Trueman (Rudolph Walker) or Tanya.", "Clues", "During the storyline, Inside Soap magazine had a regular feature they called \"Kat watch! Our eye on her guy!\" in which they would be \"scouring the episodes with a fine-tooth comb to spot any stolen glances, pointed lines of dialogue or suspicious circumstances that might indicate the identity of the fella Kat is having her torrid affair with", ".\" In the first few episodes of the storyline, Derek asks for Kat's help to keep Joey in Walford, which Inside Soap said would mean he would owe Kat a favour, and Derek defends Kat when she is insulted by the rival football team's manager. Inside Soap also pointed out \"serious\" flirting between Jack and Kat, when she teases him about being out of shape, and she names him 'Legs of the match' after the team play their first football match", ". They spotted that Kat has a \"smouldering tete-a-tete\" with Max and she knows how frustrated he is by his family problems, and he is also seen on the phone at the same time as Kat. They said that Michael donating shirts to Kat's football team and Kat giving baby clothes to Michael were clues, especially as there was an \"emotional moment\" between them. A \"charged moment\" between Kat and Ray was noted by the magazine, when she injures herself in the pub's kitchen and he helps her", ". All five suspects are seen with their phones at the same time Kat ends a call from her mystery lover.", "The next week, in episodes broadcast from 9 to 13 July 2012, Jack and Max both witness Kat dancing sexily with Ray, and they are judgemental of her, which Inside Soap said could be because one of them is jealous, and Jack keeps \"making eyes\" at Kat, which could be more revealing than Kat's own actions", ". They later said that Kat would probably not dance with Ray like that if she was trying to keep an affair with him secret, especially in front of Kim, and said she could have been trying to make either Max or Jack jealous. All About Soap also thought Jack might be jealous, and when he asks Ray if any \"hot women\" are going to his party, Jack looks at Kat, which they thought could be because Jack hopes Kat will be there", ". The \"sexy dance\" between Ray and Kat was interpreted to be either evidence or a red herring, but Inside Soap noted that Kat seems keen to be around Ray. The fact she dances so close to Ray in front of Kim could mean Ray is not her secret lover, but she enjoys danger so may be willing to make a show of herself despite the risk. Kat also tells Kim she is \"lucky to have found her prince\", which All About Soap thought might mean Kat is jealous, and made him their favourite suspect of the fortnight.", "In the week of episodes from 16 to 20 July, Kat's lover rents a flat for them to share. Inside Soap wondered if this was the biggest clue so far, saying it suggests he has access to money, because flats in London are not cheap. They said it might seem familiar, as Max has rented flats before for his lovers Stacey (when cheating on Tanya), and Tanya (when cheating on Vanessa Gold (Zöe Lucker))", ". They said Derek also \"wouldn't think twice about flashing his cash\" and opined that Jack would probably be able to afford it as well. They said viewers do not know enough about Ray yet but he would probably not be able to afford it with his job as a pub chef, and Michael, although forced to steal from Jean Slater (Gillian Wright) to pay for his wedding, is married to Janine, who is a millionaire", ". Kate White from Inside Soap later opined that Michael would be able to get the money for the flat as he got Janine to tear up their prenuptial agreement. In relation to the flat, Soaplife focussed on Ray following the dance between him and Kat, and thought that if it was him, then he is \"either a secret millionnaire or EastEnders hasn't thought this one through.\" Soaplife also used this to rule Jack out, as he has his own flat and would not need to rent one.", "The next week, Kim notices that Ray has a string of missed calls on his mobile phone, and suspects he is having an affair. All About Soap said that Ray is showing all the signs of having an affair, but has no scenes with Kat, which they said would be \"crucial\" if he was having an affair with her. They went on to say that if Ray reveals what he is up to, he could be the first suspect to be eliminated", ". Soaplife said that Kat never has her mobile out of her hand, so when Kim catches Ray texting a mystery woman, it could mean that he is texting Kat. Inside Soap also wondered if this was evidence of Ray being Kat's secret lover", ". Inside Soap also wondered if this was evidence of Ray being Kat's secret lover. Carena Crawford from All About Soap said that when Ray is seen with flowers heading for the tube and on the phone saying he is meeting the person he is speaking to, at the same time Kat is on her phone arranging to meet her lover, she thought it was \"the biggest clue yet\" that it could be Ray, especially when they later return to the pub at the same time", ". Inside Soap noticed in that week that episodes were \"desperately trying to rule out Jack\" when he has sex with three other women. They felt it could be a red herring, saying \"We reckon all this seduction is supposed to make us turn a blind eye to Jack's antics—but [...] we're keeping them peeled where [Jack] is concerned!\" They also wondered how he could find the time to meet these women if he was seeing Kat as well.", "Of the episodes from 6 August, All About Soap said that \"the finger of suspicion [...] is pointing firmly [at] Michael Moon this fortnight.\" Following the scene of Michael snapping at Janine and leaving her with their baby, the magazine thought he could be seeking comfort from Kat, and Janine also overhears Michael arranging to meet someone, which they thought could be Kat", ". Kat also tells Janine that Michael was having doubts on their wedding day, which they thought could be \"Kat's sly way of telling her nemesis that Michael would rather be with another woman\", and when Janine sees Michael taking cash from her safe, he could be using it to fund the flat. The same week, Janine telephones Michael, but when he answers his phone, Kat is also calling her lover, which Inside Soap says would leave viewers wondering who he had answered the phone to", ". After Ray was eliminated as a suspect, Inside Soap said that Michael seemed to become the front-runner, as there had been looks between him and Kat, and Kat seemed distraught, and when Kat had a conversation with Janine, Kat told Michael that she did not tell her \"everything\". Jack had become involved with Sharon Rickman (Letitia Dean) and Max had his own problems. However, again they felt it could be a red herring and Derek could be the one as he had been \"conspicuous by his absence\".", "Later, in the week of episodes from 27 to 31 August, a fight breaks out involving the remaining suspects. Kat is seen tending to her lover's injuries, but viewers only saw his arm. Inside Soap said the arm could eliminate at least one suspect, as it shows some skin and a dark top. They compared it to what the suspects were wearing earlier in the episode and said it could belong to Michael or Derek, but \"EastEnders might have a few tricks up their sleeves in order to put Jack and Max back in the mix", ".\" When Kat receives flowers from her lover, Inside Soap opined that Derek would be \"the sort of bullish man [who would] think nothing of sending flowers to [The Queen Victoria], unconcerned that it might expose the affair.\" After Kat confesses to Alfie, she concentrates on her marriage, but Inside Soap noted that over a period of weeks, she had been seen \"drunkenly flirting with Max, [...] making small talk with Jack [..", "...] making small talk with Jack [...] and giving Derek some very guilty looks\", though it was still not clear who was her lover. They said that Jack had become devoted to Sharon in that time and is bothered by the bond Sharon has with Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden), but the bold gestures made towards Kat, such has her lover buying back the ring she pawned, are Derek's style, and \"he's made no secret of the fact that he fancies Kat rotten!\" When Kat receives a candle with a note saying \"Light it", ". Put it in the window. I'll come knocking\", Soaplife thought this was \"creepy\" and seemed to be something Derek would do.", "Reception", "Critical response", "On announcement of the storyline, Soaplife said it \"could be fun but could be the ruin of Kat if they get it wrong\", and wondered if it would put EastEnders \"back on top of its game\", saying, \"That depends on Kat. If we're made to love and care about her, yes. If she comes over as a conniving, sneaky cheat only interested in her own wants and desires, no.\" They opined that Alfie should be the one having the affair, as he cannot do anything right in Kat's eyes", ". They also said they \"wondered which Kat we'd be getting back after Jessie Wallace's break. Would it be the tart with a heart that made Kat a soap icon? Or the alley Kat that we got last year (Kat down the alley with delivery man Mark was not her finest moment). Now with the reveal that she'll have a mystery that we can all spend weeks or months trying to guess [...], we fear it will be more alley Kat", "...], we fear it will be more alley Kat.\" All About Soap thought that because of the way Kat got rid of Roxy after she moved in with Alfie while Kat was away, \"you'd think that [...] Kat was really committed to her husband [...] and determined to make her marriage work\" but called the affair \"sizzling\", saying it would \"send shockwaves all round Albert Square!\" Soaplife said that the storyline may turn out to be a good mystery, but \"when it comes to affairs, we prefer ours with a heap-big dose of love\"", ". However, they later said the storyline was \"getting boring\". In All About Soap, letters page editor Laura thought the affair would be \"the hottest thing in the Square this summer!\"", "Soaplife awarded the storyline a bronze medal in their \"2012 Soap Olympics\" for \"best storyline cycling\", as Kat is \"cheating again. Round and round she goes", ". Round and round she goes.\" Kate White from Inside Soap said: \"Well, Kathleen Slater Moon, if you were hoping to win our sympathy by suggesting that this secret fling business is all Alfie's fault, think again! Yes, it's a bit annoying when your other half is too busy to pay you much attention—but there should at least be an effort to sort out your issues before you decide cheating is the answer! We're finding it hard to have sympathy\"", ". The magazine later called the storyline \"unusual\" but said that \"Kat has been busy showing us how infidelity should be done\". When the affair turned from lust to love, Soaplife said that it was \"what the affair needed right from the start in order to save Kat's reputation.\"", "Steven Murphy, editor of Inside Soap said that when the storyline started, he and his colleagues were \"a little intrigued\" but after Michael was eliminated, they were \"totally obsessed", "!\" An Inside Soap reporter said that \"[the] decision to keep the man's identity a secret—and to have several characters reacting as if it could be them—means that this is soap like we've never seen it before\", and added that \"it makes for frustrating viewing at times, but there's no denying that this plot has us well and truly hooked", ". It's not so much a 'whodunnit?' as a 'who-done-her?'\"", "Kevin O'Sullivan from the Daily Mirror called the affair storyline \"dreadful\", \"painfully unoriginal\", \"ludicrous tosh\" and \"far fetched\", saying, \"A tired old rerun of [2009]'s who-got-Heather-pregnant nailbiter, the who-copped-off-with-Kat saga was about as believable as a Barclays banker", ".\" Ally Ross from The Sun said that \"someone has been slipping angel dust in the Queen Vic beer and half the Square have lost their friggin' minds [as] all the men now fancy Ting Tong (Kat Moon)\", while Julie Emery from Heat said, \"Now don't get us wrong, we love Kat Moon. [...] But we're finding it hard to believe that she has five (five!) blokes thinking she's sex-on-legs and lusting after her Tango'd torso", ". Perhaps Michael, Ray, Jack, Max and Derek all have a thing about too-tight Lycra pencil skirts and make-up that looks like it's been applied by a five year old on acid.\" Sarah Dempster from The Guardian dubbed the storyline \"Who Banged Kat?\", \"a question to which the only sane response is 'Pass us the remote, love. Eddie Stobart: Trucks & Trailers is on Five.'\" She said \"Nobody cares\" about the \"tedious\" storyline, adding that the reveal would cause \"yawns of non-surprise\" from the viewers", ". Following the final reveal, Ellie Henman from Heat said it had been \"possibly one of the most gripping since who shot Phil\" and that the reveal was \"some seriously head in hands, sweaty palms, accidentally kick your dog because the moment is just too intense viewing\".", "In April 2013, a Soaplife reporter said, \"Last year's Kat Mystery Lover storyline had to be one of the most ill-conceived and worst mysteries ever\" and opined that the lack of mystery, as \"the lover could [never] have been anyone other than Derek\", was \"painful\" and they had \"endure[d] over half a year of waiting for a reveal that was never anything but blatantly obvious\"", ". They also said that storyline had damaged Kat's character as it had turned her from \"the tart with a heart that we had loved to an out-and-out-tart with the morals of an alley [and] left Kat not just without a heart and without Alfie but without much love\". They went on to say that Kat needed to be \"saved\" but that \"turning [her] from sinner to saint will be a miracle\". In April 2017, Sophie Dainty from Digital Spy listed the storyline as one of nine \"soap plots that went a bit too far\"", ". Dainty called the storyline \"distasteful\" and said that not only were viewers not surprised with the reveal but they did not care, and criticised the show for not explaining why Kat had the affair.", "Viewer response", "The reveal episode on 20 December 2012 was watched by an average of 8.41million viewers at the time of its broadcast. This was a 37.2% share of the viewing audience at the time. A repeat of the episode later the same night on BBC Three received 786,000 viewers, 4.9% of the audience. It was the most-watched British soap opera episode of the day, beating its rival, Coronation Street. Official ratings from the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board showed that the episode was watched by 9", ".231million people within seven days of its initial broadcast, including on BBC iPlayer. The episode caused complaints over Alfie's use of the word \"shagging\" while accusing Derek of the affair, before the 9pm watershed. The word trended on social media site Twitter, and TV presenter Julia Bradbury said that it \"seems to have caused a pre-watershed stir\". The BBC responded by saying the word had been used in EastEnders before, but confirmed they had received 45 complaints.", "Award nominations", "On 22 April 2013, the reveal of Derek as Kat's lover was shortlisted for the British Soap Award for Best Episode. Heat expected the episode to win the award, saying, \"The story about Kat's lover was that rare thing in soaps: a fab whodunnit not actually involving a crime, and the eventual reveal was supremely satisfying.\" However, the panel-voted award was won by \"Emmerdale Live\", a live episode of Emmerdale", ".\" However, the panel-voted award was won by \"Emmerdale Live\", a live episode of Emmerdale. The reveal was also nominated for the \"Best Reveal\" award at the 2013 All About Soap Awards, which was voted for by the public, however, it lost out to the EastEnders storyline in which Kirsty Branning (Kierston Wareing) is revealed to be Max's wife", ". Derek's manipulation of Kat in the storyline also played a part in Derek's ultimate demise and was part of Derek's wider storyline, which was shortlisted for three further awards: two British Soap Awards for Best Storyline for \"the demise of Derek Branning\" and Best Exit for his death, and the All About Soap Award for Best Storyline, for \"Derek's reign of terror\".", "References\n\nEastEnders storylines\n2012 in British television\nWhodunit storylines in soap operas\nAdultery in television\nSlater family (EastEnders)\nBranning family" ]

[ "Enzo Francescoli Uriarte (; born 12 November 1961), nicknamed \"El Príncipe\" (\"The Prince\"), is a Uruguayan former footballer who played as a attacking midfielder. He is regarded as one of the best playmakers of his generation and as one of Uruguay's and South America's greatest ever players.", "At club level, Francescoli began his career with Uruguayan club Wanderers. In neighbouring Argentina, he played for River Plate. He was the leading scorer and a key player for the club's second Copa Libertadores title. Francescoli won a total of five Argentine titles in the six years in which he played for the club. He also enjoyed success in France with Racing Paris and Marseille, where his performances proved decisive as the team won the 1989–90 French Division 1", ". He later also had spells in Italy with Cagliari and Torino, before returning to River Plate, where he ended his career.", "He was considered an elite playmaker in the Uruguay national team. He played 73 times for the Celeste between 1982 and his retirement in 1997, making him the most capped outfield player in Uruguayan international football at the time. He represented his nation at two FIFA World Cups, in 1986 and 1990, also winning the Copa América in 1983, 1987 and 1995.", "Francescoli was the only Uruguayan included by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living footballers in 2004, and he was also elected by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics as the sixth-greatest Uruguayan player and the 24th greatest South American player of the 20th century.", "Early life\nFrancescoli was born in Montevideo into a family of Italian and Basque origin. Since childhood, he was known as a shy and reserved person who spoke little and, in what he regarded as a virtue, was very observant, being regarded by those who knew him as very kind inside and outside football. Due to his slender frame, he was nicknamed \"El Flaco\" (\"The Skinny One\").\n\nClub career\n\nMontevideo Wanderers", "Club career\n\nMontevideo Wanderers\n\nAs a young fan of Peñarol, Francescoli passed a try-out but did not join, unimpressed by the lack of playing time. Despite another successful try-out with South American powerhouse River Plate, which he would later join in 1983, he chose to stay at his high school football team while completing his studies, winning five championships.", "In his last year of high school, he received an offer from his hometown club Montevideo Wanderers and joined after graduating. In 1980, he debuted with the Wanderers first team, achieving their best position since their fourth and last national title in 1931, a second-place finish. His elegant behaviour and playing style earned him the nickname \"El Príncipe\" (\"The Prince\"), a nickname inherited from Hannibal Ciocca, a former Wanderers player", ". He developed the habit of chewing gum during games in order to avoid dryness in his mouth. He stated he became so dependent on the habit that he did not feel right when he did not have any gum before games.", "In the Uruguayan Primera División in 1981, Francescoli performed well for the team, which finished only behind Peñarol and Nacional. In February 1982, he made his debut for the Uruguay national team. Later that year, he made his Copa Libertadores debut, ironically after his worst result with the Wanderers in the national championship, a fifth-place finish.", "Vying for a place with his team in the 1983 Copa Libertadores, Francescoli and his team, which included other notable players such as Jorge Barrios, Luis Alberto Acosta, Raúl Esnal and Ariel Krasouski, had a respectable season, finishing first in their group, tied with Nacional, and were only eliminated from the tournament in the quarterfinal play-off match.\n\nRiver Plate", "After Francescoli won the 1983 Copa América with Uruguay, River Plate signed him later that year for $310,000. The following year, Francescoli was unable to show his potential, splitting time with other players. He saw more playing time towards the end of the season when the team reached the Argentine final, but was defeated 3–0 by Ferro Carril Oeste", ". Nevertheless, Francescoli, was voted the best South American footballer of 1984 for his performances for River Plate and the Uruguay national team, featuring alongside players such as Nelson Gutiérrez and Antonio Alzamendi, among others. Eager to excel with River Plate, Francescoli rejected an offer from América de Cali (later found to be funded by the Cali Cartel) which was doing well that year and would go on to become the Copa Libertadores runners-up between 1985 and 1987.", "Although the team did not win the championship in 1985, Francescoli was voted Argentina's best player, the first foreign player to be given the honour. He finally won the Argentine title with River Plate the next season, claiming the 1985–86 Championship which had been re-established as a single tournament. He ended the season as top scorer with 25 goals, three of which came in a 5–4 victory against Argentinos Juniors for the championship match and qualified for the Copa Libertadores", ". In January 1986, he scored his most famous goal: a decisive bicycle kick which gave River Plate a victory over the Poland national team in a friendly tournament organized by the five largest Argentine clubs.", "After winning the Argentine title, Francescoli moved to Europe, where he was signed by Racing Paris, who had just been promoted from the French Second Division. Nantes was willing to pay $2.5 million for his contract, but River Plate's president at the time, Hugo Santilli, believed Francescoli could fetch a better price.", "RC Paris", "Francescoli began his European career with Racing Paris in 1986, a long established team which had been in a slump since the 1950s and had recently started a rivalry with its growing neighbour, Paris Saint-Germain founded in 1970, which had won the French title the previous season. Automotive company Matra decided to sponsor the team, which resulted in the name being changed to Matra Racing in 1987", ". Seeking to dominate the 1993 Ligue 1, the domestic cups and qualify for the UEFA Champions League, automobile company magnate Jean-Luc Lagardère later provided funding to the club, allowing the team to sign footballers Luis Fernández, Maxime Bossis, Thierry Tusseau, Pierre Littbarski, David Ginola, Sonny Silooy, Eugène Ekéké and Uruguayan Rubén Paz", ". In Francescoli's first season, the team managed to finish 13th overall in part due to Francescoli's 14 goals, which made him one of the league's top scorers that season.", "Francescoli became a team idol and in 1987 was elected the best foreign player in France. For the 1987–88 season, Portuguese coach Artur Jorge, who had previously won the European Cup, was brought to the team. Francescoli would later describe Artur Jorge as the best coach he had worked with throughout his career. Matra Racing had been struggling to reach the top of the table, alternating between third and second place from the second half of the season onwards", ". However, after a series of matches, the team stood 11 points behind Monaco. Francescoli scored eight times in the league, finishing once again as the club's top scorer. During this period, he received an offer from Juventus due to the untimely retirement of its captain and star player Michel Platini in 1987, although Francescoli refused the offer. Francescoli finished the 1988–89 championship as the club's top scorer for the third consecutive season, and avoiding relegation.", "The sub-par season of Matra Racing did not prevent Francescoli from being seen as a star worldwide. In March 1989, he earned a spot on the Uruguayan international team that played against the Brazil national team in an international friendly in Brazil that marked Zico's retirement, scoring one of his team's goals in a 2–1 victory. However, domestically he had suffered several disappointments and was frustrated by his team's lack of success in the Coupe de France", ". Racing soon filed for bankruptcy and left the French League, losing its spot to their financially sound cross-city rivals Paris Saint-Germain.", "Marseille", "Francescoli transferred to Marseille in 1989. He spent only one season with the club, where he won the 1989–90 French Division 1 title, scoring 11 goals in 28 appearances, and grabbed the attention of an important fan, Zinedine Zidane. Francescoli was sorely missed by his former team Racing, which, in his absence, was unable to avoid relegation. Ironically, Francescoli faced his former club in the semi-finals of the Coupe de France", ". Ironically, Francescoli faced his former club in the semi-finals of the Coupe de France. Racing won the match, although under odd circumstances: with eight minutes remaining, Francescoli scored a goal which would have tied the match, although it was disallowed due to a technicality, and Marseille eventually lost 3–2. Francescoli also helped Marseille to the semi-finals of the 1989–90 European Cup.", "Cagliari", "After the 1990 World Cup in Italy, in which Uruguay had been eliminated by the hosts in the round of 16, Francescoli moved to the Italian Serie A, and along with international teammates José Herrera and Daniel Fonseca, was signed by Cagliari. He initially struggled to find form with his new club, playing in a deeper midfield role, as Cagliari fought against relegation during his first two seasons", ". Due to his deeper playing position, Francescoli's goalscoring output suffered, and he was far less prolific as he totalled just four goals in the 1990–91 season, and six in the 1991–92 Serie A season. Cagliari avoided relegation on both occasions, but were eliminated in the first round of the 1991–92 Coppa Italia.", "Francescoli's third season in Italy was by far his best. In the Coppa Italia, he scored three goals before the team was eliminated in the quarter-finals against Fabio Capello's Milan, which conquered the league title that year. In Serie A, Cagliari earned a surprising sixth place, earning a spot in the UEFA Cup, with Francescoli scoring seven league goals, his personal best in a single Serie A season. In total, Francescoli managed 17 goals in 98 league appearances for Cagliari", ". In total, Francescoli managed 17 goals in 98 league appearances for Cagliari. Due to his key performances, he is regarded as one of the club's greatest ever players, and was included in the Cagliari Hall of Fame, and in the club's best ever starting XI.", "Torino\nIn 1993, Francescoli accepted an offer from Turin side Torino, the most recent winner of the Coppa Italia.", "The 1993 Supercoppa Italiana final was the closest Francescoli ever came to winning a trophy during his time in Italy, as Torino ultimately lost the title to Milan. With Francescoli, Torino came close to defending the title the following season, but the club was defeated by Ancona in a semi-final upset. However, the club's Serie A campaign was more heavily contested", ". However, the club's Serie A campaign was more heavily contested. After initially fighting against relegation, Torino climbed the table to clinch a spot in the next season's UEFA Cup, earning four points more than the required amount to qualify for the tournament. In the European Cup Winners' Cup, for which they had qualified the previous season as the 1993 Italian Cup champions, Torino reached the quarter-finals, only to be eliminated by eventual champions Arsenal", ". Despite a successful season for the team, Francescoli did not perform as well as in previous seasons, from an individual standpoint, as he only scored three goals in 24 appearances, his lowest tally during his four seasons in the Italian league.", "Return to River Plate", "In 1994, at age 33, after an uninspiring season with Torino, Francescoli decided to return to Argentina to play for former team River Plate, where he had previously played his best football. Despite his age, he was determined to prove that he could still compete at the top level, and performed well in the Apertura championship with the team that year (the Argentine season returned to being divided into two separate tournaments, Apertura and Clausura, in 1990–91)", ". The season also marked the first time River Plate had managed to become undefeated champions.", "The team had a less exciting season in 1995, finishing tenth in the Clausura, and seventh in the Apertura, while suffering a semifinal elimination against Colombia's Atlético Nacional in the Copa Libertadores. The team was eventually eliminated in the semi-finals by eventual champions Independiente in the Copa Libertadores, in which Francescoli played as striker", ". That year, he was voted South American Player of the Year and he also received the title of Argentine Player of the Year, ten years after first receiving it.", "The next year, Francescoli retired from the Celeste to devote himself entirely to River Plate at club level, recapturing his best form, scoring 19 goals in total. The 1996 season was his most important as Francescoli led a young, talented, yet inexperienced team that included Ariel Ortega, Matías Almeyda, Juan Pablo Sorín, Hernán Crespo and Marcelo Gallardo to win the 1996 Copa Libertadores title, and his second league title, briefly tying the record of 15 titles set by rivals Boca Juniors.", "Francescoli finished his season with River Plate with a defeat in the 1996 Intercontinental Cup final against Italian side Juventus. River Plate had the chance to equal Boca Juniors with two Intercontinental Cup titles, but ultimately lost to the Italian side for which a fan of Francescoli played. Zinedine Zidane said, \"when I saw Francescoli play, he was the player I wanted to be. He was the player that I saw and admired at Olympique de Marseille, my idol when I played against him when I was at Juventus..", "... Enzo is like a god.\" At the end of the year, Francescoli decided to come out of international retirement in order to aid Uruguay in qualifying for the upcoming World Cup in France.", "The following season, Francescoli suffered further disappointment, with a penalty shoot-out defeat to Racing Club at the Estadio Monumental, as River Plate were eliminated in the round of 16 of the 1997 Copa Libertadores. However, despite the early exit in the continental tournament, River Plate enjoyed much success domestically, following up their 1996 Copa Libertadores title with a fortunate treble the next year: the Clausura, Apertura and the Supercopa Libertadores.", "After failing to help Uruguay qualify for the 1998 World Cup, Francescoli announced he would retire in early 1998, refusing an offer of roughly a million dollars to continue, feeling he could not play another year due to continuing injury struggles. Poor sleeping habits caused by stress had forced him to seek therapy since 1996. His last two matches for River Plate were historical as within four days they had won two titles", ". His last two matches for River Plate were historical as within four days they had won two titles. The first, on 17 December 1997, was the deciding second leg of the Supercopa Libertadores, against São Paulo. It was the last ever edition of the tournament, one which River Plate had never won, which presented a situation described as \"now or never\". The Brazilian team, who had drawn in Brazil, were beaten 2–1 at the Monumental of Núñez", ". The Brazilian team, who had drawn in Brazil, were beaten 2–1 at the Monumental of Núñez. Then, on 21 December, River drew 1–1 with the Argentinos Juniors at the Estádio José Amalfitani and became 1997 Apertura champions, concluding the Argentine treble having won the 1996 Apertura and 1997 Clausura), beating out arch-rivals Boca Juniors, the other contender for the title and suffering only one defeat in the league.", "On 1 August 1999, Francescoli returned to the Monumental for a friendly farewell match. Sixty-five thousand spectators were present, among them President of Argentina Carlos Menem and President of Uruguay Julio María Sanguinetti, as well as some Boca Juniors fans. The match brought together the friends of River Plate with those of the club he had hoped to play for during his childhood, Peñarol, who won the match 4–0", ". After the match, the field was taken by thousands of children, for whom Francescoli, along with other players, signed autographs, also kicking the ball around with them.", "Another River Plate legend from Uruguay, Walter Gómez, kicked off. When approaching the day of his retirement, Argentine composer Ignacio Copani dedicated his song \"Inmenzo\" (a pun on \"Enzo\") to Francescoli, ending with the crowd requesting an encore.", "After his retirement, the team were only able to succeed locally for some time, failing to earn the same international respect in previous years, entering a crisis that would culminate in an unprecedented relegation in 2011 – ironically, exactly 15 years to the day after the team had won the 1996 Copa Libertadores with Francescoli", ". He is still the team's seventh all-time leading goalscorer, with 115 goals in 198 matches, and is the third highest foreign goalscorer in the history of Argentine football, only behind Paraguayans Arsenio Erico and Delfín Benítez Cáceres.", "Exhibition matches", "Since his retirement, Francescoli has only returned to the pitch for festive games, such as those commemorating the retirement of Juan Pablo Sorín, Víctor Aristizábal and Diego Maradona, considered by him to be the greatest player he has seen, and other friends. Maradona almost did not participate in the match since the River Plate fans were strongly opposed to it. \"There was no problem for me. There are three things I do not discuss nor with my best friends: Religion, politics and football..", "...things in that person, mistaken or not, advocates a cause,\" Francescoli said. He added, \"[Y]ou'll never hear me saying 'I live and die for River Plate', though I may be much more of a fan than others.\" After Maradona, the second greatest player he stated he had seen was Zinedine Zidane, an opinion he admits was heavily influenced by emotional reasons, as Zidane was a big fan of Francescoli.", "In July 2012, in Ariel Ortega's testimonial, Francescoli scored four goals at the age of 50, the last of which was a bicycle kick in the penalty area.", "International career", "In 1981, one year after his professional debut, Francescoli joined the Uruguayan team that won the South American Under-20 Championship. He was named one of the best young players in the world that year, also making three appearances in the 1981 FIFA World Youth Championship. He made his debut for the senior team in 1982, competing in a friendly tournament in India", ". He made his debut for the senior team in 1982, competing in a friendly tournament in India. The following year, as a member of the Uruguay squad in the 1983 Copa América, he scored his first international goal in a 2–0 victory over Brazil.", "Uruguay qualified for the 1986 World Cup after a close match against Chile, in a qualifying group that also included Peru. Francescoli's ability was questioned by critics. However, Uruguayan coach Omar Borrás said, \"Everyone talks about Platini, Maradona, of Elkjær ... but our Francescoli has everything to be the highlight of the World Cup.\"", "However, Uruguay's performance in the tournament were less than stellar. The team earned two draws and two defeats, advancing to the second round only as one of the best third-placed teams, while Francescoli only scored once throughout the entire tournament, in an infamous 1–6 defeat to Denmark in the first round. This tournament was seen by Francescoli as his worst performance in his entire career. He stated in an interview, \"[T]he only thing I ask is forgiveness from all Uruguayans", ". He stated in an interview, \"[T]he only thing I ask is forgiveness from all Uruguayans.\" Uruguay ultimately fell in the round of 16, to the eventual champions Argentina, led by eventual Golden Ball winner Diego Maradona.", "The disappointment was assuaged the next year with the victory of the 1987 Copa América as defending champions. Francescoli shone for Uruguay in the semi-final against hosts and defending World Cup champions Argentina in the Estadio Monumental de Núñez (the stadium of his former club, River Plate). A win against Chile in the final of the tournament followed, and the victory gave Uruguay their record 13th continental title.", "Two years later in the 1989 Copa América, Francescoli played in four of five matches, winning three and helping Uruguay to reach the final round for the third consecutive time. The final match was played against hosts and favourites Brazil, coincidentally in similar circumstances to the last round of the final round of the 1950 World Cup. The match was also played on the same date, 16 July, and at the same stadium, the Maracanã", ". The match was also played on the same date, 16 July, and at the same stadium, the Maracanã. As in 1950, the Brazilians took the lead, although they were the winners on this occasion.", "During the qualifiers for the 1990 World Cup, the Uruguayans once again needed to overcome several obstacles in order to seal qualification: Bolivia proved to be the toughest opponent in the group, alongside Peru. Francescoli and his teammates had the task of defeating both teams in the final two games of the qualification campaign, and succeeded, ensuring their place in the World Cup play-offs, in which they overcame Bolivia to qualify for the upcoming tournament.", "In his second World Cup, Francescoli did not perform much better than in the previous tournament. Although many analysts regarded him as one of the potential stars of the tournament due to his talent and ability to be decisive for his team, Uruguay again did not fare very well, earning only one win in a 1–0 group stage victory over South Korea, once again advancing to the second round as one of the best third-placed teams", ". The team were eliminated in the round of 16, suffering a 2–0 defeat against hosts Italy, on this occasion, who went on to finish the tournament in third place. This was Francescoli's final World Cup. In total, he made eight World Cup appearances, scoring once and appearing in each of Uruguay's matches in both the 1986 and 1990 tournaments. Altogether, he played in eight World Cup matches, losing four, tying three and winning one.", "After the 1990 World Cup, national team coach Óscar Tabárez was replaced by Luis Cubilla, who had trained the under-used Francescoli at River Plate, when Francescoli had first arrived at the club years before. Cubilla brought a strong feeling of nationalism among Uruguayan fans at the time, specifically of resentment against the country's athletes who played in Europe, and even hinted that Francescoli, and also Rubén Sosa, Carlos Aguilera and Oscar Herrera, were \"dinheiristas\" (\"mercenaries\")", ". Appalled, they refused to play if Cubilla did not recant his comments and these players were left out of the 1991 Copa América. Without the \"European\" stars, Uruguay collapsed in the first round. By the time the 1993 tournament came around, the players had already been called back to the team. Although he had been called up by Cubilla, Francescoli was benched throughout the tournament, and Uruguay once again disappointed, suffering a quarter-final elimination", ". In a friendly match later that year, Francescoli made his first appearance for the Celeste in many years. Meanwhile, South American rivals Argentina won both the 1991 and 1993 editions of the tournament, overtaking Uruguay as the team with the most Copa América titles (14).", "Although Francescoli's role in the team was disputed during a low point in his international career, he showed he was still an important player for the national team, and appeared for Uruguay in the qualifying rounds for the 1994 World Cup. Uruguay reached the CONMEBOL Group 2 final round of the South American qualifiers, along with Bolivia, Brazil and the two wildcard teams Ecuador and Venezuela", ". Uruguay, Bolivia and Brazil each had ten points in the group, and Brazil and Uruguay faced each other at the Maracanã on 19 September 1993. Uruguay lost the match 2–0, as Brazil topped the group to qualify for the upcoming tournament. As Bolivia was able to earn a draw in their fixture, the Uruguayans came third in the group, failing to qualify for the competition", ". Although the team failed to qualify for the upcoming World Cup in the United States, Francescoli overcame one of his biggest struggles throughout his career as after two years, national team's coach Cubilla was relieved of his position", ". After the defeat against Brazil at the Maracanã in Uruguay's final qualification match, Cubilla had said of Francescoli, \"That man is a traitor to his country, so take away his passport!\" Francescoli later stated in a 2008 interview that this was a low point in his career, and that his coach's comment caused him sit in a corner of the Maracanã and cry.", "The 1995 Copa América on home soil under Uruguay's new head coach, Héctor Núñez, was a breath of fresh air for Francescoli. After not featuring in the previous two editions of the tournament (although he was named to the squad in 1993, he did not play a single match), Francescoli carried his team to the Copa América final against Brazil, at the Estadio Centenario in Montevideo", ". Uruguay won a hard-fought final 5–3 on penalties, after a 1–1 draw, with Francescoli converting his team's first penalty, as he lifted the title for the last time. As a result, Uruguay equalled Argentina as the South American national team with the most Copa América titles (14). Uruguay later broke the record in 2011, with the victory of their 15th Copa América title", ". Uruguay later broke the record in 2011, with the victory of their 15th Copa América title. Francescoli was once again named player of the tournament, and was also elected the best player in South America, at age 34, 11 years after first receiving the honour. In the tournament, he also scored his final goal for the national team, which came in the group stage in a 1–0 win against Paraguay", ". In total, Francescoli made 16 appearances over four editions of the Copa América, scoring five goals, and reaching the final on all four occasions in which he played.", "Francescoli announced his retirement from international football after winning the Copa América for the third time. However, he briefly came out of international retirement during Uruguay's qualifying campaign for the 1998 World Cup, after his teammates had persuaded him to return, with President of Uruguay Julio María Sanguinetti also asking him personally. In October 1996, Francescoli returned to play for the national team, although he did not take part in the 1997 Copa América", ". He played in eight matches in June of that year, after the continental tournament. His last two matches with the Celeste came in July and August 1997. The Uruguayans still had three World Cup South American qualifying matches remaining, but reached the last match with no mathematical chance of qualifying for the tournament and finishing seventh in their group.", "Francescoli made 73 official appearances for his country, with 37 wins, 18 draws and 18 defeats, and scoring 17 goals. He was praised for his performances in a difficult period for the national team, retiring as the player with the second most appearances for Uruguay, only four games behind the record holder at the time, goalkeeper Rodolfo Rodríguez, despite the three years in which he had been disowned by the national side, and another in which he had voluntarily retired", ". Later, his record would be broken by goalkeeper Fabián Carini and also by striker Diego Forlán.", "Style of play and legacy", "A quick, elegant, creative and technically gifted attacking midfielder who was also capable of playing in the centre as a second striker, Francescoli was noted in particular for his control, grace, fluidity, dribbling skills and ability on the ball, despite his lack of notable pace. A two-footed playmaker with excellent vision, passing ability, and an eye for goal from midfield, he was also known for his ability from set-pieces, and also had a penchant for scoring acrobatic goals from overhead kicks", ". These qualities would later influence the style of French creative offensive midfielder Zinedine Zidane, who has stated that, along with compatriot Michel Platini, Francescoli was one of his favourite players as a young boy, and that he would often watch him train with Marseille. Zidane even named one of his sons, Enzo, in homage to him. Francescoli learned of this fact just before the Intercontinental Cup final match of 1996, and so the two players swapped jerseys at the end of the match", ". The piece became a favourite of Zidane's to wear. Subsequently, the two presented television show Football Cracks, a reality show that sought new football talent in Spain. Francescoli's admiration for Zidane extended to other French players and he has stated he felt more respect from French fans than he had while playing there.", "Other players to have been named after him are Argentine internationals Enzo Pérez and Enzo Fernández, both of whom have also played for River Plate. Argentine striker Diego Milito has also been given the nickname \"Il Principe\" during Milito's tenure with Inter Milan due to his elegant style of play and physical resemblance to Francescoli. Francescoli has joked saying that neither of his sons resemble him as much as Milito, both in physical appearance and in their walk", ". Furthermore, Argentine attacking midfielder Javier Pastore, who was also a fan of Francescoli as a youngster, was given the Uruguayan's other nickname \"El Flaco\", because of their similar style of play as well as their slender build.", "In recognition of his talent, Francescoli was the only Uruguayan footballer to be named by Pelé as one of the top 125 greatest living footballers in March 2004.", "Media career\nFrancescoli went to live with his family in Miami, where he would create TV station GOL TV with former manager Paco Casal. Francescoli returned to Buenos Aires five years later, although he still travelled monthly to the United States because of his activities there. For the 2010 World Cup, he led the team of Channel 7 Argentina, Argentina's state broadcaster.", "Coaching career\nSince leaving television, Francescoli was asked several times to coach River Plate, but he never accepted, stating instead that if asked to be manager of the club, he might accept, since he could employ the lessons that had learned as an entrepreneur.", "However, one factor that prevented him from having more acceptance in Uruguay was his relationship with Paco Casal. There was controversy in Uruguay over his buying football television rights through his company Tenfield SA. A known critic said, \"The contract with Tenfield SA... has been detrimental to Uruguayan football. Players earn ever lower wages, clubs are bankrupt, but entrepreneurs are getting richer", ". Players earn ever lower wages, clubs are bankrupt, but entrepreneurs are getting richer. Only journalists who support the contractual relationship between the AUF and Tenfield are those who work for the company, which has a monopoly in the country.\" Francescoli said of Casal, \"He is the most important businessman in my country, and built [his power] from nothing. He is involved in things that generate passion for football and carnival, and this creates divisions [of opinions]... he is a good person", "... he is a good person. The man helps more than people believe. Paco did not get up one day and said, 'I want to be owner of Uruguayan football.' Paco was given ownership because the leaders were not able to sell the players that they developed.\"", "River Plate", "After many wins, titles and trophies with River Plate as a player, Francescoli was back with the club in a leadership role under Rodolfo Raúl D'Onofrio. Francescoli became the head of player personnel for River Plate. It was his decision to bring on a young coach and former River Plate teammate Marcelo Gallardo after the departure of Ramón Díaz", ". After hiring Gallardo, River Plate had immense international success, as the team conquered all continental CONMEBOL trophies: the Copa Sudamericana 2014, Recopa Sudamericana 2015 and the Copa Libertadores 2015. River Plate also won the first Suruga Bank Championship 2015. Under his leadership and Gallardo's touch, River Plate won the Copa Libertadores 2018, beating their life-long rivals Boca Juniors.", "Personal life", "Francescoli is married to Mariela Yern since 1984 and has two sons with her, Bruno and Marco. His wife is a psychologist, which he stated was of great value to their marriage. As a footballer, he required emotional sympathy, he stated in an interview program in 2000. Bruno studied law, while Marco tried to follow in his father's footsteps, eventually playing for Cagliari, where he played for three years, and then Estudiantes de La Plata, but did not get much further", ". One factor for his retirement from football was his desire to be closer to his two sons. Francescoli has two brothers: Luis Ernesto, two years older; and Pablo, 13 years younger. Outside of football, he also enjoys smoking, a habit that he has had since age 16, and playing golf.", "Francescoli was made the Uruguayan ambassador for UNICEF after Diego Forlán in 2002.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nClub\n\nInternational\n\nScores and results list Uruguay's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Francescoli goal.\n\nHonours\n\nSource:\n\nRiver Plate\n Primera División: 1985–86, 1994 Apertura, 1996 Apertura, 1997 Clausura, 1997 Apertura\n Copa Libertadores: 1996\n Supercopa Sudamericana: 1997\n\nMarseille\n French Division 1: 1989–90", "Marseille\n French Division 1: 1989–90\n\nUruguay\n South American Youth Football Championship: 1981\n Copa América: 1983, 1987, 1995", "Individual\n Copa América player of the tournament: 1983, 1995\n South American Footballer of the Year: 1984, 1995\n Argentine Primera División top scorers: 1984 Metropolitano, 1985–86, 1994 Apertura\n Player of the Year of Argentina: 1985, 1995\n France Foreign Player of the Year: 1990\n South American Team of the Year: 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997\n FIFA 100\n World Soccer: The 100 Greatest Footballers of All Time\n Cagliari Hall of Fame\n Cagliari Greatest All-time Starting XI\n IFFHS Uruguayan Men's Dream Team", "References\n\nExternal links\n\nInternational statistics at RSSSF\nProfile at Tenfield \nMidfield Dynamo's 10 Heroes of the Copa América Enzo Francescoli listed in the top 10", "1961 births\nLiving people\nUruguayan sportspeople of Italian descent\nFootballers from Montevideo\nUruguayan men's footballers\nMen's association football forwards\nMontevideo Wanderers F.C. players\nClub Atlético River Plate footballers\nRacing Club de France Football players\nOlympique de Marseille players\nCagliari Calcio players\nTorino FC players\nUruguayan Primera División players\nArgentine Primera División players\nLigue 1 players\nSerie A players\nUruguay men's under-20 international footballers", "Ligue 1 players\nSerie A players\nUruguay men's under-20 international footballers\nUruguay men's international footballers\n1983 Copa América players\n1986 FIFA World Cup players\n1987 Copa América players\n1989 Copa América players\n1990 FIFA World Cup players\n1993 Copa América players\n1995 Copa América players\nCopa América-winning players\nCopa Libertadores-winning players\nUruguayan expatriate men's footballers\nExpatriate men's footballers in Argentina\nExpatriate men's footballers in France", "Expatriate men's footballers in Argentina\nExpatriate men's footballers in France\nExpatriate men's footballers in Italy\nUruguayan expatriate sportspeople in Argentina\nUruguayan expatriate sportspeople in France\nUruguayan expatriate sportspeople in Italy\nSouth American Footballer of the Year winners\nFIFA 100" ]

[ "O'Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709 (1987), is a United States Supreme Court decision on the Fourth Amendment rights of government employees with regard to administrative searches in the workplace, during investigations by supervisors for violations of employee policy rather than by law enforcement for criminal offenses", ". It was brought by Magno Ortega, a doctor at a California state hospital after his supervisors found allegedly inculpatory evidence in his office while he was on administrative leave pending an investigation of alleged misconduct. Some of what they uncovered was later used to impeach a witness who testified on his behalf at the hearing where he unsuccessfully appealed his dismissal.", "Although lower courts had considered the issue, it was the first time the Supreme Court had. By a 5-4 margin, the Court ruled that public employees retain their Fourth Amendment rights. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor's plurality opinion established an \"operating realities\" test for future courts to consider when public employees challenged searches during investigations, reflecting the lower reasonable suspicion standard the government had to meet as an employer", ". That did not establish binding precedent, since Antonin Scalia argued in a separate concurring opinion that her standard was too vague, and that the same searches which would be reasonable for a private employer were proper when conducted by their public counterparts. Harry Blackmun wrote for four dissenting justices that the search was clearly an investigatory one and thus a breach of the doctor's privacy.", "Since it could not decide how to apply that standard to Ortega's case as the record at that time did not establish whether the entry into Ortega's office had been for search purposes or not, the majority remanded the case to the district court. Eleven more years of litigation followed. At some points during it Ortega had to represent himself, and the Court itself had taken the unusual step of inviting Joel Klein to argue Ortega's case before them", ". It went back and forth between the district and appellate courts twice. Ortega finally prevailed after a jury trial in the late 1990s, and the Ninth Circuit denied Ortega's superiors their appeal.", "Despite the two different standards resulting from the split five-justice majority, lower courts have generally followed O'Connor's \"operational realities\" test in future cases involving actual searches. Observers thought the justices might resolve the conflict the next time a similar case of public employees alleging a search violated their Fourth Amendment rights came before it. When it did, in 2010's Ontario v. Quon, they declined to do so, leaving the matter open for yet another future Court.", "Underlying dispute", "In March 1981, Dr. Ortega, for 17 years the head of the psychiatric residency program at Napa State Hospital, a mental hospital in Napa, California, purchased a new Apple II computer to use in running the program. Half of the money for it had been donated by some of the residents; Ortega covered the rest. A month later, he asked Dr", ". A month later, he asked Dr. Dennis O'Connor, the hospital's executive director and his superior, to sign some thank-you letters to the residents who had made contributions, and to authorize some purchase orders for peripherals and other accessories for the computer.", "O'Connor was not sure whether the computer had been properly donated to the hospital, and hesitated to sign the letters. Two months later, Ortega suspended a resident for failing to report for a rotation. The resident complained to Dorothy Owen, the hospital's personnel director, that Ortega was retaliating against him for not only having not contributed to the purchase of the computer but advising other residents to ask him for their money back.", "In late July, Owen told O'Connor of the resident's complaint. O'Connor asked Richard Friday, the hospital administrator, to begin an investigation into the resident's allegations specifically and the purchase of the computer generally. He gave Friday and his investigative team broad authority, including permission to search Ortega's office. The hospital otherwise had no policy on such searches.", "O'Connor asked Ortega to take administrative leave the next day. Ortega instead received O'Connor's approval for two weeks of paid vacation, after which the administrative leave began. O'Connor told Ortega not to return to the hospital without his permission during his vacation. During the time Ortega was on vacation, Friday had the lock changed and kept the key in his own office.", "When Ortega's vacation ended, O'Connor sent a letter to Ortega informing him he was now on paid administrative leave, and extending the restriction on visits to the hospital. Before Ortega had received it, he returned to the hospital. Finding his office door locked and unable to open it himself, he took the computer, then in an unsecured nearby room, home to work with it there, as he had done on occasion in the past.", "Upon learning of this, O'Connor called the hospital police, believing that the computer was state property and thus Ortega had stolen it. At some other point during the time Ortega was on vacation and leave, a staff psychiatrist who ran a support group for residents told O'Connor about complaints of possible sexual harassment on Ortega's part from two female residents. It was not clear whether this took place before or after at least one thorough, highly intrusive search of Ortega's office", ". Materials were removed from Ortega's office, boxed and stored when the security guard performing the inventory found it too difficult to sort out Ortega's property from the state's.", "On a separate visit to Ortega's office, Friday found several items—a Valentine, suggestively posed photo and inscribed book of love poetry—sent to Ortega several years earlier by a former resident. After the hospital fired Ortega in September, he appealed to the State Personnel Board. When the former resident testified on Ortega's behalf during the hearing, these items were introduced in an attempt to impeach her.", "Owen asked Ortega after the firing if he wanted his personal possessions from his office returned. He did not. By spring of 1982 he had changed his mind. In response to another request, Asher Rubin, the deputy attorney general who had represented the state before the Personnel Board, told him he could make copies of his personal papers but could not keep the originals, nor any of his other personal property.\n\nLitigation", "Ortega retained an attorney and filed a Section 1983 suit against O'Connor (who had now become director of the California Department of Mental Health) Owen, Friday, other parties and the state shortly afterwards in federal court, seeking $750,000 in compensatory and punitive damages. In addition to the violation of his Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable search and seizure, he made tort claims for invasion of privacy and breach of covenant of good faith and fair dealings under California law", ". The defendants argued that they had entered Ortega's office and gone through the contents of his desk purely to inventory property and separate state-owned items from the doctor's personal possessions, which it claimed was standard practice when employees had resigned or been terminated. Both sides moved for summary judgement, which Judge John P. Vukasin Jr. granted to the defendants on all claims", ". Vukasin Jr. granted to the defendants on all claims. It found that the entry into Ortega's office had been for the purpose of securing state property for use by a successor.", "Ortega appealed to the Ninth Circuit. In 1985 a three-judge panel unanimously reversed the district court on the search but upheld it on the state-law tort claims. \"The entry into the office seems to have been for no other purpose than to secure evidence for use in the ongoing investigation of Ortega,\" Judge Dorothy Wright Nelson wrote", ".\" While the state had said that the entry to the office was not intended as a search, she noted that at the time the doctor had not yet been fired or resigned but was merely on administrative leave. Nor did this seem to have been regularly undertaken in situations where it did apply.", "After that finding, Wright considered whether such a warrantless search was reasonable under the Fourth Amendment. She applied the two-pronged test from the Supreme Court's 1967 Katz v. United States decision to establish whether Dr. Ortega had a reasonable expectation of privacy over the contents of his desk and office. First, did he have a subjective expectation that they would be left undisturbed by others, and second, would that expectation be one that society would consider reasonable and respect?", "On the first prong, he had occupied the office for all 17 years of his employment. He kept within his desk not only personal papers and effects but confidential patient records. He had believed he had the only key, and was not aware of any other time during his employment at Napa in which his office had been entered without his permission. In Mancusi v", ". In Mancusi v. DeForte, the Supreme Court had held that an employee can have a reasonable expectation of privacy over his or her desk at work from searches by law enforcement.", "Two cases from the Third Circuit, with direct similarities to Ortega's, argued for the reasonableness of his privacy expectation. In one, the presence of sensitive and confidential documents within a desk was held to strengthen the privacy expectation; and in the other, the personal lock that a police officer had used for his department locker led to the suppression of a sawed-off shotgun seized by federal agents.", "In the latter case, the department had also lacked a formal policy on whether the lockers could be searched, as had been the case at Napa. This Wright used to distinguish it and Ortega's case from other precedents where warrantless searches of public employees' lockers, jackets or backpacks had been upheld due to broadly disseminated and actively implemented policies that such searches could occur at any time", ". \"Here, Napa had never instituted surveillance or searches and had no general inspection policy that might have defeated Ortega's expectation of privacy in his office,\" she concluded.", "The appeals court ordered the district court to enter judgement in Ortega's favor on that issue and hold proceedings to fix damages. The pendent state-law claims had not been filed in a timely fashion, and the panel affirmed that part of the summary judgement.\n\nBefore the Court", "Before the Court\n\nThe state of California's certiorari petition was granted by the Supreme Court in 1985. Since he was representing himself, Ortega filed his own brief. The Court invited Joel Klein, the future New York City Schools Chancellor then in private practice, to argue Ortega's case, and he also filed an amicus curiae brief on Ortega's behalf.", "The appellants' brief was filed by California Attorney General John Van de Kamp and several of his assistants. Solicitor General Charles Fried filed an amicus brief on behalf of the federal government urging reversal. The American Civil Liberties Union and American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees urged affirmance in their amici. Oral arguments were held in October 1986.\n\nPetitioners' oral argument", "Jeffrey T. Miller, one of Van de Kamp's deputies, argued for the petitioners. He did not deny that government employees had Fourth Amendment rights, but \"the activity that took place in this case did not constitute a search within Fourth Amendment jurisprudence\". He insisted that the Court should follow the district court's lead in finding that Dr", ". He insisted that the Court should follow the district court's lead in finding that Dr. Ortega's office had been inventoried, not searched, until he was reminded that the district court had merely found the action to be a securing of the property in case Ortega returned to remove something else, and had not even used the word \"inventory", ".\" It would not have been reasonable for the doctor to have imagined that no one else would or could have entered the office without his consent or knowledge in the 17 years he was employed at Napa.", "Likewise, a desk was a \"common repository\", likely to be used by many people besides the one regularly seated behind it. \"It is foreseeable that a number of different people working for government, from clerical staff to supervisors to colleagues, will move into an office, that is, enter an office, open a desk for a variety of reasons", ".\" When Justice Sandra Day O'Connor challenged him as to whether employees in the private sector would have a reasonable expectation of privacy over their desks, he agreed that they might but reminded her the Fourth Amendment does not apply to private employers.", "He asked that the Court follow the logic of its 1985 ruling in New Jersey v. T. L. O. in which it had held that only a reasonable belief that evidence of misconduct would be found was needed to justify a search of a student or possessions on school property during school hours. Chief Justice William Rehnquist asked Miller if he was arguing the Fourth Amendment did not apply at all in schools. \"it seems to me there is certainly language in T.L.O. against you on that point", ". \"it seems to me there is certainly language in T.L.O. against you on that point.\" That case, Miller responded, \"had at least made the initial inquiry into whether the Fourth Amendment was applicable.\"", "The other justices were not convinced that Ortega's office had been entered for inventory purposes. They pointed to facts in the record they saw as being at odds with the state's interpretation. Antonin Scalia asked if it were possible that the Court could rule that it was an inventory but the actions taken had exceeded the scope of those necessary to accomplish that. Miller said that would be moot as there was no expectation of privacy over the desk and office", ". Miller said that would be moot as there was no expectation of privacy over the desk and office. He further explained that Ortega's key may have given him a subjective expectation of privacy, but not necessarily a reasonable one. Miller admitted to Thurgood Marshall that he did not know why the inventory could not have been done in Ortega's presence to better facilitate the sorting of property.", "He noted that most public agencies have an Inspector General or something similar, who \"every now and then drops in on offices to see if employees have their own things in their office\". When Justice Byron White asked if his position implied that a public agency could search its employees' desks or offices at any time of the day or night, he said yes. \"It may give rise to work grievances, to state and common law tort remedies ... but it would not violate the Fourth Amendment in our view.\"", "Respondent's oral argument\n\n\"Our argument rests on three propositions\", Klein told the justices. \"[F]irst, that it is both customary and reasonable for a public employee to keep personal papers and effects in his work office and to expect that the privacy of such materials will be protected against arbitrary searches or seizures by his employer; second, that the application of the Fourth Amendment to office searches is not incompatible with the government's responsibilities as an employer.\"", "Before he could get to the third, he was challenged by Scalia, who posited a situation where he might be working late and need to retrieve a document or file. He would find it on the desk of one of his law clerks, who might have gone home for the day. \"Now,\" he asked, \"have I conducted a Fourth Amendment search and seizure, and I am only immune from ... suit because it was reasonable?", "Klein conceded to another justice's follow-up question that it was understood that, in all offices, \"our expectation is, in the evenings, when people go home, others may on the basis of need enter ... The Fourth Amendment does not apply in most situations to a routine office entry, that is, if an employer or co-worker walks into your office looking for a paper clip", ".\" However, he said, that understanding did not defeat an expectation of privacy, likening it to a hotel room, where the Court had previously held there was an expectation of privacy even though hotel staff routinely enter for janitorial purposes. Scalia asked if it would be a Fourth Amendment violation if cleaning crews were to have looked through Ortega's desk and papers", ". \"I don't think they would be exercising government authority in that situation\", Klein answered, since the cleaning crews were presumably under instructions not to do so.", "O'Connor asked if it would be reasonable for a supervisor to enter an office and look through a desk to \"discover whatever might be appropriate for work-related wrongdoing of some kind?\" As an example, she suggested, a supervisor might want to assess an employee's progress toward a deadline. Klein did not think so, since normally such matters are handled by asking the employee to produce whatever work has been completed.", "To highlight his argument that the intrusion into Ortega's office had been a search rather than a property inventory, he used the example of the book of poetry, which was obviously personal property. \"[I]f you pick up a book of poetry you don't have to open that book to find out who sent it to him.\" It was suggested that perhaps he read poetry to his patients, but Klein responded that the state had not suggested that and that, even if he did the book was still undeniably personal property.", "He, too, compared the case with T.L.O., telling Justice White that he believed a search warrant might have been necessary to enter Ortega's office in this situation. \"[L]et me just say that I think that they were looking for information to use against him to take his job away from him. He had been singled out\", Klein said. \"[E]ven if you take the T.L.O", ". He had been singled out\", Klein said. \"[E]ven if you take the T.L.O. standard, it is inconceivable that we could have a lower standard at the work place than we have at the school given the interests of employees and their adult age ... [T]here has to be reasonable suspicion when you go in to do the search that you will uncover evidence", ".\" If the state or the hospital had really wanted the right to enter employees' offices, it could have followed the example of the Mint and the Customs Service and promulgated a regulation stating that employees' property could be subject to search.", "Decision", "Five months later, in March 1987, the Court handed down its decision. All nine justices agreed that public employees had Fourth Amendment protections during administrative searches in the workplace, and that routine work-related intrusions as discussed at oral argument did not constitute a violation. They differed as to whether Ortega's had been breached by the search", ". They differed as to whether Ortega's had been breached by the search. The five-justice majority believed it could not determine the purpose of the intrusion into Ortega's office and so remanded the case to the district court to do so.", "Justice O'Connor wrote for a four-justice plurality that the same reasonable suspicion standard it developed for T.L.O. was applicable to administrative searches of public employees' workspace or possessions, since the \"operational realities\" of a public work environment may substantially reduce or eliminate a standard expectation of privacy", ". In a separate concurring opinion, Justice Scalia rejected that as too vague to be useful to lower courts, and proposed instead that any search that would be reasonable for a private employer would be permissible for a public one.", "Justice Blackmun wrote for the four dissenting justices. He believed the majority had put too much weight on the different interpretations of the intrusion by the district and appellate courts, since he felt it was clearly an investigatory search for evidence against Dr. Ortega. Also, he charged, the majority had taken his concurrence in T.L.O. out of context to support its reasonableness standard", ".L.O. out of context to support its reasonableness standard. He did not feel, as they did, that outside of special cases such as the school system that it would have been detrimental to the operations of a public agency such as the hospital to have some sort of independent review and establish probable cause for an administrative search related to possible violations of policy.", "Plurality opinion", "After recounting the history of the case and the sweep of the Court's prior Fourth Amendment jurisprudence, O'Connor, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, Justice White, and Justice Powell, defined the boundaries of the workplace context as \"those areas and items that are related to work and are generally within the employer's control.\" Some items that passed through the workplace were personal, and as the Court had ruled in Mancusi, a reasonable expectation of privacy may exist there", ". \"[W]e reject the contention made by the Solicitor General and petitioners that public employees can never have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their place of work,\" she wrote. \"Individuals do not lose Fourth Amendment rights merely because they work for the government, instead of a private employer.\"", "She immediately qualified that holding.", "Moving from the general principle to the case at hand, O'Connor agreed that Ortega had that same reasonable expectation of privacy, but that since the record did not reflect the extent of whatever legitimate work-related reasons the hospital administrators might have had to enter the office, the Ninth Circuit should have remanded the case to the district court to determine that, as the majority was doing. Following T.L.O", ". Following T.L.O., she said the inquiry should not stop with determining the Fourth Amendment applied, but whether the context made the search reasonable. \"We must balance the invasion of the employees' legitimate expectations of privacy against the government's need for supervision, control, and the efficient operation of the workplace.\"", "There was, O'Connor admitted, \"surprisingly little case law\" on the subject", ". That which existed did seem to support the standard she proposed for work-related searches, most notably a 1973 case from the Seventh Circuit in which the surreptitious recording of an Internal Revenue Service's agent's conversations at his desk by the agency's internal investigators was held to be reasonable and work-related", ", and a 1951 case from the District of Columbia which held that although a search of the appellee's desk by local police with her government supervisor's permission was unconstitutional, a work-related search by her supervisor would not have been", ". She distinguished these from other cases that proposed other standards for public workplace searches by noting that those cases were either not work-related or involved criminal misconduct.", "\"In our view,\" O'Connor continued,\n\nShe quoted from Connick v. Myers, an earlier case which had considered the First Amendment rights of an assistant prosecutor fired for allegedly disruptive behavior: \"[G]overnment offices could not function if every employment decision became a constitutional matter.\"", "O'Connor announced that the Court would consider only the constitutionality of work-related and investigatory searches \"and leave for another day inquiry into other circumstances.\" She found \"the efficient and proper operation of the workplace\" to similarly justify investigatory searches, since supervisors had different needs from law enforcement", ". \"The delay in correcting the employee misconduct caused by the need for probable cause, rather than reasonable suspicion, will be translated into tangible and often irreparable damage to the agency's work, and ultimately to the public interest.\" She again cited T.L.O. to justify this standard. \"Government offices are provided to employees for the sole purpose of facilitating the work of an agency. The employee may avoid exposing personal belongings at work by simply leaving them at home.\"", "Lastly O'Connor found the district court's finding on summary judgment that the intrusion was for the purposes of securing state property to be in error since there was a genuine dispute of fact. It followed then that the appellate court could not have made a definitive finding of fact either. The case was remanded to the district court with instructions to both determine what justified the search and seizure of Ortega's property and whether that search was reasonable in both its inception and scope.", "Scalia concurrence", "Justice Scalia agreed that the case should be remanded, but felt it was not helpful to call for a case-by-case assessment, since it was difficult to make practical use of. He found fault with O'Connor's comment, justifying her \"operating realities\" test, that some public workplaces might be \"so open\" as to offer no reasonable expectation of privacy", ". \"No clue is provided as to how open 'so open' must be; much less is it suggested how police officers are to gather the facts necessary for this refined inquiry ... [I]t is so devoid of content that it produces, rather than eliminates, uncertainty in this field.\"", "The plurality's standard could not be right if it led to a conclusion that the Fourth Amendment did not apply to a work-related entry into Ortega's office.", "Whether it was a supervisor or police officer entering the office, he said, only made a difference as to whether the search was reasonable, not whether the Fourth Amendment applies", ". When a firefighter enters a house where an alarm has gone off, he noted, \"we do not ask whether the occupant has a reasonable expectation of privacy (and hence Fourth Amendment protection) vis-a-vis firemen, but rather whether—given the fact that the Fourth Amendment covers private dwellings—intrusion for the purpose of extinguishing a fire is reasonable\", citing the Court's Michigan v. Tyler ruling.", "Scalia argued that the offices and desks of public employees were covered by the Fourth Amendment as a general matter, choosing his words to avoid the Katz rule that places exposed to public view are not covered by the Fourth Amendment since some government offices, as O'Connor had noted, were subject to unrestricted public access", ". \"Government searches to retrieve work-related materials or to investigate violations of workplace rules—searches of the sort that are regarded as reasonable and normal in the private employer context—do not violate the Fourth Amendment.\" Since the evidence in the case did not support a summary judgement, he joined his colleagues in ordering the case remanded.", "Dissent", "At the outset of his dissent, signed by Justices Brennan, Marshall and Stevens, Justice Blackmun said \"The facts of this case are simple and straightforward. Dr. Ortega had an expectation of privacy in his office, desk, and file cabinets, which were the target of a search by petitioners that can be characterized only as investigatory in nature", ".\" He disagreed with the plurality that there was anything special about a public workplace that justified a lower standard for such searches, and called the intrusion an unconstitutional search. Not only had it found what were to him clear facts in dispute, it had nevertheless chosen to derive a standard from a case it had remanded to resolve that dispute. \"As a result, the standard that emerges makes reasonable almost any workplace search by a public employer.\"", "As to the facts, Blackmun contended the plurality had been confused, partially relying on Ortega's removal of the computer as a reason to consider the intrusion reasonable when, he noted, the record itself had testimony from Friday that this had not triggered the search. Dr. O'Connor had further admitted in his deposition that there was an investigatory interest in the contents of Ortega's office. The searchers had also consulted with a lawyer and waited until the evening", ". The searchers had also consulted with a lawyer and waited until the evening. \"The search in question stemmed neither from a Hospital policy nor from a practice of routine entrances into Dr. Ortega's office\", he wrote. \"It was plainly exceptional and investigatory in nature. Accordingly, there is no significant factual dispute in this case.\"", "Blackmun began his disagreement with the plurality's embrace of the reasonable suspicion standard by agreeing with it that government employees retained their Fourth Amendment rights at work. He accepted as well that routine work-related intrusions might diminish their expectation of privacy. He did not accept that such intrusions would eliminate it.", "The Court had always recognized Fourth Amendment rights in offices, he said, despite the understanding that it would be visited by others. The plurality did recognize, he conceded, another point: that a search unreasonable in one context might be reasonable in another. But\n\nThus he thought it especially important that the context of the search be considered.", "Justice Blackmun reminded the plurality that his concurring opinion in T.L.O., from which Justice O'Connor had drawn support for her \"special need\" argument, was meant to address an error he believed that case's plurality had made. The balancing test he had proposed there was not needed here, since \"[t]here was no special practical need that might have justified dispensing with the warrant and probable cause requirements", ".\" The time and effort required to get a warrant, he said, would not have detracted from the hospital's mission of providing quality patient care and educating new psychiatrists. An independent review by a magistrate might, he added, have helped make the search not only constitutional but more efficient, since they would have been forced to list and justify every aspect of the office and desk they wished to look through.", "And even if there were a special need, the balancing test would still not be necessary.\n\nDespite claiming to have drawn well-defined standards from the facts of the case, the two categories of searches it had approved as not requiring warrants, they were, Blackmun felt, so broadly drawn that \"it is difficult to imagine a search that would not fit into one or the other ...\"", "Reaction\nThe case was closely watched by the parties to National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, then on appeal to the Fifth Circuit and seen as likely to reach the Supreme Court (as it eventually did). It involved a challenge by employees of the United States Customs Service to a proposal by the agency that employees in certain positions submit to mandatory drug testing. The employees' union had sued to block it, arguing it was a violation of their Fourth Amendment protections.", "The union and the American Civil Liberties Union, which had also filed an amicus brief urging affirmance in O'Connor, praised the court's holding that public employees had Fourth Amendment rights in the workplace. They said it made their arguments in Von Raab stronger. The Justice Department maintained that it still believed the Customs Service's drug testing requirement would be held constitutional.", "Disposition", "Within two months of the Court's decision the Ninth Circuit formally remanded it to the district court. A new trial was held five years later, in 1992, again before Judge Vukasin. Dr. Ortega once again had to represent himself, and when the defense failed to receive his witness list the court sanctioned him by refusing to allow him to present them", ". As a result, he was largely limited to cross-examining the opposing witnesses, and when the defense was done presenting its case the court granted its motion for a directed verdict.", "Ortega appealed to the Ninth Circuit again, retaining his lawyer to do so. He challenged not only the sanctioning but the trial court's refusal to let him include Asher Rubin as a defendant. In late 1994 a three-judge panel heard the case; it announced its decision five months later.", "Circuit judge Diarmuid O'Scannlain wrote for a unanimous panel that the sanctions, while within limits of judicial discretion, had so adversely affected Ortega's case that the verdict was tainted. Reduced to merely cross-examining opposing witnesses, he could not present his own case-in-chief", ". Reduced to merely cross-examining opposing witnesses, he could not present his own case-in-chief. And, further, they were unjustified as the trial record included a letter from Ortega to Paul Hammerness, the assistant attorney general handling the case, referring to \"the enclosed witness list\", that had been stamped as received by the court in November 1992.", "\"The court appears to have overlooked this evidence of Dr. Ortega's compliance\", O'Scannlain wrote. \"Dr. Ortega's compliance is not negated by the fact that opposing counsel failed to receive the list.\" Therefore, the sanctions against his witnesses had clearly been erroneous. The panel then affirmed the district court on its denial of the additional defendant, as the district court that had first heard the case dismissed that defendant on prosecutorial immunity grounds", ". Had Ortega wished to challenge that holding, the panel said, he had to have done so on his original appeal to the Ninth Circuit.", "On remand, O'Connor and Friday, the only defendants left, changed their strategy and asserted qualified immunity, for the first time, dropping their claim that the need to secure or inventory state property justified their intrusion. Instead, they said, the claims of misconduct, particularly the alleged sexual harassment, made it necessary", ". During pretrial motions, Judge Marilyn Hall Patel, who took over the case since Vukasin had died, barred the use of qualified immunity and ruled that sexual harassment could not have justified the search. As a result, both parties agreed not to introduce the book of poetry, photo and Valentine.", "A jury found for Ortega on all his claims. It awarded him $376,000 in compensatory damages, and $35,000 and $25,000 respectively against O'Connor and Friday respectively. Afterward, the district court awarded almost $32,000 in attorney's fees. O'Connor and Friday appealed.", "A three-judge panel, including two of the judges who had been on the 1985 panel, found Patel's rulings on qualified immunity and the sexual harassment claims worthy of consideration. Stephen Reinhardt, one of those original judges, noted that Judge Vukasin had rejected the qualified immunuity defense at the first trial and that the jury instructions Patel and both sides had approved made such a defense possible even if the exact words \"qualified immunity\" were not used", ". Nor were the defendants correct in arguing that there was no settled law before the Supreme Court's ruling. \"[I]t was clearly established in 1981 that, in the absence of an accepted practice or regulation to the contrary, government employees such as Dr. Ortega had a reasonable expectation of privacy in their private offices, desks, and file cabinets, thereby triggering the protections of the Fourth Amendment with regard to searches and seizures\", Reinhardt wrote", ". He quoted explicit language to that effect from the Supreme Court's 1966 holding in Hoffa v. United States and noted the Supreme Court plurality's citation of existing lower-court holdings saying the same thing. Even if it had not been, it was not \"reasonable under the circumstances\", as Terry v. Ohio required.", "O'Connor and Friday had argued that, by denying them the opportunity to raise the sexual harassment claims as a justification for the search, Patel had improperly granted what amounted to sua sponte partial summary judgement against them. Reinhardt countered that they had had adequate time to develop their defense and so the judge was \"procedurally free\" to do that. He turned to whether such a ruling was justified and not an abuse of discretion", ". He turned to whether such a ruling was justified and not an abuse of discretion. Even if he resolved an issue of disputed fact in their favor and assumed that O'Connor and Friday knew of the sexual harassment allegations before they went into Ortega's office, the allegations themselves were vague, and one of them was ten years old", ". Thus, he continued, they did not create a reasonable suspicion that he was harassing residents, and even if they did they could not have reasonably established a likelihood that evidence supporting them would be found there. \"The search was, at best, a general and unbounded pursuit of anything that might tend to indicate any sort of malfeasance—a search that is almost by definition, unreasonable.\" It had also been properly excluded since its prejudicial value outweighed its probative value.", "\"It is now seventeen years since the search of Dr. Ortega's office occurred and his most personal letters and possessions were examined and seized. It is time to bring this matter to a conclusion\", wrote Reinhardt. He dismissed the remaining grounds for appeal as meritless, and the panel unanimously upheld the district court. The appellate decision was not further appealed.", "After the state paid his claim, amounting to over $700,000 with interest, Dr. Ortega was sued by one of his former attorneys for unpaid bills. The two settled the claim in arbitration, but after Ortega refused to comply, the attorney sued him and won an adjustment to the arbitration award correcting some errors made in calculating the interest rate", ". A state appellate court upheld the trial court verdict in 2001, saying Ortega's \"often rambling and incoherent narratives\" in briefs he wrote himself left them with little in the way of substantive legal argument. Ortega died in 2009.", "Subsequent jurisprudence", "The first case after O'Connor to involve the Fourth Amendment rights of government employees at work was, as expected, National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab. A 5-4 majority held that the urine testing the Customs Service proposed for internal promotion to positions involving drug interdiction, carrying firearms or handling classified material was reasonable since it was \"not designed to serve the ordinary needs of law enforcement", ".\" Scalia, in a dissent joined by Stevens, called the program \"a kind of immolation of privacy and human dignity in symbolic opposition to drug use\". The Customs Service, he said, had not introduced \"real evidence of a real problem that will be solved by urine testing.\"", "Later, when turning down a 1997 challenge by employees of Puerto Rico Telephone to a proposed video surveillance plan, Judge Bruce M. Selya of the First Circuit called O'Connor \"[t]he watershed case in this enclave of Fourth Amendment jurisprudence\". His opinion surveyed a number of other district and circuit cases considering the \"operating realities\" of public workplaces to establish whether a legitimate expectation of privacy existed.", "A key issue was whether the workplace or portion in question was reserved for the employee's personal use. A judge in the District of Kansas had granted summary judgement to Johnson County Community College against its security guards who challenged its video surveillance of their locker room by noting that the locker area under view was not exclusive to any of them", ". This distinguished it from the Drug Enforcement Administration's surreptitious videotaping of two agents convicted of illegal wiretapping, where the Ninth Circuit suppressed the videos because it found the agents had exclusive use of their offices.", "In a New York case that echoed Scalia's questions to Klein at oral argument, the Second Circuit found it reasonable for a judge to have court officers seize the contents of his just-fired law clerk's desk since the relationship between the two required free and complete access to each other's papers. As in cases preceding O'Connor, a workplace policy on searches has been held to defeat or diminish expectations of privacy", ". The Ninth Circuit upheld a civilian engineer's discharge from the Naval Reserve was upheld on the grounds that regular workplace searches removed any expectation of privacy over documents revealing his bisexuality. An unenforced or absent policy has been held to create a legitimate expectation.", "Ontario v. Quon", "As Ortega's dispute with his lawyer was coming to an end, elsewhere in California the events were unfolding that would lead to the next case where the Court would consider the Fourth Amendment rights of public employees during administrative investigations. In 2000 the city of Ontario purchased 20 alphanumeric pagers for its police department SWAT team to carry on and off-duty", ". A department policy, never put in writing, said that \"light personal use\" was permitted but that the pager messages could be audited at any time.", "Several officers routinely exceeded the monthly character limit. The lieutenant in charge of the pagers at first allowed them to reimburse the city for the overage fees in exchange for not auditing the messages. Later, when he was \"tired of being a bill collector\", he and his superiors decided to audit the text messages to see if the character limit was too low.", "Transcripts of the pager messages, redacted to include those sent only during work hours, showed that many of them were not work-related, and some were sexually explicit. Two officers were disciplined. Afterwards, they sued the superior officers, the department, the city and the pager provider for violation of the Stored Communications Act and their Fourth Amendment rights. The district court held a jury trial, which determined the audit was work-related, and it ruled for the defendants.", "On appeal the Ninth Circuit reversed, calling the audit an unreasonable search.<ref name=\"Quon v. Arch Wireless\">'', ( 2008).</ref> After being denied their petition for an en banc rehearing, the defendants successfully petitioned the Supreme Court for certiorari. The Court would only consider the Fourth Amendment claim, so the wireless provider was dropped as a petitioner there.", "The case received much attention since it also was the first time the Court had considered Fourth Amendment rights in the rapidly expanding area of electronic telecommunications. Only Scalia and Stevens remained from the O'Connor court. As a result, it was also seen as a possible chance to resolve the conflict between the plurality's \"operating realities\" standard and Scalia's.", "In June 2010, the Court unanimously upheld the search. Instead of choosing one of the O'Connor standards, it applied them both. Anthony Kennedy wrote for a seven-justice majority that since the audit had had a legitimate work-related purpose and its scope was limited to the pager messages sent at work, it was reasonable enough for the plurality in that case, and it would have been reasonable for a private-sector employer as Scalia had proposed.", "Stevens and Scalia both wrote separate concurring opinions. The former felt that, under the case-by-case approach Blackmun had advocated in his O'Connor dissent, Quon in this case knew or should have known all his communications could have come under public scrutiny. Scalia's opinion of the \"operational realities\" test remained unchanged. He called it \"standardless and unsupported\" and said the Quon majority \"underscores the unworkability of that standard\".\n\nAnalysis and commentary", "Analysis and commentary\n\nWhen considering what approach the Court would take in Quon, George Washington University law professor Orin Kerr, a Fourth Amendment scholar, noted that courts have generally used the plurality standard from O'Connor''. \"Exactly how you get there is sort of tricky, though\", he commented. \"So courts have mostly just figured that four Justices is more than one and that they should follow the analysis in the concurring opinion.\"", "O'Connor biographer Ann Cary McFeatters writes that her and Scalia's separate opinions in this case were the first of many clashes between the two justices in their joint tenure on the Court. \"It would not be the last time Scalia went after her with verbal venom. It would not be the last time his doctrinaire certitude conflicted with her case-by-case approach.\"\n\nNotes", "Notes\n\nSee also\nList of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 480\nList of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court\nSpecial needs exception\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nUnited States Supreme Court cases\nUnited States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court\nUnited States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit cases\nUnited States Fourth Amendment case law\nUnited States public employment case law\n1987 in United States case law\nSearch and seizure case law\nNapa, California" ]

[ "The Japanese tea ceremony (known as or ) is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of , powdered green tea, the procedure of which is called . While in Europe it is known as the \"tea ceremony\", it is seldom ceremonial in its practice. Most often tea is served to family, friends, and associates; religious and ceremonial connotations are overstated in European places", ". The English term \"Teaism\" was coined by Okakura Kakuzō to describe the unique worldview associated with Japanese tea ceremony, as opposed to focusing just on the ceremonial aspect, a perspective that many practitioners frown upon.", "Zen Buddhism was a primary influence in the development of the culture of Japanese tea. Much less commonly, Japanese tea practice uses leaf tea, primarily , a practice known as .", "Tea gatherings are classified as either an informal tea gathering () or a formal tea gathering (). A is a relatively simple course of hospitality that includes confections, thin tea, and perhaps a light meal. A is a much more formal gathering, usually including a full-course meal followed by confections, thick tea, and thin tea. A may last up to four hours.\n\nHistory", "The first documented evidence of tea in Japan dates to the 9th century. It is found in an entry in the having to do with the Buddhist monk , who had brought some tea back to Japan on his return from China. The entry states that Eichū personally prepared and served (tea beverage made by steeping tea leaves in hot water) to Emperor Saga, who was on an excursion in Karasaki (in present Shiga Prefecture) in 815. By imperial order in 816, tea plantations began to be cultivated in the Kinki region of Japan", ". By imperial order in 816, tea plantations began to be cultivated in the Kinki region of Japan. However, the interest in tea in Japan faded after this.", "In China, tea had already been known, according to legend, for more than a thousand years. The form of tea popular in China in Eichū's time was – tea compressed into a nugget in the same manner as tea. This then would be ground in a mortar, and the resulting ground tea mixed together with various other herbs and flavourings. The custom of drinking tea, first for medicinal, and then largely for pleasurable reasons, was already widespread throughout China", ". In the early 9th century, Chinese author Lu Yu wrote The Classic of Tea, a treatise on tea focusing on its cultivation and preparation. Lu Yu's life had been heavily influenced by Buddhism, particularly the Zen–Chán Buddhist school. His ideas would have a strong influence in the development of the Japanese tea.", "Around the end of the 12th century, the style of tea preparation called , in which powdered was placed into a bowl, hot water added, and the tea and hot water whipped together, was introduced to Japan by Buddhist monk Eisai on his return from China. He also took tea seeds back with him, which eventually produced tea that was considered to be the most superb quality in all of Japan. This powdered green tea was first used in religious rituals in Buddhist monasteries", ". This powdered green tea was first used in religious rituals in Buddhist monasteries. By the 13th century, when the Kamakura shogunate ruled the nation and tea and the luxuries associated with it became a kind of status symbol among the warrior class, there arose parties wherein contestants could win extravagant prizes for guessing the best quality tea – that was grown in Kyoto, deriving from the seeds that Eisai brought from China.", "The next major period in Japanese history was the Muromachi period, pointing to the rise of , centered around the cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his villa in the northern hills of Kyoto (Kinkaku-ji), and later during this period, the rise of Higashiyama culture, centered around the elegant cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimasa and his retirement villa in the eastern hills of Kyoto (Ginkaku-ji)", ". This period, approximately 1336 to 1573, saw the budding of what is generally regarded as Japanese traditional culture as it is known today.", "The use of Japanese tea developed as a \"transformative practice\" and began to evolve its own aesthetic, in particular that of principles. represents the inner, or spiritual, experiences of human lives", ". represents the inner, or spiritual, experiences of human lives. Its original meaning indicated quiet or sober refinement, or subdued taste \"characterized by humility, restraint, simplicity, naturalism, profundity, imperfection, and asymmetry\" and \"emphasizes simple, unadorned objects and architectural space, and celebrates the mellow beauty that time and care impart to materials.\"", ", on the other hand, represents the outer, or material side of life. Originally, it meant \"worn\", \"weathered\", or \"decayed\". Particularly among the nobility, understanding emptiness was considered the most effective means to spiritual awakening, while embracing imperfection was honoured as a reminder to cherish one's unpolished and unfinished nature – considered to be the first step to , or enlightenment. \nCentral are the concepts of omotenashi, which revolves around hospitality.", "Murata Jukō is known in history as an early developer of tea as a spiritual practice. He studied Zen under the monk Ikkyū, who revitalized Zen in the 15th century, and this is considered to have influenced his concept of .", "By the 16th century, tea drinking had spread to all levels of society in Japan. Sen no Rikyū and his work Southern Record, perhaps the best-known – and still revered – historical figure in tea, followed his master Takeno Jōō's concept of , a philosophy that each meeting should be treasured, for it can never be reproduced. His teachings perfected many newly developed forms in architecture and gardens, art, and the full development of the \"way of tea\"", ". The principles he set forward – , , , and – are still central to tea.", "Sen no Rikyū was the leading teamaster of the regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who greatly supported him in codifying and spreading the way of tea, also as a means of solidifying his own political power. Hideyoshi's tastes were influenced by his teamaster, but nevertheless he also had his own ideas to cement his power such as constructing the Golden Tea Room and hosting the Grand Kitano Tea Ceremony in 1587. The symbiotic relationship between politics and tea was at its height", ". The symbiotic relationship between politics and tea was at its height. However, it was increasingly at odds with the rustic and simple aesthetics continuously advertised by his tea master, which the regent increasingly saw as a threat to cementing his own power and position, and their once close relationship began to suffer.", "In 1590, one of the leading disciples of Rikyu, Yamanoue Sōji, was brutally executed on orders of the regent. One year later the regent ordered his teamaster to commit ritual suicide. The way of tea was never so closely intertwined with politics before or after. After the death of Rikyū, essentially three schools descended from him to continue the tradition", ". After the death of Rikyū, essentially three schools descended from him to continue the tradition. The way of tea continued to spread throughout the country and later developed not only from the court and samurai class, but also towards the townspeople. Many schools of Japanese tea ceremony have evolved through the long history of and are active today.", "Venues", "Japanese tea ceremonies are typically conducted in specially constructed spaces or rooms designed for the purpose of tea ceremony. While a purpose-built -floored room is considered the ideal venue, any place where the necessary implements for the making and serving of the tea can be set out and where the host can make the tea in the presence of the seated guest(s) can be used as a venue for tea. For instance, a tea gathering can be held picnic-style in the outdoors, known as", ". For instance, a tea gathering can be held picnic-style in the outdoors, known as . For this occasion a red parasol called is used.", "A purpose-built room designed for the style of tea is called a , and is ideally 4.5- wide and long in floor area. A purpose-built typically has a low ceiling, a hearth built into the floor, an alcove for hanging scrolls and placing other decorative objects, and separate entrances for host and guests. It also has an attached preparation area known as a .", "A 4.5-mat room is considered standard, but smaller and larger rooms are also used. Building materials and decorations are deliberately simple and rustic in style tea rooms. can also refer to free-standing buildings for tea. Known in English as tea houses, such structures may contain several tea rooms of different sizes and styles, dressing and waiting rooms, and other amenities, and be surrounded by a tea garden called a .", "Seasons\nSeasonality and the changing of the seasons are considered important for enjoyment of tea and tea ceremony. Traditionally, the year is divided by tea practitioners into two main seasons: the season, constituting the colder months (traditionally November to April), and the season, constituting the warmer months (traditionally May to October).", "For each season, there are variations in the performed and utensils and other equipment used. Ideally, the configuration of the in a 4.5 mat room changes with the season as well.", "Thick and thin tea\nThere are two main ways of preparing for tea consumption: and , with the best quality tea leaves used in preparing thick tea. Historically, the tea leaves used as packing material for the leaves in the would be served as thin tea. Japanese historical documents about tea that differentiate between and first appear in the Tenmon era (1532–1555). The first documented appearance of the term is in 1575.", "As the terms imply, is a thick blend of matcha and hot water that requires about three times as much tea to the equivalent amount of water than . To prepare , and hot water are whipped using the , while is kneaded with the whisk to smoothly blend the large amount of powdered tea with the water.", "Thin tea is served to each guest in an individual bowl, while one bowl of thick tea is shared among several guests. This style of sharing a bowl of first appeared in historical documents in 1586, and is a method considered to have been invented by Sen no Rikyū.\n\nThe most important part of a is the preparation and drinking of , which is followed by . A may involve only the preparation and serving of thin tea (and accompanying confections), representing the more relaxed, finishing portion of a .", "Equipment", "The equipment for tea ceremony is called . A wide range of are available and different styles and motifs are used for different events and in different seasons, with most being constructed from carefully crafted bamboo. All the tools for tea are handled with exquisite care, being scrupulously cleaned before and after each use and before storing, with some handled only with gloved hands", ". Some items, such as the tea storage jar (known as ), are so revered, that historically, they were given proper names like people, and were admired and documented by multiple diarists. The honorary title is given to the ten artisans that provide the utensils for the events held by the three primary Schools of Japanese tea known as the .", "Some of the more essential components of tea ceremony are:\n\nProcedures \n \n \n\nProcedures vary from school to school, and with the time of year, time of day, venue, and other considerations. The noon tea gathering of one host and a maximum of five guests is considered the most formal . The following is a general description of a noon held in the cool weather season at a purpose-built tea house.", "The guests arrive a little before the appointed time and enter an interior waiting room, where they store unneeded items such as coats, and put on fresh socks. Ideally, the waiting room has a floor and an alcove (), in which is displayed a hanging scroll which may allude to the season, the theme of the , or some other appropriate theme.", "The guests are served a cup of the hot water, tea, roasted barley tea, or . When all the guests have arrived and finished their preparations, they proceed to the outdoor waiting bench in the , where they remain until summoned by the host.", "Following a silent bow between host and guests, the guests proceed in order to a (stone basin) where they ritually purify themselves by washing their hands and rinsing their mouths with water, and then continue along the to the tea house. They remove their footwear and enter the tea room through a small \"crawling-in\" door (), and proceed to view the items placed in the and any tea equipment placed ready in the room, and are then seated -style on the in order of prestige.", "When the last guest has taken their place, they close the door with an audible sound to alert the host, who enters the tea room and welcomes each guest, and then answers questions posed by the first guest about the scroll and other items.", "The begins in the cool months with the laying of the charcoal fire which is used to heat the water. Following this, guests are served a meal in several courses accompanied by and followed by a small sweet () eaten from special paper called , which each guest carries, often in a decorative wallet or tucked into the breast of the kimono", ". After the meal, there is a break called a during which the guests return to the waiting shelter until summoned again by the host, who uses the break to sweep the tea room, take down the scroll and replace it with a flower arrangement, open the tea room's shutters, and make preparations for serving the tea.", "Having been summoned back to the tea room by the sound of a bell or gong rung in prescribed ways, the guests again purify themselves and examine the items placed in the tea room. The host then enters, ritually cleanses each utensil – including the tea bowl, whisk, and tea scoop – in the presence of the guests in a precise order and using prescribed motions, and places them in an exact arrangement according to the particular procedure being performed", ". When the preparation of the utensils is complete, the host prepares thick tea.", "Bows are exchanged between the host and the guest receiving the tea. The guest then bows to the second guest, and raises the bowl in a gesture of respect to the host. The guest rotates the bowl to avoid drinking from its front, takes a sip, and compliments the host on the tea. After taking a few sips, the guest wipes clean the rim of the bowl and passes it to the second guest", ". The procedure is repeated until all guests have taken tea from the same bowl; each guest then has an opportunity to admire the bowl before it is returned to the host, who then cleanses the equipment and leaves the tea room.", "The host then rekindles the fire and adds more charcoal. This signifies a change from the more formal portion of the gathering to the more casual portion, and the host will return to the tea room to bring in a and more confections, usually , to accompany the thin tea, and possibly cushions for the guests' comfort.", "The host will then proceed with the preparation of an individual bowl of thin tea to be served to each guest. While in earlier portions of the gathering conversation is limited to a few formal comments exchanged between the first guest and the host, in the portion, after a similar ritual exchange, the guests may engage in casual conversation.", "After all the guests have taken tea, the host cleans the utensils in preparation for putting them away. The guest of honour will request that the host allow the guests to examine some of the utensils, and each guest in turn examines each item, including the tea caddy and the tea scoop. (This examination is done to show respect and admiration for the host", ". (This examination is done to show respect and admiration for the host.) The items are treated with extreme care and reverence as they may be priceless, irreplaceable, handmade antiques, and guests often use a special brocaded cloth to handle them.", "The host then collects the utensils, and the guests leave the tea house. The host bows from the door, and the gathering is over. A tea gathering can last up to four hours, depending on the type of occasion performed, the number of guests, and the types of meal and tea served.\n\nTypes", "Types \n\nEvery action in – how a kettle is used, how a teacup is examined, how tea is scooped into a cup – is performed in a very specific way, and may be thought of as a procedure or technique. The procedures performed in are known collectively as . The act of performing these procedures during a is called \"doing \".", "There are many styles of , depending upon the school, occasion, season, setting, equipment, and countless other possible factors. The following is a short, general list of common types of .", "is so called because the equipment is removed from and then replaced into a special box known as a . developed as a convenient way to prepare the necessary equipment for making tea outdoors. The basic equipment contained in the are the tea bowl, tea whisk (kept in a special container), tea scoop and tea caddy, and linen wiping cloth in a special container, as well as a container for little candy-like sweets. Many of the items are smaller than usual, to fit in the box", ". Many of the items are smaller than usual, to fit in the box. This gathering takes approximately 35–40 minutes.", "is so called because, except for the hot water kettle (and brazier if a sunken hearth is not being used), the essential items for the tea-making, including even the fresh water container, are carried into the tea room by the host as a part of the . In other , the water jar and perhaps other items, depending upon the style of , are placed in the tea room before the guests enter.", ", , or is a simple procedure for making (thin tea). The tea bowl, tea whisk, tea scoop, and tea caddy are placed on a tray, and the hot water is prepared in a kettle called a , which is heated on a brazier. This is usually the first learned, and is the easiest to perform, requiring neither much specialized equipment nor a lot of time to complete. It may easily be done sitting at a table, or outdoors, using a thermos pot in place of the and portable hearth.", "In the style, the tea is prepared with the host kneeling at a special table, and the guests are also kneeling at tables. It is possible, therefore, for -style to be conducted nearly anywhere, even outdoors. The name refers to the host's practice of performing the first and last bows while standing. In there is usually an assistant who sits near the host and moves the host's seat out of the way as needed for standing or sitting. The assistant also serves the tea and sweets to the guests", ". The assistant also serves the tea and sweets to the guests. This procedure originated in the Urasenke school, initially for serving non-Japanese guests who, it was thought, would be more comfortable sitting on chairs.", "Essential elements\n\nTea room \n\nThe Japanese traditional floor mats, , are used in various ways in tea offerings. Their placement, for example, determines how a person walks through the tea room , and the different seating positions.", "The use of flooring has influenced the development of tea. For instance, when walking on it is customary to shuffle, to avoid causing disturbance. Shuffling forces one to slow down, to maintain erect posture, and to walk quietly, and helps one to maintain balance as the combination of and makes for a slippery surface; it is also a function of wearing kimono, which restricts stride length. One must avoid walking on the joins between mats, one practical reason being that that would tend to damage the", ". Therefore, tea students are taught to step over such joins when walking in the tea room.", "The placement of in tea rooms differs slightly from the normal placement in regular Japanese-style rooms, and may also vary by season (where it is possible to rearrange the mats). In a 4.5 mat room, the mats are placed in a circular pattern around a centre mat. Purpose-built tea rooms have a sunken hearth in the floor which is used in winter. A special is used which has a cut-out section providing access to the hearth", ". A special is used which has a cut-out section providing access to the hearth. In summer, the hearth is covered either with a small square of extra , or, more commonly, the hearth is replaced with a full mat, totally hiding the hearth.", "It is customary to avoid stepping on this centre mat whenever possible, as well as to avoid placing the hands palm-down on it, as it functions as a kind of table: tea utensils are placed on it for viewing, and prepared bowls of tea are placed on it for serving to the guests. To avoid stepping on it people may walk around it on the other mats, or shuffle on the hands and knees.", "Except when walking, when moving about on the tatami one places one's closed fists on the mats and uses them to pull oneself forward or push backwards while maintaining a position.", "There are dozens of real and imaginary lines that crisscross any tearoom. These are used to determine the exact placement of utensils and myriad other details; when performed by skilled practitioners, the placement of utensils will vary minutely from gathering to gathering. The are used as one guide for placement, and the joins serve as a demarcation indicating where people should sit.", "provide a more comfortable surface for sitting -style. At certain times of year (primarily during the new year's festivities) the portions of the where guests sit may be covered with a red felt cloth.\n\nHanging scroll", "Calligraphy, mainly in the form of hanging scrolls, plays a central role in tea. Scrolls, often written by famous calligraphers or Buddhist monks, are hung in the (scroll alcove) of the tea room. They are selected for their appropriateness for the occasion, including the season and the theme of the particular get-together. Calligraphic scrolls may feature well-known sayings, particularly those associated with Buddhism, poems, descriptions of famous places, or words or phrases associated with tea.", "Historian and author Haga Kōshirō points out that it is clear from the teachings of Sen no Rikyū recorded in the that the suitability of any particular scroll for a tea gathering depends not only on the subject of the writing itself but also on the virtue of the writer. Haga points out that Rikyū preferred to hang (\"ink traces\"), the calligraphy of Zen Buddhist priests, in the tea room", ". A typical example of a hanging scroll in a tea room might have the kanji , expressing the four key principles of the Way of Tea. Some contain only a single character; in summer, would be appropriate. Hanging scrolls that feature a painting instead of calligraphy, or a combination of both, are also used. Scrolls are sometimes placed in the waiting room as well.", "Flower arrangement\n (literally \"tea flower\") is the simple style of flower arrangement used in tea rooms. has its roots in , an older style of Japanese flower arranging, which itself has roots in Shinto and Buddhism.", "It evolved from the \"free-form\" style of called , which was used by early tea masters. is said, depending upon the source, to have been either developed or championed by Sen no Rikyū. He is said to have taught that should give the viewer the same impression that those flowers naturally would give if they were still growing outdoors, in nature.", "Unnatural or out-of-season materials are never used, as well as props and other devices. The containers in which are arranged are referred to generically as . arrangements typically comprise few items, and little or no filler material. In the summer, when many flowering grasses are in season in Japan, however, it is seasonally appropriate to arrange a number of such flowering grasses in an airy basket-type container. Unlike (which often uses shallow, wide dishes), tall, narrow are frequently used in", ". Unlike (which often uses shallow, wide dishes), tall, narrow are frequently used in . The containers for the flowers used in tea rooms are typically made from natural materials such as bamboo, as well as metal or ceramic, but rarely glass as (another flower arrangement) uses short, glass vases.", "arrangements are so simple that frequently no more than a single blossom is used; this blossom will invariably lean towards or face the guests.\n\nMeal", "or is a meal served in the context of a formal tea function. In , only fresh seasonal ingredients are used, prepared in ways that aim to enhance their flavour. Great care is taken in selecting ingredients and types of food, and the finished dishes are carefully presented on serving ware that is chosen to enhance the appearance and seasonal theme of the meal. Dishes are intricately arranged and garnished, often with real edible leaves and flowers that are to help enhance the flavour of the food", ". Serving ware and garnishes are as much a part of the experience as the food; some might argue that the aesthetic experience of seeing the food is even more important than the physical experience of eating it.", "Courses are served in small servings in individual dishes. Each diner has a small lacquered tray to themselves; very important people may be provided their own low, lacquered table or several small tables.\n\nBecause generally follows traditional eating habits in Japan, meat dishes are rare.\n\nClothing", "Because generally follows traditional eating habits in Japan, meat dishes are rare.\n\nClothing\n\nMany of the movements and components of tea ceremonies evolved from the wearing of kimono. For example, certain movements are designed to keep dangling sleeves out of the way or prevent them from becoming dirty. Other motions allow for the straightening of the kimono and the .", "Some aspects of tea ceremony – such as the use of silk cloths – cannot be performed without wearing a kimono and , or a belt substitute, as the cloth is folded and tucked into the within the ceremony. Other items, such as , smaller cloths known as , and fans, require kimono collars, sleeves and the worn with them in order to be used throughout the ceremony; otherwise, a substitute for storing these items on the person must be found.", "For this reason, most tea ceremonies are conducted in kimono, and though students may practice wearing Western clothes, students of tea ceremony will need to wear kimono at some point. On formal occasions, the host of the tea ceremony will always wear kimono, and for guests, formal kimono or Western formal wear must be worn. No matter the style of clothing, the attire worn at a tea gathering is usually subdued and conservative, so as not to be distracting.", "For women, the type of kimono worn is usually an – a solid-colour, unpatterned kimono, worn with a in an appropriate fabric; slub-weave silks, patterns and generally bright-coloured are not worn. kimono may also be worn, as their patterns are small enough as to be unobtrusive.", "Men may wear kimono only, or (for more formal occasions) a combination of kimono and (a long, divided or undivided skirt worn over the kimono). Those who have earned the right may wear a kimono with a or jacket instead of .\n\nWomen wear various styles of kimono depending on the season and the event; women generally do not wear for tea occasions, and do not gain the right to wear a .", "Lined kimono are worn by both men and women in the winter months, and unlined kimono are worn in the summer. For formal occasions, (kimono with three to five family crests on the sleeves and back) are worn. Both men and women wear white (divided-toe socks).\n\nSchools", "Schools \n\nIn Japan, those who wish to study tea ceremony typically join a \"circle\", a generic term for a group that meets regularly to participate in a given activity. There are also tea clubs at many junior and high schools, colleges and universities.", "Classes may be held at community centres, dedicated tea schools, or at private homes. Tea schools often teach a wide variety of pupils who may study at different times; for example, the school may have a group for women, a group for older students, and a group for younger students. Students normally pay a monthly fee which covers tuition and the use of the school's (or teacher's) bowls and other equipment, the tea itself, and the sweets that students serve and eat at every class", ". Students must be equipped with their own , fan, paper, and , as well as their own wallet in which to place these items.", "Though some groups and practitioners of tea ceremony may wear Western clothing, for most occasions of tea ceremony – particularly if the teacher is highly ranked within the tradition – wearing kimono is mostly considered essential, in particular for women. In some cases, advanced students may be given permission to wear the school's mark in place of the usual family crests on formal kimono. This permission usually accompanies the granting of a , or \"tea name\", to the student.", "New students typically begin by observing more advanced students as they practice. New students may be taught mostly by more advanced students; the most advanced students are taught exclusively by the teacher", ". The first things new students learn are how to correctly open and close sliding doors, how to walk on tatami, how to enter and exit the tea room, how to bow and to whom and when to do so, how to wash, store and care for the various equipment, how to fold the , how to ritually clean tea equipment, and how to wash and fold", ". As they master these essential steps, students are also taught how to behave as a guest at tea ceremonies: the correct words to say, how to handle bowls, how to drink tea and eat sweets, how to use paper and sweet-picks, and myriad other details.", "As they master the basics, students will be instructed on how to prepare the powdered tea for use, how to fill the tea caddy, and finally, how to measure the tea and water and whisk it to the proper consistency. Once these basic steps have been mastered, students begin to practice the simplest , typically beginning with . Only when the first offering has been mastered will students move on", ". Only when the first offering has been mastered will students move on. Study is through observation and hands on practice; students do not often take notes, and many teachers discourage the practice of note-taking.", "As they master each offering, some schools and teachers present students with certificates at a formal ceremony. According to the school, this certificate may warrant that the student has mastered a given , or may give the student permission to begin studying a given", ". Acquiring such certificates is often very costly; the student typically must not only pay for the preparation of the certificate itself and for participating in the gathering during which it is bestowed, but is also expected to thank the teacher by presenting him or her with a gift of money. The cost of acquiring certificates increases as the student's level increases.", "Typically, each class ends with the whole group being given brief instruction by the main teacher, usually concerning the contents of the (the scroll alcove, which typically features a hanging scroll (usually with calligraphy), a flower arrangement, and occasionally other objects as well) and the sweets that have been served that day. Related topics include incense and kimono, or comments on seasonal variations in equipment or offerings.", "Like the formal traditions of , there are formal traditions of , distinguished as , typically involving the high-grade class of . This offering, more Chinese in style, was introduced to Japan in the 17th century by Ingen, the founder of the Ōbaku school of Zen Buddhism, also more Chinese in style than earlier schools. In the 18th century, it was popularized by the Ōbaku monk Baisao, who sold tea in Kyoto, and later came to be regarded as the first master", ". It remains associated with the Ōbaku school, and the head temple of Manpuku-ji hosts regular tea conventions.", "See also \n Higashiyama culture in Muromachi period\n Japanese tea classics\n Japanese tea utensils, for a full list of utensils used in Japanese tea\n , for information about the tea itself \n \n East Asian tea ceremony, for tea ceremony in East Asian culture as a whole \n Teaware, or Tea ware\n Tea culture in Japan\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n \"History of Japan\", section \"Azuchi-Momoyama History (1568-1600)\", particularly the part therein on \"The Culture of the Period\".\n\nExternal links", "External links \n\n Japanese Tea Ceremony – Vast source of information with detailed explanation of preparation steps.\n Documentary with teamaster Soyu Yumi Mukai\n\n \nJapanese tea" ]

[ "British European Airways (BEA), formally British European Airways Corporation, was a British airline which existed from 1946 until 1974.", "BEA operated to Europe, North Africa and the Middle East from airports around the United Kingdom. The airline was also the largest UK domestic operator, serving major British cities, including London, Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Belfast, as well as areas of the British Isles such as the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man", ". BEA also operated a network of internal German routes between West Berlin and West Germany as part of the Cold War agreements regulating air travel within Germany. The company slogan was Number One in Europe.", "Formed as the British European Airways division of British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) on 1 January 1946, BEA became a crown corporation in its own right on 1 August 1946.\n\nOperations commenced from Croydon and Northolt airports, with DH89A Dragon Rapides and Douglas DC-3s.", "Having established its main operating base at Northolt, BEA operated its first service from Heathrow in April 1950; by late 1954, all Northolt operations had moved to Heathrow, which remained the airline's main operating base until the merger with BOAC in 1974.\n\nDuring 1952, BEA carried its millionth passenger, and by the early 1960s it had become the Western world's fifth-biggest passenger-carrying airline and the biggest outside the United States.", "In 1950, BEA operated the world's first turbine-powered commercial air service with Vickers' Viscount 630 prototype, from London to Paris. The airline entered the jet age in 1960 with de Havilland's DH106 Comet 4B. On 1 April 1964, it became the first to operate the DH121 Trident; on 10 June 1965, a BEA Trident 1C performed the world's first automatic landing during a scheduled commercial air service.", "For most of its existence, BEA was headquartered at BEAline House in Ruislip, London Borough of Hillingdon.", "BEA ceased to exist as a separate legal entity on 1 April 1974 when the merger with BOAC to form British Airways (BA) took effect. However the name was revived by British Airways from 1991 to 2008 when it changed the name of an existing subsidiary, British Airways Tour Operations Limited to British European Airways Limited. British Airways Tour Operations Limited was itself founded in 1935 as an air travel company, named Silver Wing Surface Arrangements Limited.\n\nHistory", "Formation and early years (1946–1950)", "With the outbreak of war in September 1939 all commercial and private flying within the UK had been severely restricted by the government due to the possibility of civil flights encountering enemy aircraft. To offset this halting of civilian air traffic limited aerial services were instead carried out from 1940 onwards by the state-owned and operated British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) to a number of destinations, both European, and worldwide", ". On 1 January 1946, the Attlee government lifted wartime restrictions on civil flying in the United Kingdom", ". Within Europe, this resulted in BOAC resuming Imperial Airways' pre-war routes to continental Europe augmented by Royal Air Force Transport Command non-military flights from Croydon Airport, using Douglas Dakotas in RAF livery flown by crews in RAF uniforms, and UK domestic air services operated by the Associated Airways Joint Committee (AAJC), which had been formed of several pre-war charter companies on 27 June 1940.", "BOAC formed a British European Airways division on 1 January 1946 in anticipation of that year's Civil Aviation Act. Following its formation, BOAC's new division began taking over Transport Command's operations from 4 March 1946. On that day, it inaugurated a weekly Dakota service from Northolt to Madrid and Gibraltar, followed by additional Dakota services to Stavanger and Oslo, Copenhagen, as well as Athens via Marseille and Rome", ". On each of these flights, half of the Dakota's 16 seats were reserved for UK government officials. Initially, crews continued to wear BOAC uniforms. Although some services still used Croydon for some time, the main operating base moved to RAF Northolt.", "On 1 August 1946, the Civil Aviation Act 1946 was given Royal Assent and passed into law. This established BEA as a crown corporation in its own right (British European Airways Corporation) and transferred primary responsibility for scheduled air services from the UK to Europe (including the British Isles) to BEA", ". To fulfill its role as the new short- and medium-haul British flag carrier, BEA was organised into two divisions based at Northolt and Liverpool Speke respectively, with the former responsible for all scheduled services to the Continent and the latter for all scheduled services within the British Isles. The Civil Aviation Act 1946 furthermore provided for nationalisation of private, independent British scheduled airlines and gave BEA a legal monopoly as the sole short-haul scheduled British airline", ". Due to BEA's inability to take over the UK domestic flights of independent scheduled operators such as Railway Air Services, Allied Airways (Gandar Dower) and British Channel Islands Airways on 1 August, these independents continued to ply their scheduled routes under contract to BEA until they were absorbed into the corporation in 1947.", "The first flight operated by the newly constituted British European Airways Corporation departed Northolt for Marseille, Rome and Athens on the day of its formation at 8:40 am. This was followed by further route launches to Amsterdam, Brussels and Lisbon.\n\nInitially, BEA supplemented its ex-RAF Transport Command Dakotas with Dragon Rapides and Avro Nineteens.", "Between August and October 1946, BEA took delivery of the first 11 of an eventual 83 Vickers Viking piston-engined airliners. These were BEA's first new aircraft, which it leased from the UK government. The first Viking revenue service departed Northolt for Copenhagen on 1 September 1946. Compared with the Dakota, the Viking took 35 minutes less to reach Copenhagen from London", ". Compared with the Dakota, the Viking took 35 minutes less to reach Copenhagen from London. Following their introduction on the London–Copenhagen route, Vikings began replacing Dakotas on BEA's services to Amsterdam, Oslo, Stockholm, Gibraltar and Prague.", "In November 1946, BEA's first service to Northern Ireland departed Croydon for Belfast (Sydenham) via Liverpool, using an ex-Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 52/3m operated by independent airline Railway Air Services on the fledgling corporation's behalf. The following month, BEA's Belfast operations transferred to Nutts Corner while Dakotas replaced the \"Jupiter\" class Ju 52s from 1947.", "On 1 February 1947, the process of merging the wholly private, independent airlines operating in the UK under the AAJC umbrella into BEA began. Railway Air Services, Isle of Man Air Services, and Scottish Airways (which had been formed in 1937 by merging Northern & Scottish Airways and Highland Airways) were among the first independents merged into the new corporation.", "1947 was also the year BEA operated its first scheduled all-cargo flight from Northolt to Brussels with a DC-3 freighter. The same year, it inaugurated a scheduled service between Land's End Airport in southwest Cornwall, England, and St Mary's Airport on the largest island of the Isles of Scilly archipelago off the southwest coast of Cornwall, using \"Islander\" class Dragon Rapides.", "Despite the previous year's nationalisation of several private airlines and their absorption into BEA, the government-owned carrier continued to contract its private sector counterparts to operate a limited number of regional feeder services on its behalf via \"associate\" agreements. These needed to be approved by the Air Transport Advisory Council (ATAC), the contemporary UK government department in charge of air transport economic regulation", ". Cambrian and Western Airways were the first two airlines to be given associate status by BEA in May 1948. These arrangements enabled the latter to contract the operation of a new feeder route between Cardiff and Weston-super-Mare to both of the former, which respectively used Dragon Rapides and Avro Ansons to provide a daily service. East Anglian Flying Services (EAFS) was another early BEA associate", ". East Anglian Flying Services (EAFS) was another early BEA associate. The association agreement between BEA and EAFS resulted in the latter operating a Southend–Rochester feeder service on behalf of the former.", "1948 was also the year BEA's reservations department moved to new premises at Dorland Hall, Lower Regent Street in London's West End.", "BEA made aviation history in 1950 with the world's first turbine-powered commercial air service from London to Paris, using the UK Ministry of Supply-owned Vickers Viscount 630 prototype G-AHRF", ". By that time, BEA's main operating base at Northolt was the busiest airport in the UK; however, the airline was losing money, which resulted in replacing former BOAC director, Gerard d'Erlanger, who was BEA's first chairman, with Lord Douglas of Kirtleside, as well as appointing Peter Masefield as its new managing director.", "In April 1950, BEA operated its first service from London Heathrow Airport.", "Following the provisional introduction of the Viscount 630 prototype on the London–Paris and London–Edinburgh routes, BEA ordered 20 Viscount 701s in August 1950 for delivery from 1953. Also in 1950, BEA informed Vickers of its requirement for an aircraft with 10% lower costs per seat-mile than the 800 series Viscount. This provided the impetus for Vickers to begin developing the four-engined Vanguard high-capacity turboprop in 1953.", "Expansion, modernisation and commercialisation (1951–1960)\nPeter Masefield's arrival as managing director (MD) in 1950 marked the beginning of BEA's commercialisation. This entailed introduction of new cost control measures and innovative methods to boost revenue and passenger loads, including off-peak fares on late-evening flights and high-frequency services on the London–Paris route. BEA's new commercially aggressive approach soon resulted in monthly earnings of £1 million.", "In early 1951, BEA introduced its first \"Pionair\" class Douglas DC-3, a Scottish Aviation DC-3 conversion featuring British instrumentation and an increased seating capacity of 32. In addition to having 38 DC-3s converted to Pionair passenger carriers, BEA had a further 10 DC-3s modified as \"Leopard\" class freighters. The same year, BEA introduced its first tourist class on Viking services. This entailed re-configuring a total of 49 aircraft in a 36-seat, single class layout", ". This entailed re-configuring a total of 49 aircraft in a 36-seat, single class layout. BEA referred to its re-configured, all-tourist class Vikings as \"Admiral\" class [aircraft].", "In 1952, BEA carried its one-millionth passenger and introduced the first of 20 Airspeed Ambassadors. These cost £3 million and featured a 49-seat mixed-class layout. BEA's first commercial Ambassador service left London for Paris on 13 March 1952. Flights to Milan and Vienna began the following month. These aircraft introduced the airline's passengers to new standards of comfort and speed", ". These aircraft introduced the airline's passengers to new standards of comfort and speed. Compared with BEA's older piston types, the Ambassador's flight time from London to Milan, for example, reduced by two hours. In June 1952 BEA re-launched the pre-war mid-day Silverwing service pioneered by Imperial Airways on the London–Paris route with 40-seat all-first class Ambassadors. The Ambassador was BEA's last major piston-engined type", ". The Ambassador was BEA's last major piston-engined type. It referred to the aircraft as \"Elizabethan\" class to commemorate the accession of Elizabeth II that year. Also in 1952, BEA made Jersey-based independent airline Jersey Airlines an associate to develop a network of routes within the Channel Islands and expand services between the islands and the UK mainland.", "In 1953, BEA began receiving the first 16 Viscount 701 turboprops it had ordered in August 1950. The first of these \"Discovery\" class aircraft entered service with 47 mixed-class seats in April 1953, and the first production aircraft (G-AMAV) went on to win the transport class of the 1953 London to Christchurch, New Zealand, air race, with BEA MD Peter Masefield as team manager and co-pilot.", "1953 was also the year Flightmaster, BEA's first mechanical reservations system, was installed. This enabled the simultaneous display of seat availability on 32,000 flights.", "Between February and April 1954, BEA's expanding Viscount fleet replaced Elizabethans between London, Nice and Rome, and on regional routes from Manchester and Birmingham. By that time, BEA had shifted its main operating base to Heathrow, which became the London terminal for all international flights", ". Although it continued to use Northolt as a London terminal for domestic flights serving Manchester, Edinburgh, Renfrew (Glasgow), Aberdeen, Belfast and the Channel Islands which by that time were mainly operated by 36-seater \"Admiral\" class Vikings, these were wound down in favour of concentrating all of BEA's London flights at Heathrow. A Jersey-bound Pionair in October 1954 was BEA's final flight from Northolt.", "The Viscount's commercial success had made it the leading short-haul aircraft in Europe in the mid-1950s. This led Lord Douglas to believe that turboprops would continue to be the mainstay of BEA's fleet into the 1960s.\n\nOn 31 March 1955, BEA completed its first profitable financial year, recording an operating profit of £552,314 and a net profit of £63,039.", "In July 1955, BEA became the launch customer for the Vanguard, Vickers' new high-capacity turboprop powered by four Rolls-Royce RB109 \"Tyne\" engines. The airline's launch order was for 20 aircraft, including six Vanguard V.951s and 14 heavier V.953s.\n\nIn mid-1955, BEA entered into a 10-year operating agreement with its associate Cambrian Airways. This resulted in the latter launching new services from Liverpool and Manchester to Jersey (via Bristol and Cardiff) on behalf of the former.", "In its 1955–56 financial year, BEA carried more than two million passengers for the first time at an all-time high average load factor of 69.4%. During that period, it recorded a profit of £603,614, mainly as a result of revenue growth accounted for by the Viscount fleet.\n\nIn 1956, BEA acquired a 25% minority shareholding in Jersey Airlines and the corporation's Southampton–Guernsey and Southampton–Alderney routes transferred to the independent.", "1956 was also the year BEA began using Viscounts for nightfreight operations to increase cargo capacity as well as the aircraft's utilisation. While BEA continued taking delivery of Viscount 701s, it placed its first order for 12 larger 66- to 68-seat Viscount 802/806s. These were delivered from February 1957. By 1958, BEA had 77 Viscounts in service.\n\nOn 7 February 1958, BEA acquired a 33⅓% minority shareholding in Welsh independent regional airline Cambrian Airways.", "In March 1958, BEA ordered six de Havilland DH106 Comet 4B jet aircraft for delivery from 1960. This was BEA's answer to the impending introduction of the Sud-Est Caravelle, Air France's new short-/medium-range jet, on the French flag carrier's European, North African and Middle Eastern network, including the prime Heathrow – Le Bourget route from July 1959.", "The arrival at Heathrow on 30 July 1958 of a BEA Elizabethan from Cologne marked the type's last service with the airline. Although its operating costs on short routes such as London–Paris were lower than the Viscount's, the piston type could not match the turboprop's passenger appeal", ". Unlike the Pionairs and Leopards, which continued serving regional feeder and freight routes, Elizabethans were deployed on trunk routes where passenger appeal was more important; this further hastened their demise in BEA service.", "On 12 August 1959, BEA signed a £28 million contract for 24 de Havilland DH121 Trident Mark 1(C) \"second-generation\" jets plus 12 options, making it the launch customer for the world's first commercial T-tailed rear-engined trijet due to enter service in spring 1964. (This version of the Trident was smaller and lighter than de Havilland's original DH121 of 1956", ". (This version of the Trident was smaller and lighter than de Havilland's original DH121 of 1956. At that time BEA's chairman, Anthony Milward, had insisted that a launch order from BEA depended on scaling down the original design, in the belief that the Vickers Vanguard high-capacity turboprops it had ordered the year before would remain competitive against jets on trunk routes as a result of lower operating and seat-mile costs", ". BEA's insistence on building the Trident smaller with less powerful engines and a lower fuel capacity than originally proposed was also a manifestation of the cautious attitude of the airline's senior management against a backdrop of a [temporary] reduction in its profit margin and slowdown in its growth rate", ". Meeting BEA's specifications for the Trident involved reducing the length of the aircraft's fuselage, its wingspan and weight and replacing the Rolls-Royce RB141/3 \"Medway\" engines with Rolls-Royce RB163 \"Speys\". Shrinking the original design also reduced seating capacity from 111–130 to 79–90, in mixed- and single-class configuration respectively.)", "On 7 November 1959, BEA took delivery of its first Comet 4B (G-APMB), nearly two months ahead of the contracted delivery on 1 January 1960. This was followed by the official handover ceremony of the airline's first jet airliner on 16 November.\n\nIn its 1959–60 financial year, BEA carried 3.29 million passengers and recorded a profit of £2.09 million.", "On 1 April 1960, BEA began commercial jet operations with its new Comet 4Bs. On that day, the airline commenced jet operations from Heathrow to Athens, Istanbul, Moscow, Munich, Rome and Warsaw with an initial, five-strong Comet fleet. By June, this fleet grew to seven (out of an eventual 18) aircraft, enabling the launch of additional jet services to Copenhagen, Oslo, Stockholm, Düsseldorf, Malta, Zürich and Frankfurt.\n\nOn 27 September 1960, BEA welcomed its 25-millionth passenger.", "On 27 September 1960, BEA welcomed its 25-millionth passenger.\n\nAlso in 1960, BEA took delivery of its final two Viscount 701s bringing its total fleet strength of this sub-type to 50.", "1960 was furthermore the year the UK Parliament enacted the Civil Aviation (Licensing) Act (1960), which abolished the statutory monopoly BEA and BOAC had enjoyed on principal domestic and international scheduled routes since the beginning of the post-war era", ". In theory, this gave independent airlines equal opportunities to develop scheduled routes in their own right; however, in reality, the corporations would object to applications by independent airlines seeking to be licensed as competitors to the state airlines. Each application by an independent airline for a scheduled route licence was heard by the newly established Air Transport Licensing Board (ATLB), the new UK government body in charge of air transport economic regulation that succeeded ATAC", ". At these hearings, the independents needed to convince the ATLB that there were sufficient passengers to justify the proposed scheduled services, that these stood a reasonable chance of becoming profitable and that they opened up new markets rather than divert traffic from the corporations to overcome the latter's objections", ". Although the ATLB granted British Eagle and British United Airways (BUA), BEA's and BOAC's two biggest independent competitors during the 1960s, licences to operate rival international scheduled services on several trunk routes from London Heathrow and Gatwick respectively, these airlines were unable to use them without actual traffic rights", ". For example, lack of traffic rights prevented BUA from running direct London (Gatwick) – Paris (Le Bourget) scheduled flights although it held a licence for that route, which the ATLB had awarded it in late 1961. In that case, BUA's failure to obtain traffic rights was mainly the result of the French authorities' refusal to grant these without a corresponding reduction in BEA's share of London–Paris flights.", "In its 1960–61 financial year, BEA carried 3.99 million passengers at an average load factor of 65% and recorded a loss of £1.75 million.\n\nBEA at its peak (1961–1971)", "By the early 1960s, BEA carried just under four million passengers per year, more than any other airline in Europe (excluding Aeroflot); worldwide (excluding Aeroflot and the Chinese CAAC Airlines), only the \"Big Four\" US airlines – American Airlines, United Airlines, Pan Am and TWA – carried more", ". By that time, BEA served most major European cities, with the network stretching as far east as Moscow, Kuwait and Doha as well as North Africa to the south, and it was furthermore a founder/minority shareholder of Alitalia, Aer Lingus, Cyprus Airways, Gibraltar Airways and Jersey Airlines.", "In 1961, BEA placed an order for three Armstrong Whitworth Argosy all-cargo aircraft. These were the airline's first dedicated freighters; the first aircraft was delivered and entered service later the same year.", "On 1 March 1961, BEA began commercial Vanguard services following a delay to the aircraft's entry into service, as a result of major defects discovered in its Rolls-Royce Tyne engine's compressor during testing in early 1960", ". Following their delayed entry into service, BEA's Vanguards began flying to international destinations such as Malta and Barcelona and by 1962, took over approximately half of the flights previously operated by Viscounts on the airline's UK domestic trunk routes, where they operated in a 132-seat, single-class configuration. The Vanguards' introduction on BEA's Heathrow–Scotland trunk routes increased traffic by more than 20%.", "On 1 April 1961, BEA moved some flights to Paris (Le Bourget) and other European destinations from Heathrow to Gatwick in accordance with the wishes of the British government to develop the latter airport.\n\nIn 1962, BEA sold its 25% minority holding in Jersey Airlines. This was followed by the BUA group's takeover of Jersey Airlines in May of that year.\n\nOn 19 May 1962, Pionair G-ALTT operated the type's final service on BEA's Scottish internal network between Islay, Campbeltown and Glasgow (Renfrew).", "In its 1962-63 annual report, BEA estimated that introduction of both the Comet 4B and Vanguard had cost it more than £6 million over a two-year period. The airline considered this \"a heavy financial burden\" in support of British aircraft manufacturers, which adversely impacted its ability to compete with overseas rivals whose choice of aircraft was not influenced by political considerations.", "In November 1963, BEA's independent rival British Eagle became the first independent airline to compete with it on a main UK domestic trunk route, when the independent launched daily scheduled services between London Heathrow and Glasgow with 103-seater, two-class Bristol Britannias. This was followed by daily two-class Britannia services from Heathrow to Edinburgh and Belfast the next day", ". This was also the first time a scheduled airline had offered a separate first class cabin on a domestic route in the UK. As British Eagle was restricted to a single daily round-trip on each route, it sought to differentiate itself from BEA. While BEA served these routes with 132-seat Vanguards in an all-tourist configuration with minimal onboard catering, British Eagle provided full catering on all flights", ". British Eagle furthermore differentiated itself from its state-owned competitor by introducing assigned seating and \"trickle loading\". The former was a first for a UK scheduled domestic carrier while the airline claimed to have started the latter in the UK as well", ". BEA, whose frequencies were not restricted, responded to the challenge on its three most important domestic routes by scheduling additional flights that departed and arrived at the same time or within 10 minutes of its rival's scheduled departure and arrival times. This had the effect of \"sandwiching\" British Eagle's flights. BEA's response also included the introduction of trickle loading and subsequent introduction of full onboard catering as well as a separate first class cabin.", "On 11 March 1964, a BEA Trident 1C operated the Trident's first commercial service, standing in for a Comet 4B that had been scheduled to fly 79 fare-paying passengers from Heathrow to Copenhagen. BEA's regular commercial Trident operations commenced on 1 April 1964. Initially, BEA operated its Tridents in a 79-seat, two-class configuration, comprising 15 first class and 64 tourist class seats.", "In June 1964, BEA acquired a minority shareholding in Northeast England-based independent regional airline BKS Air Transport.\n\nOn 10 June 1965, BEA Trident 1C G-ARPR performed the world's first automatic touchdown at London Heathrow on a commercial flight with fare-paying passengers. Another BEA Trident performed the world's first fully automatic landing in fog by a civil aircraft in zero visibility at Heathrow in November 1966.", "On 26 August 1965, BEA signed the contract for a follow-on Trident order. This covered 15 firm Trident 2Es plus 10 options for delivery from spring 1968", ". This covered 15 firm Trident 2Es plus 10 options for delivery from spring 1968. The 2E series was an aerodynamically improved version of the original 1C series incorporating the re-arranged interior of the \"hot-and-high\" 1E series that resulted in a greater seating capacity, as well as a higher gross weight, increased fuel capacity by providing an additional fuel tank in the fin and more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey engines to fly non-stop from London to Beirut with 90 passengers.", "In the mid-1960s, BEA's European rivals began placing orders for new \"second-generation\" jet aircraft, such as the Boeing 727-200 and its smaller stablemate, the 737-200, as well as the Douglas DC-9-30/40. Compared with the Trident, these were more economical, in terms of range, revenue generation and seat-mile costs. Of particular concern to BEA in this context were Air France's plans to replace Caravelles with new 727-200s on most of its London–Paris flights", ". BEA also had a requirement for a jet to replace Vanguards on the Heathrow–Manchester route to regain traffic lost to British Rail as a result of the electrification of the London–Manchester line and Berlin-based Viscounts to restore the competitive balance with Pan Am's new 727s on the internal German services", ". Therefore, in February 1966, BEA began evaluating the 727-200, 737-200 and DC-9-40 for these requirements, favouring the former two seating up to 166 and 111 passengers in single-class configuration respectively. In June 1966, BEA requested UK government permission to place an order with Boeing for 18 727-200s and 23 737-200s", ". Following the UK government's refusal to grant BEA permission to order an all-American fleet of Boeing 727-200s and 737-200s, the Board of Trade (BOT) directed the airline to buy comparable British aircraft instead. This resulted in a BEA order for 18 firm BAC One-Eleven 500s plus six options in January 1967, for delivery from autumn 1968, to meet BEA's requirement to replace Vanguards/Viscounts on its Heathrow–Manchester and internal German routes.", "In February 1967, BEA sought UK government approval to order up to 40 BAC Two-Elevens, a 200-seat, six-abreast development of the five-abreast BAC One-Eleven powered by Rolls-Royce RB211 high-bypass turbofan engines, for service entry in the early 1970s", ". The UK government's refusal to let BEA order American aircraft, as well as its subsequent decision to stop funding the development of BAC's Two-Eleven and a delay to the rival Rolls-Royce RB207-powered, 250-seat pan-European Airbus A300 widebody, also resulted in another Trident order from the airline for 26 firm 3B series aircraft plus 10 options in early 1968, for delivery from 1971.", "As this necessitated the purchase of a greater number of aircraft with fewer seats and less range that needed to be inducted into the fleet over a shorter period of time due to later availability compared with the originally chosen American aircraft", ", BEA had made both its £32 million One-Eleven 500 order and £83 million Trident 3B order dependent on receiving a subsidy from the UK government to compensate it for having been directed against its commercial judgement to order British aircraft with a lower earning potential and later delivery dates", ". The UK government responded to BEA's plea by agreeing to transfer £25 million from the airline's existing borrowings to a special account on which no interest was payable, including the option to transfer this amount to its profit and loss account as required. This arrangement furthermore permitted a subsequent transfer to BEA of an additional £12.5 million in case this was required.", "BEA's first order for the BAC One-Eleven enabled BAC to proceed with the development of the 500 series, a more powerful, stretched version of the original One-Eleven 200 launched by BEA's independent rival British United Airways in 1961; its second repeat-order for Tridents launched the 3B series, a more powerful, aerodynamically enhanced, stretched version of the earlier Trident models already in service with/ordered by the airline", ". The 3B had an unusual (and noisy) feature, a small fourth engine (a Rolls-Royce RB162) in the base of the tailfin to increase power during takeoff. The One-Eleven 510EDs ordered by BEA had a range of and were configured for 97 passengers in a single class while the Trident 3Bs entered service with the airline either in a 152-seat, single-class or a 130-seat, two-class configuration", ". BEA's BAC One-Eleven 510EDs and Hawker Siddeley Trident 3Bs also featured common instrumentation to attain a high degree of commonality. This was achieved by having Smiths supply the avionics of both aircraft, which in the case of the One-Eleven replaced the Collins avionics found on all other 500 series.", "The differences in flight deck layout between the 510ED and other 500 series were so significant that a separate aircraft type rating was required to fly the former. Another notable difference between the 510ED and all other 500 series was that the former's Rolls-Royce RB163-25 Mk 512-11 Spey engines lacked the latter's Mk 512-14DWs' demineralised water injection system, and that these engines were rated at the same thrust as the Speys powering BEA's Trident 2Es and 3Bs", ". To compensate for the 510ED's lower rated engines, no forward integral airstairs were fitted. The resulting weight saving permitted an increase in payload. It also offset (to some extent) the additional costs of customisation to attain commonality with the Trident 3B. Although unique in the context of the 500 series, the absence of forward airstairs was a characteristic BEA's 510EDs shared with BUA's 201ACs.", "On 4 January 1966, BEA's biggest independent rival, BUA, simultaneously launched daily BAC One-Eleven jet services from Gatwick to Glasgow, Edinburgh and Belfast, which indirectly competed with the corporation's London–Scotland and London – Northern Ireland trunk routes from Heathrow. This allowed BUA to steal a march on BEA by becoming the first scheduled all-jet operator on UK domestic trunk routes.\n\nIn November 1966, BEA increased its shareholding in BKS Air Transport to 50%.", "In November 1966, BEA increased its shareholding in BKS Air Transport to 50%.\n\nIn March 1967, BEA established British Air Services as a new holding company for BKS Air Transport and Cambrian Airways, its two loss-making regional airline subsidiaries.", "1967 was also the year the Wilson government appointed a committee of inquiry under the chairmanship of Professor Sir Ronald Edwards, at the time the chairman of the Electricity Council and a professor at the London School of Economics, to deliberate the future prospects of Britain's air transport industry. The Edwards Committee published its report entitled British Air Transport in the Seventies on 2 May 1969. Its principal recommendations were", "creation of a British Airways Board to bring both BEA and BOAC under joint management control\n creation of a majority privately owned \"Second Force\" airline to counterbalance the near-monopoly of the corporations, which provided 90% of all UK scheduled air transport capacity at the time\n permitting the corporations to participate in the inclusive tour (IT) charter market alongside the independents by establishing dedicated, non-IATA subsidiaries", "creation of a Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) to combine the separate regulatory functions of the UK Air Registration Board (ARB), ATLB and BOT in a new statutory body with enhanced powers.", "The report's publication led to the formation of BEA Airtours as BEA's wholly owned charter subsidiary later the same year while subsequent adoption of its recommendations by the Heath government resulted in the merger of BEA's independent rivals Caledonian Airways and BUA to form Caledonian//BUA, which assumed the role of the \"Second Force\" in November 1970", ". To enable the new \"Second Force\" to become viable and to redress the competitive imbalance between it and the corporations, the Heath government ordered a limited route transfer from the latter to the former. For BEA this entailed the loss of the Heathrow – Le Bourget route, which was transferred to its newly formed independent rival to accommodate the newcomer's Gatwick – Le Bourget service within the constraints of the Anglo-French bilateral air treaty.", "On 15 February 1968, BEA took delivery of its first Trident 2E. This was followed by entry into service on the airline's routes from Heathrow to Milan, Madrid, Dublin and Stockholm on 1 June that year.\n\nOn 1 April 1968, BEA's first scheduled service to Paris Orly Airport departed Heathrow; this resulted in splitting its Paris operations between Orly and Le Bourget.", "Following its commercial debut on 1 September 1968 on BEA's internal German routes, the airline's new One-Eleven 500s began regular scheduled operations on 17 November 1968, respectively replacing Vanguards and Viscounts on the corporation's Heathrow–Manchester and Berlin routes.", "By 1969, BEA carried 132,000 tonnes of freight each year. That year, it also opened a new cargo centre at Heathrow, which it jointly operated with BOAC. To cope with increasing amounts of air freight, it began replacing its nine Argosy freighters with the same number of Vickers V.953C Merchantmans, which were converted V.953 Vanguard passenger planes", ".953C Merchantmans, which were converted V.953 Vanguard passenger planes. Aviation Traders Engineering Limited (ATEL) of Southend converted the first two of these while BEA's inhouse engineering department converted the remainder using kits supplied by ATEL.", "In its 1969–70 financial year, BEA's revenue from ticket sales was £126 million resulting in a profit of £6.5 million, almost twice the previous year's and the biggest in the airline's history until that time.\n\nIn its 1970–71 financial year, BEA carried 8.67 million passengers at an average load factor of just over 54%. During that period it employed just under 25,000 people, revenues totalled £133 million and the operating loss stood at £780,000.", "On 18 February 1971, BEA received its first Trident 3B. Commercial operations began on 1 March of that year on the airline's Heathrow–Orly route.", "On 31 October 1971, BEA operated its last scheduled service from Heathrow to Le Bourget, marking the end of 25 years' continuous operations by the airline at the historic Paris airport. This move was necessitated by the Anglo-French bilateral air treaty to make room for British Caledonian's Gatwick – Le Bourget service, which began the following day. This in turn resulted in all of BEA's Heathrow–Paris flights exclusively using Orly from then on.", "In early-December 1971, BEA bought both of Channel Airways' Trident 1Es for use by the airline's Channel Islands Airways division and Northeast Airlines on mainline routes from Birmingham and regional routes from Newcastle and Leeds/Bradford respectively. Together with the ongoing Trident 3B deliveries, this additional Trident purchase would bring the total number of Tridents in BEA's fleet to 67, making the type its most numerous jetliner.", "1971 was also the year BEA underwent a major reorganisation under its then chairman Henry Marking entailing the establishment of 10 divisions that were meant to act as profit centres. These were\n BEA Mainline\n BEA Cargo\n Super One-Eleven\n Scottish Airways\n Channel Islands Airways\n BEA Helicopters\n BEA Airtours\n British Air Services\n Travel Sales\n Sovereign Group Hotels.", "BEA Mainline assumed responsibility for all of BEA's Heathrow operations other than those to and from Manchester, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool, Newcastle, Aberdeen, Inverness, the Isle of Man, Berlin (including both non-stop and one-stop services) and certain regional European destinations such as Bordeaux, Cork, Luxembourg and Rimini, as well as its Birmingham operations other than those to and from the Channel Islands.", "BEA Cargo assumed responsibility for all of BEA's freight activities, including all pure freighter aircraft.", "The Super One-Eleven division was headquartered in Manchester. It assumed responsibility for BEA's entire BAC One-Eleven 500 fleet and all of the airline's Manchester operations other than those to and from the Channel Islands, as well as all of its Berlin operations, with at least six aircraft based at Ringway and up to 12 at Tempelhof", ". From 1 April 1973, it also began replacing Viscounts and Tridents plying the Aberdeen–Heathrow route on behalf of BEA's Scottish Airways division with One-Eleven 500s, as the latter were more efficient and had greater passenger appeal.", "The Scottish Airways division was headquartered in Glasgow and assumed responsibility for all of BEA's Scottish internal routes, as well as all of the airline's Glasgow–Belfast, Aberdeen–Heathrow and Inverness–Heathrow services. In addition to its Viscount mainline aircraft, Scottish Airways also operated a dedicated fleet of smaller regional feeder aircraft. These served remote communities in Scotland's Highlands and Islands region.", "The Channel Islands Airways division assumed responsibility for all of BEA's services to and from the Channel Islands other than those to and from Heathrow, Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool and Newcastle. It also operated domestic and international routes from Birmingham, using a dedicated Trident 1E, as well as a mix of Scottish and Channel Islands Viscounts.", "BEA's wholly owned helicopter subsidiary assumed responsibility for its entire rotorcraft fleet and all of the airline's rotorcraft operations, including the scheduled service between Penzance and the Isles of Scilly.\n\nBEA's wholly owned charter subsidiary BEA Airtours assumed responsibility for all of its regular, non-IATA flying activities using fixed-wing aircraft – i.e., predominantly IT charter flights under contract to third-party tour operators.", "The British Air Services division assumed responsibility for Cambrian Airways and Northeast Airlines, BEA's two majority-owned regional airline subsidiaries", ". This included all services operated by these airlines on behalf of their parent company, principally all of the corporation's domestic and international services from and to Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool, Newcastle and the Isle of Man, as well as selected international regional services from Heathrow such as Bordeaux, Cork, Luxembourg and Rimini.", "Travel Sales assumed responsibility for all of BEA's sales-related activities.\n\nSovereign Group Hotels assumed responsibility for the management of all Sovereign hotels, BEA's associated hotel chain.\n\nBEA–BOAC merger (1972–1974)\n\nBritish Airways Board (1972)", "The first attempt at a merger of BEA and BOAC arose in 1953 out of inconclusive attempts between the two airlines to negotiate air rights through the British colony of Cyprus. The Chairman of BOAC, Miles Thomas, was in favour of the idea as a potential solution to a disagreement between the two airlines as to which should serve the increasingly important oil regions of the Middle East, and he had backing for his proposal from the Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time, Rab Butler", ". However, opposition from the Treasury blocked the idea, and an agreement was reached instead to allow BEA to serve Ankara in Turkey, and in return to leave all routes east and south of Cyprus to BOAC. Paradoxically, through its effective control of Cyprus Airways, BEA was able to continue to serve destinations ceded to BOAC, including Beirut and Cairo by using Cyprus Airways as its proxy.", "However, it was only following the recommendations of the 1969 Edwards Report, that a new British Airways Board, combining BEA and BOAC, was constituted on 1 April 1972. This event coincided with the establishment of the CAA, the UK's new, unified regulator for the air transport industry.", "One of the newly formed British Airways Board's first major decisions was to place a £60 million order for six Rolls-Royce RB211-powered Lockheed L-1011 TriStar series 1 widebodies on BEA's behalf, with an option on six more for either BEA or BOAC. BEA was to take delivery of its first widebodied aircraft during the fourth quarter of 1974.\n\nOn 1 September 1972, BEA became the British European Airways Division of the newly formed British Airways Group.", "In its 1973–74 financial year, BEA's last, the airline carried 8.74 million passengers and – excluding losses on its Scottish and Channel Islands operations – recorded its highest-ever profit of £6.7 million.\n\nBritish Airways (1974)", "BEA ceased operations on 1 April 1974 when it merged with BOAC to form British Airways. A BEA Trident operated the airline's final flight from Dublin to Heathrow on 31 March 1974. Following the late-night arrival at Heathrow at 23:30 hrs of flight BE 943 (\"Bealine 943\"), BEA passed into history as of 00:00 hrs the following day.", "However, even after the merger, a British Airways European Division, which incorporated the former BEA Mainline operation, the erstwhile Super One-Eleven and Cargo divisions, as well as British Airtours, continued to exist alongside a British Airways Overseas, a British Airways Regional and four other divisions until 1 April 1977 when these were replaced by a unified operating structure organised into a number of departments, including commercial operations, flight operations, engineering, planning", ", including commercial operations, flight operations, engineering, planning, catering and personnel", ". These organisational changes were accompanied by the adoption of a single, two-letter, IATA airline identification code for the entire airline, i.e., BA, the old BOAC/Overseas Division code. Until then, each of the three main airline divisions had its own two-letter, IATA airline identification code, BA for Overseas, BE for European and BZ for Regional.", "Highlands and islands operations\n\nScotland\n\nThe Dragon Rapides BEA had inherited from Scottish Airways and other former independent airlines it had taken over in early-1947 initially operated the corporation's Scottish routes, including services to remote communities in the Highlands and Islands.\n\nFrom 1948, BEA Dragon Rapides were contracted to operate the Scottish Air Ambulance Service.", "From 1948, BEA Dragon Rapides were contracted to operate the Scottish Air Ambulance Service.\n\nIn 1952, BEA began replacing Dragon Rapides with Pionairs across its Scottish network; however, the pre-war de Havilland biplanes continued serving Barra as no other contemporary type in BEA's fleet could take off from and land on the island's beach airstrip. The Scottish Air Ambulance Service continued to contract BEA Dragon Rapides as well.", "Following successful trials of de Havilland's Heron Series 1 demonstrator G-ALZL on BEA's Channel Islands routes during the second half of 1951, the airline placed an order for two 1B series aircraft to replace \"Islander\" class Rapides on its Glasgow–Barra route as it was well-suited to serving restricted airfields in difficult weather conditions", ". Both aircraft were delivered in February 1955, wearing BEA's contemporary bare metal finish livery incorporating a burgundy cheatline separated by two thin, white lines above the cabin windows. In BEA service the Herons were known as \"Hebridean\" class aircraft seating 14 passengers on regular commercial flights. The Heron operated its first air ambulance service on 4 March 1955 while BEA crews were still undergoing conversion training on the new type", ". This was followed by a naming ceremony for both aircraft held at Glasgow's Renfrew Airport on 18 March 1955, when each aircraft was named after a Scottish medical pioneer (G-ANXA, the second aircraft to be delivered on 23 February 1955, was named John Hunter while G-ANXB, the first aircraft to be delivered on 12 February 1955, was named Sir James Young Simpson)", ". Scheduled operations commenced on 18 April 1955, following which one aircraft was exclusively used on scheduled services while the other was kept on stand-by for air ambulance duties. An expansion of BEA's scheduled activities within the Scottish mainland as well as between the mainland and the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands necessitated the acquisition of a third aircraft to provide adequate cover for the air ambulance service", ". This resulted in an order for a third Heron 1B, which was delivered on 13 April 1956. This aircraft (G-AOFY, Sir Charles Bell) crashed on 28 September 1957 while on an air ambulance service to Port Ellen/Glenegedale Airport, Islay, Inner Hebrides, with the loss of the pilot, radio officer and duty nurse on board.", "From 1962, BEA supplemented the Herons it used on its Scottish internal services with three new, 48-seater Handley Page Dart Herald 100 series turboprops. These had originally been ordered in 1959 through the Ministry of Supply, which leased them to the airline. BEA operated its first commercial Herald service on 16 April 1962 on the Northern Isles route from Glasgow to Sumburgh via Wick, Aberdeen and Kirkwall", ". However, BEA operated its Heralds, which wore the red, black and white livery, only for a few years because of high crew training, maintenance and spares costs.", "1962 was also the year BEA introduced Viscounts on its Scottish network. These took over the routes to Benbecula and Stornoway in the Outer Hebrides from 21 May, only two days after BEA's last-ever Pionair service from Islay via Campbeltown to Renfrew.", "From October 1966, BEA operated only Viscounts and Herons on its Scottish network. It used the former on the busier, longer routes while it utilised the latter on short feeder routes to/from restricted airfields serving remote communities as well as on the air ambulance service.", "To improve the financial prospects of its loss-making Scottish lifeline routes, BEA established Scottish Airways Division in 1971. Glasgow-headquartered Scottish Airways became financially accountable for BEA's Scottish internal routes. It also assumed financial responsibility for the airline's services from Glasgow to Belfast, as well as from Aberdeen and Inverness to Heathrow", ". While it was initially operationally responsible for its entire network as well as the Scottish Air Ambulance Service, operational responsibility for the Aberdeen–Heathrow route passed to BEA's Super One-Eleven division on 1 April 1973 when the latter's One-Eleven 500s began replacing Scottish Airways Viscounts and mainline division Tridents.", "In November 1972, BEA ordered two Short Skyliner turboprops, a 19-seat deluxe all-passenger version of the Short Skyvan utility aircraft, to replace the ageing Herons. Following BEA's last scheduled Heron service from Barra via Tiree to Glasgow in March 1973 and successful route trials of the new Skyliners, which wore a modified BEA \"Speedjack\" livery incorporating dual BEA/British airways titles, the latter debuted on BEA's Scottish internal services from Glasgow to Barra and Campbeltown", ". BEA's Skyliners were intended to replace the airline's Herons as air ambulances as well; however, when Glasgow-based independent air taxi, charter and regional scheduled operator Loganair assumed responsibility for the Scottish Air Ambulance Service on 1 April 1973, the Skyliners had yet to enter service. This turn of events therefore marked the end of BEA's air ambulance services in Scotland after 25 years' continuous operation.", "On 31 March 1974, the British Airways Board placed an order for two British Aerospace 748 Series 2B turboprops for delivery to British Airways in 1975. These were intended to replace ageing Viscounts on the Scottish routes the new airline would inherit from BEA the following day, as well as for use on North Sea oil exploration flights.", "Channel Islands\nBEA acquired a presence in the Channel Islands as a result of the takeover of Channel Islands Airways on 1 April 1947. Channel Islands Airways was the holding company and successor of pre-war independent scheduled airlines Jersey Airways and Guernsey Airways. It was also among the independents that were absorbed into BEA following their nationalisation which began earlier that year.", "BEA commenced its services in the Channel Islands in 1947, using Dragon Rapides inherited from its independent predecessors.\n\nFollowing the transfer of BEA's London–Jersey route from Croydon to Northolt on 21 April 1947, DC-3s began replacing Rapides on most services. By 2 November 1947, all of the corporation's London–Guernsey flights had moved from Croydon to Northolt as well.", "In 1949, BEA expanded its fledgling Channel Islands operations by inaugurating London–Alderney and inter-island scheduled services linking Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney.\n\nOn 28 April 1950, BEA launched a summer service from Gatwick to Alderney, the airline's first scheduled route from Gatwick as well as its first scheduled service from there to the Channel Islands. Additional scheduled services from Birmingham and Manchester to the islands began the following month.", "In 1951, BEA launched a Glasgow–Jersey summer service with DC-3s, the airline's first direct service between Scotland and the Channel Islands. During that year's second half, it also successfully trialled de Havilland's Heron 1 demonstrator on its Channel Islands network.", "In April 1952, a new Exeter–Jersey route launched, which BEA contracted to its new independent associate Jersey Airlines. Two months later, a new paved runway opened at Jersey, which enabled the introduction of bigger, heavier aircraft types on BEA's (and other airlines') services to and from the island.\n\nIn Summer 1953, BEA introduced \"Elizabethan\" class Ambassador aircraft on its London–Jersey route.", "In Summer 1953, BEA introduced \"Elizabethan\" class Ambassador aircraft on its London–Jersey route.\n\nFollowing the departure of BEA's last flight from Northolt to Jersey in October 1954, the airline's London – Channel Islands flights served the British capital exclusively via Heathrow.", "In 1955, BEA ordered two de Havilland Heron 2 series aircraft for use on its Channel Island feeder routes. These differed from the pair of 1B series Herons used on the airline's Scottish feeder network and air ambulance services in terms of their undercarriage; the series 2 had a retractable undercarriage while the series 1's was fixed", ". Following BEA's acquisition of a 25% minority stake in its regional associate Jersey Airlines and a subsequent transfer of routes from the corporation to the independent in 1956, the Heron 2s ordered by the former were delivered to the latter.", "BEA's withdrawal from Alderney, as well as from Southampton–Guernsey, Jersey–Dinard and Guernsey–Dinard, on 20 April 1956 coincided with the airline's last Rapide service in the Channel Islands. 1956 was also the year that saw Viscounts supplementing DC-3s/Pionairs on the corporation's Heathrow–Jersey route as well as a new summer service from Belfast to Jersey.", "BEA's acquisition of minority stakes in its independent associates Jersey Airlines and Cambrian Airways in 1956 and 1958 respectively resulted in the former's withdrawal from a number of mainly secondary routes serving the Channel islands, which were transferred to the latter.", "The launch of a new BEA summer weekend service from Aberdeen via Edinburgh to Jersey in 1957 was followed by the transfer of most of the corporation's London–Jersey and London–Guernsey flights from Heathrow to Gatwick when the latter reopened as London's second airport on 9 June 1958, in line with contemporary UK government policy to develop the airport.", "On 1 August 1960, a new paved runway opened at Guernsey, which enabled the introduction of bigger, heavier aircraft types on BEA's (and other airlines') services to and from the island.", "The withdrawal of Pionairs from BEA's Channel Islands services on 20 March 1961 resulted in the transfer of operations from Southampton to Bournemouth to enable the introduction of Viscounts, which were too heavy for the former's grass runways. On 21 March 1961, BEA launched year-round Viscount services from Bournemouth to Jersey and Guernsey. 1961 also saw BEA's first dedicated pure freight services from both London and Southampton to Jersey. These were operated with \"Leopard\" class DC-3 freighters", ". These were operated with \"Leopard\" class DC-3 freighters. The same year, BEA furthermore terminated its association agreement with Jersey Airlines as both airlines had become competitors on the prime London–Jersey and London–Guernsey trunk routes as a result of the Civil Aviation (Licensing) Act that had been enacted the year before. This had abolished the corporations' statutory monopoly on principal domestic and international scheduled routes.", "On 31 March 1962, BEA disposed of its minority holding in Jersey Airlines. The following month, Argosies replaced Leopards on BEA's London–Jersey freight run.\n\nIn April 1963, most of the corporation's London – Channel Island flights transferred back to Heathrow as a result of the new competitive relationship between BEA and its former associate Jersey Airlines. The following month, BEA launched a London–Guernsey Argosy freighter service.", "On 1 June 1964, Vanguards made their debut on BEA's Heathrow–Jersey route. BEA subsequently introduced the type on selected services from Heathrow as well as Manchester.\n\nBetween November 1965 and February 1966, BEA Helicopters temporarily operated S-61Ns on behalf of its parent company on the Jersey–Guernsey inter-island service while Jersey's runway was being resurfaced during daytime.", "On 1 April 1966, BEA resumed Southampton–Jersey services following the replacement of Southampton's grass runways with a paved runway suitable for bigger, heavier aircraft types such as the Viscount and Vanguard.\n\nFollowing a successful proving flight on 18 July 1967, BEA introduced Vanguards on selected flights serving Guernsey.", "On 31 March 1969, BEA withdrew its Jersey–Guernsey inter-island service, which was taken over by Alderney-based independent air taxi, charter and regional scheduled operator Aurigny Air Services.", "To improve the financial prospects of its loss-making Channel Islands operations, BEA established Channel Islands Airways Division in 1971. BEA's Channel Islands Airways division assumed financial and operational responsibility for all of its routes serving the Channel Islands except those serving the islands from Heathrow, Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool and Newcastle.", "Isle of Man\nBEA acquired a presence in the Isle of Man as a result of the takeover of Isle of Man Air Services in 1947. Operations in the island commenced the same year with Dragon Rapides inherited from its independent predecessors.\n\nIn July 1954, BEA operated a proving flight from the mainland to the island using a Vickers Viscount turboprop.\nIn summer 1955, BEA began supplementing DC-3s with Viscounts on its Manchester – Isle of Man route.", "On 31 October 1960, BEA operated its last Pionair services to the Isle of Man.\n\nOn 1 April 1963, Cambrian Airways took over BEA's remaining routes to and from the Isle of Man as well as all of the corporation's services between Liverpool and Belfast. This route transfer also resulted in Cambrian's acquisition of six ex-BEA Viscount 701s, its first turboprop aircraft, to serve the Welsh regional carrier's enlarged network.", "Isles of Scilly\nFollowing the inauguration of scheduled services between Land's End in Cornwall and St Mary's in the Isles of Scilly in 1947, BEA continued serving this route with Dragon Rapides due to a lack of a suitable fixed-wing alternative until BEA Helicopters took it over on 2 May 1964. On that day, BEA's remaining three Rapides were replaced with its helicopter subsidiary's new Sikorsky S-61N rotorcraft on the Scillies route.\n\nOverseas-based operations", "BEA in Berlin", "From 1946 until 1974, BEA operated a comprehensive network of high-frequency, short-haul scheduled services between West Germany and West Berlin. This had come about as a result of an agreement between the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union at the end of World War II, which prohibited Germany from having its own airlines and restricted the provision of commercial air services to and from Berlin to air transport providers headquartered in these four countries", ". Rising Cold War tensions between the Soviet Union and the three Western powers resulted in unilateral Soviet withdrawal from attendance at the Four Power Allied Control Council in 1948, culminating in the division of Germany the following year", ". Soviet insistence on a very narrow interpretation of the post-war agreement on the Western powers' access rights to Berlin meant that until the end of the Cold War air transport in West Berlin continued to be confined to the carriers of the Allied Control Commission powers. Aircraft had to fly across hostile East German territory through three wide air corridors at a maximum altitude of .", "BEA's first-ever internal German flight took to the air in September 1946 when one of its DC-3s departed Hamburg Fuhlsbüttel for RAF Gatow in Berlin.\n\nDuring the 1948–49 Berlin Airlift, BEA co-ordinated the operations of the 25 British airlines that participated in the Airlift's Operation Plainfare.\n\nOn 8 July 1951, BEA transferred its operations from Gatow to Tempelhof, thereby concentrating all West Berlin air services at Berlin's city centre airport.", "BEA's move to Tempelhof resulted in a significant increase in passenger numbers due to the removal of Allied restrictions on the carriage of local civilians on commercial airline services from/to West Berlin and Tempelhof's central location. This enabled the airline to expand its Berlin-based fleet to six Douglas DC-3s.", "During the early-to-mid-1950s, BEA leased in aircraft that were bigger than its Tempelhof-based fleet of DC-3/Pionair, Viking and Elizabethan piston-engined airliners from other operators to boost capacity, following a steady increase in the airline's passenger loads. (BEA continued to augment its Berlin fleet with additional aircraft leased from other airlines on an ad hoc basis", ". This included an ex-Transair Vickers Viscount 700 belonging to its newly formed independent rival British United Airways, which was damaged beyond repair on 30 October 1961 in a non-fatal landing accident at Frankfurt Rhein-Main Airport at the end of a passenger flight that had originated at Tempelhof.)", "In 1958, BEA began replacing its ageing piston airliners with Vickers Viscount 701 turboprop aircraft in a high-density, 63-seat single class seating arrangement. Up to 10 new Vickers Viscount 802s, which featured a more spacious, 66-seat single-class seating arrangement, soon replaced the older series 701 aircraft. The greater range and higher cruising speed of the 802 series enabled BEA to inaugurate a non-stop London Heathrow – Berlin Tempelhof service on 1 November 1965.", "By 1964, BEA operated up to 20,000 flights each year from and to Berlin. These represented approximately half of the airline's total yearly flights to/from Germany and generated profits of £1 million per year.", "22 January 1966 marked the first appearance of a British trijet at Tempelhof when Hawker Siddeley flew in its HS 121 Trident 1E demonstrator aircraft for evaluation by BEA. A week later, on 29 January, BEA began evaluating the BAC One-Eleven's suitability for its Berlin operations, with the start of a series of test flights conducted on its behalf by BAC's 475 series demonstrator. This included a number of takeoffs and landings at Tempelhof to test the aircraft's short-field performance.", "On 18 March 1966, BEA's main competitor on the internal German services (IGS) routes, Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), became the first airline to commence regular, year-round jet operations from Tempelhof with new 128-seat, single-class Boeing 727 100 series, one of the first jet aircraft with a short-field capability.", "Pan Am's move put BEA at a considerable competitive disadvantage, especially on the busy Berlin–Frankfurt route where the former out-competed the latter with both modern jet planes as well as a higher flight frequency. BEA responded to Pan Am by increasing the Berlin-based fleet to 13 Viscounts by winter 1966/7 to offer higher frequencies", ". This also entailed re-configuring aircraft cabins in a lower-density seating arrangement, as a result of which the refurbished cabins featured only 53 Comet-type first-class seats in a four-abreast layout instead of 66 five-abreast economy seats. In addition, BEA sought to differentiate itself from its main competitor by providing a superior in-flight catering standard. (BEA's Silver Star service included complimentary hot meals on all flights whereas Pan Am only offered free on-board snacks", ". Sections of the local press dubbed the contrasting strategies of the two main protagonists plying the internal German routes from Berlin – estimated to be worth £15–20 million in annual revenues – the Dinner oder Düsen? (\"Dinner or Jet?\") battle.) Henceforth, the airline marketed these services as Super Silver Star.", "The introduction of Pan Am's 727s to the Berlin market represented a major step change because of the aircraft's ability to carry more passengers than any other contemporary aircraft type used by scheduled carriers in the short-haul Berlin market, and its ability to take off from and land on Tempelhof's short runways with a full commercial payload as only light fuel loads were required on the short internal German services", ". Compared with BEA, Pan Am's 727s carried 20% more passengers than the British carrier's Comet 4Bs and up to 2½ times as many passengers as the latter's Viscounts.", "Within two years of Pan Am's introduction of jet equipment on the bulk of its internal German services from/to West Berlin, its market share rose from 58% to 68% while BEA's declined from 38% at the beginning of this period to 27% at its end", ". The lower seat density in BEA's re-configured Viscounts combined with higher flight frequencies, superior catering and increased promotion proved insufficient to counter the appeal of Pan Am's new jets, despite these being laid out in a comparatively tight, pitch seating configuration. On the other hand, BEA's reduced capacity in the domestic air travel market between West Berlin and West Germany enabled it to attain higher load factors than its competitors.", "From August 1968, BEA supplemented its Tempelhof-based Viscount fleet with de Havilland Comet 4B series jetliners. Although these aircraft could operate from Tempelhof's short runways without payload restrictions, they were not suited to the airline's ultra short-haul operation from Berlin (average stage length: ) given the high fuel consumption of the Comet, especially when operating at the mandatory altitude inside the Allied air corridors", ". This measure was therefore only a stopgap until most of BEA's Berlin fleet was equipped with 97-seat, single-class BAC One-Eleven 500s. BEA's re-equipment of its Berlin fleet with new One-Eleven 500 jets was central to the airline's competitive strategy to regain ground lost to Pan Am's 727s. The new One-Eleven 500, which BEA called the Super One-Eleven, operated its first scheduled service from Berlin on 1 September 1968. It began replacing the airline's Berlin-based Viscounts from 17 November 1968.", "Air France, West Berlin's third scheduled carrier, which had suffered a continuous traffic decline ever since the transfer of Berlin operations to more distant Tegel at the beginning of 1960 due to Tempelhof's operational limitations that made it unsuitable for its Caravelles, was worst affected by the equipment changes at the latter airport during the mid- to late-1960s", ". To reverse growing losses on its Berlin routes resulting from load factors as low as 30%, Air France decided to withdraw from the internal German market entirely and instead enter into a joint venture with BEA. This arrangement entailed the latter taking over the former's two remaining German domestic routes to Frankfurt and Munich and operating these with its own aircraft and flightdeck crews from Tempelhof", ". It also entailed repainting the fins of the BEA One-Eleven 500s in a neutral, dark-blue scheme featuring Super One-Eleven titles instead of BEA's \"Speedjack\" motif. The Air France-BEA joint venture became operational in spring 1969 and terminated in autumn 1972.", "By 1971, BEA carried 2 million passengers each year on its Berlin routes. 1971 was also the year the airline's last Berlin-based Viscount departed the city.", "East Germany's relaxation of border controls affecting all surface transport modes between West Berlin and West Germany across its territory from 1972 onwards resulted in a decline of scheduled internal German air traffic from/to West Berlin. This was further compounded by the economic downturn in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis. The resulting fare increases that were intended to recover higher operating costs caused by steeply rising jet fuel prices led to a further drop in demand", ". This in turn resulted in a major contraction of BEA's – and subsequently British Airways' – (as well as Pan Am's) internal German operations, necessitating a reduction in the Berlin-based fleet and workforce in an attempt to contain growing losses these once profitable routes generated by the mid-1970s.", "Subsidiaries\n\nBEA Helicopters", "The airline carried out trials with its Helicopter Experiment Unit, operating mail services in East Anglia during 1948 and a passenger service from Cardiff via Wrexham to Liverpool (Speke) Airport in 1950. In 1952, BEA established a base at Gatwick on the site of the airport's old Beehive terminal. On 1 January 1964, BEA formed BEA Helicopters as a separate helicopter subsidiary, which established its administrative headquarters and engineering base at Gatwick", ". Following retirement of BEA's Dragon Rapides, BEA Helicopters took over the scheduled service between Land's End and the Isles of Scilly on 2 May 1964. On 1 September of that year, the service transferred from Land's End St Just airfield to a new, purpose-built heliport at Penzance.", "BEA Airtours", "On 24 April 1969, BEA formed BEA Airtours as a wholly owned, non-IATA subsidiary to provide it with a low-cost platform to participate in the then rapidly growing IT holiday flights market, which until then had been the exclusive domain of the independent airlines. On 6 March 1970, BEA Airtours commenced operations from London Gatwick with a fleet of seven second-hand ex-BEA de Havilland Comet series 4B aircraft seating 109 passengers in a single-class high-density configuration.", "On that day, BEA Airtours' first revenue flight departed Gatwick for Palma de Mallorca.", "British Air Services", "Following establishment of British Air Services as BEA's new holding company for its two loss-making regional airline subsidiaries, BKS Air Transport and Cambrian Airways, in March 1970, the corporation acquired a two-thirds majority shareholding in British Air Services in the autumn of that year to ensure its regional partners' survival. While this arrangement transferred overall control of BKS and Cambrian to BEA, it left the former's identities and local managements in place", ". This effectively gave BEA the final say in all major policy matters and delegated the day-to-day running of the two smaller airlines to their respective managements. BEA subsequently increased its shareholding in British Air Services to 70%. BEA's amalgamation with BOAC to form British Airways on 1 April 1974 resulted in the dissolution of British Air Services and the merger of its constituent members with BEA's Scottish and Channel Islands divisions into a new British Airways Regional Division.", "Cyprus Airways", "Cyprus Airways was established on 24 September 1947 as a joint venture between BEA, the British Colonial Government of Cyprus and private interests. Operations commenced on 18 April 1948 with three Douglas DC-3 aircraft. The aeroplanes, which carried 21 passengers each, flew on a route network centred on Nicosia Airport that included Rome, London (via Athens), Beirut, Athens, Cairo, Istanbul, and Haifa", ". During the next three years the airline purchased an additional three DC-3 aircraft and introduced services to Alexandria, Amman, Bahrain, Khartoum (via Haifa) and Lod.", "In 1952, BEA took over the Cyprus Airways service to London with an Airspeed Ambassador, which featured a pressurized cabin that allowed nonstop routing avoiding a stopover in Athens. On 18 April 1953, BEA began using its newly delivered Vickers Viscount 701 on their scheduled service from London to Rome and Athens. The continuing sector from Athens to Nicosia was operated by BEA under charter to Cyprus Airways. This route from London to Nicosia was the world's first regular turboprop service.", "In September 1957, with the political situation deteriorating in Cyprus, Cyprus Airways entered into a five-year agreement with BEA for the latter to operate services on its behalf. As a result, BEA took over the operation of all Cyprus Airways services from 26 January 1958.", "Following independence for Cyprus in 1960, the government of newly independent island became the majority shareholder in Cyprus Airways, with a 53.2 per cent holding, while BEA's stake was reduced to 22.7 per cent. Private individuals held the rest. Thereafter, Cypriot nationals began to be hired and trained for the flight crews, which had previously been made up of British expatriates from BEA", ". Cyprus Airways still relied on BEA for aircraft and in 1961 BEA began introducing Comet 4B jets on all Cyprus Airways routes through a joint aircraft pool arrangement that included Greece's Olympic Airways. On 5 April 1960, BEA introduced de Havilland Comet 4B aircraft on the Nicosia, Athens, Rome, and London routes. With the introduction of the Comets, Cyprus Airways became the first airline in the Middle East to have jet airplanes", ". The Comets flew in the BEA livery, but had the Cyprus Airways logo and title above their doors. In 1965, Cyprus began leasing its own Viscounts from BEA for regional routes. The Comet and Viscount aircraft were replaced with five Trident jets, three of them acquired from BEA. The first Hawker Siddeley Trident jet was introduced in September 1969. Cyprus also leased a BAC 1-11. The faster planes allowed more European trade centres (Frankfurt, Manchester, Brussels, and Paris) to be added to the timetable.", "British Airways finally divested itself of its former BEA stake in Cyprus Airways in 1981, selling its shares to the Government of Cyprus.\n\nAircraft operated\n\nBEA fleet\nDates below are for service with BEA and BEA Airtours, those still in service in 1974 subsequently passed to British Airways.", "BEA Helicopters fleet\nThe early helicopters of all types were collectively known as the \"King Arthur\"-class. Dates are for service with BEA Helicopters, those still in service in 1974 subsequently passed to British Airways Helicopters.\n\nAircraft on display", "The following aircraft are on public display in British European Airways markings:\nDH89A G-AGSH is on display at the Shuttleworth Collection in Old Warden, Bedfordshire.\nHandley Page Dart Herald G-APWA is on display at the Museum of Berkshire Aviation. Woodley, Berkshire, England\nHawker Siddeley Trident 2E G-AVFB is on display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford, England.\nVickers Viking G-AGRU is on display at the Brooklands Museum, Surrey, England.", "Vickers Viking G-AGRU is on display at the Brooklands Museum, Surrey, England.\nVickers Viscount 701 G-ALWF is on display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford, England.", "Incidents and accidents\n On 7 August 1946, Flight 530, a Douglas C-47A (G-AHCS) crashed into trees on Mistberget mountain while on approach to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen due to pilot error, killing three of 16 on board.\n On 15 April 1947, de Havilland Dragon Rapide G-AHKR crashed into Slieau Ruy while operating a scheduled passenger flight from Speke Airport, Liverpool, Lancashire to Ronaldsway Airport, Isle of Man. There were only minor injuries among the six people on board.", "On 6 January 1948, Vickers Viking 1B G-AHPK crashed at Ruislip on approach to RAF Northolt after flying into trees in low visibility killing the pilot and injuring 8 others.", "On 5 April 1948, Vickers Viking 1B G-AIVP operating that day's scheduled flight from RAF Northolt via Hamburg to RAF Gatow in Berlin collided during its approach to RAF Gatow with a Soviet Air Force Yakovlev Yak-3 fighter which had been flying dangerously close while performing aerobatics in the area at the time. As a result of the collision, the Viking spiralled out of control and crashed from the airport on East German territory killing all 14 on board. The Soviet fighter pilot was also killed", ". The Soviet fighter pilot was also killed. The accident happened during a period of heightened Cold War tensions over Berlin when Soviet military aircraft frequently \"buzzed\" Western commercial aircraft inside the Allied air corridors. A British inquiry determined that the Soviet pilot's action, which contravened all accepted rules of flying and the specific quadripartite flying rules to which the Soviets were party, was the cause of the accident", ". The Soviets rejected these findings and blamed the British flightdeck crew instead.<ref>Gatow Air Crash – Soviet Criticisms and Demands\" The Times 23 April 1948 p. 3</ref>", "On 21 April 1948, Flight S200P, a Vickers Viking 1B (G-AIVE), crashed into Irish Law Mountain on approach to Renfrew Airport, Scotland. None of the 20 passengers and crew were killed in the accident but 13 were injured and the aircraft was written off.\n On 30 July 1948, Douglas Dakota C.3 G-AGIX flying from Edinburgh to London belly landed in a field near Sywell following engine problems. All on board survived.", "On 19 February 1949, Douglas C-47A G-AHCW flying from Northolt to Renfrew collided in mid-air with Royal Air Force Avro Anson trainer VV243 near Coventry killing all 14 passengers and crew on both aircraft. Neither aircraft had seen the other despite clear weather, and the accident was blamed on neither maintaining an adequate look out.", "On 19 August 1949, Douglas C-47A G-AHCY crashed into a hill short of the flight's destination at Manchester Airport due to a navigation error and pilot error, killing 24 out of 32 passengers and crew.", "On 13 April 1950, Vickers Viking 1B G-AIVL \"Vigilant\" was on a flight from London-Northolt Airport to Paris over the English Channel near Hastings when a French passenger was suspected of making a suicide attempt after a bomb exploded in the rear toilet compartment, tearing a hole tall by wide in the fuselage. The flight returned to Northolt and landed safely. The passenger and a flight attendant were injured in the blast", ". The passenger and a flight attendant were injured in the blast. The captain, Ian Harvey DFC, a former RAF Bomber Command pilot, was awarded the George Medal for the \"coolness\" that had characterised his deportment, throughout the incident: \"In the face of this very grave emergency the action of Captain Harvey is worthy of the highest praise. The complete loss of the aircraft and all its company was avoided only as a result of his courage, high skill and presence of mind", ".\" The Flight Safety Foundation also honoured Harvey and his crew with an award. An official inquiry confirmed that a bomb had been detonated in the Viking's lavatory, but there was no evidence of how it had been done. The investigation revealed no motive for the attack. Material relating to it in the Public Record Office has been released and is available from The National Archives.", "On 17 October 1950, Douglas Dakota C.3 G-AGIW crashed in Mill Hill shortly after takeoff on a flight from RAF Northolt to Renfrew Airport. The accident killed 28 passengers and crew, leaving only 1 survivor, flight attendant James McKissick. The crew had shut down the No.2 engine after it developed problems, leaving the aircraft without sufficient power to clear high ground.", "On 31 October 1950, Vickers Viking 1B G-AHPN \"Lord St Vincent\" crashed in bad weather and poor visibility at London Airport after the aircraft struck the runway and went off the end of the runway and caught fire killing 28 out of 30 passengers and crew\n On 5 January 1953, Vickers Viking 1B G-AJDL \"Lord St Vincent\" crashed on approach to Belfast Nutts Corner Airport due to pilot error, killing 27 out of 35 on board.", "On 12 August 1953, Vickers Viking 1B G-AIVG landed wheels-up after a landing gear tire blew out, all on board survived. Although the aircraft was written off and withdrawn from use, it was moved to the Musée National de L'automobile de Mulhouse around 1970 and then moved to EuroAirport for restoration in 2004.", "On 20 January 1956, Vickers Viscount 701 G-AMOM crashed on takeoff from Blackbushe Airport on a training flight due to a loss of power in two engines; all five crew on board survived, but the aircraft was written off. The training captain was simulating a number four engine failure and had pulled the high pressure cock on the number three engine by mistake and throttled back the number four engine, causing a loss of power in both engines three and four.", "On 14 March 1957, Flight 411, a Vickers Viscount 701 (G-ALWE, \"RMA Discovery\"), crashed on approach to Manchester Airport due to a flap failure caused by metal fatigue. All 20 occupants on board died along with two on the ground. A bolt that held the bottom of the number two starboard flap unit broke, causing the aileron to become locked; this led to a loss of control.", "On 28 September 1957, de Havilland Heron 1B G-AOFY, while operating a flight for the Scottish Air Ambulance Service, crashed on approach to Port Ellen/Glenegedale Airport, Islay, in bad weather. The three occupants, two crew and one nurse (a volunteer from Glasgow's Southern General Hospital) were killed. One of the remaining two Herons was named Sister Jean Kennedy after the nurse; the other after James Young Simpson, a Scottish pioneer in anaesthetics.", "On 23 October 1957, Vickers Viscount 802 G-AOJA on a flight from Heathrow Airport crashed after overshooting on approach to Belfast Nutts Corner Airport, killing all seven on board; the cause was not determined.", "On 17 November 1957, Vickers Viscount 802 G-AOHP crashed at Ballerup, Denmark, after the failure of three engines on approach to Copenhagen Airport. Both crew members survived. (There were no passengers on board the aircraft as this was an all-cargo flight.) The cause was a malfunction of the anti-icing system on the aircraft.", "On 6 February 1958, Flight 609 crashed in a blizzard on its third attempt to take off from an icy runway at the Munich Riem Airport in Germany. On board the plane was the Manchester United football team, along with supporters and journalists. Twenty-three of the 43 passengers died. The accident is known as the \"Munich Air Disaster\". The charter flight was operated by Airspeed Ambassador 2 G-ALZU, Lord Burleigh.", "On 28 April 1958, Vickers Viscount 802 G-AORC crashed at Craigie, South Ayrshire on approach to Glasgow Prestwick Airport when the pilot misread the altimeter by a margin of . All five occupants on board survived.\n On 16 May 1958, Douglas Dakota C.3 G-AGHP crashed at Chatenoy, France while flying in a storm as a result of structural failure, killing the crew of three.", "On 22 October 1958, Flight 142, a Vickers Viscount 701C (G-ANHC), was struck by an Italian Air Force F-86E Sabre and crashed at Anzio, Italy with the loss of all 31 on board; the F-86 pilot was able to eject and survived.", "On 5 January 1960, Vickers Viscount 701 G-AMNY was damaged beyond economic repair at Luqa Airport, Malta, when it departed the runway after landing following a loss of hydraulic pressure. Although the aircraft came to rest against the airport's control tower, there were no fatalities among the 51 occupants (five crew, 46 passengers).", "On 7 January 1960, Vickers Viscount 802 G-AOHU was damaged beyond economic repair when the nose wheel collapsed on landing at Heathrow Airport due to ATC error. A fire then developed and nearly burnt-out the fuselage. There were no casualties among the 59 people on board.", "On 21 December 1961, Cyprus Airways Flight 226, a de Havilland Comet 4B (G-ARJM) operating on behalf of Cyprus Airways from London to Tel Aviv, stalled and crashed on takeoff from Esenboğa Airport, Ankara, Turkey. The aircraft was destroyed in the crash killing 27 of 34 on board. The cause was attributed to a fault with the horizon direction indicator giving the pilot a false indication and therefore leading him to put the aircraft in the wrong attitude", ". BEA and their underwriters began action in 1969 against the manufacturer of the indicator. The manufacturer stated they would defend the action and show that the cause was the pilot suffering a heart attack and the crew being negligent with flightdeck procedures.", "On 4 July 1965, Armstrong Whitworth Argosy 222 G-ASXL crashed into a hilltop near Piacenza, Italy due to a navigation error. Although the aircraft was destroyed, both pilots survived.\n On 27 October 1965, Vickers Vanguard G-APEE on a flight from Edinburgh crashed onto the runway during an approach in bad weather at London Heathrow Airport due to pilot error. All 36 on board died.", "On 12 October 1967, Cyprus Airways Flight 284 operated by BEA de Havilland Comet 4B G-ARCO on behalf of Cyprus Airways, exploded in mid-air over the Mediterranean and crashed into the sea with the loss of all 66 on board. The explosion was caused by a device under a passenger seat.", "On 4 December 1967, Armstrong Whitworth Argosy 222 G-ASXP crashed on a training flight at Stansted during a simulated engine failure, as a result of loss of control. Although the aircraft caught fire on impact, all three crew members survived.", "On 3 July 1968, Hawker Siddeley Trident 1C G-ARPT was destroyed on the ground at London Heathrow when BKS Air Transport Airspeed Ambassador G-AMAD crashed at the airport. The Ambassador's impact cut the stationary Trident in half and severed the tailfin of another Trident parked next to it. While this made G-ARPT a complete write-off, the aircraft next to it, Trident 1C G-ARPI, was subsequently repaired and re-entered service", ". (The latter aircraft would be involved in the worst accident in BEA's history as well as the worst involving a Trident, in terms of fatalities, on 18 June 1972.) As at the time of the accident both Tridents were empty and not being attended to while parked on the airport ramp, no BEA passengers or staff were among the fatalities.World directory of airliner crashes (1960–1969), Denham, T., Patrick Stevens Ltd, Sparkford nr Yeovil, 1996, p. 85", "On 2 October 1971, Flight 706, a Vickers Vanguard (G-APEC), crashed near Aarsele, Belgium, following a mid-air rupture of the rear pressure bulkhead due to severe, undetected corrosion. All 63 on board died.", "On 18 June 1972, Flight 548, a Hawker Siddeley Trident 1C (G-ARPI), the aircraft that had been repaired and returned to service after being struck by BKS Air Transport Ambassador G-AMAD at Heathrow on 3 July 1968, crashed two minutes after takeoff from Heathrow Airport, killing all 118 passengers and crew. The accident occurred close to the town of Staines, Middlesex. This was the worst accident in BEA's history as well as the worst involving a Trident, in terms of fatalities", ". It was also the worst on British soil until 1988.", "On 19 January 1973, Vickers Viscount 802 G-AOHI crashed into Ben More, Perthshire while on a test flight. All four people on board were killed.", "Liveries\n\nLate-1940s – early-1950s", "BEA's early liveries in the late-1940s to early-1950s mainly consisted of a bare metal finish with upper case, black British European Airways titles above the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage, the aircraft registration in bold, black capital letters on each side of the rear fuselage as well as on the underside of each wing, and a contemporary BEA logo on each side of the forward fuselage featuring a stylised wing and BEA in capital letters on each side of the nose", ". Additionally, Vikings featured a name given to individual aircraft in black capital letters each side of the nose.", "Early-1950s – late-1950s", "By the early-1950s, the bare metal finish on most BEA aircraft had evolved to incorporate a burgundy cheatline separated by two thin, white lines above the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage. This cheatline was in turn separated by upper case, burgundy British European Airways titles in the middle", ". The bottom, burgundy part of this cheatline extended below the flightdeck windows to converge on the nose, with the space in-between painted black (matte finish) to reduce glare for the pilots and shield sensitive navigational equipment housed in the nose from radiation. There was a contemporary BEA logo on each side of the forward fuselage featuring a stylised wing and BEA in capital letters on each side of the nose", ". In addition to the aircraft registration, there was also a coat of arms on each side of the rear fuselage and a small Union flag each side of the lower part of the tail. The letters BEA appeared in bold, upper case on the upper left and lower right wing while the aircraft registration appeared in bold, upper case on the upper right and lower left wing", ". Later adaptations of this livery used on DC-3s/Pionairs featured an unbroken cheatline with large, upper case British European Airways titles on a white upper fuselage and a larger Union flag, as well as the aircraft registration each side of a white tail and the aircraft's name prominently displayed in a white field on the left side of the nose and a coat of arms on its right side", ". When applied to BEA's Elizabethans, this lacked British European Airways titles due to the aircraft's high-wing configuration that left insufficient space on the upper fuselage.", "Late-1950s – late-1960s", "From the late-1950s to the late-1960s, BEA's aircraft wore its red, black and white livery, which was uniformly applied to the entire fleet from September 1959", ". It consisted of a prominent BEA logo featuring the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name in upper case white in a red square each side of a white tail as well as near the front and rear passenger doors on the left fuselage and near the service door[s] on its right side, where it interrupted an otherwise continuous, thick black cheatline across the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage", ". The cheatlines on each side of the fuselage converged on the nose, with the space in-between painted black (matte finish) as well to reduce glare for the pilots and shield sensitive navigational equipment housed in the nose from radiation. The upper part of the fuselage (above the thick black cheatline) was all-white while its lower part (below the thick black cheatline) was in natural metal finish or painted light-grey", ". The engines retained their natural metal finish as well while the wings were red, both on the upper and underside, with the BEA logo featuring the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name in upper case white in a square appearing on each wing's upper side and the aircraft registration in bold, white capital letters on each wing's underside", ". This livery, which was also known as the \"red square\" livery because of its prominent display of the red-square BEA logo in multiple locations on the aircraft, featured the Union flag near the front passenger door on the silver/light-grey lower fuselage", ". It furthermore had the aircraft type on/near both front passenger/forward service doors in white letters on a black background (cheatline) and the aircraft registration in white capital letters on a black background each side of the tail (a thin, black horizontal strip at/near the top of the fin).", "Late-1960s – mid-1970s", "From the late-1960s, BEA's aircraft began to appear in the \"Speedjack\" livery. This was the airline's final livery. Like the previous red, black and white livery, it was uniformly applied to its entire fleet. It consisted of a dark-blue cheatline across the cabin windows on each side of the fuselage, extending in a straight line from the flightdeck windows to the tail cone/tail engine exhaust/auxiliary power unit exhaust", ". The upper part of the fuselage (above the dark-blue cheatline) was all-white while its lower part (below the dark-blue cheatline) was light-grey. Unlike the earlier [predominantly] bare metal/white tail, liveries worn by BEA aircraft, the new livery featured a dark-blue tail with a prominent display of part of the Union flag in the shape of an arrow that symbolised an aircraft (composed of a fuselage with swept wings) on each side", ". The arrow-shaped part of the Union flag symbolising an aircraft became known as the \"Speedjack\" motif. Tridents wearing this livery also displayed the type's name (Trident for Trident 1C/1E, Trident Two for Trident 2E and Trident Three for Trident 3B) in white letters each side of the dark-blue centre engine while One-Eleven 500s wearing it displayed the type's name (Super one-eleven) in white letters on a dark-blue horizontal strip on each of their bare metal engines", ".Classic Aircraft (Gone but not forgotten ... BEA), Vol. 45, No. 6, p. 51 (image depicting One-Eleven 500), Ian Allan Publishing, Hersham, June 2012 This livery furthermore differed from its two immediate predecessors by only having the tip of the nose cone painted black (matte finish)", ". All aircraft wearing this livery also featured the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name in upper case white framed with a red border to emphasise the shape of the letters, which appeared above the dark-blue cheatline near the passenger/forward service doors each side of the white upper fuselage. In the case of regional feeder aircraft, the three-letter abbreviation of the airline's name was followed by the respective operating division's name in lower case dark-blue letters (e.g", ".g. scottish airways). The only aspect of the previous livery that was retained for all mainline aircraft were the red wings (both upper and undersides), with the aircraft registration in bold, white capital letters on each wing's underside", ". Following the merger with BOAC, many former BEA aircraft retained their basic \"Speedjack\" livery with just the name changing from red-framed, white BEA to dark-blue British airways pending repainting in the red, white and blue 1970s and early-80s Negus & Negus livery of British Airways.", "City centre check-in facilities", "Following BEA's formation, its first Central London air terminal at which check-in facilities for passengers and baggage were available was located close to Victoria station. Before World War II, this facility had been used by Imperial Airways. When wartime restrictions on civil aviation in the UK were lifted, BEA began sharing it with BOAC. Once passengers had checked-in, they boarded one of the Commer Commando buses the airline provided to take them to Northolt", ". These 1½-deckers featured a raised seating area at the back, which increased the baggage space below.", "On 31 May 1948, BEA moved its Central London check-in to Kensington Air Station, the first purpose-built facility for the exclusive use of BEA's passengers.\n\nFrom 1952, BEA introduced new AEC Regal IV 1½-decker buses to carry its passengers from Central London to Northolt and Heathrow. London Transport operated these on BEA's behalf, in white/grey (later white/blue) livery.", "In late 1953, BEA's Central London air terminal was moved again to a new site the Waterloo Air Terminal at next to Waterloo station on the south bank of the River Thames between the Houses of Parliament and the City of London. The Heathrow bus journey was now 20 minutes longer but an optional, more expensive, helicopter link was briefly operated from a South Bank helipad.", "On 6 October 1957, BEA relocated its Central London air terminal once more to the West London Air Terminal in Cromwell Road in London's Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. This was a new, £5 million facility that was officially inaugurated upon completion in 1963.", "In 1966, BEA introduced a fleet of double-decker London AEC Routemaster buses. These initially wore a blue and white livery, before being repainted in a white/grey livery, a white/blue livery incorporating BEA's \"red square\" logo and, finally, a white/red livery with Speedjack-style BEA lettering. The London Routemasters carried BEA's passengers from the West London Air Terminal to Heathrow and towed their baggage in large, two-wheeled trailers.", "In 1974, British Airways withdrew the Central London check-in facilities it had inherited from BEA because of declining demand and closed the West London Air Terminal. This resulted in disposal of the dedicated fleet of Routemaster buses, some of which had already been repainted in the new red, white and blue Negus & Negus livery of British Airways.", "Reuse of name\nBetween June 2000 and July 2002, independent UK regional airline Jersey European Airways (JEA) revived the by then long-dormant British European name by adopting it as its new trading name to reflect JEA's UK-wide expansion and growing partnership with Air France. This also included the prefixing of all JEA flights with the former BEA two-letter, IATA airline identification code BE, which continued in use when JEA rebranded as Flybe'' on 18 July 2002.\n\nArms", "Arms\n\nSee also\n List of defunct airlines of the United Kingdom\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nReferences\n\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n (Classic Aircraft online)\n\nExternal links\n\nBritish Airways Archive and Museum Collection\nAir corridor travelers to Berlin became pawns in 1970–71 Four-Power negotiations. Includes image of unique joint BEA-Air France ticket.", "Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom\nFormer nationalised industries of the United Kingdom\nAirlines established in 1946\nAirlines disestablished in 1974\n1974 mergers and acquisitions\nBritish companies established in 1946\nBritish companies disestablished in 1974" ]

[ "Midsummer is a celebration of the season of summer usually held at a date around the summer solstice. It has pagan pre-Christian roots in Europe.", "The early Christian Church designated June 24 as the feast day of the early Christian martyr St John the Baptist, and the observance of St John's Day begins the evening before, known as Saint John's Eve. These are commemorated by many Christian denominations, such as the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran Churches, and Anglican Communion, as well as by freemasonry", ". In Sweden, Midsummer is such an important festivity that there have been proposals to celebrate the National Day of Sweden then, instead of on June 6. There and in Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, Midsummer is a public holiday. In Denmark and Norway, it may also be referred to as St. Hans Day.", "History\n\nStudies of culturally important phenomena in the sky indicate the timing of the summer solstice has been observed since the Neolithic era, with many ancient monuments in Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and the Americas aligned with sunrise or sunset on the summer solstice.", "The name 'midsummer' is attested in Old English as midsumor, and refers to the time around the summer solstice. Astronomically, the solstice falls on 21 June, but traditionally in northern Europe the solstice and midsummer was reckoned as the night of 23–24 June, with summer beginning on May Day.", "Likewise, in the ancient Roman world, the traditional date of the summer solstice was 24 June, and Marcus Terentius Varro wrote in the 1st century BC that Romans saw this as the middle of summer. In the city of Rome, it was the festival of the goddess Fors Fortuna. People thronged the River Tiber and rowed in boats to the temples of Fortuna; \"after undisclosed rituals they rowed back, garlanded and inebriated\".", "In the 4th century AD, the undivided Christian Church made 24 June the feast day of Saint John the Baptist; it marks his birth, which the Gospel of Luke says was six months before Jesus. Christians marked the birth of Jesus (Christmas) on 25 December, the Roman date of the winter solstice, so the feast of St John was set exactly six months earlier.", "Within Christian theology, John the Baptist \"was understood to be preparing the way for Jesus\", with stating \"He must increase, but I must decrease\"; this is symbolized in the fact that the sun's height in the sky and length of the day \"begins to diminish\" after the summer solstice and begins to increase after the winter solstice. By the 6th century AD, several churches were dedicated to Saint John the Baptist and a vigil, Saint John's Eve, was added to the feast day", ". Christian priests held three Masses in churches for the celebration.", "The historian Ronald Hutton says that the \"lighting of festive fires upon Saint John's Eve is first recorded as a popular custom by Jean Belethus, a theologian at the University of Paris, in the early twelfth century\", but is undoubtedly much older. In England, the earliest reference to this custom occurs in the 13th century AD, in the Liber Memorandum of the parish church at Barnwell in the Nene Valley, which stated that parish youth would gather on the day to light fires, sing songs and play games", ". A Christian monk of Lilleshall Abbey, in the same century, wrote:", "The 13th-century monk of Winchcomb, Gloucestershire, who compiled a book of sermons for Christian feast days, recorded how St John's Eve was celebrated in his time:", "Let us speak of the revels which are accustomed to be made on St. John's Eve, of which there are three kinds. On St. John's Eve in certain regions the boys collect bones and certain other rubbish, and burn them, and therefrom a smoke is produced on the air. They also make brands and go about the fields with the brands. Thirdly, the wheel which they roll. ... The wheel is rolled to signify that the sun then rises to the highest point of its circle and at once turns back", "Saint John's Fires, explained the monk of Winchcombe, were to drive away dragons, which were abroad on St John's Eve, poisoning springs and wells. A Christian interpretation of midsummer fires is that they are \"an emblem of St. John the Baptist, who was 'a burning and shining light,' and the preparer of the way of Christ.\" The fires were also believed to repel witches and evil spirits.", "On St John's Day 1333 Petrarch watched women at Cologne rinsing their hands and arms in the Rhine \"so that the threatening calamities of the coming year might be washed away by bathing in the river.\"\n\nIn the 16th century AD, the English historian John Stow, described the celebration of Midsummer:", "In the 16th century AD, the English historian John Stow, described the celebration of Midsummer:\n\nSaint John's Day is also a popular day for infant baptisms and in the 19th century, \"baptisms of children who had died 'pagans' were acted out\". In Sweden, young people visited holy springs as \"a reminder of how John the Baptist baptised Christ in the River Jordan.\"\n\nBy country", "Midsummer/Saint John's Day–related traditions, church services, and celebrations are particularly important in northern Europe – Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania – but is also very strongly observed in Poland, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Flanders, Ireland, parts of the United Kingdom (Cornwall especially), France, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain, Ukraine, other parts of Europe, and elsewhere – such as Canada, the United States, Puerto Rico", ", Ukraine, other parts of Europe, and elsewhere – such as Canada, the United States, Puerto Rico, and also in the Southern Hemisphere (mostly in Brazil, Argentina and Australia)", ". In Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Quebec (Canada), the traditional Midsummer day, June 24, is a public holiday. So it was formerly also in Sweden and Finland, but in these countries it was, in the 1950s, moved to the Friday and Saturday between June 19 and June 26, respectively.", "Austria\nIn Austria, the Midsummer solstice is celebrated each year with a procession of ships down the Danube River as it flows through the wine-growing Wachau Valley north of Vienna. Up to 30 ships sail down the river in line as fireworks erupt from the banks and hill tops while bonfires blaze and the vineyards are lit up. Lighted castle ruins also erupt with fireworks during the 90-minute cruise downstream.\n\nBrazil", "Portuguese St. John's Day, brought to Brazil during colonial times, has become a popular event that is celebrated during a period that starts one week before St. Anthony's Day (June 13) and ends after St. Peter's Day (June 29)", ". Anthony's Day (June 13) and ends after St. Peter's Day (June 29). Despite the Portuguese origin of this festival as a midsummer festival (due to the fact of Portugal being a nation located in the Northern hemisphere), this nationwide festival, called \"Festa Junina\" (June Festival), or São João (Saint John), takes place during midwinter in most of the country (due to the fact of great part of Brazil is located in the Southern hemisphere).", "Rural life is celebrated through typical clothing, food, and dance (particularly square dancing, or quadrilha). The quadrilha features couple formations around a mock wedding whose bride and groom are the central attraction of the dancing. A kind of maypole (called \"pau-de-sebo\") is also raised and used in some festivities. A typical hot drink is prepared called \"quentão\" (very hot) that consists in a mix of fruits and spices laced with cachaça. On St", ". On St. John's Day eve celebration, sometimes a ritual takes place of walking barefoot at midnight on live-coal made of the remnants of the main bonfire, which is a traditional part of the party. It's believed that if the one who walks is strong in faith, he shall not be hurt.", "Two northeastern towns in particular have competed with each other for the title of \"Biggest Saint John Festival in the World\", namely Caruaru (in the state of Pernambuco), and Campina Grande, in Paraíba. The festivities also coincide with the corn harvest, dishes served during this period are commonly made with corn, such as canjica and pamonha; dishes also include boiled or baked vegetable corn (often buttered), sausages, sweet potatoes, peanuts, and numerous sweet dishes such as rice pudding", ". The celebrations are very colorful and festive and include the use of fireworks and bonfires.", "Bulgaria", "On Midsummer day, Bulgarians celebrate Enyovden. On the same day, the Eastern Orthodox church celebrates the day of John the Baptist and the rites and traditions of both holidays are often mixed. A fire-related ritual may also be performed in Bulgaria on that day; it involves barefoot dance on smoldering embers and is called Nestinarstvo. Bulgarian folklore states the beginning of summer starts on Enyovden. It is thought that in the morning of Enyovden, when the sun rises, it \"winks' and \"plays\"", ". It is thought that in the morning of Enyovden, when the sun rises, it \"winks' and \"plays\". Anyone seeing the sunrise will be healthy throughout the year. It is believed that on Enyovden a variety of herbs have the greatest healing power, and that this is especially true at sunrise. Therefore, they have to be picked early in the morning before dawn. Women – sorceresses and enchantresses – go to gather herbs by themselves to cure and make charms", ". Women – sorceresses and enchantresses – go to gather herbs by themselves to cure and make charms. The number of herbs gathered for the winter must be seventy-seven and a half – for all diseases, known and unknown.", "Canada", "In Newfoundland and Labrador, St. John's Day is observed on the Monday nearest June 24 and commemorates John Cabot's discovery of Newfoundland in 1497. In Quebec, the celebration of June 24 was brought to New France by the first French colonists. Great fires were lit at night. According to the Jesuit Relations, the first celebrations of St John's Day in New France took place around 1638", ". In 1834, Ludger Duvernay, printer and editor of La Minerve took the leadership of an effort to make June 24 the national holiday of the Canadiens (French Canadians). In 1908, Pope Pius X designated John the Baptist as the patron saint of the French-Canadians. In 1925, June 24 became a legal holiday in Quebec and in 1977, it became the secular National Holiday of Quebec. It still is the tradition to light great fires on the night of the 24th of June.", "China\nThe Feast of São João was celebrated in Macau SAR from at least the eighteenth century to the 1990's. It was a public holiday that celebrated the Catholic Feast of St. John the Baptist, and the victory over the Dutch in 1622. The day is no longer a public holiday, but is part of the intangible culture of the Macanese community who have revived it as the Arraial de São Joāo - a festival in the São Lázaro neighbourhood.\n\nDenmark", "Denmark\n\nIn Denmark, the solstitial celebration is called sankthans or sankthansaften (\"St. John's Eve\"). It was an official holiday until 1770, and in accordance with the Danish tradition of celebrating a holiday on the evening before the actual day, it takes place on the evening of 23 June. It is the day where the medieval wise men and women (the doctors of that time) would gather special herbs that they needed for the rest of the year to cure people.", "Bonfires on the beach, speeches, picnics and songs are traditional, although they are built in many other places where beaches may not be close by (i.e. on the shores of lakes and other waterways, parks, etc.) Bonfires are lit in order to repel witches and other evil spirits, with the burnings sending the \"witch\" away to Bloksbjerg, the Brocken mountain in the Harz region of Germany where the great witch gathering was thought to be held on this day", ". Some Danes regard this tradition of burning witches as inappropriate.", "In Scandinavia, young people visited holy springs as \"a reminder of how John the Baptist baptised Christ in the River Jordan.\"\n\nOn Saint John's Eve and Saint John's Day, churches arrange Saint John's worship services and family reunions also occur, which are an occasion for drinking and eating.\n\nIn 1885, Holger Drachmann wrote a midsommervise (Midsummer hymn) called \"Vi elsker vort land...\" (\"We Love Our Country\") with a melody composed by P.E. Lange-Müller that is sung at most bonfires on this evening.", "Estonia", "Jaanipäev (\"Jaan's Day\" or \"Midsummer Day\" in English or \"St. John's Day\" for Christians) was celebrated long before the arrival of Christianity in Estonia, although the day was given its modern name by Christians. The day is still known by its many names as: leedopäev, suvine pööripäiv, suvepööripäev, püäripääv, päevakäänak, päiväkäänäk, päiväkäändjäne, päevapesa, pesapäev and suured päevad. The arrival of Christianity, however, did not end pagan beliefs and fertility rituals surrounding this holiday", ". In 1578, Balthasar Russow wrote in his Livonian Chronicle about Estonians who placed more importance on the festival than going to church. He complained about those who went to church, but did not enter, and instead spent their time lighting bonfires, drinking, dancing, singing and following pagan rituals. Midsummer marks a change in the farming year, specifically the break between the completion of spring sowing and the hard work of summer hay-making.", "Understandably, some of the rituals of Jaanipäev have very strong folkloric roots. One of the best-known Jaanik or midsummer ritual is the lighting of the bonfire and jumping over it. This is seen as a way of guaranteeing prosperity and avoiding bad luck. Likewise, to not light the fire is to invite the destruction of your house by fire. The fire also frightened away mischievous spirits who avoided it at all costs, thus ensuring a good harvest", ". So, the bigger the fire, the further the mischievous spirits stayed away. Estonian midsummer traditions are most similar to Finnish midsummer traditions but also have some similarities with Latvian, Lithuanian and Scandinavian traditions.", "Estonians celebrate Jaaniõhtu on the eve of the Summer Solstice (June 23) with bonfires. On the islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, old fishing boats may be burned in the large pyres set ablaze. On Jaaniõhtu, Estonians all around the country will gather with their families, or at larger events to celebrate this important day with singing and dancing, as Estonians have done for centuries", ". The celebrations that accompany Jaaniõhtu carry on usually through the night, they are the largest and most important of the year, and the traditions are almost identical to Finland (read under Finland) and similar to neighbors Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden (read under Sweden).", "Jaanipäev is usually spent in a summer cottage, where people light bonfires, or at a festival, such as Pühajärve Jaanituli in Otepää.\n\nSince 1934, June 23 is also national Victory Day of Estonia and both 23rd and 24th are holidays and flag flying days. The Estonian flag is not lowered in the night between these two days.", "Faroe Islands\nOn the Faroe Islands, St. John's Eve (jóansøka) is generally not celebrated. However, on the southernmost island of Suðuroy it is observed by lighting a bonfire. Only one bonfire is lit on the island as one of the two biggest towns hosts the celebration alternately every other year.\n\nFinland", "Finland\n\nThe summer solstice was called Ukon juhla (\"Ukko's celebration\") after the Finnish god Ukko. After the celebrations were Christianized, the holiday became known as juhannus after John the Baptist (Finnish: Johannes Kastaja).\n\nSince 1955, the holiday has always been on a Saturday (between June 20 and June 26). Earlier it was always on June 24. Many of the celebrations of midsummer take place on Friday, midsummer eve, when many workplaces are closed and shops may close their doors at noon.", "In the Finnish midsummer celebration, bonfires (Finnish kokko) are very common and are burned at lakesides and by the sea. Often branches from birch trees (koivu) are placed on both side of the front door to welcome visitors. Swedish-speaking Finns often celebrate by erecting a midsummer or maypole (Swedish midsommarstång, majstång)", ". Some Swedish-speaking Finns call the holiday Johannes or Johanni after the Finnish term juhannus – or more accurately after the Biblical John the Baptist (=\"Johannes Döparen\" in Swedish).", "In folk magic, midsummer was a very potent night and the time for many small rituals, mostly for young maidens seeking suitors and fertility. Will-o'-the-wisps were believed to appear at midsummer night, particularly to finders of the mythical \"fern in bloom\" and possessors of the \"fern seed\", marking a treasure. In the old days, maidens would use special charms and bend over a well, naked, in order to see their future husband's reflection", ". In another tradition that continues still today, an unmarried woman collects seven different flowers and places them under her pillow to dream of her future husband.", "An important feature of the midsummer in Finland is the white night and the midnight sun. Because of Finland's location around the Arctic Circle the nights near the midsummer day are short (with twilight even at midnight) or non-existent. This gives a great contrast to the darkness of the winter time. The temperature can vary between 0 °C and +30 °C, with an average of about 20 °C in the South.", "Many Finns leave the cities for Midsummer and spend time in the countryside. Nowadays many spend at least a few days there, and some Finns take their whole vacation at a summer cottage. Traditions include bonfires, cookouts, sauna and spending time together with friends or family. Heavy drinking is also associated with the Finnish midsummer, which is one common reason for the increase in the number of accidents, such as drowning.", "Many music festivals of all sizes are organized on the Midsummer weekend. It is also common to start summer vacation on Midsummer day. For many families Midsummer is the time when they move to the countryside to their summer cottage by the sea or lake. Midsummer is also a Finnish Flag Day: the national flag is hoisted at 6 pm on Midsummer's Eve and flown throughout the night until 9 pm the next evening. This is an exception to the normal rule of flying the flag from 8 am to sunset", ". This is an exception to the normal rule of flying the flag from 8 am to sunset. Finnish Canadians in the New Finland district, Saskatchewan, Canada celebrate Juhannus.", "France\n\nIn France, the (feast of St John), traditionally celebrated with bonfires () that are reminiscent of Midsummer's pagan rituals, is a Catholic festivity in celebration of Saint John the Baptist. It takes place on June 24, on Midsummer day (St John's Day). In certain French towns, a tall bonfire is built by the inhabitants in order to be lit on St John's Day. In the region and in the Southern part of , this huge bonfire is named .", "France also rejoices on June 21 for the Fête de la Musique, which became an international celebration over time.\n\nGermany", "The day of sun solstice is called in German of which a word by word translation is \"summer sun turning\"", ". On June 20, 1653, the Nuremberg town council issued the following order: \"Where experience herefore have shown, that after the old heathen use, on John's day in every year, in the country, as well in towns as villages, money and wood have been gathered by young folk, and there upon the so-called or zimmet fire kindled, and thereat winebibbing, dancing about the said fire, leaping over the same, with burning of sundry herbs and flowers, and setting of brands from the said fire in the fields", ", with burning of sundry herbs and flowers, and setting of brands from the said fire in the fields, and in many other ways all manner of superstitious work carried on — Therefore the Hon", ". Council of Nürnberg town neither can nor ought to forbear to do away with all such unbecoming superstition, paganism, and peril of fire on this coming day of St. John.\"", "Bonfires are still a custom in many areas of Germany. People gather to watch the bonfire and celebrate solstice.\n\nThe date also marks the end of harvest for spring vegetables such as asparagus (\"Spargelsilvester\") or for rhubarb.\n\nBesides many Midsummernight festivals, the Mainzer Johannisnacht commemorates the person Johannes Gutenberg in his native city since 1968.", "Greece", "According to Eastern Orthodox tradition the eve of the day of the Nativity of John the Baptist is celebrated with festivals in many towns and villages, both in the mainland and in the Greek isles. Traditionally the midsummer's celebration is called () meaning sign or oracle, and was considered a time when unmarried girls would discover their potential mates through a ritual", ". It is also customary to this day to burn the Mayday wreaths that are used to decorate the doors of the houses for the previous two months, in large communal bonfires, accompanied by music, dancing and jumping over the flames. It takes place on May 30 and May 31.", "Hungary\nOn June 21 Hungarians celebrate \"Saint Ivan's Night\" () ( being derived from the Slavic form of Johannes/John, Ivan, which may correspond to Hungarian , , ). The whole month of June was once called the Month of St. Ivan until the 19th century. Setting fires is a folklore tradition this night. Girls jumped over it, while boys watched the spectacle.", "Most significant among the customs of the summer is lighting the fire of Midsummer Night () on the day of St. John (June 24), when the sun follows the highest course, when the nights are the shortest and the days the longest. The practice of venerating Saint John the Baptist developed in the Catholic Church during the 5th century, and at this time they put his name and day on June 24", ". The summer solstice was celebrated among most peoples, so the Hungarians may have known it even before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin. Although the Arab historian Ibn Rusta speaks of the Hungarians' fire worshipping, so far there is no data that could connect it to this day. In the Middle Ages it was primarily an ecclesiastical festivity, but from the 16th century on the sources recall it as a folk custom. The most important episode of the custom is the lighting of the fire.", "The custom survived longest and in the most complete form in the northwestern part of the linguistic region, where as late as the 1930s they still lit a Midsummer Night fire. The way of arranging the participants by age and by sex has suggested the possibility that these groups sang by answering each other, but there are hardly any remnants that appear to support this possibility. People jumped over the fire after they lit it", ". People jumped over the fire after they lit it. This practice is mentioned as early as the 16th century, although at that time in connection with a wedding; still, it is called \"Midsummer Night fire\". The purpose of jumping over the fire is partly to purify, partly because they believed that those whose jump was very successful would get married during the following carnival.", "India", "The festival of São João is celebrated in the Indian state of Goa by the Catholic community. It is called San Janv in Konkani and is marked by young men jumping into water courses such as wells, rivers or ponds. The festival occurs after the arrival of the monsoons at Goa around the 5/6th June, marking the end of hot summer months. The birth of John the Baptist is marked by the greening of the land. Men traditionally wear a headrest of flowers called kopel and flowery shirts", ". Men traditionally wear a headrest of flowers called kopel and flowery shirts. Sometimes an overlay palm \"skirt\" is worn to represent the natural and rough clothes that the saint wore.", "Iran\nTiregān () is one of ancient Iranian festival coinciding with the mid summer festivals, another midsummer festival is Gilaki Bal Nowrooz which is held in the north of Iran.\n\nBal Nowrooz, meaning 'the fire of Nowrooz', is the name of a festival celebrated on the first day of 'Our Nowrooz' and this is the first day of Daylaman New Year.", "Lighting the fire, thanking God for his blessings and crops, and praying for the peace of the souls of the dead were parts of this ancient Iranian tradition. This ceremony coincides with harvesting in Gilan.\n\nOn the first day of 'Our Nowrooz', the newly wed couples who have married in the past year, are given white horses to ride up to the foot of the mountain. As the brides and grooms reach the mountain foot, a yellow cow is set free, as a sign of happiness and abundance for the new couples.", "Ireland\nThe feast of Midsummer Night was held in honor of Áine, an Irish goddess of summer, wealth and sovereignty.", "Many towns and cities have 'Midsummer Carnivals' with fairs, concerts and fireworks either on or on the weekend nearest to Midsummer. In rural spots throughout the west, northwest, southwest and County Cork, bonfires are lit on hilltops on Saint John's Eve. This tradition harks back to pagan times. The Irish Environmental Protection Agency, after much initial upset in the west of Ireland, has an exemption for the burning of fires outdoors during midsummer night.", "Italy", "In Italy, St John's (San Giovanni's) Day has been celebrated in Florence since medieval times with festivals sometimes lasting three days from 21 to 24 June. In medieval Florence, midsummer celebrations were \"an occasion for dramatic representations of the Baptist's life and death\" and \"the feast day was marked by processions, banquets, and plays, culminating in a fireworks show that the entire city attended", ".\" The 15th-century diarist Goro Dati described the celebration of Saint John's Day in Florence as being one in which guilds prepared their workshops with fine displays, and one in which solemn church processions took place, with men dressed in the costumes of Christian saints and angels.", "Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of Florence, Genoa and Turin where fireworks displays take place during the celebration. In Turin, Saint John's festival has been practiced since medieval times, with people from the surrounding areas coming to dance around the bonfire in the central square.\n\nItalian neopagans usually celebrate Midsummer with rites, dances and festivals all around the country.", "Jersey\nIn Jersey most of the former midsummer customs are largely ignored nowadays. The custom known as Les cônes d'la Saint Jean was observed as late as the 1970s – horns or conch shells were blown. Ringing the bachîn (a large brass preserving pan) at midsummer to frighten away evil spirits survived as a custom on some farms until the 1940s and has been revived as a folk performance in the 21st century.\n\nLatvia", "In Latvia, Midsummer is called Jāņi (plural of Latvian name Jānis, which is equivalent to John) or Līgo svētki (svētki = festival). It is a national holiday celebrated from the night of June 23 through June 24 on a large scale by almost everyone in Latvia and by people of Latvian origin abroad", ". Celebrations consist of a lot of traditional and mostly pagan elements – eating, Jāņi cheese, drinking beer, baking pīrāgi, singing Latvian folk songs dedicated to Jāņi, burning bonfires to keep light all through the night and jumping over it, wearing wreaths of flowers (for women) and oak leaves (for men) together with modern commercial products and ideas", ". There are tens and hundreds of different beliefs and traditions all over Latvia on what should be done on that day for good harvest, for predicting the future, for attracting your future spouse etc. People decorate their houses and lands with birch or sometimes oak branches and flowers as well as leaves, especially fern. In rural areas livestock is also decorated. In modern days small oak branches with leaves are attached to the cars in Latvia during the festivity", ". Jāņi has been a strong aspect of Latvian culture throughout history, originating in pre-Christian Latvia as an ancient fertility cult.", "In the western town of Kuldīga, revellers mark the holiday by running naked through the town at three in the morning. The event has taken place since 2000. Runners are rewarded with beer, and police are on hand in case any \"puritans\" attempt to interfere with the naked run.\n\nAccording to a 2023 survey, Jāņi is the most celebrated festival in Latvia, outranking even Christmas.\n\nLithuania", "Midsummer is commonly called John's Day (Joninės) in Lithuania, and is also known as Saint Jonas' Festival, Rasos (Dew Holiday), Kupolė, Midsummer Day and St. John's Day. It is celebrated in the night from 23 June to 24 June and on 24 June", ". John's Day. It is celebrated in the night from 23 June to 24 June and on 24 June. The traditions include singing songs and dancing until the sun sets, telling tales, searching to find the magic fern blossom at midnight, jumping over bonfires, greeting the rising midsummer sun and washing the face with a morning dew, young girls float flower wreaths on the water of river or lake. These are customs brought from pagan culture and beliefs. The latter Christian tradition is based on the reverence of Saint John", ". The latter Christian tradition is based on the reverence of Saint John. Lithuanians with the names Jonas, Jonė, Janina receive many greetings from their family, relatives and friends.", "Norway\n\nAs in Denmark, Sankthansaften is celebrated on June 23 in Norway. The day is also called Jonsok, which means \"John's wake\", important in Roman Catholic times with pilgrimages to churches and holy springs. For instance, up until 1840, there was a pilgrimage to the Røldal Stave Church in Røldal (southwest Norway) whose crucifix was said to have healing powers. Today, however, Sankthansaften is largely regarded as a secular or even pre-Christian event.", "Midsummer day, Sankthansdagen, June 24, was a public holiday in Norway until 1770. In Vestfold county it was re-introduced in the early 20th century, until the 1990s. The city of Sandefjord kept up the tradition. In the city of Tønsberg, the holiday was turned into a flexible day off for municipal workers in 2011 and abolished completely in 2014. Labor unions sued to get the holiday - or a flexible day off - re-introduced, but lost the case in 2016.", "In most places, the main event is the burning of a large bonfire. In Western Norway, a custom of arranging mock weddings, both between adults and between children, is still kept alive. The wedding was meant to symbolize the blossoming of new life. Such weddings are known to have taken place in the 1800s, but the custom is believed to be older.\n\nIt is also said that, if a girl puts flowers under her pillow that night, she will dream of her future husband.", "Poland", "Especially in northern Poland – the Eastern Pomeranian and Kashubian regions – midsummer is celebrated on 21 or 22 June. Girls throw wreaths made of flowers and candles into the Baltic Sea, and into lakes or rivers. The midsummer day celebration starts at about 8:00 p.m. and lasts all night until sunrise. People celebrate this special day every year and call it Noc Świętojańska which means St. John's Night", ". John's Night. On that day in big Polish cities (like Warsaw and Kraków) there are many organized events, the most popular event being in Kraków, called the Wianki, which means wreaths. In many parts of Poland the Summer solstice is celebrated as Kupala Night. Also, an important tradition is looking in the forest for the flower of the fern (as fern does not flower, this means something impossible to find without an interference of magic). Jumping above bonfires used to be a widely spread custom too.", "Portugal", "In Portugal, Midsummer festivities are included in what is known today as Santos Populares (Popular Saints celebrations), celebrating the three main saints of June: St. Anthony (13 June), celebrated in Lisbon, Estarreja, Vila Nova de Famalicão, and Vila Real among others; São João (St. John's Day, 24 June) in Porto, Braga, Figueira da Foz, Vila do Conde, Almada and many others; St", ". John's Day, 24 June) in Porto, Braga, Figueira da Foz, Vila do Conde, Almada and many others; St. Peter's day (29 June) in Seixal, Sintra, Póvoa de Varzim, Barcelos, and various other locations, mostly associated with fishermen.", "In anticipation of Popular Saints, streets are decorated with balloons and arches made out of brightly coloured paper, people dance in the city's squares, and Cascatas (makeshift altars), dedicated to the saints, are put up to show each neighbourhood's devotion and pride. These holidays are days of festivities with good food and refreshments", ". These holidays are days of festivities with good food and refreshments. Typical dishes include Caldo verde (Portuguese cabbage and potato soup), sardinhas assadas na brasa (open grilled sardines), boroa (oven baked bread), funfair food (mostly cotton candy and farturas, a fried batter with sugar and cinnamon) and drink (mostly) red wine and água-pé (grape juice with a small percentage of alcohol).", "Around the day of the festivities, there is also group folk dancing, traditional music, including Cantar à desgarrada (musical rhyming duels), and the inescapable firework displays. Until fire regulations brought about by some serious forest fires discouraged them, bonfires and hot air balloons were lit, around which all these events used to happen", ". Revellers would try to jump over the bonfire, mostly young men trying to show off to the young women, and older men trying to convince themselves that they are still young. Other typical activities include trying to clime a pau-de-sebo (greased pole) to claim a reward (frequently a cod or ham) and Rusgas which are a mixture of running, singing, dancing and tomfoolery, mostly by youthful groups. Funfair attractions have also become a mainstay of festivities.", "In Lisbon, in Avenida da Liberdade, there are the Marchas, a parade of folklore and costumes of the inhabitants from the city's different traditional quarters, with hundreds of singers and dancers and a vast audience applauding their favourite participants. As St", ". As St. Anthony is the matchmaker saint, it is still the tradition in Lisbon to celebrate multiple marriages (200 to 300) and according to tradition, one can declare oneself to someone one fancies in the heat of the festivities by offering the loved one a manjerico (a flower-pot with a sweet basil plant) and a love poem.", "In Porto and Braga St. John's is celebrated in the streets, where many normally frowned-upon things are permitted. People carry a plant of flowering leek (alho-porro, which has a pungent smell) with them, and run it over the face of other people. Starting in 1963, people have also carried a small plastic hammer which they use to bang their neighbors over the head. The tradition is that St. John was a scalliwag in his youth and the people hit him on the head with the garlic saying \"return to the right path\"", ".", "In traditional fisher towns, festivities take place on Saint Peter's Day, Póvoa do Varzim, which became a municipal holiday in the 1960s. Póvoa de Varzim's Saint Peter Festival keeps traditional \"Santos Populares\" elements, such as the bonfire, street celebrations, and include the rusgas, in which inhabitants of one quarter (bairro) parade to other neighbourhoods in the evening of June 28. Women are dressed as tricana (women dressed in a traditional costume with a sensual walking style)", ". Women are dressed as tricana (women dressed in a traditional costume with a sensual walking style). Each neighbourhood has its own festival and colors for identification.", "Romania", "In Romania, the Midsummer celebrations are named Drăgaica or Sânziene. Drăgaica is celebrated by a dance performed by a group of 5–7 young girls of which one is chosen as the Drăgaica. She is dressed as a bride, with wheat wreath, while the other girls, dressed in white wear a veil with bedstraw flowers. Midsummer fairs are held in many Romanian villages and cities. The oldest and best known midsummer fair in Romania is the Drăgaica fair, held in Buzău between 10 and 24 June every year", ". There are many superstitions related to this day, particularly those involving marriage or death. The term Sânziene originates in the Latin \"Sancta Diana\", and superstitions relating to this day are mainly romantic in nature, referring to young girls and their marriage prospects.", "Russia", "Many rites of this holiday are connected with water, fertility and autopurification. The girls, for example, would float their flower garlands on the water of rivers and tell their fortunes from their movement. Lads and girls would jump over the flames of bonfires. Nude bathing is likewise practiced. Nights on the Eve of Ivan Kupala inspired Modest Mussorgsky to create his Night on Bald Mountain. A prominent Ivan Kupala night scene is featured in Andrei Tarkovsky's film Andrei Rublev", ". A prominent Ivan Kupala night scene is featured in Andrei Tarkovsky's film Andrei Rublev. Also, in Saint Petersburg the White Nights Festival is also predominantly connected with water.", "The Yakut people of the Sakha Republic celebrate a solstitial ceremony, Yhyakh, involving tethering a horse to a pole and circle dancing around it. Betting on Reindeer or horse racing would often take place afterward. The traditions are derived from Tengriism, the ancient sun religion of the region which has since been driven out by the Russian empire, Russian Orthodox Church and finally the Communist Party. The traditions have since been encouraged.\n\nSerbia", "Ivanjdan is celebrated on July 7, according to the Serbian Orthodox Church. Saint John (Sveti Jovan) is known by the name Igritelj (dancer) because it is thought the sun is dancing on this day. Among traditions are that girls watch the sunrise through their wreath, to become red as the sun, towards the evening in the heights, Ivanjske vatre (kresovi, bonfire) are lit, and dancing and singing takes place", ". It is a tradition for people to become godfathers and blood brothers on this day, as John is a symbol of character and rectitude.", "Slovenia\nIn Slovenia, Kresna noč (Midsummer Night) used to be celebrated on June 21, but the celebration was later moved to May 1, International Workers Day. Kresna noč used to be connected with the Slavic god Kresnik, who was later replaced by St. John the Baptist.\n\nSpain", "The traditional midsummer party in Spain is the celebration in honour of Saint John the Baptist (Spanish: San Juan, Catalan: Sant Joan, Galician: San Xoán, Asturian: San Xuan) and takes place in the evening of June 23 Saint John's Eve. It is common in many areas of the country. In some areas, bonfires are traditionally named tequeos, which means people of the dance. Parties are organized usually at beaches, where bonfires are lit and a set of firework displays usually take place", ". On the Mediterranean coast, especially in Catalonia and Valencia, special foods such as coca de Sant Joan are also served on this occasion. In Alicante, since 1928, the bonfires of Saint John were developed into elaborate constructions inspired by the Falles, or Fallas, of Valencia.", "Midsummer tradition is also especially strong in northern areas of the country, such as Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and the Basque Country, where one can easily identify the rituals that reveal the pagan beliefs widespread throughout Europe in Neolithic times", ". These beliefs pivot on three basic ideas: the importance of medicinal plants, especially in relation to health, youth and beauty; the protective character of fire to ward men off evil spirits and witches and, finally, the purifying, miraculous effects of water. What follows is a summary of Galician traditions surrounding St. John's festival in relation to these three elements.", "Medicinal plants: Traditionally, women collect several species of plants on St. John's eve. These vary from area to area, but mostly include fennel, different species of fern (e.g. Dryopteris filix-mas, Osmunda regalis), rue (herb of grace, Ruta graveolens), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dog rose (Rosa canina), lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora), St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), mallows (Malva sylvestris), laburnum, foxgloves (Digitalis purpurea) and elder (Sambucus) flowers", ". In some areas, these are arranged in a bunch and hung in doorways. In most others, they are dipped in a vessel with water and left outside exposed to the dew of night until the following morning (o dia de San Xoan – St. John's day), when people use the resulting flower water to wash their faces.", "Water: Tradition holds it that the medicinal plants mentioned above are most effective when dipped in water collected from seven different springs. Also, on some beaches, it was traditional for women who wanted to be fertile to bathe in the sea until they were washed by 9 waves.", "Fire: Bonfires are lit, usually around midnight both on beaches and inland, so much so that one usually cannot tell the smoke from the mist common in this Atlantic corner of Iberia at this time of the year, and it smells burnt everywhere. Occasionally, a dummy is placed at the top, representing a witch or the devil. Young and old gather around them and feast mostly on pilchards, potatoes boiled in their skins and maize bread", ". When it is relatively safe to jump over the bonfire, it is done three times (although it could also be nine or any odd number) for good luck at the cry of \"meigas fora\" (witches off!).It is also common to drink Queimada, a beverage resulting from setting alight Galician grappa mixed with sugar, coffee beans and pieces of fruit, which is prepared while chanting an incantation against evil spirits.", "Sweden", "Raising and dancing around a maypole (majstång or midsommarstång) is an activity that attracts families and many others. Greenery placed over houses and barns was supposed to bring good fortune and health to people and livestock; this old tradition of decorating with greens continues, though most people no longer take it seriously. To decorate with greens was called att maja (to may) and may be the origin of the word majstång, maja coming originally from the month May, or vice versa", ". Other researchers say the term came from German merchants who raised the maypole in June because the Swedish climate made it impossible to find the necessary greens and flowers in May, and continued to call it a maypole.", "In earlier times, small spires wrapped in greens were erected; this probably predates the maypole tradition, which is believed by many to have come from the continent in the Middle Ages.\n\nIn Sweden Midsummer's day is a Saturday between June 20 and June 26, but as is usual in Sweden the actual celebration is on the eve, i.e. a Friday between June 19 and June 25. Midsummer's Eve is a de facto public holiday in Sweden with offices and many shops closed.", "Like in Norway and Finland, it is believed that if a girl picks 7 different flowers in silence of the midsummer night and puts them underneath her pillow, she will dream of her future husband.\n\nAnother tradition on a Swedish Midsummer is to end it with a skinny dip at night. It's not mandatory to be naked, but many will be completely naked accompanied with an old or new partner after a couple of the famous schnapps.\n\nUkraine", "Ivan Kupala was the old Kyiv Rus' name for John the Baptist. Up to the present day, the Rus' Midsummer Night (or Ivan's Day) is known as one of the most expressive Kyiv Rus' folk and pagan holidays. Ivan Kupala Day is the day of summer solstice celebrated in Ukraine on June 23 NS and July 6 OS. Before the day was named for St John, this was a celebration of a pagan fertility rite involving bathing in water", ". Since St John the Baptist's birth is celebrated at this time, some elements of Kupala's pagan origins were seen to be roughly synonymous with Christian meanings, most notably the parallel of Baptism as cleansing from sins, so the holiday in a Christian-modified form has been accepted into the Orthodox Christian calendar. In modern times, due to increasing secularization, it is possible to find Kupala being celebrated in a manner closer to its pagan roots.", "United Kingdom\n\nIn Great Britain from the 13th century, Midsummer was celebrated on Midsummer Eve (St. John's Eve, June 23) and St. Peter's Eve (June 28) with the lighting of bonfires, feasting, and merrymaking.\n\nEngland", "In late 14th-century England, John Mirk of Lilleshall Abbey, Shropshire, gives the following description: \"At first, men and women came to church with candles and other lights and prayed all night long. In the process of time, however, men left such devotion and used songs and dances and fell into lechery and gluttony turning the good, holy devotion into sin", ".\" The church fathers decided to put a stop to these practices and ordained that people should fast on the evening before, and thus turned waking into fasting.", "Mirk adds that at the time of his writing, \"...in worship of St John the Baptist, men stay up at night and make three kinds of fires: one is of clean bones and no wood and is called a \"bonnefyre\"; another is of clean wood and no bones, and is called a wakefyre, because men stay awake by it all night; and the third is made of both bones and wood and is called, \"St. John's fire\" (Festial 182)", ". John's fire\" (Festial 182).\" These traditions largely ended after the Reformation, but persisted in rural areas up until the 19th century before petering out.", "Other Midsummer festivities had uneasy relations with the Reformed establishment. The Chester Midsummer Watch Parade, begun in 1498, was held at every Summer Solstice in years when the Chester Mystery Plays were not performed. Despite the cancellation of the plays in 1575, the parade continued; in 1599, however, the Lord Mayor ordered that the parades be banned and the costumes destroyed. The parade was permanently banned in 1675.", "Traditional Midsummer bonfires are still lit on some high hills in Cornwall (see Carn Brea and Castle an Dinas on Castle Downs). This tradition was revived by the Old Cornwall Society in the early 20th century. Bonfires in Cornwall were once common as part of , which is now celebrated at Penzance, Cornwall. This week long festival normally starts on the Friday nearest St John's Day. lasts several days and culminates in Mazey Day. This is a revival of the Feast of St John () with fireworks and bonfires.", "In England, Midsummer Day (24 June) is traditionally one of the quarter days.", "Scotland", "Midsummer festivals are celebrated throughout Scotland, notably in the Scottish Borders where Peebles holds its Beltane Week. The Eve of St. John has special magical significance and was used by Sir Walter Scott as the title, and theme, for a pseudo-ballad poem", ". He invented a legend in which the lady of Smailholm Tower, near Kelso, keeps vigil by the midnight fires three nights in a row (see above) and is visited by her lover; but when her husband returns from battle, she learns he slew that lover on the first night, and she has been entertained by a very physical ghost.", "Wales", "In Wales it is called , or (St John's of Midsummer) to distinguish it from (St John's of Midwinter, the feast of John the Evangelist). Great agricultural fairs used to be held at this time, along with merriment and dancing. A bonfire was also kept this night. With the advent of non-conformist beliefs on the Welsh socio-political culture, this (among so many other similar festivals) suffered greatly, and its observance finally died out in south-east Wales by the end of the 19th century", ". However, since 1977, a folk-dance revival started in Cardiff, and is held now annually on this feast day", "United States\n\nMidsummer celebrations held throughout the United States are largely derived from the cultures of immigrants who arrived from various European nations since the 19th century. With the rise of earth-centered spirituality, many, including Unitarian Universalists, celebrate the summer solstice as a religious holiday.", "Alaska\nAs the state of Alaska, northernmost state in the nation, straddles the Arctic Circle, midsummer is a time when most of the state is in daylight or civil twilight the entire day. The Midnight Sun Game is an annual tradition in the city of Fairbanks, in which a regulation game of baseball is played at 10:30 p.m. local time, through the midnight hour, with no artificial lighting.", "California\nSince 1974, Santa Barbara has hosted an annual Summer Solstice celebration, typically on the weekend of or the weekend after the actual solstice. It includes a festival and parade.\n\nIn Santa Clara County, the Swedish American Patriotic League has held a Midsummer celebration at Sveadal for more than 120 years. It includes a parade, decorating and raising a Maypole, dancing and other activities.\n\nIllinois", "Illinois\n\nIn the Chicago area, Midsummer is celebrated in several locations. The historically Swedish neighborhood of Andersonville is prominent among them. A stretch of Clark street is sectioned off for three days and there are vendors, live music, and a raising of the maypole. Geneva hosts a Swedish Day () festival on the third Sunday of June. The event, featuring maypole-raising, dancing, and presentation of an authentic Viking ship, dates back to 1911.\n\nKansas", "Lindsborg, Kansas, commonly called Little Sweden, hosts an annual Midsummer celebration in honor of its 1869 Swedish founding. The festival includes a 5K Run, free swim at the local pool, Kubb tournament, Swedish dancing, craft demonstrations, and food vendors, including the Lindsborg Swedish Folkdancers serving Viking-on-a-Stick. The town is also the home of the Swedish Pavilion historic site, built as an international exposition building for the 1904 St", ". Louis World's Fair and features a maypole year-round.", "Maine", "New Sweden, Maine. Ever since 51 Swedish immigrants came to Aroostook County, Maine in 1870, supported by a Legislative Act authored by William W. Thomas Jr., who had served as American Consul in Sweden under Abraham Lincoln, residents of the town have celebrated Midsommar. Celebrations are usually held the weekend before the holiday in Sweden and merge Swedish traditions such as the decorating and raising of the Midsommar pole, folk dancing, and feasting alongside American traditions. Thomas Jr", ". Thomas Jr. selected this region for a Swedish colony, in part, because the landscape, flora and fauna are similar to that of Dalarna County, Sweden.", "Michigan\nIn Kaleva, is celebrated annually on or near the Summer Solstice by Gathering at the Village Roadside Park. Traditionally (Finnish Oven Baked Pancake) and strawberry shortcake is enjoyed followed by a bonfire or . was founded in 1900 by Finnish immigrants.", "Oregon\nThe Astoria Scandinavian Midsummer Festival has been a tradition on the North Coast of Oregon for over forty years. The Festival takes place typically on the 3rd full weekend of June. The festival embodies the rich cultural heritage that was transplanted to the Astoria, Oregon, region by emigrating Scandinavians. In the Pacific Northwest they found the same bounteous seas and forests as in their native lands and the demand for their skills at managing them.", "New York", "The NYC Swedish Midsummer celebrations in Battery Park, New York City, attracts some 3,000–5,000 people annually, which makes it one of the largest celebrations after the ones held in Leksand and at the Skansen Park in Stockholm. Sweden Day, a Midsummer celebration which also honors Swedish heritage and history, has been held annually on the sound in Throgs Neck in New York since 1941", ". Swedish Midsummer is also celebrated in other places with large Swedish and Scandinavian populations, such as Rockford, Illinois, Chicago, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Lindsborg, Kansas. The Swedish \"language village\" (summer camp) , run by Concordia College in Minnesota, also celebrates Midsummer.", "Washington\nThe Seattle neighborhood of Fremont puts on a large Summer Solstice Parade and Pageant, which for many years has controversially included painted naked cyclists. In St. Edwards Park in Kenmore, the Skandia Folkdance Society hosts , which includes a Scandinavian solstice pole.", "Wyoming\nA solstitial celebration is held on Casper Mountain at Crimson Dawn park. Crimson Dawn is known in the area for the great stories of mythical creatures and people that live on Casper Mountain. The celebration is attended by many people from the community, and from around the country. A large bonfire is held and all are invited to throw a handful of red soil into the fire in hopes that they get their wish granted.\n\nAnalogous observances\n\nNeopaganism", "Analogous observances\n\nNeopaganism\n\nAs forms of Neopaganism have widely different origins, observances can vary considerably despite the shared name. Some celebrate in a manner as close as possible to how they believe ancient pagans observed the summer solstice, while others observe the holiday with rituals culled from numerous other unrelated sources.", "At the ancient monument of Stonehenge, in the English county of Wiltshire, many people gather to observe the sunrise alignment with the stones on the summer solstice.\n\nIn Neo-druidism, the term Alban Hefin is used for the summer solstice, as coined by the 18th century Welsh Romantic author and prolific literary forger Iolo Morganwg.", "Germanic Neopaganism", "Germanic neopagans call their summer solstice festival Litha, which is part of the reconstructed Germanic calendar used by some Germanic Neopagans and takes its name from Bede's that provides Anglo-Saxon names for the two months roughly corresponding to June and July as līða, distinguished in Bosworth and Toller's dictionary as sē ǽrra líða (\"the earlier Litha\") and sē æftera līða (\"the later Litha\") with an intercalary third month of līða on leap years or Triliði (\"three-Litha\" years)", ". In modern times, Litha is celebrated by neopagans who emphasize what they believe to be the reconstruction of Anglo-Saxon Germanic paganism.", "See also\n\n Winter solstice\n Saint John's Eve\n Sun Dance\n Christianisation of saints and feasts\n Midnight sun\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links", "External links\n\n The Nativity of John the Baptist: The Midsummer Nativity\n De mensibus Anglorum ChXV – Bede's Anglo-Saxon Calendar (in Latin)\n Midsummer's Festival on Hill of Tara, Ireland\n Midsummer – 'WIANKI' in Krakow, Poland\n Traditional Summer Solstice Celebration in Turaida, Latvia – 360° panorama, photos and live sound / Virtual Latvia \n Celebrating Kupallie, a pagan midsummer holiday – Belarus photo digest Belarus Digest\nThomas M Landy, \"Feasts\", Catholics & Cultures updated May 12, 2016", "Articles containing video clips\nEuropean culture\nInternational observances\nJohn the Baptist\nJune observances\nChristian festivals and holy days\nSaints' days\nModern pagan holidays\nFinnish flag flying days\nPublic holidays in Finland\nSwedish flag flying days\nPublic holidays in Sweden\nPublic holidays in the United Kingdom\nQuarter days\nSummer holidays\nCulture of Altbayern\nSummer solstice" ]

[ "John Patrick McEnroe Jr. (born February 16, 1959) is an American former professional tennis player. He was known for his shot-making and volleying skills, his rivalries with Björn Borg and Jimmy Connors, and his confrontational on-court behavior, which frequently landed him in trouble with umpires and tennis authorities.", "McEnroe is the only male player since the inception of the ATP rankings in 1973 to simultaneously hold the world No. 1 rankings in both singles and doubles. McEnroe finished his career with 77 singles titles on the ATP Tour and 78 doubles titles; this remains the highest men's combined total of the Open Era. He is the only male player to win more than 70 titles in both singles and doubles", ". He is the only male player to win more than 70 titles in both singles and doubles. This tally includes seven major singles titles (four at the US Open and three at Wimbledon), nine Grand Slam men's doubles titles (five at Wimbledon and four at the US Open), and one Grand Slam mixed doubles title (at the French Open). His singles match record of 82–3 in 1984 remains the best single-season win rate of the Open Era.", "McEnroe also excelled at the year-end tournaments, winning eight singles and seven doubles titles, both of which are records. Three of his winning singles year-end championships were at the Masters Grand Prix (the ATP year-end event) and five were at the World Championship Tennis (WCT) Finals, an event that ended in 1989. He was named the ATP Player of the Year and the ITF World Champion three times each: in 1981, 1983 and 1984.", "McEnroe contributed to five Davis Cup titles for the U.S. and later was team captain. He has stayed active in retirement, often competing in senior events on the ATP Champions Tour, where he has won 25 titles. He also works as a television commentator during the majors.", "Early life\nMcEnroe was born in Wiesbaden, West Germany, to American parents, John Patrick McEnroe and his wife Kay, née Tresham. His father, the son of Irish immigrants, was at the time stationed with the United States Air Force (USAF), once revealing during a press conference in Belgium that his son 'John was made in Belgium but born in Germany.' McEnroe's Irish paternal grandfather was from Ballyjamesduff in County Cavan and his grandmother was from County Westmeath.", "When John was about nine months old his father was transferred back to the US, and the family relocated to Stewart Air Force Base in Newburgh, New York. After leaving the service, McEnroe's father worked as an advertising agent while attending Fordham Law School at night. In 1961 the family moved to New York City, settling in Flushing, Queens. Two years later it shifted to the nearby neighborhood of Douglaston", ". Two years later it shifted to the nearby neighborhood of Douglaston. John has two younger brothers: Mark (born 1964) and former professional tennis player Patrick (born 1966).", "McEnroe began playing tennis at the Douglaston Club when he was eight. At nine, his parents enrolled him in the Eastern Lawn Tennis Association, followed by competing in regional tournaments, then national juniors tournaments. By twelve he was ranked seventh in his age group, and joined the Port Washington Tennis Academy on Long Island, New York. McEnroe attended Trinity School in Manhattan, graduating in 1977.", "Career\nMcEnroe began to make his mark as an 18-year-old amateur in 1977. He won both the Junior singles and mixed doubles titles at the French Open, partnering with Mary Carillo in the latter. He later progressed through the singles qualifying tournament at Wimbledon and into the main draw, where he lost in the semifinals to Jimmy Connors in four sets. It was the best performance by a male qualifier at any major, and a record performance by an amateur in the Open era.", "After Wimbledon, McEnroe was recruited by coach Dick Gould and entered Stanford University. In 1978 he won the NCAA singles title, and he led the Stanford team to an NCAA championship. Later that year he joined the ATP tour and signed his first professional endorsement deal, with Sergio Tacchini. He again advanced to the semifinals at a major, this time the US Open, losing again to Connors", ". He again advanced to the semifinals at a major, this time the US Open, losing again to Connors. In all, McEnroe won five titles in 1978, including his first Masters Grand Prix, beating Arthur Ashe in straight sets, as well as Grand Prix events at Stockholm and Wembley. His late-season success allowed him to finish as the year-end world No. 4 player.", "1979–83", "In 1979, McEnroe and partner Peter Fleming won the Wimbledon men's doubles title, followed shortly by a win in the US Open doubles. That same week, McEnroe won the singles US Open title, his first major singles title. He defeated his friend Vitas Gerulaitis in straight-sets in the final to become the youngest male winner of the singles title at the US Open since Pancho Gonzales, who was also 20 in 1948. McEnroe also won the prestigious season-ending WCT Finals, beating Björn Borg in four sets", ". McEnroe also won the prestigious season-ending WCT Finals, beating Björn Borg in four sets. McEnroe won 10 singles and 17 doubles titles that year for a total of 27 titles, an Open Era record, finishing at No. 3 in the year-end world singles rankings.", "At Wimbledon in 1980, McEnroe reached the singles final for the first time, where he faced Björn Borg, who was seeking his fifth consecutive Wimbledon title. At the start of the final, McEnroe was booed by the crowd as he entered Centre Court, following heated exchanges with officials during his semifinal victory over Jimmy Connors. In a fourth-set tiebreaker that lasted 20 minutes, McEnroe saved five championship points en route to an 18–16 win", ". McEnroe, however, could not break Borg's serve in the fifth set, which he dropped 8–6. This match was called the best Wimbledon final by ESPN's countdown show \"Who's Number One?\"", "Two months later McEnroe bested Borg in the five-set final of the 1980 US Open. He was a finalist at the season-ending WCT Finals, and finished as the world No. 2 ranked player behind Borg.", "McEnroe remained controversial when he returned to Wimbledon in 1981. Following his first-round match against Tom Gullikson, McEnroe was fined U.S. $1,500 and came close to being ejected after he called umpire Ted James \"the pits of the world\" and then swore at tournament referee Fred Hoyles. He also made famous the phrase \"you cannot be serious\", which years later became the title of his autobiography, by shouting it after several umpires' calls during his matches", ". This behavior was in sharp contrast to that of his then-rival Borg, who was painted by the press as an unflappable \"Ice Man.\" However, in matches against Borg, McEnroe notably never lost his temper.", "After the controversy and criticism from the British press (earning him the nicknamed \"SuperBrat\" from Ian Barnes of the Daily Express), McEnroe again reached the Wimbledon men's singles final against Borg. McEnroe prevailed in four sets, ending the Swede's run of 41 consecutive match victories at the All England Club", ". American TV commentator Bud Collins quipped after the match (which took place on the United States' Independence Day), paraphrasing \"Yankee Doodle\", \"Stick a feather in his cap and call it 'McEnroe-ni'!\".", "In response to McEnroe's on-court outbursts during the Championships, the All England Club declined to accord McEnroe honorary club membership, an honor normally given to singles champions after their first victory. McEnroe responded by not attending the traditional champions' dinner that evening. The honor was eventually granted McEnroe as a repeat champion.", "Borg and McEnroe had their final confrontation in the final of the 1981 US Open. McEnroe won in four sets, becoming the first man since the 1920s to win three consecutive US Open singles titles. Borg never played another major. McEnroe also won his second WCT Final, beating Johan Kriek in straight sets and finished the year as the number one ranked player. He was named the Associated Press Athlete of the Year, the second men's tennis player to receive the honor after Don Budge in the 1930s.", "McEnroe lost only one set going into the final of Wimbledon 1982. However, he lost to Connors in the final, despite being a tiebreak from victory at the end of the fourth set. He then fell in the semifinals at the US Open and was runner-up at the WCT Finals. He was able to retain the ATP's world No", ". He was able to retain the ATP's world No. 1 ranking based on points at the end of the year, having won significant events at Philadelphia, Wembley, and Tokyo; but due to Connors's victories at the two most important events of the year (Wimbledon and the US Open), Connors was named the Player of the Year by the ATP and most other tennis authorities.", "In 1983, McEnroe reached his fourth consecutive Wimbledon final, dropping only one set en route, and swept aside the unheralded Chris Lewis in straight sets for his second Wimbledon crown. At the US Open, he was defeated in the fourth round, his earliest exit since 1977. He then played at the Australian Open for the first time, reaching the semifinals before being defeated in four sets by Mats Wilander. He made the WCT Final for the third time and beat Ivan Lendl in an epic five-setter", ". He made the WCT Final for the third time and beat Ivan Lendl in an epic five-setter. He took the Masters Grand Prix title for the second time, again beating Lendl in straight sets. He also won prized events at Philadelphia, Forest Hills, and Wembley, enabling him to capture the year-end No. 1 ranking once again.", "1984: best season\n\nMcEnroe's best season came in 1984, as he compiled an 82–3 match record that remains the highest single-season win rate of the Open Era. He won a career-best 13 singles tournaments, including Wimbledon and the US Open, capturing the year-end No. 1 ranking. He also played on the winning US World Team Cup and runner-up Davis Cup teams.", "McEnroe began the year with a 42-match win streak, winning his first six tournaments and reaching his first French Open final, where his opponent was Ivan Lendl. McEnroe won the first two sets, but Lendl's adjustments of using more topspin lobs and cross-court backhand passing shots, as well as McEnroe's fatigue and temperamental outbursts, resulted in a demoralizing five-set loss. In his autobiography, McEnroe described this as his most bitter defeat and implied that he's never quite gotten over it.", "He rebounded at Wimbledon, losing just one set en route to his third Wimbledon singles title. This included a straight-set rout over Jimmy Connors in the final. He then won his fourth US Open title, defeating Lendl in straight sets in the final, after defeating Connors in a five-set semifinal. He also won his fourth WCT Final, defeating Connors in straight sets, and took his third Masters Grand Prix, beating Lendl in straight sets", ". His combined record against the number 2 and 3 ranked players for the year, Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl, respectively, was 11–1, only losing to Lendl at the French Open and going undefeated versus Connors in five matches.", "The year did not end without controversy. While playing and winning the tournament in Stockholm, McEnroe had an on-court outburst that soon became notorious. After questioning a call made by the chair umpire, McEnroe demanded, \"Answer my question! The question, jerk!\" McEnroe then slammed his racquet into a juice cart beside the court in anger, and the stadium crowd booed him. He was suspended for 3 weeks (21 days) for exceeding a $7,500 limit on fines that had been levied due to his behavior", ". As a result, he was disqualified from competing in the following week's significant Wembley (London) Indoor tournament, at which he was supposed to be the number one seed, with Connors and Lendl (the eventual winner) as the second and third seeds. During his suspension, he injured his left wrist in practice, causing him to withdraw from the Australian Open.", "Taking time off", "In 1985, having reached the semifinals at the French Open, McEnroe was beaten in straight sets by Kevin Curren in the quarterfinals of Wimbledon. He reached his last major singles final at the US Open; this time, he was beaten in straight sets by Lendl. He did not advance past the quarterfinals at the WCT Finals or the Masters Grand Prix", ". He did not advance past the quarterfinals at the WCT Finals or the Masters Grand Prix. He did win important events at Philadelphia (his fourth straight there), Canada (second straight) and Stockholm (second straight and fourth overall) and finished the year as the world No. 2 ranked player.", "In 1986, McEnroe took a six-month break from the tour. It was during this sabbatical that on August 1, 1986, he married actress Tatum O'Neal, with whom he had already had a son, Kevin (1986). They had two more children, Sean (1987) and Emily (1991), before divorcing in 1994. When McEnroe returned to the tour later in 1986, he won three ATP tournaments, but in 1987 he failed to win a title for the first time since turning professional", ". He took another seven-month break from the game following the US Open, where he was suspended for two months and fined US$17,500 () for misconduct and verbal abuse.", "World No. 1 ranking\nMcEnroe became the top-ranked singles player in the world on March 3, 1980. He was the top-ranked player on 14 separate occasions between 1980 and 1985 and finished the year ranked No. 1 four straight years from 1981 through 1984. He spent a total of 170 weeks at the top of the rankings.\n\nSuccess in doubles", "McEnroe was also a highly successful doubles player, ranking at number 1 in doubles for a combined 270 weeks and winning ten Grand Slam doubles titles, his first was the 1977 French Open mixed doubles title with childhood friend Mary Carillo. McEnroe's partnership with Peter Fleming saw them win 57 doubles titles, including seven Grand Slams (four at Wimbledon and three at the US Open)", ". Fleming was modest about his own contribution to the partnership, once saying that \"the best doubles partnership in the world is McEnroe and anybody.\"", "McEnroe's success led to some writing that he might have been \"the greatest doubles player of all time\" and \"possibly the greatest team player never to have played a team sport.\" McEnroe won a fourth US Open men's doubles title in 1989 with Mark Woodforde, and a fifth Wimbledon men's doubles title in 1992 with Michael Stich.", "Davis Cup", "More than any other player in his era, McEnroe was responsible for reviving American interest in the Davis Cup, which had been shunned by Jimmy Connors and other leading U.S. players, and had not seen a top U.S. player regularly compete since Arthur Ashe. Connors's refusal to play Davis Cup instead of lucrative exhibitions had been a source of enmity between him and Ashe. In 1978, McEnroe won two singles rubbers in the final as the U.S", ". In 1978, McEnroe won two singles rubbers in the final as the U.S. captured the Cup for the first time since 1972, beating Great Britain in the final. McEnroe continued to be a mainstay of U.S. Davis Cup teams for the next 14 years, and was part of title-winning teams in 1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, and 1992. He set numerous U.S. Davis Cup records, including years played (12), ties (30), singles wins (41), and total wins in singles and doubles (59)", ". He played both singles and doubles in 13 series, and he and Peter Fleming won 14 of 15 Davis Cup doubles matches together.", "An epic performance was McEnroe's 6-hour, 22-minute victory over Mats Wilander in the deciding rubber of the quarterfinal win over Sweden in 1982, played in St. Louis, Missouri. McEnroe won the match, at the time the longest in Davis Cup history, 9–7, 6–2, 15–17, 3–6, 8–6. McEnroe nearly broke that record in a 6-hour, 20-minute Davis Cup loss to Boris Becker five years later. Becker won that match, the second rubber in a 3–2 loss to West Germany in World Group Relegation play, 4–6, 15–13, 8–10, 6–2, 6–2.", "McEnroe also helped the U.S. win the World Team Cup in 1984 and 1985, in both cases defeating Czechoslovakia in the final.", "Final years on the tour", "McEnroe struggled to regain his form after his 1986 sabbatical. He lost three times at majors to Ivan Lendl, losing straight-set quarterfinals at both the 1987 US Open and the 1989 Australian Open, and a long four-set match, played over two days, in the fourth round of the 1988 French Open. Rumors of drug abuse had begun during his second sabbatical", ". Rumors of drug abuse had begun during his second sabbatical. McEnroe denied them at the time, but later acknowledged he had used cocaine during his career in a 2000 interview, although he denied that the drug affected his play.", "McEnroe had multiple notable victories in the final years of his career. In the 1988 French Open, McEnroe beat 16-year-old Michael Chang 6–0, 6–3, 6–1 in the third round; Chang went on to win the title the next year. In 1989, McEnroe won a record fifth title at the World Championship Tennis Finals (the championship tournament of the WCT tour, which was being staged for the last time), defeating top-ranked Lendl in the semifinals", ". At Wimbledon, he defeated Mats Wilander in a four-set quarterfinal before losing to Stefan Edberg in the semifinals. He won the RCA Championships in Indianapolis and reached the final of the Canadian Open, where he lost to Lendl. He also won both of his singles rubbers in the quarterfinal Davis Cup tie with Sweden.", "Controversy was never far from McEnroe, however; in his fourth-round match against Mikael Pernfors at the 1990 Australian Open, McEnroe was ejected from the tournament for swearing at the umpire, supervisor, and referee. He was warned by the umpire for intimidating a lineswoman, and then docked a point for smashing a racket", ". McEnroe was apparently unaware that a new Code of Conduct, which had been introduced just before the tournament, meant that a third code violation would lead not to the deduction of a game but instead in immediate disqualification. He was also fined $6,500 for the incidents.", "Later that year, McEnroe reached the semifinals of the US Open, losing to the eventual champion Pete Sampras in four sets. He also won the Davidoff Swiss Indoors in Basel, defeating Goran Ivanišević in a five-set final. The last time McEnroe was ranked in the world's top ten was on October 22, 1990; his end-of-year singles ranking was 13th.", "In 1991, McEnroe won the last edition of the Volvo Tennis-Chicago tournament by defeating his brother Patrick in the final. He won both of his singles rubbers in the quarterfinal Davis Cup tie with Spain. He reached the fourth round at Wimbledon (losing to Edberg) and the third round at the US Open (losing to Chang in a five-set night match). His end-of-year singles ranking was No. 28.", "In 1992, McEnroe defeated third-ranked and defending champion Boris Becker in the third round of the Australian Open 6–4, 6–3, 7–5 before a sell-out crowd. In the fourth round, McEnroe needed 4 hours 42 minutes to defeat ninth-ranked Emilio Sánchez 8–6 in the fifth set. He lost to Wayne Ferreira in the quarterfinals. At Wimbledon, McEnroe reached the semifinals where he lost in straight sets to the eventual champion Andre Agassi", ". McEnroe also teamed with Michael Stich to win his fifth Wimbledon men's doubles title in a record-length 5-hour-1-minute final, which the pair won 5–7, 7–6, 3–6, 7–6, 19–17. At the end of the year, he teamed with Pete Sampras to win the doubles rubber in the Davis Cup final, where the U.S. defeated Switzerland 3–1.", "McEnroe retired from the professional tour at the end of 1992. He ended his singles career ranked world No. 20. He played in one tournament in 1994 as a wildcard at the Rotterdam Open, losing in the first round. This was his last singles match on the ATP Tour.", "After Steffi Graf won the 1999 French Open, McEnroe suggested to her that they play mixed doubles at Wimbledon. She agreed, and they went on to reach the semifinals, but withdrew at that stage because Graf had reached the singles final, and preferred to focus on that tournament.\n\nPost-retirement from tennis", "After retiring, McEnroe pursued his post-tour goal of becoming a working musician. He had learned to play guitar with the help of friends like Eddie Van Halen and Eric Clapton. During his divorce, McEnroe formed The Johnny Smyth Band with himself as lead singer and guitarist, began writing songs, and played small gigs in cities where he played with the senior tour", ". Although Lars Ulrich complimented his \"natural instinct for music\", a bar owner where McEnroe's band played said that \"he couldn't sing to save his life.\" The band toured for two years, but McEnroe suddenly quit in 1997 just before finishing his first album. In 1997, McEnroe's wife, singer-songwriter Patty Smyth, told him, \"In future only one of us will be working away from home on a music tour and it ain't gonna be you!\"", "McEnroe was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1999. He is now a sports commentator providing commentary for American television networks such as ESPN, CBS, NBC, and USA at the US Open, the Australian Open, and various ATP tournaments, as well as at Wimbledon for the BBC in the UK.", "McEnroe became the U.S. Davis Cup captain in September 1999. His team barely escaped defeat in their first two outings in 2000, beating Zimbabwe and the Czech Republic in tight 3–2 encounters. They were then defeated 5–0 by Spain in the semifinals. McEnroe resigned in November 2000 after 14 months as captain, citing frustration with the Davis Cup schedule and format as two of his primary reasons. His brother Patrick took over the job.", "In 2002, McEnroe played himself in Mr. Deeds and again in 2008 in You Don't Mess with the Zohan. McEnroe played himself in the 2004 movie Wimbledon. In July 2004, McEnroe began a CNBC talk show titled McEnroe. The show, however, was unsuccessful, twice earning a 0.0 Nielsen rating, and was canceled within five months. In 2002, he hosted the American game show The Chair on ABC as well as the British version on BBC One, but this venture also was unsuccessful.", "In 2004, McEnroe said that during much of his career he had unwittingly taken steroids. He said that he had been administered these drugs without his knowledge, stating: \"For six years I was unaware I was being given a form of steroid of the legal kind they used to give horses until they decided it was too strong even for horses.\"", "McEnroe is active in philanthropy and tennis development. For years he has co-chaired the City Parks Foundation's annual CityParks Tennis fundraiser. The charitable benefit raises crucial funds for New York City's largest municipal youth tennis programs. He collects American contemporary art, and opened a gallery in Manhattan in 1993.", "McEnroe still plays regularly on the ATP Champions Tour. One victory came at the Jean-Luc Lagardere Trophy in Paris in 2010, where he defeated Guy Forget in the final. Playing on the Champions Tour allows him to continue his most iconic rivalries with old adversaries Ivan Lendl and Björn Borg. His last and 26th win (a record since 2001 when the ATP acquired the Champions Tour) was his 2016 win at Stockholm against Thomas Muster.", "In charity events and World Team Tennis, he has beaten many top players, including Mardy Fish and Mark Philippoussis.", "In 2007, McEnroe received the Philippe Chatrier Award (the ITF's highest accolade) for his contributions to tennis both on and off the court. Later that year, he also appeared on the NBC comedy 30 Rock as the host of a game show called \"Gold Case\" in which he uttered his famous line \"You cannot be serious!\" when a taping went awry. McEnroe also appeared on the HBO comedy Curb Your Enthusiasm.", "In 2009, McEnroe appeared on 30 Rock again, in the episode \"Gavin Volure\", where the title character, a mysterious, reclusive businessman (played by Steve Martin) invites him to dinner because he bridges the worlds of \"art collecting and yelling.\"\n\nIn 2010, he founded the John McEnroe Tennis Academy on Randall's Island in New York City.", "In 2010, he founded the John McEnroe Tennis Academy on Randall's Island in New York City.\n\nIn 2012, McEnroe, commentating for ESPN, heavily criticized Australian tennis player Bernard Tomic for \"tanking\" against Andy Roddick at the US Open. However, Tomic was cleared of any wrongdoing, saying that he was \"simply overwhelmed by the occasion\" (this was the first time that he had played at Arthur Ashe Stadium).\n\nMcEnroe was part of Milos Raonic's coaching team from May to August 2016.", "McEnroe was part of Milos Raonic's coaching team from May to August 2016.\n\nIn addition to his other commentary roles, McEnroe was a central figure for Australian television network Nine's coverage of the 2019/2020 Australian Open.\n\nMcEnroe performed as the off-camera narrator for four seasons (2020-2023) of Never Have I Ever, appearing in one episode in Season 1.", "On April 2, 2023, McEnroe participated with Michael Chang, Andre Agassi, and Andy Roddick in the first live airing of Pickleball on ESPN in the Million dollar Pickleball Slam at the Hard Rock Casino in Hollywood, Florida.", "Return to the tour\nMcEnroe returned to the ATP Tour in 2006 to play two doubles tournaments. In his first tournament, he teamed with Jonas Björkman to win the title at the SAP Open in San Jose. This was McEnroe's 78th doubles title (No. 5 in history) and his first title since capturing the Paris Indoor doubles title in November 1992 with his brother Patrick. The win meant that McEnroe had won doubles titles in four different decades.", "In his second tournament, McEnroe and Björkman lost in the quarterfinals of the tournament in Stockholm.\n\nMcEnroe won the over-45 legends doubles competition at the French Open in 2012. He was partnered with his brother Patrick. They beat Guy Forget and Henri Leconte 7–6, 6–3. McEnroe and his brother Patrick won again at the 2014 French Open in the over-45 legends doubles competition. They beat Andres Gomez and Mark Woodforde 4–6, 7–5, 1–0 (10–7).", "Personal life\nMcEnroe was married to Academy Award winner Tatum O'Neal, the daughter of actor Ryan O'Neal, from 1986 to 1994. They had three children. After their divorce, they were awarded joint custody of the children, but in 1998 McEnroe was awarded sole custody due to O'Neal's addiction to heroin.\n\nIn 1997, McEnroe married rock singer Patty Smyth, with whom he has two daughters. They live on Manhattan's Upper West Side.", "McEnroe has published two autobiographies: You Cannot Be Serious (released as Serious in the UK) in 2002, and 2017's But Seriously.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nSingles performance timeline\n\nRecords\nThese records were attained in the Open Era of tennis.\n\nLegacy\nMcEnroe's achievements have led many to consider him among the greatest tennis players in history.", "Professional awards\nITF World Champion:1981, 1983, 1984\nATP player of the year: 1981, 1983, 1984\nATP most improved player: 1978\nWorld Number 1 Male Player\nDavis Cup Commitment Award\n\nIn popular culture\n\nAmerican hip-hop trio House of Pain mentions McEnroe (\"I'll serve your ass like John McEnroe.\") in \"Jump Around\".", "German hip-hop production team Snowgoons released a song titled \"John McEnroe\" featuring N.B.S. and Sicknature on their album Snowgoons Dynasty with an accompanied music video set on a tennis court.", "McEnroe's fiery temper has led to him being parodied in popular culture:\nIn 1982, British impressionist Roger Kitter and Kaplan Kaye, under the name of \"The Brat\", recorded the single Chalk Dust - The Umpire Strikes Back in which Kitter parodied McEnroe losing his temper during a match. The single reached the UK Top 20 and was a Top 10 hit in the Netherlands, Belgium and South Africa.", "His bursts of rage were parodied in the satirical British programme Spitting Image, on which he and wife Tatum frequently screamed and threw things at each other.\nAnother parody was in the satirical British programme Not the Nine O'Clock News, portrayed by Griff Rhys Jones, showing him as a boy arguing with his parents over breakfast.\nPunk band End of a Year references his famous temper in the song \"McEnroe\".", "Punk band End of a Year references his famous temper in the song \"McEnroe\".\nHe mocked himself in a PETA ad promoting spay and neuter, by launching into one of his famous tirades when challenged about his decision to have his dog fixed.\n Sir Ian McKellen used McEnroe as a model when playing Coriolanus for the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1984.\n In the 1980s he appeared in a commercial for R. White's Lemonade in the UK.", "In the 1980s he appeared in a commercial for R. White's Lemonade in the UK. \n In 2006, McEnroe appeared in a television advert campaign for National Car Rental, expressing one of his outbursts, saying \"Any Car? You cannot be serious!\" The following year, McEnroe appeared in an advertisement for Telstra in Australia.\n In late 2013, he starred in a television commercial campaign for the UK based gadget insurance company Protect Your Bubble. In the TV adverts, he emulated his on-court outbursts.", "In 2014 he appeared as a guitarist on the solo debut album of Chrissie Hynde, lead singer of The Pretenders.\n McEnroe was portrayed by Shia LaBeouf in the Swedish biopic Borg vs McEnroe, which was released in 2017 depicting their rivalry and in particular the 1980 Wimbledon final.", "In a 2021 advert for DirecTV, Serena Williams is seen as Wonder Woman, battling machines that fire tennis balls at mall patrons. One of them is McEnroe, who has a drink spilled on him by a tennis ball; he responds, \"You cannot be serious!\"", "Television appearances\n\nSee also\n\nMacCAM, an instant replay system used by CBS and other networks, named after McEnroe.\nWorld number 1 male tennis player rankings.\nTennis male players statistics.\nList of Grand Slam men's singles champions\nBay Area Sports Hall of Fame\nBorg-McEnroe rivalry\nLendl–McEnroe rivalry\nConnors-McEnroe rivalry\nTennis records of All Time – Men's singles\nTennis records of the Open Era – Men's singles\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "Video\nThe Wimbledon Collection – Legends of Wimbledon – John McEnroe Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: September 21, 2004, Run Time: 52 minutes, ASIN: B0002HOD9U\nThe Wimbledon Collection – The Classic Match – Borg vs. McEnroe 1981 Final Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: September 21, 2004, Run Time: 210 minutes, ASIN: B0002HODAE", "The Wimbledon Collection – The Classic Match – Borg vs. McEnroe 1980 Final Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: September 21, 2004, Run Time: 240 minutes; ASIN: B0002HOEK8\nCharlie Rose with John McEnroe (February 4, 1999) Charlie Rose, DVD Release Date: September 18, 2006, ASIN: B000IU3342", "External links\n\nOfficial Wimbledon website profile\nBBC profile\nJohn McEnroe's ESPN Bio", "1959 births\nLiving people\nAmerican expatriates in West Germany\nAmerican male tennis players\nAmerican people of Irish descent\nAmerican sportspeople in doping cases\nAmerican television talk show hosts\nAmerican tennis coaches\nATP number 1 ranked doubles tennis players\nATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players\nBBC sports presenters and reporters\nBuckley Country Day School alumni\nCNBC people\nDoping cases in tennis\nFrench Open champions\nFrench Open junior champions", "CNBC people\nDoping cases in tennis\nFrench Open champions\nFrench Open junior champions\nGrand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles\nGrand Slam (tennis) champions in men's doubles\nGrand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles\nGrand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles\nHopman Cup competitors\nInternational Tennis Hall of Fame inductees\nITF World Champions\nMasters tennis players\nPeople from Douglaston–Little Neck, Queens\nPeople from Flushing, Queens\nSportspeople from Queens, New York", "People from Flushing, Queens\nSportspeople from Queens, New York\nTennis players from New York City\nSportspeople from Wiesbaden\nStanford Cardinal men's tennis players\nTennis commentators\nTrinity School (New York City) alumni\nUS Open (tennis) champions\nWimbledon champions\n21st-century American guitarists\nAmerican male guitarists\nGuitarists from New York (state)\n21st-century autobiographers\nAmerican autobiographers" ]

[ "The Kingdom of Albania (, ) was established by Charles of Anjou in the Albanian territories he conquered from the Byzantine Empire in 1271, with the help of the local Albanian nobility. The Kingdom of Albania was declared in late February 1272. The kingdom extended from the region of Durazzo (Dyrrhachium, modern Durrës) south along the coast to Butrint. A major attempt to advance further in direction of Constantinople failed at the Siege of Berat (1280–1281)", ". A Byzantine counteroffensive soon ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The Sicilian Vespers further weakened the position of Charles, and the Kingdom was soon reduced by the Byzantines to a small area around Durazzo. The Angevins held out here, however, until 1368, when the city was captured by Karl Thopia. In 1392, Karl Thopia's son surrendered the city to the Republic of Venice.", "History", "Background", "During the conflict between the Despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Nicaea in 1253, lord Golem of Kruja was initially allied with Epirus. Golem's troops had occupied the Kostur area trying to prevent the Nicaean forces of John Vatatzes from entering Devoll. Vatatzes managed to convince Golem to switch sides and a new treaty was signed between the parties where Vatatzes promised to guarantee Golem's autonomy", ". The same year Despot of Epirus Michael II signed a peace treaty with Nicaea acknowledging their authority over west Macedonia and Albania. The fortress of Krujë was surrendered to Nicaea, while the Nicean emperor acknowledged the old privileges and also granted new ones. The same privileges were confirmed later by his successor Theodore II Laskaris.", "The Nicaeans took control of Durrës from Michael II in 1256. During the winter of 1256–57, George Akropolites tried to reinstall Byzantine authority in the area of Arbanon. Autonomy was thus banished and a new administration was imposed. This was in contrast to what the Nicaeans had promised before. The local Albanian leaders revolted and on hearing the news, Michael II also denounced the peace treaty with the Nicaea. With the support of Albanian forces he attacked the cities of Dibra, Ohrid and Prilep", ". With the support of Albanian forces he attacked the cities of Dibra, Ohrid and Prilep. In the meantime Manfred of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by Philip Chinard, captured Durrës, Berat, Vlorë, Spinarizza and their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to Butrint. Facing a war in two fronts, despot Michael II came to terms with Manfred and became his ally", ". Facing a war in two fronts, despot Michael II came to terms with Manfred and became his ally. He recognized Manfred's authority over the captured regions which were ceded as a dowry gift following the marriage of his daughter Helena to Manfred.", "Following the defeat of Michael II's and Manfred's forces in the Battle of Pelagonia, the new Nicaean forces continued their advance by capturing all of Manfred's domains in Albania, with the exception of Durrës. However, in September 1261, Manfred organized a new expedition and managed to capture all his dominions in Albania and he kept them until his death in 1266. Manfred respected the old autonomy and privileges of the local nobility and their regions", ". Manfred respected the old autonomy and privileges of the local nobility and their regions. He also integrated Albanian nobles into his administration, as was the case with Andrea Vrana who was the general captain and governor of Durrës and the neighboring region of Arbanon. Albanian troops were also used by Manfred in his campaigns in Italy. Manfred appointed Philippe Chinard as the general-governor of his dominions in Albania", ". Manfred appointed Philippe Chinard as the general-governor of his dominions in Albania. Initially based in Corfu, Chinard moved his headquarters to Kanina, the dominant center of the Vlorë region. There he married a relative of Michael II.", "Creation", "After defeating Manfred's forces in the Battle of Benevento in 1266, the Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with Charles of Anjou acquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania, together with rights he gained in the Latin dominions in the Despotate of Epirus and in the Morea. Upon hearing the news of Manfred's death in the battle of Benevento, Michael II conspired and managed to kill Manfred's governor Philippe Chinard, with the help of Chinard's wife, but he could not capture Manfred's domains", ". Local noblemen and commanders refused to surrender Manfred's domains in Albania to Michael II. They gave the same negative response to Charles' envoy, Gazo Chinard in 1267, when following the articles of the Treaty of Viterbo, he asked for them to surrender Manfred's dominions in Albania.", "After the failure of the Eighth Crusade, Charles of Anjou returned his attention to Albania. He began contacting local Albanian leaders through local catholic clergy. Two local Catholic priests, namely Gjon from Durrës and Nicola from Arbanon, acted as negotiators between Charles of Anjou and the local noblemen. During 1271 they made several trips between Albania and Italy eventually succeeding in their mission", ". On 21 February 1272, a delegation of Albanian noblemen and citizens from Durrës made their way to Charles' court. Charles signed a treaty with them and was proclaimed King of Albania \"by common consent of the bishops, counts, barons, soldiers and citizens\" promising to protect them and to honor the privileges they had from Byzantine Empire", ". The treaty declared the union between the Kingdom of Albania (Latin: Regnum Albanie) with the Kingdom of Sicily under King Charles of Anjou (Carolus I, dei gratia rex Siciliae et Albaniae). He appointed Gazo Chinard as his Vicar-General and hoped to take up his expedition against Constantinople again. Throughout 1272 and 1273 he sent huge provisions to the towns of Durrës and Vlorë", ". Throughout 1272 and 1273 he sent huge provisions to the towns of Durrës and Vlorë. This alarmed the Byzantine Emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, who began sending letters to local Albanian nobles, trying to convince them to stop their support for Charles of Anjou and to switch sides. The Albanian nobles sent those letter to Charles who praised them for their loyalty. Then, Michael VIII's hopes of stopping the advance of Charles were laid on the influence of Pope Gregory X", ". Gregory had high hopes of reconciling Europe, unifying the Greek and Latin churches, and launching a new crusade: to that end, he announced the Council of Lyon, to be held in 1274, and worked to arrange the election of an Emperor, so he ordered Charles to stop his operations.", "Charles of Anjou imposed a military rule on Kingdom of Albania. The autonomy and privileges promised in the treaty were \"de facto\" abolished and new taxes were imposed. Lands were confiscated in favor of Anjou nobles and Albanian nobles were excluded from their governmental tasks. In an attempt to enforce his rule and local loyalty, Charles I, took as hostages the sons of local noblemen", ". This created a general discontent in the country and several Albanian noblemen began contacting Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII who promised them, to acknowledge their old privileges.", "Byzantine offensive", "As Charles I's intentions for a new offensive were stopped by the Pope and there was a general discontent within Albania, Michael VIII caught the occasion and began a campaign in Albania in late 1274. Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen captured the important city of Berat and later on Butrint. On November 1274, the local governor reported to Charles I that the Albanian and Byzantine forces had besieged Durrës. The Byzantine offensive continued and captured the port-city of Spinarizza", ". The Byzantine offensive continued and captured the port-city of Spinarizza. Thus Durrës alongside the Krujë and Vlora regions became the only domains in mainland Albania which were still under Charles I's control, but they were landlocked and isolated from each other. They could communicate with each other only by sea but the Byzantine fleet based in Spinarizza and Butrint kept them under constant pressure. Charles also managed to keep the island of Corfu.", "Michael VIII also scored another important diplomatic victory on Charles I by agreeing to unite the two churches in the Second Council of Lyon in 1274. Enthusiastic from the results of the council, Pope Gregory X, forbade any attempt by Charles on Michael VIII's forces. Under these circumstances Charles of Anjou was forced to sign a truce with Michael VIII in 1276.", "Angevin counteroffensive", "The Byzantine presence in Butrint alarmed Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas the Despot of Epirus. He contacted Charles of Anjou and his vassal William II of Villehardouin who was at that time the prince of Achaea. Nikephoros I promised to make an oath of homage to Charles of Anjou in return for some land property in Achaia. In 1278 Nikephoros I's troops captured the city of Butrint. In March 1279 Nikephoros I declared himself a vassal of Charles of Anjou and surrendered to him the castles of Sopot and Butrint", ". As a pledge, Nikephoros I delivered his own son to the Angevin castellan of Vlorë to be held as hostage. Ambassadors were exchanged in this occasion, but Charles did not wait for the formalities to end; instead he ordered his captain and vicar-general at Corfu to capture not only Butrint, but everything that once belonged to Manfred and now were under the Despotate of Epirus.", "At the same time Charles began creating a network of alliances in the area in the brick of the new offensive, which would have pointed first to Thessaloníki and later to Constantinople. He entered in alliance with the kings of Serbia and Bulgaria. He also tried to get the support of the local Albanian nobles. After continuous requests from other Albanian nobles, he liberated from Neapolitan prisons a number of Albanian nobles who were arrested before being accused of collaborating with Byzantine forces", ". Among them were Gjin Muzaka, Dhimitër Zogu and Guljem Blinishti. Gjin Muzaka especially was important to Charles' plans because the Muzaka family territories were around city of Berat. They were liberated, but were ordered to send their sons as hostages in Naples.", "On August 1279, Charles of Anjou appointed Hugo de Sully as Captain and Vicar-General of Albania, Durrës, Vlorë, Sopot, Butrint and Corfu. In the following months a great Angevin counteroffensive was prepared. A lot of materials and men including Saracen archers and siege engineers were sent to de Sully, who had captured Spinarizza from Byzantine forces making it his headquarters. The first goal of the expedition was the recapture of the city of Berat, which had been under Byzantine control since 1274", ". However, Charles' preparations were restrained by Pope Nicholas III who had forbidden Charles from attacking the Byzantine Empire. However, Pope Nicholas III died on August 1280 and for more than six months the Pope's seat was vacant. This gave Charles an opportunity to move on. During Autumn 1280 he gave the order to Hugo de Sully to move on. In December 1280 Angevin forces captured the surroundings of Berat and besieged its castle.", "Byzantine counteroffensive", "The Byzantine Emperor was hoping for the Pope to stop his Latin adversaries. In fact after the death in 1276 of Pope Gregory X, the main supporter of the union of the churches, his successors maintained the same course and this restricted Charles' movements. However, in February 1281 Charles of Anjou achieved a diplomatic victory by imposing a French Pope, as the head of the Catholic Church", ". The Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII was excommunicated by the new Pope and Charles' expedition against him blessed as a new crusade.", "The situation was very complicated for Michael VIII; however, he sent help to the besieged garrison. The Byzantine army which also included Turkish mercenaries arrived near Berat in March 1281. They were under orders to avoid pitched battle and to focus on ambushes and raids. They managed to defeat Angevin forces by capturing first their commander Hugo de Sully in an ambush. This spread panic throughout his army, routing them from the battlefield", ". This spread panic throughout his army, routing them from the battlefield. The Angevin army lost the major part of its forces and only a small part found refuge in the Kaninë castle, which was in Angevin hands. The Byzantine army continued its advance further into the territory. They besieged the Angevin bases of Vlorë, Kaninë, and Durrës but could not capture them", ". They besieged the Angevin bases of Vlorë, Kaninë, and Durrës but could not capture them. The Albanian nobles in the region of Krujë allied themselves with the Byzantine Emperor and he granted them a charter of privileges for their city and bishopric.", "Charles' preparations and Sicilian Vespers\n\nTreaty of Orvieto", "The failure of Hugo de Sully's expedition convinced Charles of Anjou that an invasion of the Byzantine Empire by land was not feasible, and he thus considered a naval expedition against Byzantium. He found an ally in Venice and in July 1281, the Treaty of Orvieto formalized this collaboration", ". He found an ally in Venice and in July 1281, the Treaty of Orvieto formalized this collaboration. Its stated purpose was the dethronement of Michael VIII in favor of the titular Latin emperor Philip of Courtenay and the forcible establishment of the Union of the Churches, bringing the Greek Orthodox Church under the authority of the Pope. Its principal motivation, however, was to re-establish the Latin Empire, under Angevin domination, and to restore Venetian commercial privileges in Constantinople.", "Under the terms of the treaty, Philip and Charles were to supply 8,000 troops and cavalry, and sufficient ships to transport them to Constantinople. Philip, the Doge of Venice Giovanni Dandolo, and Charles himself or Charles' son, Charles, Prince of Salerno, were to personally accompany the expedition. In practice, Charles would have supplied almost all of the troops, Philip having little or no resources of his own", ". The Venetians would supply forty galleys as escorts for the invasion fleet, which was to sail from Brindisi no later than April 1283. Upon Philip's restoration to the throne, he was to confirm the concessions of the Treaty of Viterbo and the privileges granted to Venice at the founding of the Latin Empire, including recognition of the Doge as dominator of \"one-fourth and one-eighth of the Latin Empire.\"", "A second document was also drawn up to organize a vanguard to precede the main expedition of 1283. Charles and Philip were to supply fifteen ships and ten transports with about 300 men and horses. The Venetians were to provide fifteen warships for seven months of the year. These forces would make war against Michael VIII and \"other occupiers\" of the Latin Empire (presumably the Genoese), and would meet in Corfu by 1 May 1282, paving the way for the next year's invasion.", "The two treaties were signed by Charles and Philip on 3 July 1281, and were ratified by the Doge of Venice on 2 August 1281.\n\nSicilian Vespers", "On Easter Monday 30 March 1282, in Sicily the local people began attacking French forces in an uprising which would become known as the Sicilian Vespers. The massacre went on for weeks throughout the island and they also destroyed the Angevin fleet gathered in the harbor of Messina which Charles had intended to use in the new expedition against Byzantium", ". Charles tried to suppress the uprising, but on 30 of August 1282, Peter III of Aragon landed in Sicily, it was clear that Charles had no more chances of attacking Byzantium. In September 1282, the Angevin house forever lost Sicily. His son Charles II of Naples was captured by the Aragonese army in the Battle of the Gulf of Naples and was still a prisoner when his father, Charles of Anjou, died on 7 January 1285", ". Upon his death Charles left all of his domains to his son, who at the time was held by the Catalans. He was kept as prisoner up to 1289, when he was finally released.", "Restoration", "Loss of Durrës", "The Angevin resistance continued for some years in Kaninë, Durrës and Vlorë. However Durrës fell in Byzantine hands in 1288 and in the same year Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos renewed the privileges that his predecessor had granted to the Albanians in the Krujë region. Kaninë castle was the last to fall to the Byzantines probably in 1294, while Corfu and Butrint remained in Angevin hands at least up to 1292. In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin took possession of Durrës", ". In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin took possession of Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II Palaiologos married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as a dowry gift.", "Recapture of Durrës", "Although the Albanian territories were lost, the notion and rights of the Kingdom of Albania continued for the Angevins for a long time after Charles of Anjou's death. The Kingdom was inherited by Charles II after the death of his father in 1285. In August 1294, Charles II passed his rights on Albania to his son Philip I, Prince of Taranto. In November 1294, Philip I was married to the daughter of the Epirote Despot Nikephoros I, renewing the old alliance between the two states", ". His plans of recovering old Angevin domains were paused for a while when in 1299 Philip of Taranto became a prisoner of Frederick III of Sicily in the Battle of Falconaria. However, after his release in 1302, he claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and began preparations to recover it. He gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred a Catholic Italian power as their protector instead of the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of Pope Benedict XI", ". In the summer of 1304, Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by its citizens and local nobles, who in September submitted themselves to Angevin rule. Philip and his father Charles II renewed the old privileges that Charles of Anjou had promised to the citizens and nobility of Durrës. In 1305, further extensive exemptions from dues and taxes were granted to the citizens of Durrës and the local nobles from Charles II.", "The territory of the Kingdom of Albania under Philip of Taranto was restricted to roughly the modern Durrës District. In an attempt to resolve the tensions between the house of Anjou and the Aragonese, the Kingdom of Albania and the lands in Achaea under Angevin dominion were offered in exchange for the Kingdom of Trinacria ruled by Frederick II. These negotiations lasted some years but were abandoned in 1316.", "Duchy of Durazzo\nUpon the death of Philip of Taranto in 1332, there were various claims on his domains within the Angevin family. The rights of the Duchy of Durazzo (Durrës) and the Kingdom of Albania together were given to John of Gravina with a sum of 5,000 pounds of gold. After his death in 1336, his dominions in Albania passed to his son Charles, Duke of Durazzo.", "During this period there were different Albanian noble families who began consolidating their power and domains. One of them was the Thopia family whose domains were in central Albania. The Serbs were pressing hard in their direction and the Albanian nobles found a natural ally in the Angevins. Alliance with Albanian leaders was also crucial to the safety of the Kingdom of Albania, especially during the 1320s and 1330s", ". Most prominent among these leaders were the Thopias, ruling in an area between the rivers Mat and Shkumbin, and the Muzaka family in the territory between the rivers Shkumbin and Vlorë. They saw the Angevins as protectors of their domains and made alliances. During 1336–1337 Charles had various successes against Serb forces in central Albania.", "Last decades", "The pressure of the Serbian Kingdom on the Kingdom of Albania grew especially under the leadership of Stefan Dušan. Although the fate of city of Durrës, the capital of the Kingdom, is unknown, by 1346 all Albania was reported to be under the rule of Dušan. In 1348, Charles, Duke of Durazzo, was decapitated by his cousin Philip II, Prince of Taranto, who also inherited his rights on the Kingdom of Albania", ". Meanwhile, in Albania, after the death of Dušan, his empire began to disintegrate and, in central Albania, the Thopia family under Karl Topia, claimed rights to the Kingdom of Albania. In fact Stefan Uroš I was married to Helen of Anjou and Karl Topia was recognized as Count of Albania. Karl Thopia took Durrës from the Angevins in 1368 with the consensus of its citizens", ". Karl Thopia took Durrës from the Angevins in 1368 with the consensus of its citizens. In 1376 Louis of Évreux, Duke of Durazzo who had gained the rights on the Albanian Kingdom from his second wife, attacked and conquered the city, but in 1383, Thopia took once again control of the city.", "In 1385 the city of Durrës was captured by Balša II. Topia called for Ottoman help and Balša's forces were defeated in the Battle of Savra. Topia recaptured the city of Durrës the same year and held it until his death in 1388. Afterwards, the city of Durrës was inherited by his son Gjergj, Lord of Durrës. In 1392 Gjergj surrendered the city of Durrës and his domains to the Republic of Venice.", "Government", "The kingdom of Albania was a distinct entity from the Kingdom of Naples. The kingdom had the nature of a military oriented political structure. It had its own structure and organs of government which was located in Durrës. At the head of this governmental body was the captain-general who had the status of a viceroy", ". At the head of this governmental body was the captain-general who had the status of a viceroy. These persons usually had the title of capitaneus et vicarius generalis and were the head of the army also, while the local forces were commanded by persons who held the title marescallus in partibus Albaniae.", "The royal resources, especially income from salt production and trade, were paid to the thesaurius of Albania. The port of Durrës and sea trade were essential to the kingdom. The port was under the command of prothontius and the Albanian fleet had its own captain. Other offices were created and functioned under the authority of the viceroy.", "With the attrition of the territory of the kingdom, the persons appointed as captain-generals began losing their powers, becoming more like governors of Durrës, than representatives of the king.", "The role of local Albanian lords became more and more important to the fate of the kingdom and the Angevins integrated them into their military structure especially in the second phase of the kingdom. When Philip of Taranto returned in 1304, one Albanian noble, Gulielm Blinishti, was appointed head of Angevin army in the Kingdom of Albania with the title marascallum regnie Albaniae. He was succeeded in 1318 by Andrea I Muzaka", ". He was succeeded in 1318 by Andrea I Muzaka. From 1304 on, other western titles of nobility were bestowed by the Angevins upon the local Albanian lords.", "Although the Angevins tried to install a centralized state apparatus, they left great autonomy to the Albanians cities. In fact, in 1272 it was Charles of Anjou himself who recognized the old privileges of Durrës' community.", "Religion\nHistorically the territory where the Kingdom of Albania lay was subject to different metropolitan powers such as Antivari, Durrës, Ohrid and Nicopolis, where Catholicism, Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian Churches applied their power interchangeably or sometimes even together. The presence of the kingdom reinforced the influence of Catholicism and the conversion to its rite, not only in the region of Durrës but also in other parts of the country.", "The Archbishopric of Durrës was one of the primary bishoprics in Albania and before the Great Schism (1054), it had 15 episcopal sees under its authority. After the split it remained under the authority of Eastern Church while there were continuous, but fruitless efforts from the Roman church to convert it to the Latin rite. However, things changed after the fall of Byzantine Empire in 1204. In 1208, a Catholic archdeacon was elected for the archbishopric of Durrës", ". In 1208, a Catholic archdeacon was elected for the archbishopric of Durrës. After the reconquest of Durrës by the Despotate of Epirus in 1214, the Latin Archbishop of Durrës was replaced by an Orthodox archbishop. After his death in 1225, various nearby metropolitan powers fought over the vacant seat. At last a Nicean archbishop was appointed in 1256 but he could not effectively run its office since, in 1258, the city was captured by Manfred.", "After the creation of Kingdom of Albania in 1272, a Catholic political structure was a good basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkans. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a spouse of King Stefan Uroš I and cousin of Charles of Anjou, as Queen consort of the Serbian Kingdom, who was at that time ruling territories in North Albania. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule in North Albania and in Serbia", ". New bishoprics were created especially in North Albania, with the help of Helen of Anjou.", "Durrës became again a Catholic archbishopric in 1272. Other territories of the Kingdom of Albania became Catholic centers as well. Butrint in the south, although dependent on Corfu, became Catholic and remained as such during 14th century. The same happened to Vlorë and Krujë as soon as the Kingdom of Albania was created.", "A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country, and papal missionaries also reached the territories of the Kingdom of Albania. Those who were not Catholic in Central and North Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions.", "However, in Durrës the Byzantine rite continued to exist for a while after Angevin conquest. This double-line of authority created some confusion in the local population and a contemporary visitor of the country described Albanians as nor they are entirely Catholic or entirely schismatic. In order to fight this religious ambiguity, in 1304, Dominicans were ordered by Pope Benedict XI to enter the country and to instruct the locals in the Latin rite", ". Dominican priests were also ordered as bishops in Vlorë and Butrint.", "Among the Catholic orders operating during that period in Albania, one could mention the Franciscan order, Carmelites, Cistercians and Premonstratensians. Also from time to time, the local bishops were appointed from different orders as different popes had their favorites among them.", "Krujë became an important center for the spread of Catholicism. Its bishopric had been Catholic since 1167. It was under direct dependence from the pope and it was the pope himself who consecrated the bishop. Local Albanian nobles maintained good relations with the Papacy. Its influence became so great, that it began to nominate local bishops.", "The Catholic cause had a drawback while Stephan Dushan ruled in Albania. The Catholic rite was called Latin heresy and Dushan's code contained harsh measures against them. However, the persecutions of local catholic Albanians did not begin in 1349 when the Code was promulgated, but much earlier, at least since the beginning of 14th century. Under these circumstances the relations between local Catholic Albanians and the papal curia became very close.", "Between 1350 and 1370, the spread of Catholicism in Albania reached its peak. At that period there were around seventeen Catholic bishoprics in the country, which acted not only as centers for Catholic reform within Albania, but also as centers for missionary activity in the neighboring areas, with the permission of the pope.", "Society", "While the Byzantine Pronoia was the dominant form in the country, the Angevins introduced the Western type of feudalism. In the 13th and 14th centuries, pronoiars earned a great number of privileges and attributes, taking power away from the central authority. The benefit earned by the pronoiars from their land increased. Pronoiars began to collect land taxes for themselves which was an attribute of the state", ". Pronoiars began to collect land taxes for themselves which was an attribute of the state. They also began to exercise administrative authorities which replaced the state's, such as the ability to gather workers, guards, soldiers, and sometimes their own judges. In the 13th century, it was common for pronoiars to arrogate their own right to trial, initially for petty issues and then for serious crimes, taking away central authority from the main prerogatives to the practice of sovereignty.", "By the 14th century, the pronoia had reached the status of feudal possession. It could now be passed on to succession, split, and sold. The pronoia increasingly rarely fulfilled the military needs of the state. Alongside the pronoiars were landowners who owned large tracts of land worked by farmers. The landownership also included pronoiars from Durrës, Shkodër, and Drisht. Citizens of Durrës owned property and grazing land in the nearby mountain of Temali", ". Citizens of Durrës owned property and grazing land in the nearby mountain of Temali. The splitting, inheritance, and selling of the property was a common occurrence.", "The feudal possessions in Albania, as in the West and the Byzantine Empire, were made up of two parts: the land of the peasants and the land which was directly owned by the lords of the land. The peasant's land was not centralized, but was split into many small plots, often far from each other. The lord's land was continually expanded along the same lines that the aristocracy strengthened.", "Land was also centralized under religious institutions, including monasteries and bishoprics. Unlike the 12th century, where the area under control was donated by the central authority, after the 12th century, most donors of land to the monasteries and bishoprics were small and large landowners. By the beginning of the 14th century, monasteries and bishoprics had been able to collect large sums of land funds", ". The income of the monasteries came mainly from agricultural products, but a small part also came from craftwork and other activities. A central source of income to the church were from taxes gathered in kind and in cash. A good of portion went to Rome or Constantinople. The delivery of bonds was one of the causes of friction between the local clergy and the Pope in Rome or the Patriarch in Constantinople.", "In an effort to find additional means of finance, especially in times of war, the central authority imposed high taxes on the population. The pyramid of society depended upon the work of the farmers. Besides the main category of farmers, categories of farmers included \"free\" farmer and \"foreign\" farmers. They were deprived of land and any form of possession and were therefore not registered, placing them in a feud for the quality of wages", ". Eventually, they received a piece of land for which they paid their duties, and were fused with the main category of farmers.", "The feudal duties of the peasant were not the same for all the Albanian areas but differed according to the terrain. The systems of payment in kind or in cash also changed accordingly, but the strengthening of the nobility against the central authority in the 13th century caused the payments in cash to increase compared to payments in kind. From the 12th to the 14th century, the vertical shift of power to the nobles was deepened", ". From the 12th to the 14th century, the vertical shift of power to the nobles was deepened. Not only were the plains brought under the control of the nobles, but also mountainous areas. The feudal possessions also began to include communal areas such as forests, pastures, and fisheries. This evolution took place during the period of Byzantine decline and saw the conversion of the pronoia into an estate very similar to the feudal one.", "The overwhelming majority of the population under the lords' rule was made up of agricultural workers. Contemporary sources reveal that in large parts of Albania, the village population had fallen to the status of serfdom. An anonymous traveler in 1308 revealed that farmers in the regions of Këlcyrë, Tomorricë, Stefaniakë, Kunavë, and Pultë of Dibra worked the lands and vineyards of their respective lords, turned over their products, and performed household work for them", ". The Byzantine historian Kantakouzenos, testifies that the power of the lords of these areas depended mostly on livestock which were present in large numbers.", "Cities", "During the 13th century, many cities in Albania made the move from being primarily military strongholds to becoming urban centers. Unable to contain the development inside the city walls, many cities expanded outside them. Quarters outside the walls began to form, called proastion and suburbium and became important economic centers. In these quarters, trade took place and shops along with workshops were centered here. Eventually, many of these quarters too were surrounded by walls to protect them", ". Eventually, many of these quarters too were surrounded by walls to protect them. In order to secure a supply of water, cisterns in open, safe spaces were used to gather water. In some unique cases, water was also gathered from nearby rivers.", "In the first half of the 14th century, the population of the cities grew greatly. Durrës is estimated to have had 25,000 inhabitants. The city became a center which attracted inhabitants from the rural areas. Durrës is known to have had a large number of inhabitants who came from the surrounding villages. Those farmers who migrated to the city were often forced to pay a fixed payment or to make up for this payment by working in a commune", ". Along with the farmers came noblemen from the surrounding areas, who either migrated permanently or spent a large amount of time in the cities to look after their economic interests. Many had possessions, stores, and houses in the city. The movement of noblemen to urban areas became normal and they were eventually integrated into the city become citizens and often taking government positions.", "Architecture", "The spread of Catholicism affected the architecture of religious buildings, with a new Gothic style, mainly in the Center and North Albania. These areas were attached to the Catholic church and thus had greater Western connections. Both the Catholic and Orthodox churches operated in Durrës and the surrounding areas, and therefore both Western and Byzantine architectural styles were followed. Western architecture could also be found in areas where Western rulers had possessions", ". Western architecture could also be found in areas where Western rulers had possessions. Churches built in this form were built in Upper and Central Albania and were characterized by an emphasis on an East-West longitudinal axis with circular or rectangular apses. Among the most notable architectural monuments of this period include the Church of Shirgj Monastery near the village of Shirgj near Shkodër, the Church of Saint Mary in Vau i Dejës, and the Church of Rubik", ". The former two churches were built in the 13th century AD while the latter in the 12th century AD. Most of the churches built in this period were decorated with murals.", "In modern historiography\nThe Regnum Albaniae was used by the historiography of Fascist Italy to support the Italian claims on Albania. Also, modern Albanian historiography mythisized this kingtom as a medieval Albanian nation-state. In fact, Charles I d' Anjou never claimed that he is \"Rex Albaniae\", and the term \"Regnum Albaniae\" disappears from the Angevin archives after 1277. The borders of this kingtom were poorly defined.\n\nList of rulers\n\nKings of Albania\n Charles I 1272–1285\n Charles II 1285–1294", "List of rulers\n\nKings of Albania\n Charles I 1272–1285\n Charles II 1285–1294\n\nCharles surrendered his rights to Albania to his son Philip in 1294. Philip reigned as Lord of the Kingdom of Albania.\n\nLords of the Kingdom of Albania\n Philip 1294–1331\n Robert 1331–1332", "Lords of the Kingdom of Albania\n Philip 1294–1331\n Robert 1331–1332\n\nPhilip died on 26 December 1331, and was succeeded by his son Robert. Robert's uncle, John, did not wish to do him homage for the Principality of Achaea, so Robert received Achaea from John in exchange for 5,000 ounces of gold and the rights to the diminished Kingdom of Albania. John took the style of Duke of Durazzo.\n\nDukes of Durazzo\n John 1332–1336\n Charles 1336–1348\n Joanna 1348–1368\n Louis 1366–1368 and 1376, in right of his wife", "In 1368, Durazzo fell to Karl Topia, who was recognized by Venice as Prince of Albania.", "Captains and Vicars-General of the Kingdom of Albania\nThese officers were styled Capitaneus et vicaris generalis in regno Albaniae.\n Gazo Chinard (1272)\n Anselme de Chaus (May 1273)\n Narjot de Toucy (1274)\n Guillaume Bernard (23 September 1275)\n Jean Vaubecourt (15 September 1277)\n Jean Scotto (May 1279)\n Hugues de Sully le Rousseau (1281)\n Guillaume Bernard (1283)\n Guy of Charpigny (1294)\n Ponzard de Tournay (1294)\n Simon de Mercey (1296)\n Guillaume de Grosseteste (1298)\n Geoffroy de Port (1299)", "Simon de Mercey (1296)\n Guillaume de Grosseteste (1298)\n Geoffroy de Port (1299)\n Rinieri da Montefuscolo (1301)", "Marshals of the Kingdom of Albania\nThese officers were styled Marescallus in regni Albaniae.\n Guillaume Bernard\n Philip d'Artulla (Ervilla)\n Geoffroy de Polisy\n Jacques de Campagnol\n Andrea I Muzaka (1279)\n Gulielm Blinishti (1304)\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n1368 disestablishments\nStates and territories established in 1272\n \n \n \nFormer kingdoms\n13th century in the Kingdom of Sicily\nCharles I of Anjou\nFormer countries in the Balkans" ]

[ "Christianity in Medieval Scotland includes all aspects of Christianity in the modern borders of Scotland in the Middle Ages. Christianity was probably introduced to what is now Lowland Scotland by Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia. After the collapse of Roman authority in the fifth century, Christianity is presumed to have survived among the British enclaves in the south of what is now Scotland, but retreated as the pagan Anglo-Saxons advanced", ". Scotland was largely converted by Irish missions associated with figures such as St Columba, from the fifth to the seventh centuries. These missions founded monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas", ". These missions founded monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas. Scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity, in which abbots were more significant than bishops, attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there were significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity, particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter, although most of these issues had been resolved by the mid-seventh century", ". After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland in the tenth century, Christianity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the kingdom.", "In the Norman period, from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, the Scottish church underwent a series of reforms and transformations. With royal and lay patronage, a clearer parochial structure based around local churches was developed. Large numbers of new monastic foundations, which followed continental forms of reformed monasticism, began to predominate", ". The Scottish church also established its independence from England, developing a clear diocesan structure and becoming a \"special daughter of the see of Rome\", but continued to lack Scottish leadership in the form of Archbishops.", "In the late Middle Ages the problems of schism in the Catholic Church allowed the Scottish Crown to gain greater influence over senior appointments and two archbishoprics had been established by the end of the fifteenth century. Historians have discerned a decline in traditional monastic life in the late Middle Ages, but the mendicant orders of friars grew, particularly in the expanding burghs, emphasised preaching and ministering to the population. New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated", ". New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated. Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the fourteenth century, and evidence of heresy in the fifteenth century, the church in Scotland remained stable before the Reformation in the sixteenth century.", "Early Middle Ages\n\nEarly Christianisation", "Before the Middle Ages, most of the population of what is now Scotland practised a form of Celtic polytheism. Evidence of Christian symbols and the destruction of the shrines of other religions, suggest that Roman occupation brought Christianity to the north of Britannia (the name they gave to the province under their control in the southern part of the island). From there it may have spread to parts of what they called Caledonia (roughly corresponding to what is now Scotland)", ". After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century, four major circles of influence emerged in Northern Britain. In the east were the Picts, whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the river Forth to Shetland. In the west were the Gaelic (Goidelic)-speaking people of Dál Riata, who had close links with Ireland, from where they brought with them the name Scots", ". In the south were the British (Brythonic-speaking) descendants of the peoples of the Roman-influenced kingdoms of \"The Old North\", the most powerful and longest surviving of which was the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Finally, there were the English or \"Angles\", Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia (later the northern part of Northumbria), which reached into what are now the Borders of Scotland in the south-east", ". While the Picts and Scots would have remained pagan, most scholars presume that Christianity would have survived after the departure of the Romans among the Brythonic enclaves, but retreated as the pagan Anglo-Saxons advanced.", "The Christianisation of Scotland was carried out by Irish-Scots missionaries and to a lesser extent those from Rome and England. Richard Fletcher argued that motivations may have included the example of St. Patrick, the idea of Peregrinatio and a growing interest in evangelism. In the sixth century missionaries from Ireland were operating on the British mainland. This movement is traditionally associated with the figures of St Ninian, St Kentigern and St Columba", ". Ninian is now regarded as a later construct and may have been the result of scribal confusion with the Irish saint Finnian. There was a church dedicated to him at Whithorn in the sixth century and from there St Kentigern seems to have created a new centre of worship at Govan or Inchinnan, from where Christian influence extended across the Strathclyde region. St Columba was probably a disciple of Finnian", ". St Columba was probably a disciple of Finnian. He left Ireland after being exiled, and founded the monastery at Iona off the west coast of Scotland in 563. From there missions were carried out to western Argyll and the islands around Mull. Later the influence of Iona would extend to the Hebrides. In the seventh century, St. Aidan went from Iona to found a church at Lindisfarne off the east coast of Northumbria", ". Aidan went from Iona to found a church at Lindisfarne off the east coast of Northumbria. The influence of Lindisfarne would spread through the kingdom of Northumbria into what is now south-east Scotland. The result was a series of overlapping and informally organised churches. Iona emerged as the most important religious centre, partly as a result of the work of Adomnan, who was abbot there from 679 to 704", ". Although it is unclear whether the historic Columba did conduct missions outside of a small part of Dál Riata, Adomnan's Life of St. Columba elevated him to become the apostle of North Britain in general.", "The means and speed by which the Picts converted to Christianity is uncertain. The process may have begun early. Evidence for this includes the fact that St. Patrick, active in the fifth century, referred in a letter to \"apostate Picts\", indicating that they had previously been Christian, but had abandoned the faith. In addition the poem Y Gododdin, set in the early sixth century and probably written in what is now Scotland, does not remark on the Picts as pagans", ". Conversion of the Pictish élite seems likely to have run over a considerable period, beginning in the fifth century and not complete until the seventh and conversion of the general population may have stretched into the eighth century.", "Among the key indicators of Christianisation are cemeteries containing long cists which are generally east-west in orientation. These cemeteries are suspected, or known to be Christian, because of their proximity to a church, or because of Christian inscriptions found in them. They are found for between the end of the Roman era in the early fifth century and the twelfth century. They are concentrated strongly in eastern Scotland south of the River Tay, in the modern East and Borders of Scotland", ". Most scholars agree that the place-name element eccles-, from the Brythonic word for church, represents evidence of the British church of the Roman and immediate post-Roman period. Most of these in Scotland are located in the south of the country. From the fifth and sixth centuries, inscribed stones indicate Christianity through their dedications and are spread across southern Scotland. The earliest is the so-called Latinus stone of Whithorn, dating to c. 450", ". The earliest is the so-called Latinus stone of Whithorn, dating to c. 450. In the east and north, Class II Pictish stones began to show Christian symbolism from the early eighth century.", "Early church buildings may originally have been wooden, like that excavated at Whithorn, but of those for which evidence survives from this era are basic masonry-built churches, beginning on the west coast and islands and spreading south and east. Early chapels tended to have square ended converging walls, similar to Irish chapels of this period", ". Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England, with many churches remaining simple oblongs, without transepts and aisles, and often without towers. In the Highlands they were often even simpler, many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings.", "Celtic Christianity", "The Celtic Church is a term that has been used by scholars to describe a specific form of Christianity with its origins in the conversion of Ireland, traditionally associated with St. Patrick. This form of Christianity later spread to northern Britain through Iona. It is also used as a general description for the Christian establishment of northern Britain prior to the twelfth century, when new religious institutions and ideologies of primarily French origin began to take root in Scotland", ". The Celtic form of Christianity has been contrasted with that derived from missions from Rome, which reached southern England in 587 under the leadership of St. Augustine of Canterbury. Subsequent missions from Canterbury then helped convert the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, reaching Northumbria in the early eighth century, where Iona had already begun to have a presence. As a result, Christianity in Northumbria became a mix of Celtic and Roman influences.", "While Roman and Celtic Christianity were very similar in doctrine and both accepted ultimate papal authority, there were differences in practice. The most contentious were the method of calculating Easter, and the form of head shaving for priests known as tonsure. Other differences were in the rites of ordination and baptism, and in the form of service of the liturgy", ". In addition scholars have identified significant characteristics of the organisation of Irish and Scottish Christianity as relaxed ideas of clerical celibacy, intense secularisation of ecclesiastical institutions, and the lack of a diocesan structure. This made abbots (or coarbs), rather than bishops, the most important element the church hierarchy.", "In the seventh century the Northumbrian church was increasingly influenced by the Roman form of Christianity. The careers of St. Wilfred (active from the 660s until his death in 709), abbot of the monastery at Ripon and Bishop of Northumbria, and Benedict Biscop (c. 628–690), founder of the monasteries of Jarrow and Wearmouth, intensified ties with Rome", ". 628–690), founder of the monasteries of Jarrow and Wearmouth, intensified ties with Rome. Wilfred was the major spokesman for the Roman case at the Synod of Whitby in 664, which was called by king Oswiu of Northumbria to decide which form of observance would be used in his kingdom, and where he decided in favour of the Roman form of tonsure and of calculating Easter. In this period the Kingdom of Northumbria was expanding into what is now Lowland Scotland", ". In this period the Kingdom of Northumbria was expanding into what is now Lowland Scotland. A bishopric established at Abercorn in the region of West Lothian, is presumed to have adopted Roman forms of Christianity after the Synod of Whitby. However, the Pictish victory at the Battle of Dunnichen in 685, ended the Northumbrian dominance of the region and the Bishop and his followers were ejected", ". Nechtan mac Der-Ilei, king of the Picts from 706, seems to have attempted to establish links with the church in Northumbria. Before 714 he wrote to Ceolfrith, abbot of Wearmouth, asking for a formal refutation of the Irish position over the calculation of the date of Easter and for help in building a stone church \"in the manner of the Romans\". A. A. M. Duncan has suggested that there was a \"Romanising group\" among Nechtan's clergy, perhaps led by Bishop Curitan, who took the name Latin name Boniface", ". This is also suggested by the presence of a church at Rosemarkie in Ross and Cromarty, dedicated to St Peter, seen as the first Bishop of Rome, by the early eighth century, and subsequent similar dedications in Pictish territory.", "By the mid-eighth century, Iona and Ireland had accepted Roman practices. Iona's place as the centre of Scottish Christianity was disrupted by the arrival of the Vikings, first as raiders, then as conquerors. Iona was sacked by Vikings 795 and 802. In 806 68 monks were killed and the next year the abbot withdrew to Kells in Ireland, taking the relics of St. Columba with him. There were periodic returns of abbots and relics, often ending in more massacres", ". Columba with him. There were periodic returns of abbots and relics, often ending in more massacres. Orkney, Shetland, Western Isles and the Hebrides eventually fell to the Pagan Norsemen, curtailing the influence of the church in the Highlands and Islands. The threat posed by the Vikings may have forced a union between the kingdoms of Dál Riata and the Picts under Kenneth mac Alpin, traditionally dated to 843", ". In 849, according to the Annals of Ulster the abbot of Iona once again took Columba's relics to Ireland, but the earliest version of the Chronicles of the Kings of Scots says that in the same year they were removed by Kenneth mac Alpin, to a church he had built, probably at Dunkeld, perhaps indicating that the relics were divided. The abbot of the new monastery at Dunkeld emerged as the Bishop of the new combined Kingdom of Alba, which would subsequently come to be known as the Kingdom of Scotland.", "Early monasticism", "While there were a series of reforms of monasticism in continental Europe and England, particularly those associated with Cluny in France from the tenth century, Scotland remained largely unaffected these until the late eleventh century. Physically Scottish monasteries differed significantly from those on the continent, and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall. The Irish architectural influence can be seen in surviving round towers at Brechin and Abernethy", ". The Irish architectural influence can be seen in surviving round towers at Brechin and Abernethy. Some early Scottish establishments had dynasties of abbots, who were often secular clergy with families, most famously at Dunkeld and Brechin; but these also existed across Scotland north of the Forth, as at Portmahomack, Mortlach, and Abernethy. Perhaps in reaction to this secularisation, a reforming movement of monks called Céli Dé (lit", ". Perhaps in reaction to this secularisation, a reforming movement of monks called Céli Dé (lit. \"vassals of God\"), anglicised as culdees, began in Ireland and spread to Scotland in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. Some Céli Dé took vows of chastity and poverty and while some lived individually as hermits, others lived beside or within existing monasteries", ". In most cases, even after the introduction of new forms of reformed monasticism from the eleventh century, these Céli Dé were not replaced and the tradition continued in parallel with the new foundations until the thirteenth century.", "Scottish monasticism played a major part in the Hiberno-Scottish mission, by which Scottish and Irish clergy undertook missions to the expanding Frankish Empire. They founded monasteries, often called Schottenklöster (meaning Gaelic monasteries in German), most of which became Benedictine establishments in what is now Germany. Scottish monks, such as St Cathróe of Metz, became local saints in the region.\n\nHigh Middle Ages\n\nConversion of Scandinavian Scotland", "While the official conversion of Scandinavian Scotland took place at the end of the tenth century, there is evidence that Christianity had already made inroads into the Viking controlled Highland and Islands. There are a large number of isles called Pabbay or Papa in the Western and Northern Isles, which may indicate a \"hermit's\" or \"priest's isle\" from this period", ". Changes in patterns of grave goods and Viking place names using -kirk also suggest that the Christianity had begun to spread before the official conversion. According to the Orkneyinga Saga, not written down until around 1230, the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson, king of Norway, in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned the local jarl Sigurd the Stout and said \"I order you and all your subjects to be baptised", ". If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel\". The story may be apocryphal, but the islands became officially Christian, receiving their own bishop in the early eleventh century. The bishopric appears to have been under the authority of the Archbishops of York and of Hamburg-Bremen at different points before the twelfth century and from then until 1472 it was subordinate to the Archbishop of Nidaros (today's Trondheim)", ". Elsewhere in Scandinavian Scotland the record is less clear. There was a Bishop of Iona until the late tenth century, followed by a gap of more than a century, possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney, before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079. One of the major effects of the conversion of the Vikings was to bring an end to plundering raids on Christian sites, which may have allowed them to recover some of their status as cultural and intellectual centres", ". It also probably curbed the excesses of Viking violence and led to a more settled society in northern Scotland.", "Reformed monasticism", "The introduction of continental forms of monasticism to Scotland is associated with Saxon princess Queen Margaret (c. 1045–93), the second wife of Máel Coluim III (r. 1058–93), although her exact role is unclear. It is known that she was in communication with Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, and he provided a few monks for a new Benedictine abbey at Dunfermline (c. 1070). Subsequent foundations under Margaret's sons, Edgar (r. 1097–1107), Alexander (r. 1107–24) and particularly David I (r", ". 1097–1107), Alexander (r. 1107–24) and particularly David I (r. 1124–53), tended to be of the reformed type that followed the lead set by Cluny Abbey in the Loire from the late tenth century. Most belonged to the new religious orders that originated in France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These stressed the original Benedictine virtues, but also contemplation and service of the Mass and were followed in various forms by reformed Benedictine, Augustinian and Cistercian houses", ". This period also saw the introduction of more sophisticated forms of church architecture that had become common on the Continent and in England, known collectively as Romanesque. These used rectangular ashlar blocks that allowed massive reinforced walls and round arches that could bear the weight of rounded barrel vault roofs and could incorporate refined architectural moulding and detailing.", "The Augustinians, dedicated to the Order of Saint Augustine and founded in northern Italy in the eleventh century, established their first priory in Scotland at Scone, with the sponsorship by Alexander I in 1115. By the early thirteenth century Augustinians had settled alongside, taken over or reformed Céli Dé establishments at St Andrews, St Serf's Inch, Inchcolm, Inchmahome, Inchaffray, Restenneth and Iona, and had created numerous new establishments, such as Holyrood Abbey", ". The Cistercians, originating from the village of Cîteaux, near Dijon in eastern France, achieved two important Scottish foundations, at Melrose (1136) and Dundrennan (1142), and the Tironensians, named after the location of the mother abbey Tiron Abbey near Chartres in France, achieved foundations at Selkirk, then Kelso, Arbroath, Lindores and Kilwinning", ". Cluniacs founded an abbey at Paisley, the Premonstratensians, originating at Prémontré near Laon in Picardy, had foundations at Whithorn and the Valliscaulians, named after their first monastery at Val-des-Choux in Burgundy, at Pluscarden. The military orders entered Scotland under David I, with the Knights Templer founding Balantrodoch in Midlothian and the Knights Hospitallers being given Torphichen, West Lothian.", "Cult of Saints", "Like every other Christian country, one of the main features of Medieval Scotland was the Cult of Saints. Saints of Irish origin who were particularly revered included various figures called St Faelan and St. Colman, and saints Findbar and Finan. Columba remained a major figure into the fourteenth century and a new foundation was endowed by William I (r. 1165–1214) at Arbroath Abbey. His relics, contained in the Monymusk Reliquary, were handed over to the Abbot's care", ". His relics, contained in the Monymusk Reliquary, were handed over to the Abbot's care. Regional saints remained important to local identities. In Strathclyde the most important saint was St Kentigern, whose cult (under the pet name St. Mungo) became focused in Glasgow. In Lothian it was St Cuthbert, whose relics were carried across Northumbria after Lindisfarne was sacked by the Vikings before being installed in Durham Cathedral", ". After his martyrdom around 1115, a cult emerged in Orkney, Shetland and northern Scotland around Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney. One of the most important cults in Scotland, that of St Andrew, was established on the east coast at Kilrymont by the Pictish kings as early as the eighth century", ". The shrine, which from the twelfth century was said to have contained the relics of the saint brought to Scotland by Saint Regulus, began to attract pilgrims from across Scotland, but also from England and further away. By the twelfth century the site at Kilrymont had become known simply as St. Andrews and it became increasingly associated with Scottish national identity and the royal family", ". Andrews and it became increasingly associated with Scottish national identity and the royal family. Its bishop would supplant that of Dunkeld as the most important in the kingdom and would begin to be referred to as Bishop of Alba. The site was renewed as a focus for devotion with the patronage of Queen Margaret, who also became important after her canonisation in 1250 and after the ceremonial transfer of her remains to Dunfermline Abbey, as one of the most revered national saints", ". In the late Middle Ages the \"international\" cults, particularity those centred on the Virgin Mary and Christ, but also St Joseph, St. Anne, the Three Kings and the Apostles, would become more significant in Scotland.", "Organisation", "Before the twelfth century, in contrast to England, there were few parish churches in Scotland. Churches had collegiate bodies of clergy who served over a wide area, often tied together by devotion to a particular missionary saint. From this period local lay landholders, perhaps following the example of David I, began to adopt the continental practice of building churches on their property for the local population and endowing them with land and a priest", ". The foundation of these churches began in the south, spreading to the north-east and then the west, being almost universal by the first survey of the Scottish Church for papal taxation in 1274. The administration of these parishes was often given over to local monastic institutions in a process known as appropriation. By the time of the Reformation in the mid-sixteenth century 80 per cent of Scottish parishes were appropriated.", "Before the Norman period, Scotland had little clear diocesan structure. There were bishoprics based on various ancient churches, but some are very obscure in the records and there appear to be long vacancies. From around 1070, in the reign of Malcolm III, there was a \"Bishop of Alba\" resident at St. Andrews, but it is not clear what authority he had over the other bishops. After the Norman Conquest of England, the Archbishops of both Canterbury and York each claimed superiority over the Scottish church", ". When David I secured the appointment of John, a Tironensian monk, as Bishop of Glasgow around 1113, Thurstan Archbishop of York demanded the new bishop's submission. A long running dispute followed, with John travelling to Rome to unsuccessfully appeal his case before pope Calixtus II. John continued to withhold his submission despite papal pressure to do so. A new bishopric of Carlisle was created in what is now northern England, claimed as part of the Glasgow diocese and as territory by David I", ". In 1126 a new bishop was appointed to the southern Diocese of Galloway based at Whithorn, who offered his submission to York, a practice which would continue until the fifteenth century. David sent John to Rome to lobby for the Bishop of St. Andrew's to be made an independent archbishop. At one point David and his bishops threatened to transfer their allegiance to the anti-pope Anacletus II", ". When Bishop John died in 1147 David was able to appoint another Tironensian monk, Herbert abbot of Kelso, as his successor and submission to York continued to be withheld. The church in Scotland attained independent status after the Papal Bull of Celestine III (Cum universi, 1192) by which all Scottish bishoprics except Galloway became formally independent of York and Canterbury", ". However, unlike Ireland which had been granted four Archbishoprics in the same century, Scotland received no Archbishop and the whole Ecclesia Scoticana, with individual Scottish bishoprics (except Whithorn/Galloway), became the \"special daughter of the see of Rome\". It was run by special councils made up of all the Scottish bishops, with the bishop of St Andrews emerging as the most important figure.", "Late Middle Ages\n\nChurch and politics", "Late Medieval religion had its political aspects. Robert I carried the brecbennoch (or Monymusk reliquary), said to contain the remains of St. Columba, into battle at Bannockburn. In the Papal Schism (1378–1417), the Scottish church and crown sided with the Avignon Popes, beginning with Clement VII, along with France and other countries, while nations including England and the Holy Roman Empire sided with the Roman popes beginning with Urban VI", ". In 1383, Clement VII appointed Scotland's first cardinal, Walter Wardlaw, Bishop of Glasgow. The withdrawal of France from support of Clement's successor Benedict XIII created problems for Scottish clergy attending French universities and necessitated the creation of Scotland's first university at St. Andrews from 1411–13. Scotland was one of the last churches to abandon Benedict in favour of the compromise pope, Martin V, proposed by the Council of Constance (1414–28)", ". In the subsequent debates over Conciliarism and the authority of the pope, between those who backed the church council as the ultimate authority in the Church, and those that backed the papacy, divisions in loyalty mirrored political divisions in the country and Church. King James I and his chancellor John Cameron, Archbishop of Glasgow, became conciliarists and William Croyser, Archdeacon of Teviotdale, the leading opponent of Cameron, became a papalist", ". After his accession, James II backed the Pope, while the Douglases, who had dominated politics in the years after James I's death, backed the conciliar movement.", "As elsewhere in Europe, the collapse of papal authority in the Papal Schism allowed the Scottish Crown to gain effective control of major ecclesiastical appointments within the kingdom. This de facto authority over appointments was formally recognised by the Papacy in 1487. This led to the placement of clients and relatives of the king in key positions, including James IV's illegitimate son Alexander, who was nominated as Archbishop of St", ". Andrews at the age of 11, intensifying royal influence and also opening the Church to accusations of venality and nepotism. James IV used his pilgrimages to Tain and Whithorn to help bring the respective regions of Ross and Galloway, which lay on the edges of the kingdom, under royal authority. Relationships between the Scottish Crown and the Papacy were generally good, with James IV receiving tokens of papal favour", ". In 1472 St Andrews became the first archbishopric in the Scottish church, to be followed by Glasgow in 1492.", "Popular religion", "Traditional Protestant historiography tended to stress the corruption and unpopularity of the late Medieval Scottish church, but more recent research has indicated the ways in which it met the spiritual needs of different social groups. Historians have discerned a decline of monastic life in this period, with many religious houses keeping smaller numbers of monks, and those remaining often abandoning communal living for a more individual and secular lifestyle", ". The rate of new monastic endowments from the nobility also declined in the fifteenth century. In contrast, the burghs saw the flourishing of mendicant orders of friars in the later fifteenth century, who, unlike the older monastic orders, placed an emphasis on preaching and ministering to the population. The order of Observant Friars were organised as a Scottish province from 1467 and the older Franciscans and the Dominicans were recognised as separate provinces in the 1480s.", "In most Scottish burghs, in contrast to English towns where churches and parishes tended to proliferate, there was usually only one parish church, but as the doctrine of Purgatory gained importance in the period, the number of chapelries, priests and masses for the dead within them, designed to speed the passage of souls to Heaven, grew rapidly. The number of altars dedicated to saints, who could intercede in this process, also grew dramatically, with St", ". Mary's in Dundee having perhaps 48 and St Giles' in Edinburgh over 50. The number of saints celebrated in Scotland also proliferated, with about 90 being added to the missal used in St Nicholas church in Aberdeen. New cults of devotion connected with Jesus and the Virgin Mary began to reach Scotland in the fifteenth century, including the Five Wounds, the Holy Blood and the Holy Name of Jesus", ". There were also new religious feasts, including celebrations of the Presentation, the Visitation and Mary of the Snows.", "In the early fourteenth century the Papacy managed to minimise the problem of clerical pluralism, by which clerics held two or more livings, which elsewhere resulted in parish churches being without priests, or serviced by poorly trained and paid vicars and clerks. However, the number of poor clerical livings and a general shortage of clergy in Scotland, particularly after the Black Death, meant that in the fifteenth century the problem intensified", ". As a result, parish clergy were largely drawn from the lower and less educated ranks of the profession, leading to frequent complaints about their standards of education or ability. Although there is little clear evidence that standards were declining, this would be one of the major grievances of the Reformation. Heresy, in the form of Lollardry, began to reach Scotland from England and Bohemia in the early fifteenth century. Lollards were followers of John Wycliffe (c. 1330–84) and later Jan Hus (c", ". Lollards were followers of John Wycliffe (c. 1330–84) and later Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415), who called for reform of the Church and rejected its doctrine on the Eucharist. Despite evidence of a number of burnings of heretics and limited popular support for its anti-sacramental elements, it probably remained a small movement", ". There were also further attempts to differentiate Scottish liturgical practice from that in England, with a printing press established under royal patent in 1507 to replace the English Sarum Use for services.", "Notes", "References\n Barrow, G.W.S., The Kingdom of the Scots (Edinburgh, 2003).\n Barrow, G.W.S., Kingship and Unity: Scotland, 1000–1306 (Edinburgh. 1981).\n Broun, Dauvit and Clancy, Thomas Owen (eds.),Spes Scottorum: Hope of the Scots (Edinburgh, 1999).\n Clancy, Thomas Owen, \"The real St Ninian\", in The Innes Review, 52 (2001).\n Dumville, David N., \"St Cathróe of Metz and the Hagiography of Exoticism,\" in Irish Hagiography: Saints and Scholars, ed. John Carey et al. (Dublin, 2001), pp. 172–6.", "Foster, Sally, Picts, Gaels and Scots: Early Historic Scotland (London, 1996).\n Stringer, Keith J., “Reform Monasticism and Celtic Scotland,” in Edward J. Cowan and R. Andrew McDonald (eds), Alba: Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages (East Lothian, 2000), pp. 127–65", "Further reading\n Crawford, Barbara (ed.), Conversion And Christianity In The North Sea World (St Andrews, 1998)\n Crawford, Barbara (ed.), Scotland In Dark Age Britain (St Andrews, 1996)\n\nMedieval\n \nCatholic Church in Scotland" ]

[ "Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare is a 2016 first-person shooter video game developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision. It is the thirteenth installment in the Call of Duty series and was released worldwide for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One on November 4, 2016.", "Development of Infinite Warfare began during 2014. It is the first title by Infinity Ward under the new three-year development cycle for the Call of Duty series. The game's campaign is centered around a battle for the Solar System, which the Settlement Defense Front (SDF), a hostile force who are the main antagonists, are attempting to take over. The player takes control of Lieutenant Nick Reyes of the Special Combat Air Recon (SCAR)", ". The player takes control of Lieutenant Nick Reyes of the Special Combat Air Recon (SCAR). They have their own transforming fighter, named \"Jackal\", that they can customize as well as a central hub ship named Retribution.", "Infinite Warfares announcement trailer was noted for its strong negative reaction; it was the second-most-disliked video on YouTube at the time. Commentators attributed this to Call of Duty fans expressing frustration at the direction the series had taken, specifically that the game and its predecessors had futuristic settings", ". Nevertheless, the game received generally positive reviews upon release; it received praise for its gameplay, characters, and Zombies mode, but criticism for its multiplayer mode, while its single-player campaign received mixed opinions. It was named as Best Shooter at E3 by Game Informer and was nominated for several awards. Infinite Warfare underperformed in sales compared to previous Call of Duty titles, though it was both the top-selling game in the US and UK in November 2016.", "Special editions of Infinite Warfare were released with a remastered version of Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, entitled Call of Duty: Modern Warfare Remastered.\n\nGameplay\n\nCampaign", "Gameplay\n\nCampaign\n\nSimilar to the previous games in the series, Infinite Warfare is a first-person shooter. As the game introduces a new setting, outer space, new gameplay mechanics, such as zero-gravity environments, are included. Players are equipped with a boost pack, and a grappling hook, which allow players to move in these zero-gravity environments easily. As the game is set in space, players can visit different planets, satellites and asteroids in the Solar System.", "Assuming control of Captain Nick Reyes, a Tier 1 Special Operations pilot, players engage in aerial combat with enemies using his transforming fighter, the Jackal. Aerial combat is not on-rail, as players can freely control the Jackal with few limitations. According to Infinity Ward, both space combat, and the franchise's signature \"boots-on-the-ground\" gameplay are the game's key focuses. Transition between space combat and boots-on-the-ground combat is seamless with no loading screen.", "Players gain access to Retribution, a central hub world. In Retribution, players can view their progression, and start main campaign missions, and secondary quests called \"Ship Assaults\" which gives them cosmetic and customization items, upgrades to the Jackal, as well as new story details. Reyes also has a wrist computer, which allows him to hack into enemies' gadgets and machines such as robots. It can also be used to call in reinforcements at some campaign scenarios", ". It can also be used to call in reinforcements at some campaign scenarios. The game also features two new difficulty modes, Specialist and #YOLO, unlockable after initial completion of the campaign. In the former mode, health regeneration does not occur without Nano Shots, and weapons can be shot out from players' hands. Reyes' movement will be hindered if his legs are shot by enemies", ". Reyes' movement will be hindered if his legs are shot by enemies. In the latter mode, which also implements the same features from Specialist, when players die, they need to restart the game rather than restarting from checkpoints.", "Multiplayer", "Infinite Warfare introduces a major overhaul to the class system called the \"Combat Rigs\". Similar to the Specialist system in Black Ops III, there are six rigs in total, being Warfighter, Merc, FTL, Stryker, Phantom and Synaptic. All of which have different payloads, weapons, abilities and playstyles. For example, the Synaptic rig is designed for players who prefer to run and gun, while the Phantom rig is suited for players who want to play stealthily", ". Players can also gain access to several persistent perks, known as \"Traits\", which give players advantages in certain combat situations. Additionally, the game retains the chain-based momentum movement system of Black Ops III, allowing players to perform thrust jumps, sliding, and wallrunning.", "The game features hundreds of both primary and secondary weapons. Players can gain access to several types of weapons, including traditional ballistic weapons and melee weapons, futuristic energy weapons, and different kinds of grenades, such as the Seeker Grenade and the Black Hole Grenade. Players can add attachments on them to enhance their efficiency. The game also introduces a new weapon crafting system", ". The game also introduces a new weapon crafting system. In a multiplayer match, players earn \"Salvage\" points, which can be consumed to purchase Prototype Weapons, variants of existing in-game weapons. For each gun, there are four types of prototypes, classified into four groups, namely Common, Rare, Legendary and Epic, all of which grant players gameplay advantages known as the \"Gun Perks\". Scorestreaks return in Infinite Warfare for players who have earned sufficient points in a match", ". Scorestreaks return in Infinite Warfare for players who have earned sufficient points in a match. Scoresteaks offer players perks such as the ability to deploy UAV and counter-UAV, and the ability to summon a R-C8 robot, an armored robot designed to defend the player and kill other opponents.", "Zombies", "The game also features a cooperative multiplayer Zombies mode, which has its own gameplay mechanics and story, separate from the campaign. The mode is designed to be more accessible to new players, with new features such as sharing points and teambuy doors, as well as keeping the core gameplay of the mode intact, such as perks and power-ups", ". A new feature, Fate and Fortune Cards, is introduced similarly to the Gobblegums in Call of Duty: Black Ops III; the cards offer temporary boosts in-game to the players, but unlike Gobblegums they are activated through point earning, and players can select any of the five cards they have equipped at any time, not one at a time like the Gobblegum machine. After initial use of five cards, players can refill their card deck for a price up to two times in a match", ". Unlike the campaign and multiplayer modes, Zombies is not themed in space combat, and retains the normal movement system.", "Campaign\n\nCharacters and settings", "Infinite Warfare is set in the distant future, after Earth has been stripped of its natural resources as a result of population growth and industrial expansion, prompting the nations of the world to unite and form the United Nations Space Alliance (UNSA), a political organization that handles matters of trade, travel, land claims and all efforts relating to human space colonization", ". The residents of Earth rely on colonies established elsewhere in the Solar System in order to mine planets and asteroids for resources. The value of these outposts, however, attracts militant radicals who seek to control them, which could place the countries of Earth in a difficult position. In response, the UNSA is defended by the Solar Associated Treaty Organization (SATO), a coordinated military structure that defends Earth and the UNSA's holdings", ". Prior to the events of the game, a new hostile faction emerges on Mars, calling themselves the Settlement Defense Front (SDF), a totalitarian government consisting of former UNSA colonies that broke away during a previous war of secession. Following years of a troubled stalemate with the Front, relations have deteriorated to a point where the entire Solar System is poised on the brink of war.", "As the newly appointed captain of the UNSA Warship Retribution, Commander Nick Reyes (Brian Bloom), a Tier 1 Special Operations pilot of the Special Combat Air Recon (SCAR), is tasked to lead a crew to defeat the Settlement Defense Front on Earth, as well as journey to outer space and across other planets in the system using space-based fighter craft, referred to as Jackals, to stop the Front from taking over the entire Solar System", ". Assisting Reyes in the fight against the SDF are his mentor Admiral Fredrick Raines (John Marshall Jones), Reyes' wingman and best friend Lieutenant Nora Salter (Jamie Gray Hyder), his robot sidekick E3N \"Ethan\" (Jeffrey Nordling), and the SATO Marines including Staff Sergeant Usef Omar (David Harewood), Corporal Sean Brooks (Jason Barry) and Private Todd Kashima (Eric Ladin)", ". Other notable allies include Retribution Navigator Victor \"Gator\" Diallo (Omid Abtahi), Tigris warship captain Maureen Ferran (Claudia Christian), and Retribution Chief Engineer Audrey \"Mac\" MaCallum (Claudia Black). Facing Reyes and his allies in battle is the commander of the starship Olympus Mons, and leader of the SDF, Rear Admiral Salen Kotch (Kit Harington), and his senior commander Akeel Min Riah (Jim Pirri)", ". UFC fighter Conor McGregor makes a cameo appearance as SDF Captain Bradley Fillion, while Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton appears as Retribution Electro-technical Officer Carl Hamilton.", "Plot\nIn 2187, a UNSA space forces team is sent to a secret UNSA weapons research facility on Europa where a prototype weapon is being developed, resulting in the SDF seizing the installation. The UNSA team recover the prototype and initiate the facility's self-destruct, but are captured by the SDF and subsequently executed by one of the SDF's main commanders, Admiral Kotch.", "On Earth, Reyes expresses his opinion to Admiral Raines that the SDF attack is tantamount to a declaration of war and that the UNSA should be preparing a counterattack. However, Admiral Raines explains that the UNSA's leaders do not want to escalate the situation, especially during the Fleet Week celebrations where the entire UNSA fleet gathers at Geneva. Invited to enjoy the festivities, Reyes links up with his wingman Salter and is assigned the experimental E3N for evaluation", ". Suddenly, the UNSA's AATIS defense cannons, hijacked by the SDF, open fire on the assembled fleet; simultaneously, an SDF assault force invades Geneva. Reyes manages to fight his way to the AATIS control tower, where he shuts down the AATIS cannons and apprehends Riah, the SDF spy responsible for sabotaging them. Reyes then accompanies the surviving UNSA ships into orbit to oppose the attacking SDF fleet", ". Reyes then accompanies the surviving UNSA ships into orbit to oppose the attacking SDF fleet. The SDF's flagship, the Olympus Mons, suddenly arrives and destroys more UNSA ships before it is forced to retreat. The battle is a disaster for the UNSA, as only two ships survive the battle: the carrier Retribution, to which Reyes is assigned, and the destroyer Tigris.", "Upon landing on the Retribution, Reyes learns that both the ship's captain and the executive officer were killed in battle, leaving him as the highest-ranking officer of the ship and its de facto captain. Admiral Raines promotes Reyes to commander and orders him to retake the cargo port on the Moon from the SDF. After successfully liberating the Moon, Reyes is tasked with delaying the SDF for as long as possible until the UNSA can rebuild its fleet", ". At this point, Reyes can embark on a number of optional missions to attack key SDF targets, as well as a strategic refueling tower on Titan, crippling the SDF's fuel supply. Later, he is sent to investigate a disturbance at an asteroid mining station near Mercury, only to find it was a diversion while the SDF destroys the Tigris, leaving the Retribution as the sole remaining UNSA ship.", "Learning that Riah is carrying a beacon meant to signal the main SDF fleet to invade Earth, Reyes devises a plan to use the beacon to lure the SDF fleet right into the still-operational AATIS guns. The plan goes awry when Riah escapes, destroys the AATIS guns, and kills himself to trigger the beacon. The SDF arrives and the Olympus Mons destroys UNSA headquarters, killing Admiral Raines.", "With no other options, Reyes uses the opportunity to board and commandeer the Olympus Mons. Enraged, Kotch then sets his own ship to self-destruct by overloading the ship’s nuclear reactor to destroy Geneva to cripple SATO leadership. Reyes manages to fight his way to the bridge and kill Admiral Kotch, stopping the self-destruct sequence. He then takes the Olympus Mons and Retribution to Mars, where he intends to use the ship to destroy the SDF's orbital shipyard and cripple their fleet in return", ". While the attack is successful, the Olympus Mons is damaged to the point its weapons are inoperable, and with few other options, Reyes orders it to ram the shipyard. As a result, the Retribution also suffers damage and drifts into the Olympus Mons' flight path. Both warships crash onto the surface of Mars with the shipyard still intact.", "Realizing that there is no way for them to get back to Earth alive, Reyes rallies the survivors of the Retribution crew and leads them on one final assault on the shipyard. Most of the surviving crew are killed, but Reyes, Salter, Ethan and a few others make it to the shipyard, where they commandeer a destroyer. However, its weapons are disabled and the mooring clamps are locked", ". However, its weapons are disabled and the mooring clamps are locked. Ethan sacrifices himself to destroy the moorings while Reyes unlocks the destroyer's weapons and orders Salter to destroy the shipyard, despite him still remaining on it. Salter reluctantly opens fire, ejecting Reyes into space. He is able to watch the SDF shipyard explode before shrapnel from its destruction punctures his suit, causing him to suffocate.", "Some time later, the UNSA honors Reyes and the Retribution crew's sacrifice, stating that their destruction of the SDF shipyard was a decisive victory and that the SDF has been all but destroyed as a result. Salter, who is one of only four survivors from the Retribution, salutes a war memorial in Geneva listing the names of all of the UNSA soldiers who died in the conflict, including Reyes.\n\nDuring the credits, the recorded messages of some of the deceased Retribution crew may be heard.\n\nZombies", "Characters", "Infinite Warfare Zombies stars Ike Barinholtz, Jay Pharoah, Seth Green and Sasheer Zamata as the main protagonists of the story: Aaron \"A.J.\" Jordaniels, Andre Wright, Poindexter Zittermann and Sally Simpson. They initially appear as aspiring actors, who are trapped inside a series of horror films by director Willard Wyler (Paul Reubens), where they play out the role of the films' archetype characters", ". Throughout the season, the actors encounter various celebrity actors who are also trapped in each film, including: David Hasselhoff, Kevin Smith, Pam Grier, and Cassandra Peterson who reprises her role as Elvira, Mistress of the Dark. Jason Mewes has a minor voiceover role as himself, while Fred Tatasciore provides the voice of the demon Mephistopheles.", "Plot", "Some time before the events of the game, horror film director Willard Wyler lost his wife Alexandra to leukemia, causing a rift between him and his daughter Winona. At some point, Wyler made a deal with the demonic Mephistopheles, and unwillingly became a slave to him, forced to collect souls by sending them into alternate dimensions formed from his films, leading them to their deaths by the monsters of his creation", ". Over time, Wyler felt guilt for condemning countless victims, including Winona, to their doom, and secretly formed a plan to recruit actors who could enter his films and fight back, freeing Wyler from his prison and defeating Mephistopheles.", "After decades of elusive retirement, Wyler prepares for his comeback into the movie business. He invites four aspiring actors: A.J., Andre, Poindexter and Sally, to his theater for an audition, but unbeknownst to them, he intends to trap the four inside one of his own movies, \"Zombies in Spaceland\". The four actors find themselves in an 80's theme park, dressed as the archetypes of the era", ". The four actors find themselves in an 80's theme park, dressed as the archetypes of the era. As the four try to survive the oncoming zombie horde, they find unexpected help from famous actor David Hasselhoff, who has also been trapped in this movie for an unknown amount of time as his Knight Rider character Michael Knight. With Hasselhoff's aid, the four actors manage to fend off the undead, much to Wyler's chagrin, and discover a piece of an artifact known as the Soul Key", ". As the actors attempt to escape, they instead find themselves in another one of Wyler's films, \"Rave in the Redwoods\", set in a '90s campsite in the Redwood National and State Parks, where they go up against hordes of undead raver teenagers and sasquatches. As the actors traverse across the campsite, they encounter director Kevin Smith, who has also been trapped here for an amount of time with his friend Jason Mewes", ". Kevin reveals that Jason died prior to the actors' arrival in the film at the hands of the chainsaw-wielding Slasher, who lurks the campsite. The actors help Kevin recover his memory, and convince him to help them escape the film. However, the group soon uncovers through the memories that Jason, along with various other victims associated with Wyler, was killed by Kevin who was unknowingly the Slasher all along", ". Kevin, as he fully recovers his memories, is forced to transform into the Slasher to kill the actors, but is defeated.", "The actors retrieve the second piece of the Soul Key, and are immediately warped into Wyler's third film, \"Shaolin Shuffle\", set in the backdrop of a '70s New York City. The group, now dressed in 70s apparel, find help from actress Pam Grier, who operates a martial arts dojo in the film. Pam assists the actors in fighting Wyler's zombie horde, by giving them special martial arts skills and training", ". The group encounter Arthur McIntosh, a failed businessman who after consuming a mysterious chemical became the Rat King, capable of controlling sewer rats at his will. The actors and Pam battle McIntosh and manage to kill him, while also retrieving the third piece of the Soul Key.", "The four actors are then teleported into Wyler's fourth film, \"Attack of the Radioactive Thing\", set in a 1950s beach area affected by a radioactive experiment. The actors encounter horror film hostess Elvira, who is also trapped inside this film, and proceed to assist her in her plan to foil Wyler's scheme. Together, they battle against a combined force of zombies as well as mutant crab-frog fusions and a giant radioactive beast dubbed Crogzilla", ". The crew assemble a nuclear bomb and detonate it inside the Crogzilla's belly, blowing it to bits. They then retrieve the fourth piece of the Soul Key inside the Crogzilla's eye.", "The four actors are then teleported into the final film, \"The Beast from Beyond\", as they arrive at a futuristic military station on an ice planet, where they battle against the Cryptid aliens from the Extinction series, as well as a mixture of zombies from the previous four films. After fighting against a herd of Cryptids, the four retrieve the final piece of the Soul Key, and are seemingly teleported back to Wyler's theater, where he joyfully greets them", ". Without letting him explain himself, the four actors furiously send Wyler back into the Spaceland movie using his own method, but ultimately realize they have become slaves to the demon Mephistopheles in Wyler's place. Mephistopheles himself appears in front of the four actors, and threatens to consume their souls; the four then arm themselves for a final battle against the demon. After seemingly winning against him, the four are teleported back to the theater, but still find themselves unable to escape", ". In reality, it is revealed that they are already trapped inside the Soul Jar, which contains pocket universes representing the theater as well as each of Wyler's films. Meanwhile, Wyler enlists Hasselhoff's help in Spaceland once more in an attempt to escape the movie. He reunites with the four actors and reconciles with them as all five begin to plot their next move.", "Development and release", "In 2014, Activision announced a three-year development cycle for the Call of Duty series, in which Infinity Ward, Sledgehammer Games and Treyarch would take turns in releasing a Call of Duty video game every year so as to extend each game's development time. Infinite Warfare is the third and the last game in the first cycle, and it is the first video game developed by Infinity Ward since 2013's Call of Duty: Ghosts. Development for the game dates as far back as 2014", ". Development for the game dates as far back as 2014. According to Infinity Ward, the development team added many new ideas to the game, and put emphasis on the game's storytelling. The team chose space as the game's setting as they believed that it can introduce new environments to players. To make the game more realistic, Infinity Ward had consulted several military experts. The team also wants to start an Infinite Warfare sub-series.", "Reveal", "In February 2016, Activision announced that Infinity Ward would be the lead developer of 2016's Call of Duty game. Infinite Warfare was officially confirmed by Activision when they announced that the company would not have a booth at E3 2016, and that their products would be shown through their partner, Sony Interactive Entertainment. Activision teased the game with a video, titled \"Know Your Enemy\", and a new ending for Black Ops III'''s \"Nuk3town\" map, which shows a giant airship on top of the map", ". The game was leaked via PlayStation Store on April 26, and the first trailer was revealed unofficially via Hulu prior to the game's official announcement.", "In May 2016, Activision released the official announcement trailer for the game, a week after they trademarked the name of the game. The trailer of the game was officially revealed through a live-stream on Twitch. As part of the reveal, Activision ran a social media game using a Facebook chat bot, which tasks the player to decode a message", ". A remastered version of Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, entitled Modern Warfare Remastered, was released on PlayStation 4, Xbox One and PC alongside Infinite Warfare, only available with the purchase of either the Legacy, Digital Deluxe or Legacy Pro edition of Infinite Warfare. The first public piece of gameplay for the Infinite Warfare campaign was revealed as a trailer during the Sony press conference at E3 2016", ". A gameplay video of the \"Black Sky\" campaign mission was revealed at San Diego Comic-Con on July 21, 2016. Also revealed was the \"Terminal\" map pre-order bonus for customers who pre-ordered Infinite Warfare.", "In August 2016, Activision sent mysterious metal packages to YouTubers in the Call of Duty community. Each came with a combination lock and a countdown timer. A code was sent to all recipients to open the boxes once the timer reached 1 minute. Each box contained a variety of 80's-themed apparel, plus a cassette player and a VHS tape, which contained the reveal trailer for Zombies in Spaceland", ". An HD version of the trailer was released hours after, along with a reveal of the game's new mechanics, as well as the \"Zombies in Spaceland\" bonus preorder pack, which contains a weapon camouflage, an animated player card, as well as a \"Fate and Fortune Card Pack\" for use in the Zombies mode. The official reveal of Infinite Warfares multiplayer mode took place during the Call of Duty XP 2016 convention, which was held in early September 2016.", "Multiplayer beta \nA multiplayer beta for people who pre-ordered the PlayStation 4 version of the game began on October 14. An Xbox One beta began on October 21, and the PC version did not have a beta. The beta concluded on October 24.", "Downloadable content", "Players who purchased the season pass, whether it be separately or with certain special editions of the game, were to receive all four DLC packs for Infinite Warfare, released in four different waves during 2017, for a slightly discounted price (compared to that of all DLC packs purchased separately). Season pass holders were to also receive 1,000 Salvage credits, the game's in-game currency, and 10 rare quality supply drops at the game's launch", ". The first DLC pack, named Sabotage, was available to PS4 players on January 31, 2017, and to Xbox One and PC players on March 2, 2017. The pack includes the new Zombies map Rave in the Redwoods, as well as four new multiplayer maps: Noir, Renaissance, Neon, and Dominion (remade from the MW2 map Afghan)", ". The second map pack, Continuum, was released on PS4 on April 18, 2017, and on Xbox One and PC on May 18, 2017; the map pack includes four MP maps: Turista, Scrap, Archive, Excess (a remake of the MW2 map Rust), and one Zombies map, Shaolin Shuffle", ". The third map pack, Absolution, was released on PS4 on July 6, 2017, and on Xbox One and PC on August 8, 2017; the map pack features the Zombies map Attack of the Radioactive Thing and four MP maps: Permafrost, Fore, Bermuda and Ember (a remake of the MW3 map Resistance)", ". The final map pack, Retribution, will be released on PS4 on September 12, 2017, and features the final Zombies episode The Beast from Beyond, as well as four MP maps: Carnage, Altitude, Depot 22 and Heartland (a remake of the Ghosts map Warhawk).", "In addition to map packs, Infinite Warfare also feature announcer voice packs, replacing the regular voice over in multiplayer with other voices. A voice pack called \"UK Special Forces\" was released for free to all players, featuring the voice of actor Craig Fairbrass (also known for his role as Gaz in Modern Warfare, Ghost in Modern Warfare 2, Wallcroft in Modern Warfare 3, and Tee in Infinite Warfare)", ". Other voice packs feature various celebrities, including rapper Method Man, YouTuber Ozzy Man Reviews, and comedian Ken Jeong.", "Reception", "Pre-release", "Upon release of the initial trailer, the game was heavily criticized by the community for being too futuristic. The consensus held was that this had stemmed from frustration with the current direction of the franchise, as consecutive installments released in the past few years had been set in future settings and narratives. In response to the criticism, Activision CEO Eric Hirshberg stated that he knew \"that there are people in our community who are nostalgic for the 'boots-on-the-ground-style gameplay' ..", "... [but] ... we also have millions of people in our community who want to have new innovative experiences in the game each year and Infinite Warfare is going to deliver that.\" He also stated that Call of Duty: Black Ops II, whose trailer also received its fair share of dislikes, would go on to become the best-selling Call of Duty game at the time. , the trailer has received more than 3.95 million dislikes and is the 25th-most-disliked video on YouTube.", "Despite its pre-release criticism, Infinite Warfare was named Best Shooter at E3 by Game Informer. At the 2016 Game Critics Awards for the best of E3, the game was nominated for Best Action Game, but lost to rival game Battlefield 1.", "Post-releaseCall of Duty: Infinite Warfare received \"generally favorable\" reviews for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, while the PC version received \"mixed or average\" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.IGN gave the game a 7.7 out of 10 stating; \"Despite its shift to interplanetary combat, Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare is a generally fun but inessential shooter", ".\" Trusted Reviews awarded Infinite Warfare 4 and a half out of 5 stars, reasoning; \"A solid campaign and the excellent \"Zombies\" mode will see people stick around for a good while\".", "The single-player campaign received mixed reviews. Trusted Reviews praised it as the latest example of the improving quality of Call of Duty campaigns in recent years, complimenting the \"immersive experience\" thanks to an almost complete lack of loading screens, although they felt the narrative was \"a bit thin\". GamesRadar+ praised the dark and realistic tone, and thought the game was a departure from the typical sense of heroism in the series", ". Game Informer thought that Infinite Warfare still included some of the series' usual elements but carried greater emotional weight than its predecessors. The story and characters received particular praise; Polygon and GameRevolution write the characters were the \"strongest\" and \"most memorable\" in the series, with Polygon feeling the writing for a Call of Duty campaign had never been bettered. IGN appreciated the dialogue and cast performances", ". IGN appreciated the dialogue and cast performances. GameSpot also praised the characters and compared the game's structure to a film, in contrast to past installments that felt like an episodic series", ".EGM, however, panned the narrative as one of the worst they'd experienced in some time; they criticized the characterization of Kotch and Kit Harrington's \"lifeless acting\", as well as the supporting characters' arcs that they felt were \"rushed to an uncomfortable degree\"; both EGM and IGN highlighted an example when Omar expresses his dislike of Ethan, but has bonded with him without explanation by the next mission", ". IGN wrote the campaign was \"slow and plodding\" and only marginally better than Call of Duty: Ghosts, which they saw as a low point of the franchise. Destructoid called the campaign \"average\", thinking only fans of Mass Effect and sci-fi would be swayed by it.Game Informer was pleased from a perception that the \"frenetic\" movement of gameplay in recent Call of Duty installments had been toned down for Infinite Warfare and harkened back to the series' older style", ". While EGM enjoyed the variety of gameplay in space, they felt that at times it was unclear as to where the player was meant to go or what their objectives were. Destructoid felt that some of the gadgets used in the game were more entertaining in multiplayer. The game's multiplayer was criticized by Trusted Reviews, writing they were saddened that it was not on par with previous entries.", "SalesInfinite Warfare sold 1.8 million copies in its first week in US. However, overall sales were down 50% compared to 2015's Call of Duty: Black Ops III. Activision was reported to be expecting sales to be down due to the fact that Infinite Warfare was going to be a \"new sub-series\" and that the Black Ops name carried brand weight with it. Despite slow initial sales, Infinite Warfare'' was the top-selling game in the US in November 2016", ". Despite slow initial sales, Infinite Warfare'' was the top-selling game in the US in November 2016. Activision reported in February 2017 that the game missed their sales expectations with one of the reasons cited being that the game \"didn't resonate with fans\".", "The PlayStation 4 version sold 105,764 copies within its first week on sale in Japan, making it the bestselling game of the week in the country.\n\nAccolades\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "2016 video games\nAdvertising and marketing controversies\nFiction about asteroid mining\nInfinite Warfare\nFirst-person shooters\nScience fiction shooter video games\nMultiplayer and single-player video games\nOverpopulation fiction\nPlayStation 4 games\nPlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games\nScience fiction video games\nVideo games about space warfare\nVideo games developed in the United States\nVideo games scored by Sarah Schachner\nVideo games set in Switzerland\nVideo games set in Tokyo\nVideo games set on Mars", "Video games set in Switzerland\nVideo games set in Tokyo\nVideo games set on Mars\nVideo games set on the Moon\nVideo games set on Titan (moon)\nVideo games set in California\nVideo games set in New York City\nVideo games set in Venice\nVideo games set in Italy\nVideo games set in Bermuda\nVideo games set in Chicago\nVideo games set in Russia\nVideo games set in the 22nd century\nWindows games\nXbox One games\nSpace combat simulators\nVideo games about zombies\nXbox One X enhanced games\nMilitary science fiction video games", "Video games about zombies\nXbox One X enhanced games\nMilitary science fiction video games\nInfinity Ward games" ]

[ "Left-hand traffic (LHT) and right-hand traffic (RHT) are the practices, in bidirectional traffic, of keeping to the left side and to the right side of the road, respectively. They are fundamental to traffic flow, and are sometimes called the rule of the road. The terms right- and left-hand drive refer to the position of the driver and the steering wheel in the vehicle and are, in automobiles, the reverse of the terms right- and left-hand traffic", ". The rule also includes where on the road a vehicle is to be driven, if there is room for more than one vehicle in the one direction, and the side on which the vehicle in the rear overtakes the one in the front. For example, a driver in an LHT country would typically overtake on the right of the vehicle being overtaken.", "RHT is used in 165 countries and territories, mainly in the Americas, Continental Europe, northern Africa and mainland Asia (except South Asia), while 75 countries use LHT, which account for about a sixth of the world's land area, a quarter of its roads, and about a third of its population. In 1919, 104 of the world's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. Between 1919 and 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT.", "Many of the countries using LHT were part of the British Empire, while others, including Indonesia, Japan, Thailand, Mozambique, Suriname, and Sweden and Iceland (which use RHT since September 1967 and late May 1968 respectively), were not. Most of the countries that were part of the French colonial empire adopted RHT.", "In LHT, traffic keeps left and cars usually have the steering wheel on the right (RHD: right-hand drive) and roundabouts circulate clockwise. RHT is the opposite: traffic keeps right, the driver usually sits on the left side of the car (LHD: left-hand drive), and roundabouts circulate counterclockwise.", "In most countries, rail traffic follows the handedness of the roads; but many of the countries that switched road traffic from LHT to RHT did not switch their trains. Boat traffic on rivers is RHT, regardless of location. Boats are traditionally piloted from the starboard side to facilitate priority to the right.\n\nBackground", "Historically, many places kept left, while many others kept right, often within the same country. There are many myths that attempt to explain why one or the other is preferred. About 90 percent of people are right-handed, and many explanations reference this. Horses are traditionally mounted from the left, and led from the left, with the reins in the right hand. So people walking horses might use RHT, to keep the animals separated", ". So people walking horses might use RHT, to keep the animals separated. Also referenced is the need for pedestrians to keep their swords in the right hand and pass on the left as in LHT, for self-defence. It has been suggested that wagon-drivers whipped their horses with their right hand, and thus sat on the left-hand side of the wagon, as in RHT", ". Academic Chris McManus notes that writers have stated that in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left; however, others suggest that he directed them to keep to the right, and there is no documented evidence to back either claim.", "Europe", "In a study of the ancient traffic system of Pompeii, Eric Poehler was able to show that drivers of carts drove in the middle of the road whenever possible. This was the case even on roads wide enough for two lanes. The wear marks on the kerbstones, however, prove that when there were two lanes of traffic, and the volume of traffic made it necessary to divide the lanes, the drivers always drove on the right-hand side", ". These considerations can also be demonstrated in the archaeological findings of other cities in the Roman Empire.", "One of the first references in England to requiring traffic direction was an order by the London Court of Aldermen in 1669, requiring a man to be posted on London Bridge to ensure that \"all cartes going to keep on the one side and all cartes coming to keep on the other side\". It was later legislated as the London Bridge Act 1756 (29 Geo. 2 c. 40), which required that \"all carriages passing over the said bridge from London shall go on the east side thereof\" – those going south to remain on the east, i.e", ".e. the left-hand side by direction of travel. This may represent the first statutory requirement for LHT.", "In the Kingdom of Ireland, a law of 1793 (33 Geo. 3. c. 56 (Ir)) provided a ten-shilling fine to anyone not driving or riding on the left side of the road within the county of the city of Dublin, and required the local road overseers to erect written or printed notices informing road users of the law. The Road in Down and Antrim Act 1798 (38 Geo. 3. c. 28 (Ir)) required drivers on the road from Dublin to Donadea to keep to the left", ". 3. c. 28 (Ir)) required drivers on the road from Dublin to Donadea to keep to the left. This time, the punishment was ten shillings if the offender was not the owner of the vehicle, or one Irish pound (twenty shillings) if he/she was. The Grand Juries (Ireland) Act 1836 (6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 116) mandated LHT for the whole country, violators to be fined up to five shillings and imprisoned in default for up to one month.", "An oft-repeated story is that Napoleon changed the custom from LHT to RHT in France and the countries he conquered after the French Revolution. Scholars who have looked for documentary evidence of this story have found none, and contemporary sources have not surfaced, as of 1999. In 1827, long after Napoleon's reign, Edward Planta wrote that, in Paris, \"The coachmen have no established rule by which they drive on the right or left of the road, but they cross and jostle one another without ceremony.\"", "Rotterdam had no fixed rules until 1917, although the rest of the Netherlands was RHT. In May 1917 the police in Rotterdam ended traffic chaos by enforcing right hand traffic.\n\nIn Russia, in 1709, the Danish envoy under Tsar Peter the Great noted the widespread custom for traffic in Russia to pass on the right, but it was only in 1752 that Empress Elizabeth officially issued an edict for traffic to keep to the right.", "After the Austro-Hungarian Empire broke up, the resulting countries gradually changed to RHT. In Austria, Vorarlberg switched in 1921, North Tyrol in 1930, Carinthia and East Tyrol in 1935, and the rest of the country in 1938. In Romania, Transylvania, the Banat and Bukovina were LHT until 1919, while Wallachia and Moldavia were already RHT. Partitions of Poland belonging to the German Empire and the Russian Empire were RHT, while the former Austrian Partition changed in the 1920s", ". Croatia-Slavonia switched on joining the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1918, although Istria and Dalmatia were already RHT. The switch in Czechoslovakia from LHT to RHT had been planned for 1939, but was accelerated by the start of the German occupation of Czechoslovakia that year. Similarly, Hungary switched in 1941. West Ukraine was LHT, but the rest of Ukraine, having been part of the Russian Empire, was RHT.", "In Italy, it had been decreed in 1901 that each province define its own traffic code, including the handedness of traffic, and the 1903 Baedeker guide reported that the rule of the road varied by region. For example, in Northern Italy, the provinces of Brescia, Como, Vicenza, and Ravenna were RHT while nearby provinces of Lecco, Verona, and Varese were LHT, as were the cities Milan, Turin, and Florence", ". In 1915, allied forces of World War I imposed LHT in areas of military operation, but this was revoked in 1918. Rome was reported by Goethe as LHT in the 1780s. Naples was also LHT although surrounding areas were often RHT. In cities, LHT was considered safer since pedestrians, accustomed to keeping right, could better see oncoming vehicular traffic. Finally, in 1923 Benito Mussolini decreed that all LHT areas would gradually transition to RHT", ". Finally, in 1923 Benito Mussolini decreed that all LHT areas would gradually transition to RHT. In spite of this, some Italian heavy commercial vehicles were right-hand drive until the traffic code was changed in 1959.", "Portugal switched to RHT in 1928.\n\nFinland, formerly part of LHT Sweden, switched to RHT in 1858 as the Grand Duchy of Finland by Russian decree.", "Sweden switched to RHT in 1967, having been LHT from about 1734 despite having land borders with RHT countries Norway and Finland, and approximately 90% of cars being left-hand drive (LHD). A referendum in 1955 overwhelmingly rejected a change to RHT, but, a few years later, the government ordered it and it occurred on Sunday, 3 September 1967 at 5 am. The accident rate then dropped sharply, but soon rose to near its original level. The day was known as Högertrafikomläggningen, or Dagen H for short.", "When Iceland switched to RHT the following year, it was known as Hægri dagurinn or H-dagurinn (\"The H-Day\"). Most passenger cars in Iceland were already LHD.", "The United Kingdom is LHT, but two of its overseas territories, Gibraltar and the British Indian Ocean Territory, are RHT. In the late 1960s, the British Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built-up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.", "Today, four countries in Europe continue to use LHT, all island nations: the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Cyprus and Malta (both former British colonies).", "Africa", "The U.K. introduced LHT in the East Africa Protectorate (present-day Kenya), the Protectorate of Uganda, Tanganyika (formerly part of German East Africa; present-day Tanzania), Rhodesia (present-day Zambia/Zimbabwe), Eswatini and the Cape Colony (present-day South Africa and Lesotho), as well as in British West Africa (present-day Ghana, Gambia, Sierra Leone and Nigeria); former British West Africa, however, has now switched to RHT, as all its neighbours, which are former French colonies, use RHT", ". South Africa, formerly the Cape Colony, introduced LHT in former German South West Africa, present-day Namibia, after the end of World War I.", "Sudan, formerly part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, switched to RHT in 1973, as most of its neighbours were RHT countries, with the exception of Uganda and Kenya, but since the independence of South Sudan in 2011, all of its neighbours drive on the right (including South Sudan, despite its land borders with two LHT countries).\n\nAlthough Portugal switched to RHT in 1928, its colony of Mozambique remained LHT as it has land borders with former British colonies (with LHT).", "France introduced RHT in French West Africa and the Maghreb, where it is still used. Countries in these areas include Mali, Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Other French former colonies that are RHT include Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Djibouti, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo.\n\nRwanda and Burundi are RHT but are considering switching to LHT (see \"Potential future shifts\" section below).\n\nAmericas\n\nUnited States", "In the late 18th century, right-hand traffic started to be introduced in the United States of America based on teamsters' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses and without a driver's seat; the (typically right-handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse, and therefore preferred other wagons passing on the left so that he would have a clear view of other vehicles", ". The first keep-right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. Massachusetts formalized RHT in 1821. However, the National Road was LHT until 1850, \"long after the rest of the country had settled on the keep-right convention\". Today the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands, which is LHT like many neighbouring islands.", "Some special-purpose vehicles in the United States, like certain postal service trucks, garbage trucks, and parking-enforcement vehicles, are built with the driver's seat on the right for safer and easier access to the curb. A common example is the Grumman LLV, which is used nationwide by the US Postal Service and by Canada Post.\n\nOther countries in the Americas", "Other countries in the Americas\n\nIn Canada, the provinces of Quebec and Ontario were always RHT as they were created out of the former French colony of New France. The province of British Columbia changed to RHT in stages from 1920 to 1923, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island in 1922, 1923, and 1924 respectively, and the British colony of Newfoundland (part of Canada since 1949) in 1947, in order to allow traffic (without side switch) to or from the United States.", "In the West Indies, colonies and territories drive on the same side as their parent countries, except for the United States Virgin Islands. Many of the island nations are former British colonies and drive on the left, including Jamaica, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and The Bahamas", ". However, most vehicles in The Bahamas, Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands and both the British Virgin Islands, and the United States Virgin Islands are LHD due to them being imported from the United States.", "Brazil, a Portuguese colony of until the early 19th century, had in the 19th and the early 20th century mixed rules, with some regions still on LHT, switching these remaining regions to RHT in 1928, the same year Portugal switched sides. Other Central and South American countries that later switched from LHT to RHT include Argentina, Chile, Panama, Paraguay, and Uruguay.\n\nSuriname, along with neighbouring Guyana, are the only two remaining LHT countries in South America.\n\nAsia", "LHT was introduced by the U.K. in British India (now India, Pakistan, Myanmar, and Bangladesh), British Malaya and British Borneo (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), and British Hong Kong. All are still LHT, as well as neighbour countries Bhutan and Nepal, except Myanmar, which switched to RHT in 1970, although much of its infrastructure is still geared to LHT and its neighbours India, Bangladesh and Thailand use LHT. Most cars are used RHD vehicles imported from Japan", ". Most cars are used RHD vehicles imported from Japan. Afghanistan was LHT until the 1950s, in line with Pakistan (former part of British India).", "Although Portuguese Timor (present-day East Timor), which shares the island Timor with Indonesia with LHT, switched to RHT as Portugal in 1928, it switched back to LHT in 1976 during the Indonesian occupation of East Timor.", "In the 1930s, parts of China like the Shanghai International Settlement, Canton and Japanese-occupied northeast China used LHT. However, in 1946 the Republic of China made RHT mandatory in China (including Taiwan, which used LHT under Japanese colonization 1895–1945), although Portuguese Macau (present-day Macau) remained LHT, as well as British Hong Kong, despite becoming transferred to China in 1999 and 1997 respectively.", "Both North Korea and South Korea use RHT since 1946, after liberation from Japanese colonial power.", "The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as during the Commonwealth era. During the Japanese occupation, the Philippines remained LHT, also because LHT had been required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila, the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formalized in 1945 through a decree by then-president Sergio Osmeña", ". RHT was formalized in 1945 through a decree by then-president Sergio Osmeña. Even though RHT was formalized, RHD vehicles such as public buses were still imported in the Philippines until a law was passed that banned the importation of RHD vehicles except for special cases. These RHD vehicles are required to be converted to LHD", "Japan was never part of the British Empire, but its traffic also drives on the left. Although the origin of this habit goes back to the Edo period (1603–1868), it was not until 1872 – the year Japan's first railway was introduced, built with technical aid from the British – that this unwritten rule received official acknowledgment. Gradually, a massive network of railways and tram tracks was built, with all railway vehicles driven on the left-hand side", ". However, it took another half-century, until 1924, until left-hand traffic was legally mandated. Post-World War II Okinawa was ruled by the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands until 1972, and was RHT until 6 a.m. the morning of 30 July 1978, when it switched back to LHT. The conversion operation was known as 730 (Nana-San-Maru, which refers to the date of the changeover). Okinawa is one of few places to have changed from RHT to LHT in the late 20th century", ". Okinawa is one of few places to have changed from RHT to LHT in the late 20th century. While Japan drives on the left and most Japanese vehicles are RHD, imported vehicles (e.g. BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche) are generally bought as LHD as LHD cars are considered to be status symbols.", "Vietnam became RHT as part of French Indochina, as did Laos and Cambodia. In Cambodia, RHD cars, many of which were smuggled from Thailand, were banned from 2001, even though they accounted for 80% of vehicles in the country.\n\nOceania \n\nMany former British colonies in the region have always been LHT, including Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Tuvalu; and nations that were previously administered by Australia: Nauru and Papua New Guinea.", "New Zealand \nInitially traffic was slow and very sparse, but, as early as 1856, a newspaper said, \"The cart was near to the right hand kerb. According to the rules of the road, it should have been on the left side. In turning sharp round a right-hand corner, a driver should keep away to the opposite side.\" That rule was codified when the first Highway Code was written in 1936.", "Samoa", "Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century, but switched to LHT in 2009, making it the first territory in almost 30 years to change sides. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand, or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations", ". A political party, The People's Party, was formed by the group People Against Switching Sides (PASS) to protest against the change, with PASS launching a legal challenge; in April 2008 an estimated 18,000 people attended demonstrations against switching. The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa's 18,000 vehicles were designed for RHT and the government refused to meet the cost of conversion", ". After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05:50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6:00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat-belt laws. That day and the following were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic", ". That day and the following were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three-day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.", "Potential future shifts", "Rwanda and Burundi, former Belgian colonies in Central Africa, are RHT but are considering switching to LHT like neighbouring members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey in 2009 found that 54% of Rwandans favoured the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonising traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The survey indicated that RHD cars were 16% to 49% cheaper than their LHD counterparts", ". The survey indicated that RHD cars were 16% to 49% cheaper than their LHD counterparts. In 2014, an internal report by consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.", "Changing sides at borders\n\nAlthough many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. Such borders are mostly located in Africa and southern Asia. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 78 countries that have ratified it.", "LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges that enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.", "There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one-way streets with a main road.\n\nThe Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.", "Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year by the Eurotunnel Shuttle between the UK and France.\n\nRoad vehicle configurations\n\nSteering wheel position", "In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are typically configured as left hand drive (LHD), with the steering wheel on the left side of the passenger compartment. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true as the right hand drive (RHD) configuration. In most jurisdictions, the position of the steering wheel is not regulated, or explicitly permitted to be anywhere", ". The driver's side, the side closer to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closer to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.", "Most windscreen wipers are preferentially designed to better clean the driver's side of the windscreen and thus have a longer wiper blade on the driver's side and wipe up from the passenger side to the driver's side. Thus on LHD configurations, they wipe up from right to left, viewed from inside the vehicle, and do the opposite on RHD vehicles.", "Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to \"get out on the street side and walk around the car\" and that with steering from the left, the driver \"is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger", ".\" By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.", "In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or curbside. Examples include:\nWhere the driver needs a good view of the nearside, e.g. street sweepers, or vehicles driven along unstable road edges. Similarly in mountainous areas the driver may be seated opposite side so that they have a better view of the road edge which may fall away for very many metres into the valley below. Swiss Postbuses in mountainous areas are a well known example.", "Where it is more convenient for the driver to be on the nearside, e.g. delivery vehicles. The Grumman LLV postal delivery truck is widely used with RHD configurations in RHT North America. Some Unimogs are designed to switch between LHD and RHD to permit operators to work on the more convenient side of the truck.", "Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle's offside.\n\nIn 2020, there were 160 LHD heavy goods vehicles in the UK involved in accidents (%) for a total of 3175 accidents, killing 215 people (%) for a total of 4271.", "It has been suggested that right-hand drive vehicles, and hence the left-hand traffic direction, are associated with greater safety. As most drivers are right-handed, the dominant right hand remains controlled on the steering wheel while the non-dominant left hand can manipulate gears. The right field of vision may also be more dominant, thereby permitting a superior view of oncoming traffic.\n\nDashboard configuration", "Some manufacturers primarily produce left-hand drive vehicles, due to the larger or nearer market for such vehicles. For such models supplied to left-hand traffic markets, in the right-hand drive configuration, the manufacturer may reuse the same dashboard configuration as is used in the left-hand drive models, with the steering column and pedals moved to the right-hand side", ". Oft-used controls (such as audio volume and climate controls) that were placed near the left-hand driver for ease of access, are now situated on the far side of the center console for the right-hand driver. This may make them more difficult to reach quickly or without looking away from the road ahead.", "In some cases, the manufacturer's dashboard design incorporates blanks and modular components, which permits the controls and underlying electronics to be rearranged to suit the right-hand drive model. This may be done in the factory, after import, or as an after-market modification.\n\nHeadlamps and other lighting equipment", "Headlamps and other lighting equipment\n\nMost low-beam headlamps produce an asymmetrical light suitable for use on only one side of the road. Low beam headlamps in LHT jurisdictions throw most of their light forward-leftward; those for RHT throw most of their light forward-rightward, thus illuminating obstacles and road signs while minimising glare for oncoming traffic.", "In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road,. This may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded", ". Some varieties of the projector-type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LHT or RHT beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car's GPS detects that the vehicle has moved from LHT to RHT and vice versa.", "Rear fog lamps\nIn Europe since early 1980s, cars must be equipped with one or two red rear fog lamps. A single rear fog lamp must be located between the vehicle's longitudinal centreline and the outer extent of the driver's side of the vehicle.\n\nCrash testing differences\nANCAP reports that some RHD cars imported to Australia did not perform as well on crash tests as the LHD versions, although the cause is unknown, and may be due to differences in testing methodology.\n\nRail traffic", "In most countries rail traffic travels on the same side as road traffic. However, there are many instances of railways built using LHT British technology which remained LHT despite their nations' road traffic becoming RHT. Examples include: Argentina, Belgium, Bolivia, Cambodia, Chile, Egypt, France, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Laos, Monaco, Morocco, Myanmar, Nigeria, Peru, Portugal, Senegal, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tunisia, Uruguay and Venezuela", ". In Indonesia it is the reverse (RHT for rails (even for newer rail systems such as the LRT and the MRT systems) and LHT for roads). France is mainly LHT for trains except for the classic lines in Alsace–Lorraine, which were converted from LHT to RHT under German administration from 1870 to 1918, along with most metro systems. China is primarily LHT for long-distance trains and RHT for metro systems", ". China is primarily LHT for long-distance trains and RHT for metro systems. Spain has RHT for railways but the metros uses LHT (in Madrid and Bilbao trains run completely on the left, while Barcelona metro is mostly RHT, but some LHT). In North America, multi-track rail lines with centralized traffic control are typically signaled to allow operation on any track in both directions, and the side of operation will vary based on the railroad's specific operational requirements.", "Metro and light rail sides of operation vary and might not match railways or roads in their country. Apart from the aforementioned Madrid and Bilbao, such systems include those in Buenos Aires, Cairo, Catania, Jakarta, Lima, Lisbon, Lyon, Naples, Rome and Stockholm. In some metro systems (Hong Kong, Seoul, Nizhniy Novgorod) certain lines differ from the majority. Because trams frequently operate on roads, they generally operate on the same side as other road traffic.\n\nBoat traffic", "Boat traffic\n\nBoats are traditionally piloted from starboard (the right-hand side) to facilitate priority to the right. \nAccording to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is effectively RHT: a vessel proceeding along a narrow channel must keep to starboard, and when two power-driven vessels are meeting head-on both must alter course to starboard also.", "Aircraft traffic\nFor aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations suggest RHT principles, both in the air and on water, and in aircraft with side-by-side cockpit seating, the pilot-in-command (or more senior flight officer) traditionally occupies the left seat. However, helicopter practice tends to favour the right hand seat for the pilot-in-command, particularly when flying solo.", "Worldwide distribution by country\nOf the 195 countries currently recognised by the United Nations, 141 use RHT and 54 use LHT on roads in general. \n\nA country and its territories and dependencies are counted as one. Whichever directionality is listed first is the type that is used in general in the traffic category.\n\nLegality of wrong-hand-drive vehicles by country", "Legality of wrong-hand-drive vehicles by country\n\nAccording to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, which mostly covers Europe, if having a vehicle registered and legal to drive in one of the Convention countries, it is legal to drive it in any other of the countries, for visits and first year of residence after moving. This is regardless if it does not fulfil all rules of the visitor countries. This convention does not affect rules on usage or registration of local vehicles.\n\nGallery", "Gallery\n\nSee also\nHook turn\nTraffic-light signalling and operation\nWorld Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations\n\nExplanatory notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Google Maps placemarks of border crossings where traffic changes sides (placemarks file, requires Google Earth)\n The Extraordinary Street Railways of Asunción, Paraguay\n\nChirality\nDriving\nRoad transport\nRules of the road\nTraffic law" ]

[ "Grunge (sometimes referred to as the Seattle sound) is an alternative rock genre and subculture which emerged during the in the U.S. state of Washington, particularly in Seattle and nearby towns. Grunge fuses elements of punk rock and heavy metal, but without punk's structure and speed. The genre featured the distorted electric guitar sound used in both genres, although some bands performed with more emphasis on one or the other", ". Like these genres, grunge typically uses electric guitar, bass guitar, drums and vocals. Grunge also incorporates influences from indie rock bands such as Sonic Youth. Lyrics are typically angst-filled and introspective, often addressing themes such as social alienation, self-doubt, abuse, neglect, betrayal, social and emotional isolation, addiction, psychological trauma and a desire for freedom.", "The early grunge movement revolved around Seattle's independent record label Sub Pop and the region's underground music scene. The owners of Sub Pop marketed the style shrewdly, encouraging the media to describe it as \"grunge\"; the style became known as a hybrid of punk and metal. By the early 1990s, its popularity had spread, with grunge bands appearing in California, then emerging in other parts of the United States and in Australia, building strong followings and signing major record deals", ". Grunge was commercially successful in the early-to-mid-1990s due to releases such as Nirvana's Nevermind, Pearl Jam's Ten, Soundgarden's Superunknown, Alice in Chains' Dirt, and Stone Temple Pilots' Core. The success of these bands boosted the popularity of alternative rock and made grunge the most popular form of rock music.", "Several factors contributed to grunge's decline in prominence. During the , many grunge bands broke up or became less visible. Nirvana's Kurt Cobain, labeled by Time as \"the John Lennon of the swinging Northwest\", struggled with an addiction to heroin before his suicide in 1994", ". Although most grunge bands had disbanded or faded from view by the late 1990s, they influenced modern rock music, as their lyrics brought socially conscious issues into pop culture and added introspection and an exploration of what it means to be true to oneself. Grunge was also an influence on later genres such as post-grunge.", "Origin of the term", "The word \"grunge\" is American slang for \"someone or something that is repugnant\" and also for \"dirt\". The word was first recorded as being applied to Seattle musicians in July 1987 when Bruce Pavitt described Green River's Dry as a Bone EP in a Sub Pop record company catalogue as \"gritty vocals, roaring Marshall amps, ultra-loose GRUNGE that destroyed the morals of a generation\"", ". Although the word \"grunge\" has been used to describe bands since the 1960s, this was the first association of grunge with the grinding, sludgy sound of Seattle. It is expensive and time-consuming to get a recording to sound clean, so for those northwestern bands just starting out it was cheaper for them to leave the sound dirty and just turn up their volume. This dirty sound, due to low budgets, unfamiliarity with recording, and a lack of professionalism may be the origin of the term \"grunge\".", "The \"Seattle scene\" refers to that city's alternative music movement that was linked to the University of Washington and the Evergreen State College. Evergreen is a progressive college which does not use a conventional grading system and has its own radio station, KAOS. Seattle's remoteness from Los Angeles led to a perceived purity of its music. The music of these bands, many of which had recorded with Seattle's independent record label Sub Pop, became labeled as \"grunge\"", ". Nirvana's frontman Kurt Cobain, in one of his final interviews, credited Jonathan Poneman, cofounder of Sub Pop, with coining the term \"grunge\" to describe the music.", "The term \"Seattle sound\" became a marketing ploy for the music industry. In September 1991, the Nirvana album Nevermind was released, bringing mainstream attention to the music of Seattle. Cobain loathed the word \"grunge\" and despised the new scene that was developing, feeling that record companies were signing old \"cock-rock\" bands who were pretending to be grunge and claiming to be from Seattle.", "Some bands associated with the genre, such as Soundgarden, Pearl Jam and Alice in Chains, have not been receptive to the label, preferring instead to be referred to as \"rock and roll\" bands. Ben Shepherd from Soundgarden stated that he \"hates the word\" grunge and hates \"being associated with it", ".\" Seattle musician Jeff Stetson states that when he visited Seattle in the late 1980s and early 1990s as a touring musician, the local musicians did not refer to themselves as \"grunge\" performers or their style as \"grunge\" and they were not flattered that their music was being called \"grunge\".", "Rolling Stone noted the genre's lack of a clear definition. Robert Loss acknowledges the challenges of defining \"grunge\"; stating that while he can recount stories about grunge, they do not serve to provide a useful definition. Roy Shuker states that the term \"obscured a variety of styles.\" Stetson states that grunge was not a movement, \"monolithic musical genre\", or a way to react to 1980s-era metal pop; he calls the term a misnomer mostly based on hype", ". Stetson states that prominent bands considered to be grunge (Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains, Mudhoney and Hammerbox) all sound different. Mark Yarm, author of Everybody Loves Our Town: An Oral History of Grunge, pointed out vast differences between grunge bands, with some being punk and others being metal-based.", "Musical style", "In 1984, the punk rock band Black Flag toured small towns across the US to bring punk to the more remote parts of the country. By this time, their music had become slow and sludgy, less like the Sex Pistols and more like Black Sabbath. Krist Novoselic, later the bassist with Nirvana, recalled going with the Melvins to see one of these shows, after which Melvins frontman Buzz Osborne began writing \"slow and heavy riffs\" to form a dirge-like music that was the beginning of northwest grunge", ". The Melvins were the most influential of the early grunge bands. Sub Pop producer Jack Endino described grunge as \"seventies-influenced, slowed-down punk music\".", "Leighton Beezer, who played with Mark Arm and Steve Turner in the Thrown Ups, state that when he heard Green River play Come On Down, he realized that they were playing punk rock backwards. He noted that the diminished fifth note was used by Black Sabbath to produce an ominous feeling but it is not used in punk rock. In the 1996 grunge film documentary Hype!, Beezer demonstrated on guitar the difference between punk and grunge", ". First he played the riff from \"Rockaway Beach\" by the Ramones that ascends the neck of the guitar, then \"Come On Down\" by Green River that descends the neck. The two pieces are only a few notes apart but sound unalike. He took the same rhythm with the same chord, however descending the neck made it sound darker, and therefore grunge", ". Early grunge bands would also copy a riff from metal and slow it down, play it backwards, distort it and bury it in feedback, then shout lyrics with little melody over the top of it.", "Grunge fuses elements of punk rock (specifically American hardcore punk such as Black Flag) and heavy metal (especially traditional, earlier heavy metal groups such as Black Sabbath), although some bands performed with more emphasis on one or the other. Alex DiBlasi feels that indie rock was a third key source, with the most important influence coming from Sonic Youth's \"free-form\" noise", ". Grunge shares with punk a raw, lo fi sound and similar lyrical concerns, and it also used punk's haphazard and untrained approach to playing and performing. However, grunge was \"deeper and darker\"-sounding than punk rock and it decreased the \"adrenaline\"-fueled tempos of punk to a slow, \"sludgy\" speed, and used more dissonant harmonies. Seattle music journalist Charles R", ". Seattle music journalist Charles R. Cross defines \"grunge\" as distortion-filled, down-tuned and riff-based rock that uses loud electric guitar feedback and heavy, \"ponderous\" basslines to support its song melodies. Robert Loss calls grunge a melding of \"violence and speed, muscularity and melody\", where there is space for all people, including women musicians", ". VH1 writer Dan Tucker feels that different grunge bands were influenced by different genres; that while Nirvana drew on punk, Pearl Jam was influenced by classic rock, and that \"sludgy, dark, heavy bands\" such as Soundgarden and Alice in Chains had a sinister metal tone.", "Grunge music has what has been called an \"ugly\" aesthetic, both in the roar of the distorted electric guitars and in the darker lyrical topics. This approach was chosen both to counter the \"slick\" elegant sound of the then-predominant mainstream rock and because grunge artists wanted to mirror the \"ugliness\" they saw around them and shine a light on unseen \"depths and depravity\" of the real world", ". Some key individuals in the development of the grunge sound, including Sub Pop producer Jack Endino and the Melvins, described grunge's incorporation of heavy rock influences such as Kiss as \"musical provocation\". Grunge artists considered these bands \"cheesy\" but nonetheless enjoyed them; Buzz Osborne of the Melvins described it as an attempt to see what ridiculous things bands could do and get away with", ". In the early-1990s, Nirvana's signature \"stop-start\" song format and alternating between soft and loud sections became a genre convention.", "In the book Accidental Revolution: The Story of Grunge, Kyle Anderson wrote:\n\nInstrumentation\n\nElectric guitar", "Grunge guitarists like Kurt Cobain often used \"offset\" guitars like the Fender Jaguar, Fender Jazzmaster, or Mustang. They used primarily offset guitars because at the time they were unpopular enough to offer a new image as opposed to more frequently seen Gibson Les Pauls or Fender Stratocaster and Telecaster used by mainstream pop & rock bands. Being unpopular when grunge started, offset guitars also offered excellent bang for buck.", "Grunge is generally characterized by a sludgy electric guitar sound with a thick middle register and rolled-off treble tone and a high level of distortion and fuzz, typically created with small 1970s-style stompbox pedals, with some guitarists chaining several fuzz pedals together and plugging them into a tube amplifier and speaker cabinet", ". Grunge guitarists use very loud Marshall guitar amplifiers and some used powerful Mesa-Boogie amplifiers, including Kurt Cobain and Dave Grohl (the latter in early, grunge-oriented Foo Fighters songs). Grunge has been called the rock genre with the most \"lugubrious sound\"; the use of heavy distortion and loud amps has been compared to a massive \"buildup of sonic fog\". or even dismissed as \"noise\" by one critic", ". or even dismissed as \"noise\" by one critic. As with metal and punk, a key part of grunge's sound is very distorted power chords played on the electric guitar.", "Whereas metal guitarists' overdriven sound generally comes from a combination of overdriven amplifiers and distortion pedals, grunge guitarists typically got all of their \"dirty\" sound from overdrive and fuzz pedals, with the amp just used to make the sound louder. Grunge guitarists tended to use the Fender Twin Reverb and the Fender Champion 100 combo amps (Cobain used both of these amps)", ". The use of pedals by grunge guitarists was a move away from the expensive, studio-grade rackmount effects units used in other rock genres. The positive way that grunge bands viewed stompbox pedals can be seen in Mudhoney's use of the name of two overdrive pedals, the Univox Super-Fuzz and the Big Muff, in the title of their debut EP Superfuzz Bigmuff. In the song \"Mudride\", the band's guitars were said to have \"growled malevolently\" through its \"Cro-magnon slog\".", "Other key pedals used by grunge bands included four brands of distortion pedals (the Big Muff, DOD, and Boss DS-2 and Boss DS-1 distortion pedals) and the Small Clone chorus effect, used by Kurt Cobain on \"Come As You Are\" and by the Screaming Trees on \"Nearly Lost You\". The DS-1 (later DS-2) distortion pedal played a key role in Cobain's switching from quiet to loud and back to quiet approach to songwriting", ". The use of small pedals by grunge guitarists helped to start off the revival of interest in boutique, hand-soldered, 1970s-style analog pedals. The other effect that grunge guitarists used was one of the most low-tech effects devices, the wah-wah pedal. Both \"[Kim] Thayil and Alice in Chains' Jerry Cantrell ... were great advocates of the wah wah pedal.\" Wah was also used by the Screaming Trees, Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, Mudhoney and Dinosaur Jr.", "Grunge guitarists played loud, with Kurt Cobain's early guitar sound coming from an unusual set-up of four 800 watt PA system power amplifiers. Guitar feedback effects, in which a highly amplified electric guitar is held in front of its speaker, were used to create high-pitched, sustained sounds that are not possible with regular guitar technique. Grunge guitarists were influenced by the raw, primitive sound of punk, and they favored \"..", ". Grunge guitarists were influenced by the raw, primitive sound of punk, and they favored \"... energy and lack of finesse over technique and precision\"; key guitar influences included the Sex Pistols, the Dead Boys, Celtic Frost, King's X, Voivod, Neil Young (Rust Never Sleeps, side two), the Replacements, Hüsker Dü, Black Flag, and the Melvins. Grunge guitarists often downtuned their instruments for a lower, heavier sound", ". Grunge guitarists often downtuned their instruments for a lower, heavier sound. Soundgarden's guitarist, Kim Thayil, did not use a regular guitar amplifier; instead, he used a bass combo amp equipped with a 15-inch speaker as he played low riffs, and the bass amp gave him a deeper tone.", "Guitar solos", "Grunge guitarists \"flatly rejected\" the virtuoso \"shredding\" guitar solos that had become the centerpiece of heavy metal songs, instead opting for melodic, blues-inspired solos – focusing \"on the song, not the guitar solo\". Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains stated that solos should be to serve the song, rather than to show off a guitarist's technical skill. In place of the strutting guitar heroes of metal, grunge had \"guitar anti-heroes\" like Cobain, who showed little interest in mastering the instrument.", "In Will Byers' article \"Grunge committed a crime against music—it killed the guitar solo\" in The Guardian, he states that while the guitar solo managed to survive through the punk rock era, it was weakened by grunge", ". He also states that when Kurt Cobain played guitar solos that were a restatement of the main vocal melody, fans realized that they did not need to be a Jimi Hendrix-level virtuoso to play the instrument; he then says this approach helped to make music feel accessible by fans in a way not seen since the 1960s folk music movement. The producer of Nirvana's Nevermind, Butch Vig, stated that this album and Nirvana \"killed the guitar solo\"", ". Soundgarden guitarist Kim Thayil stated he feels in part to be responsible for the \"death of the guitar solo\"; he said that his punk rocker aspects made him feel that he did not want to solo, so in the 1980s, he preferred to make noise and do feedback during the guitar solo. Baeble Music calls the grunge guitar solos of the 1990s \"..raw\", \"sloppy\" and \"basic\".", "Not all sources support the \"grunge killed the guitar solo\" argument. Sean Gonzalez states that Pearl Jam has plentiful examples of guitar solos. Michael Azerrad praises the guitar playing of Mudhoney's Steve Turner, calling him the \"... Eric Clapton of grunge\", a reference to the British blues guitarist who Time magazine has named as number five in their list of \"The 10 Best Electric Guitar Players\". Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready has been praised for his blues-influenced, rapid licks", ". Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready has been praised for his blues-influenced, rapid licks. The Smashing Pumpkins' guitarist Billy Corgan has been called the \"... arena rock genius of the '90s\" for pioneering guitar playing techniques and showing through his playing skill that grunge guitarists do not have to be sloppy players to rebel against mainstream music", ". Thayil stated that when other major grunge bands, such as Nirvana, were reducing their guitar solos, Soundgarden responded by bringing back the solos.", "Bass guitar \nThe early Seattle grunge album Skin Yard recorded in 1987 by the band of the same name included fuzz bass (overdriven bass guitar) played by Jack Endino and Daniel House. Some grunge bassists, such as Ben Shepherd, layered power chords with distorted low-end density by adding a fifth and an octave-higher note to a bass note.", "An example of the powerful, loud bass amplifier systems used in grunge is Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez's setup. He uses four powerful Ampeg SVT-2 PRO tube amplifier heads, two of them plugged into four 1x18\" subwoofer cabinets for the low register, and the other two plugged into two 8x10\" cabinets. Krist Novoselic and Jeff Ament are also known for using Ampeg SVT tube amplifiers. Ben Shepherd uses a 300 watt all-tube Ampeg SVT-VR amp and a 600 watt Mesa/Boogie Carbine M6 amplifier", ". Ament uses four 6x10\" speaker cabinets.", "Drums", "In contrast to the \"massive drum kits\" used in 1980s pop metal, grunge drummers used relatively smaller drum kits. One example is the drumkit used by Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron's set-up. He uses a six-piece kit (this way of describing drumkits counts only the wooden drums, and does not count the cymbals), including a \"12x8-inch rack tom; 13x9-inch rack tom; 16x14-inch floor tom; 18x16-inch floor tom; 24x14-inch bass drum\" and a snare drum and, for cymbals, Zildjian instruments, including \"..", "... 14-inch K Light [Hi-]hats; 17-inch K Custom Dark crash [cymbal] and 18-inch K Crash Ride; 19-inch Projection crash; a 20-inch Rezo crash; ... and a ... 22-inch A Medium ride [cymbal]\".", "A second example is Nirvana drummer Dave Grohl's set-up during 1990 and 1991. He used a four-piece Tama drumset, with an 8\" × 14\" birch snare drum, a 14\" × 15\" rack tom, a 16\" × 18\" floor tom, and a 16\" × 24\" bass drum (this kit \"... was demolished at the Cabaret Metro, Chicago, 10/12/91\"). Like Matt Cameron, Dave Grohl used Zildjian cymbals. Grohl used the company's A Series Medium cymbals, including an 18\" and a 20\" crash cymbal, a 22\" ride cymbal, and a pair of 15\" hi-hat cymbals.", "Other instruments \nAlthough other instruments are generally not included in grunge, Seattle band Gorilla created controversy by breaking the \"guitars only\" approach and using a 1960s-style Vox organ in their group.\nIn 2002, Pearl Jam added a keyboard player, Kenneth \"Boom\" Gaspar, who played piano, Hammond organ, and other keyboards; the addition of a keyboardist to the band would have been \"inconceivable\" in the band's \"grungy\" early years, but it shows how a group's sound can change over time.\n\nVocals", "The grunge singing style was similar to the \"outburst\" of loud, heavily distorted electric guitar in tone and delivery; Kurt Cobain used a \"gruff, slurred articulation and gritty timbre\" and Eddie Vedder of Pearl Jam made use of a \"wide, powerful vibrato\" to show his \"depth of expression.\" Layne Staley voiced lyrics with a \"heaviness\" and tremolo", ".\" Layne Staley voiced lyrics with a \"heaviness\" and tremolo. In general, grunge singers used a \"deeper vocal style\" which matched the lower-sounding, downtuned guitars and the darker-themed lyrical messages used in the style. Grunge singers used \"gravelly, raspy\" vocals, \"... growls, moans, screams and mumbles\" and \"plaintive groans\"; this range of singing styles was used to communicate the \"varied emotions\" of the lyrics", ". Cobain's reaction to the \"bad times\" and discontent of the era was that he screamed his lyrics. In general, grunge songs were sung \"simply, often somewhat unintelligibly\"; the virtuoso \"operatics of hair-metal were shunned.\" Grunge singing has been characterized as \"borderline out-of-tune vocals\".", "Lyrics and themes", "Grunge lyrics are typically dark, nihilistic, wretched, angst-filled and anguished, often addressing themes such as social alienation, self-doubt, abuse, assault, neglect, betrayal, social isolation/emotional isolation, psychological trauma, and a desire for freedom. An article by MIT states that grunge \"lyrics [were] obsessed with disenfranchisement\" and described a mood of \"resigned despair\"", ". Catherine Strong states that grunge songs were usually about \"negative experiences or feelings\", with the main themes being alienation and depression, but with an \"ironic sneer.\" Grunge artists expressed \"strong feelings\" in their lyrics about \"societal ills\", including a \"desire to 'crucify the insincere, an approach which fans appreciated for its authenticity. Grunge lyrics have been criticized as \"... violent and often obscene", ". Grunge lyrics have been criticized as \"... violent and often obscene.\" In 1996, conservative columnist Rich Lowry wrote an essay criticizing grunge, entitled \"Heroin, Our Hero\"; he called it a music that is mostly... shorn of ideals and the impulse for political action\".", "A number of factors influenced the focus on such subject matter. Many grunge musicians displayed a general disenchantment with the state of society, as well as a discomfort with social prejudices. Grunge lyrics contained \"... explicit political messages and ... questioning about ... society and how it might be changed ...\". While grunge lyrics were less overtly political than punk songs, grunge songs still indicated a concern for social issues, particularly those affecting young people", ". The main themes in grunge were \"tolerance of difference\", \"support of women\", \"mistrust of authority\" and \"cynicism towards big corporations.\" Grunge song themes bear similarities to those addressed by punk rock musicians. In 1992, music critic Simon Reynolds said that \"there's a feeling of burnout in the culture at large. Kids are depressed about the future\"", ". Kids are depressed about the future\". The topics of grunge lyrics–homelessness, suicide, rape, \"broken homes, drug addiction and self-loathing\"–contrasted sharply to the glam metal lyrics of Poison, which described \"life in the fast lane\", partying, and hedonism.", "Grunge lyrics developed as part of \"Generation X malaise\", reflecting that demographic's feelings of \"disillusionment and uselessness\". Grunge songs about love were usually about \"... failed, boring, doomed or destructive relationships\" (e.g., \"Black\" by Pearl Jam). The Alice in Chains songs \"Sickman\", \"Junkhead\", \"God Smack\", and \"Hate to Feel\" have references to heroin", ". Grunge lyrics tended to be more introspective and aimed to enable the listener to see into \"hidden\" personal issues and examine the \"depravity\" of the world. This approach can be seen in Mudhoney's song \"Touch Me I'm Sick\", which includes lyrics with \"deranged imagery\" which depict a \"broken world and a fragmented self-image\"; the song includes the lines \"I feel bad, and I've felt worse\" and \"I won't live long and I'm full of rot\". Nirvana's song \"Lithium\", from their 1991 album Nevermind, is about a \"..", ". Nirvana's song \"Lithium\", from their 1991 album Nevermind, is about a \"... man who finds faith after his girlfriend's suicide\"; it depicts \"... irony and ugliness\" as a way of dealing with these \"dark issues\".", "Recording production", "Like punk, grunge's sound came from a lo fi (low fidelity) recording and production approach. Before the arrival of major labels, early grunge albums were recorded using low-budget analogue studios: \"Nirvana's first album Bleach, was recorded for $606.17 in 1989.\" Sub Pop recorded most of their music at a \"... low-rent studio named Reciprocal\", where producer Jack Endino created the grunge genre's aesthetic, a \"raw and unpolished sound with distortion, but usually without any added studio effects\"", ". Endino is known for his stripped-down recording practices and his dislike of 'over-producing' music with effects and remastering. His work on Soundgarden's Screaming Life and Nirvana's Bleach as well as for the bands Green River, Screaming Trees, L7, the Gits, Hole, 7 Year Bitch, and Tad helped to define the grunge sound. An example of the lower cost production approach is Mudhoney; even after the band signed to Warner Music, \"[t]rue to [the band's] indie roots ... [they are] ..", "... [they are] ... probably one of the few bands that would have to fight [their label] to record for a lower budget rather than a higher one.\"", "Steve Albini was another important influence on the grunge sound. Albini prefers to be called a \"recording engineer\", because he believes that putting record producers in charge of recording sessions often destroys the band's real sound, while the role of the recording engineer is to capture the actual sound of the musicians, not to threaten the artists' control over their creative product", ". Albini's recordings have been analyzed by writers such as Michael Azerrad, who stated that Albini's \"recordings were both very basic and very exacting: like Endino, Albini used few special effects; got an aggressive, often violent guitar sound; and made sure the rhythm section slammed as one.\"", "Nirvana's In Utero is a typical example of Albini's recording approach. He preferred to have the entire band play live in the studio, rather than use mainstream rock's approach of recording each instrument on a separate track at different times, and then mixing them using multi-track recording. While multitracking results in a more polished product, it does not capture the \"live\" sound of the band playing together. Albini used a range of different microphones for the vocals and instruments", ". Albini used a range of different microphones for the vocals and instruments. Like most metal and punk recording engineers, he mics the guitar amp speakers and bass amp speakers to capture each performer's unique tone.", "Concerts", "Grunge concerts were known for being straightforward, high-energy performances. Grunge shows were \"... celebrations, parties [and] carnivals\" where the audience expressed its spirit by stagediving, moshing and thrashing. Simon Reynolds states that in \"... some of the most masculine forms of rock —thrash metal, grunge, moshing becomes a form of surrogate combat\" in which \"male bodies\" can contact in the \"sweat-and-bloodbath\" of the moshpit. As with punk shows, grunge \"..", ". As with punk shows, grunge \"... performances were about frontmen who screamed and jumped around on stage and musicians who thrashed wildly on their instruments.\" While grunge lyrical themes focused on \"angst and rage\", the audience at shows were positive and created a \"life-affirming\" attitude", ". Grunge bands rejected the complex and high budget presentations of many mainstream musical genres, including the use of complex digitally controlled light arrays, pyrotechnics, and other visual effects then popular in \"hair metal\" shows. Grunge performers viewed these elements unrelated to playing the music. Stage acting and \"onstage theatrics\" were generally avoided.", "Instead the bands presented themselves as no different from minor local bands. Jack Endino said in Hype! that Seattle bands were inconsistent live performers, since their primary objective was not to be entertainers, but simply to \"rock out\". Grunge bands gave enthusiastic performances; they would thrash their long hair during shows as \"a symbolic weapon\" for releasing \"pent-up aggression\" (Dave Grohl was particularly noted for his \"head flips\")", ". Dave Rimmer writes that with the revival of punk ideals of stripped-down music in the early 1990s, \"for Cobain, and lots of kids like him, rock & roll ... threw down a dare: Can you be pure enough, day after day, year after year, to prove your authenticity, to live up to the music ... And if you can't, can you live with being a poseur, a phony, a sellout?\"", "Clothing and fashion\n\n1980s–1990s", "commonly worn by grunge musicians in Washington were a \"mundane everyday style\", in which they would wear the same clothes on stage that they wore at home. This Pacific Northwest \"slacker style\" or \"slouch look\" contrasted sharply with the \"wild\" mohawks, leather jackets and chains worn by punks. This everyday clothing approach was used by grunge musicians because authenticity was a key principle in the Seattle scene", ". The grunge look typically consisted of second-hand clothes or thrift store items and the typical outdoor clothing (most notably flannel shirts) of the region, as well as a generally unkempt appearance and long hair. For grunge singers, long hair was used \"as a mask to conceal the face\" so they can \"expres[s their] innermost thoughts\"; Cobain is a notable example. Male grunge musicians were \"... unkempt ... [and] ... unshaven [,] with ... tousled hair\" that was often unwashed, greasy and \"..", ".. unkempt ... [and] ... unshaven [,] with ... tousled hair\" that was often unwashed, greasy and \"... matted [into a] sheep-dog mop\".", "The lumberjack attire was a common sight in the thrift stores near Seattle for the low prices that musicians could afford. Grunge style consisted of ripped jeans, thermal underwear, Doc Martens boots or combat boots (often unlaced), band T-shirts, oversized knit sweaters, long and droopy skirts, ripped tights, Birkenstocks, hiking boots, and eco-friendly clothing made from recycled textiles or fair trade organic cotton. As well, since women in the grunge scene wore the \"..", ". As well, since women in the grunge scene wore the \"... same plaid [shirt]s, boots, and short cropped heads as their male counterparts\", women showed \"... that they are not defined by their sex appeal.\"", "\"Grunge ... became an anti-consumerist movement where the less you spent on clothes, the more 'coolness' you had.\" The style did not evolve out of a conscious attempt to create an appealing fashion; music journalist Charles R. Cross said, \"[Nirvana frontman] Kurt Cobain was just too lazy to shampoo\", and Sub Pop's Jonathan Poneman said, \"This [clothing] is cheap, it's durable, and it's kind of timeless. It also runs against the grain of the whole flashy aesthetic that existed in the 80s.\" The flannel and \"", ".\" The flannel and \"... cracked leatherette coats\" in the grunge scene were part of the Pacific Northwest's thrift-shop aesthetic. Grunge fashion was very much an anti-fashion response and a non-conformist move against the \"manufactured image\", often pushing musicians to dress in authentic ways and to not glamorize themselves. At the same time, Sub-Pop utilized the 'grunge look' in their marketing of their bands", ". At the same time, Sub-Pop utilized the 'grunge look' in their marketing of their bands. In an interview with VH1, photographer Charles Peterson commented that members from grunge band Tad \"were given blue collar identities that weren't entirely earned. Bruce (Pavitt) really got him to dress up in flannel and a real chain saw and really play up this image of a mountain man and it worked.\"", "Dazed magazine called Courtney Love one of \"ten women who defined the 1990s\" from a style perspective: the \"... image of Courtney Love's too-short baby doll dress, tattered fur coat and shock of platinum hair\", a look dubbed \"kinderwhore\", \"... topped with a tiara, of course – is seared on the memory of anyone who lived through the decade", "... topped with a tiara, of course – is seared on the memory of anyone who lived through the decade.\" The kinderwhore look consisted of torn, ripped tight or low-cut babydoll and Peter-Pan-collared dresses, slips, heavy makeup with dark eyeliner, barrettes, and leather boots or Mary–Jane shoes. Kat Bjelland of Babes in Toyland was the first to define it, while Courtney Love of Hole was the first to popularize it. Love has claimed that she took the style from Divinyls frontwoman Chrissy Amphlett", ". Love has claimed that she took the style from Divinyls frontwoman Chrissy Amphlett. The look became very popular in 1994.", "Vogue stated in 2014 that \"Cobain pulled liberally from both ends of a woman's and a man's wardrobe, and his Seattle thrift-store look ran the gamut of masculine lumberjack workwear and 40s-by-way-of-70s feminine dresses. It was completely counter to the shellacked, flashy aesthetic of the 1980s in every way. In disheveled jeans and floral frocks, he softened the tough exterior of the archetypal rebel from the inside out, and set the ball in motion for a radical, millennial idea of androgyny", ".\" Cobain's way of dressing \"was the antithesis of the macho American man\", because he \"... made it cooler to look slouchy and loose, no matter if you were a boy or a girl.\" Music and culture writer Julianne Escobedo Shepherd wrote that with Cobain's style of dress \"Not only did he make it okay to be a freak, he made it desirable.\"", "Adoption by mainstream", "Grunge music hit the mainstream in the early 1990s with bands such as Soundgarden, Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, and Nirvana being signed to major record labels. Grunge fashion began to break into mainstream fashion in mid-1992 for both sexes and peaked in late 1993 and early 1994. As it picked up momentum, the grunge tag was being used by shops selling expensive flannelette shirts to cash in on the trend. Ironically, the non-conformist look suddenly became a mainstream trend", ". Ironically, the non-conformist look suddenly became a mainstream trend. In the fashion world, Marc Jacobs presented a show for Perry Ellis in 1992 (the Spring 1993 Collection,) featuring grunge-inspired clothing mixed with high-end fabrics. Jacobs found inspiration in the \"realism\" of grunge streetwear; he mixed it with the luxury of fashion by sending models down the catwalk in beanies, floral dresses and silk flannel shirts. This did, however, not sit well with the brand owners and Jacobs was dismissed", ". This did, however, not sit well with the brand owners and Jacobs was dismissed. Other designers like Anna Sui, also drew inspiration from grunge during the spring/summer 1993 season.", "In the same year, Vogue did a spread called \"Grunge & Glory\" with fashion photographer Steven Meisel who shot supermodels Kristen McMenamy, Naomi Campbell, and Nadja Auermann in a savanna landscape wearing grunge-styled clothing. This shoot made McMenamy the face for grunge, as she had her eyebrows shaved and her hair cropped short. Designers like Christian Lacroix, Donna Karen and Karl Lagerfeld incorporated the grunge influence into their looks", ". In 1993, James Truman, editor of Details, said: \"to me the thing about grunge is it's not anti-fashion, it's unfashion. Punk was anti-fashion. It made a statement. Grunge is about not making a statement, which is why it's crazy for it to become a fashion statement.\" The unkempt fashion sense defined the look of the \"slacker generation\", who \"skipped school, smoked pot ... [and] cigarettes and listened to music\" hoping to become a rock star one day.", "2000s–2010s", "Even though the grunge movement died down in 1994 after the death of Kurt Cobain, designers have continued to draw inspiration from the movement from time to time. Grunge appeared as a trend again in 2008, and for Fall/Winter 2013, Hedi Slimane at Yves Saint Laurent brought back grunge to the runway. With Courtney Love as his muse for the collection, she reportedly loved the collection. \"No offense to MJ [Marc Jacobs] but he never got it right,\" Courtney said. \"This is what it really was", ". \"This is what it really was. Hedi knows his shit. He got it accurate, and MJ and Anna [Sui] did not.\" Both Cobain and Love apparently burnt the Perry Ellis collection they received from Marc Jacobs back in 1993. In 2016, grunge inspired an upscale \"reinvention\" of the style by A$AP Rocky, Rihanna and Kanye West", ". However, \"dressing grunge is no longer a badge of authenticity, though: the signifiers of rebellion (Dr Martens boots, tartan shirts) are omnipotent on the high street\", says Lynette Nylander, deputy editor of i-D magazine.", "Alcohol and drugs", "Many music subcultures are associated with particular drugs, such as the hippie counterculture and reggae, both of which are associated with marijuana and psychedelics. In the 1990s, the media focused on the use of heroin by musicians in the Seattle grunge scene, with a 1992 New York Times article listing the city's \"three principal drugs\" as \"espresso, beer and heroin\" and a 1996 article calling Seattle's grunge scene the \"... subculture that has most strongly embraced heroin\"", "... subculture that has most strongly embraced heroin\". Tim Jonze from The Guardian states that \"... heroin had blighted the [grunge] scene ever since its inception in the mid-80s\" and he argues that the \"... involvement of heroin mirrors the self-hating, nihilistic aspect to the music\"; in addition to the heroin deaths, Jonze points out that Stone Temple Pilots' Scott Weiland, as well as Courtney Love, Mark Lanegan, Jimmy Chamberlin and Evan Dando \"..", "... all had their run-ins with the drug, but lived to tell the tale.\" A 2014 book stated that whereas in the 1980s, people used the \"stimulant\" cocaine to socialize and \"... celebrate good times\", in the 1990s grunge scene, the \"depressant\" heroin was used to \"retreat\" into a \"cocoon\" and be \"... sheltered from a harsh and unforgiving world which offered ... few prospects for ... change or hope", "... few prospects for ... change or hope.\" Justin Henderson states that all of the \"downer\" opiates, including \"heroin, morphine, etorphine, codeine, opium, [and] hydrocodone ... seemed to be the habit of choice for many a grunger\".", "The title of Nirvana's debut album Bleach was inspired by a harm reduction poster aimed at heroin injection users, which stated \"Bleach your works [e.g., syringe and needle] before you get stoned\". The poster was released by the U.S. State Health Department which was trying to reduce AIDS transmission caused through sharing used needles. Alice in Chains' song \"God Smack\" includes the line \"stick your arm for some real fun\", a reference to injecting heroin", ". Seattle musicians known to use heroin included Cobain, who was using \"heroin when he shot himself in the head\"; \"Andrew Wood of Mother Love Bone [who] overdosed on heroin in 1990\"; \"Stefanie Sargent of 7 Year Bitch [who] died of an overdose of the same opiate in 1992 ... [and] Layne Staley of Alice in Chains [who] publicly detailed his battles with heroin ...\". Mike Starr of Alice in Chains and Jonathan Melvoin from the Smashing Pumpkins also died from heroin. After Cobain's death, his \"..", ". After Cobain's death, his \"... widow, singer Courtney Love, characterized Seattle as a drug mecca, where heroin is easier to get than in San Francisco or Los Angeles.\"", "However, Daniel House, who owned C/Z Records, disputed these perceptions in 1994. House stated that there was \"... no more (heroin) here [in Seattle] than anyplace else\"; he stated that the \"heroin is not a big part of the [Seattle music] culture\", and that \"marijuana and alcohol ... are far more prevalent\"", "... are far more prevalent\". Jeff Gilbert, one of the editors of Guitar World magazine, stated in 1994 that the media association of the Seattle grunge scene with heroin was \"really overblown\"; instead, he says that Seattle musicians were \"... all a bunch of potheads.\" Gil Troy's history of America in the 1990s states that in the Seattle grunge scene, the \"... drug of choice switched from upscale cocaine [of the 1980s] to blue-collar marijuana", "... drug of choice switched from upscale cocaine [of the 1980s] to blue-collar marijuana.\" Rolling Stone magazine reported that members of Seattle's grunge scene were \"coffee-crazed\" by day on espresso and \"... by night, they quaff[ed] oceans of beer – jolted by Java and looped with liquor, no wonder the [grunge] music sounds like it does", ".\" \"Some [Seattle] scene veterans maintain that MDA\", a drug related to Ecstasy, \"was a vital contributor to grunge\", because it gave users a \"body high\" (in contrast to marijuana's \"head high\") that made them appreciate \"bass-heavy grooves\". Pat Long's History of the NME states that scene members involved with the Sub Pop label would have multi-day MDMA parties in the woods, which shows that what Long calls Ecstasy's \"warm glow\" had an impact even in the wet, grey and isolated Pacific Northwest region.", "Graphic design", "Regarding graphic design and images, a common feature of grunge bands was the use of \"lo-fi\" (low fidelity) and deliberately unconventional album covers, for example presenting intentionally murky or miscolored photography, collage or distressed lettering. Early grunge \"[a]lbum covers and concert flyers appeared Xeroxed not in allegiance to some DIY aesthetic\" but because of \"economic necessity\", as \"bands had so little money\"", ". This was already a common feature of punk rock design, but could be extended in the grunge period due to the increasing use of Macintosh computers for desktop publishing and digital image processing. The style was sometimes called 'grunge typography' when used outside music. A famous example of 'grunge'-style experimental design was Ray Gun magazine, art directed by David Carson.", "Carson developed a technique of \"ripping, shredding and remaking letters\" and using \"overprinted, disharmonious letters\" and experimental design approaches, including \"deliberate 'mistakes' in alignment\". Carson's art used \"... messy and chaotic design\" and he did not \"..respect any rule of composition\", using an \"..experimental, personal and intuitive\" approach. Another \"grunge graphic designer\" was Elliott Earls, who used \"distorted ..", ". Another \"grunge graphic designer\" was Elliott Earls, who used \"distorted ... older typefaces\" and \"aggressively illegible\" type which adopted the \"unkempt expressiveness\" of the \"grunge [music] aesthetic\"; this radical, anti-establishment approach in graphic design was influenced by the 1910s-era avant-garde Dada movement. Hat Nguyen's Droplet, Harriet Goren's Morire and Eric Lin's Tema Canante were all \"signature grunge fonts", ".\" Sven Lennartz states that grunge design images have a \"realistic, genuine look\" which is created by adding simulated torn paper, dog-eared corners, creases, yellowed scotch tape, coffee cup stains, hand-drawn images and handwritten words, typically over a \"dirty\" background texture which is done with dull, subdued colors.", "A key figure in creating the \"look\" of the grunge scene for outsiders was music photographer Charles Peterson. Peterson's black and white, uncropped, and sometimes blurry shots of the underground Pacific Northwest music scene's members playing and jamming, wearing their characteristic everyday clothes, were used by Sub Pop to promote its Seattle bands.\n\nLiterature", "Zines", "Following the tradition in the 1980s US punk subculture of amateur, fan-produced zines, members of the grunge scene also produced DIY publications which were \"distributed at gigs or by mail order\". The zines were typically photocopied and contained handwritten, \"hand-colored pages\", \"typing errors and grammatical mistakes, misspellings and jumbled pagination\", all proof of their amateur nature. Backlash was a zine that was published from 1987 to 1991 by Dawn Anderson, covering the \"..", ". Backlash was a zine that was published from 1987 to 1991 by Dawn Anderson, covering the \"... dirtier, heavier, more underground and rock side of Seattle's music scene\", including \"... punk, metal, underground rock, grunge before it was called grunge and even some local hip-hop.\" Grunge Gerl #1 was one early 1990s grunge zine, was written by and for riot grrrls in the Los Angeles area. It stated that \"... we're girls, we're angry, we're powerful.\"", "Local newspapers", "In 1992, Rolling Stone music critic Michael Azerrad called The Rocket the Seattle music \"scene's [most] respected commentator\". The Rocket was a free newspaper about the Pacific Northwest music scene which was launched in 1979. Edited by Charles R. Cross, the paper covered \"fairly obscure alternative bands\" in the local area, such as the Fartz and others. In the mid-1980s, the paper had stories on Slayer, Wild Dogs, Queensrÿche, and Metal Church", ". In the mid-1980s, the paper had stories on Slayer, Wild Dogs, Queensrÿche, and Metal Church. By 1988, the metal scene had faded, and The Rocket focus shifted to covering the pre-grunge local alternative rock bands. Dawn Anderson states that in 1988, long before any other publication took notice of them, Soundgarden and Nirvana were Rocket cover stars. In 1991, The Rocket expanded to include a Portland, Oregon edition.", "Fiction", "Grunge lit is an Australian literary genre of fictional or semi-autobiographical writing in the early 1990s about young adults living in an \"inner cit[y]\" \"... world of disintegrating futures where the only relief from ... boredom was through a nihilistic pursuit of sex, violence, drugs and alcohol\". Often the central characters are disfranchised, alienated, and lacking drive and determination beyond the desire to satisfy their basic needs", ". It was typically written by \"new, young authors\" who examined \"gritty, dirty, real existences\" of everyday characters. It has been described as both a sub-set of dirty realism and an offshoot of Generation X literature. Stuart Glover states that the term \"grunge lit\" takes the term \"grunge\" from the \"late '80s and early '90s— ... Seattle [grunge] bands\"", "... Seattle [grunge] bands\". Glover states that the term \"grunge lit\" was mainly a marketing term used by publishing companies; he states that most of the authors who have been categorized as \"grunge lit\" writers reject the label. The Australian fiction authors McGahan, McGregor and Tsiolkas criticized the \"homogenizing effect\" of conflating such a different group of writers. Tsiolkas called the \"grunge lit\" term a \"media creation\".", "Role of women", "Many all-female or woman-led bands are associated with grunge including L7, Lunachicks, Dickless, 7 Year Bitch, the Gits, Courtney Love's band Hole, and Babes in Toyland. VH1 writer Dan Tucker described L7 as an \"all-female grunge band [that] emanated from the fertile L.A. underground scene and [which] had strong ties with ... Black Flag and could match any male band in attitude and volume.\" Grunge was also closely linked with Riot Grrrl, an underground feminist punk movement.", "Riot Grrrl pioneer and Bikini Kill frontwoman Kathleen Hanna was the source for the name of Nirvana's 1991 breakthrough single, \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\", a reference to a deodorant marketed specifically to young women. Notable women instrumentalists include the bassists D'arcy Wretzky and Melissa Auf der Maur from the Smashing Pumpkins, and drummers Patty Schemel of Hole and Lori Barbero of Babes in Toyland", ". The inclusion of women instrumentalists in grunge is notable, because professional women instrumentalists are uncommon in most rock genres.", "Bam Bam, formed in Seattle in 1983, was fronted by an African American woman named Tina Bell, breaking the norm of what was predominantly a White dominated scene. Bam Bam also included future Soundgarden and Pearl Jam drummer Matt Cameron. Kurt Cobain was a roadie for Bam Bam before he was famous and was also a fan of the band. Bell died in 2012. Observers have speculated that the lack of recognition in her lifetime as one of the progenitors of grunge music was due to sexism and racism.", "Women also played active non-musician roles in the underground grunge scene, such as riot grrrls who produced zines about grunge bands and indie record labels (e.g., Grunge Gerl #1) and writer Dawn Anderson of the Seattle fanzine Backlash which supported many local bands before they achieved greater fame. Tina Casale was the co-founder of C/Z Records in the 1980s (along with Chris Hanzsek), a Seattle indie label that released the seminal grunge compilation Deep Six in 1986.", "Susan Silver was the first female manager of the Seattle music scene. She started her career in 1983 and managed several bands such as the U-Men, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains and Screaming Trees. In 1991, The Seattle Times called Silver \"the most powerful figure in local rock management\". Silver was also an advisor for Nirvana. Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic consulted Silver for advice when they were not satisfied with Sub Pop's lack of promotion for their debut album, Bleach", ". Silver looked at their contract with the label and told them they needed a lawyer. Silver then introduced them to agent Don Muller and music business attorney Alan Mintz, who started sending out Nirvana's demo tape to major labels looking for deals. The band ended up choosing DGC and the label released their breakthrough album Nevermind in 1991", ". The band ended up choosing DGC and the label released their breakthrough album Nevermind in 1991. When Nirvana was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2014, Novoselic thanked Silver during his speech for \"introducing them to the music industry properly\".", "History\n\n1965–1985: Roots, predecessors, and influences", "The term proto-grunge has been used to describe artists as having elements of grunge well before the genre appeared in the mid-late 1980s. Perhaps the earliest proto-grunge album is Here Are the Sonics, released in 1965 by the Sonics. Neil Young's albums Rust Never Sleeps (1979) and Ragged Glory (1990) have been proclaimed examples of proto-grunge and grunge music. Additionally, he has been cited as an influence by Pearl Jam, which led to them backing Young for the Mirror Ball album, released in 1995", ". Other acts described as proto-grunge include Wipers and their album Youth of America (1981), Elvis Costello and his Blood & Chocolate album which Will Birch hailed as \"6 or 8 years ahead of its time\" (1986), and the Stooges and their album Fun House (1970).", "Grunge's sound partly resulted from Seattle's isolation from other music scenes. As Sub Pop's Jonathan Poneman noted, \"Seattle was a perfect example of a secondary city with an active music scene that was completely ignored by an American media fixated on Los Angeles and New York [City].\" Mark Arm claimed that the isolation meant, \"this one corner of the map was being really inbred and ripping off each other's ideas\". Seattle \"..", ". Seattle \"... was a remote and provincial city\" in the 1980s; Bruce Pavitt states that the city was \"... very working class\", a place of deprivation, and so the scene's \"... whole aesthetic – work clothes, thriftstore truckers' hats, pawnshop guitars\" was not just a style, it was done because Seattle \"... was very poor.\" Indeed, when \"... Nevermind reached number one in the U.S. charts, Cobain was living in a car.\"", "Bands began to mix metal and punk in the Seattle music scene around 1984, with much of the credit for this fusion going to the U-Men. However, some critics have noted that in spite of the U-Men's canonical place as original grunge progenitors, that their sound was less indebted to heavy metal and much more akin to However the idiosyncrasy of the band may have been the bigger inspiration, more than the aesthetics themselves", ". Soon Seattle had a growing and \"varied music scene\" and \"diverse urban personality\" expressed by local \"post-punk garage bands\". Grunge evolved from the local punk rock scene, and was inspired by bands such as the Fartz, the U-Men, 10 Minute Warning, the Accüsed, and the Fastbacks. Additionally, the slow, heavy, and sludgy style of the Melvins was a significant influence on the grunge sound. Roy Shuker states that grunge's success built on the \"foundations ..", ". Roy Shuker states that grunge's success built on the \"foundations ... laid throughout the 1980s by earlier alternative music scenes.\" Shuker states that music critics \"... emphasized the perceived purity and authenticity of the Seattle scene.", "Outside the Pacific Northwest, a number of artists and music scenes influenced grunge. Alternative rock bands from the Northeastern United States, including Sonic Youth, Pixies, and Dinosaur Jr., are important influences on the genre. Through their patronage of Seattle bands, Sonic Youth \"inadvertently nurtured\" the grunge scene, and reinforced the fiercely independent attitudes of its musicians", ". Nirvana introduced into the Seattle scene the noise-inflected influences of Scratch Acid and the Butthole Surfers.", "Several Australian bands, including the Scientists, Cosmic Psychos and Feedtime, are cited as precursors to grunge, their music influencing the Seattle scene through the college radio broadcasts of Sub Pop founder Jonathan Poneman and members of Mudhoney on KCMU. The influence of Pixies on Nirvana was noted by Kurt Cobain, who commented in a Rolling Stone interview, \"I connected with that band so heavily that I should have been in that band—or at least a Pixies cover band", ". We used their sense of dynamics, being soft and quiet and then loud and hard.\" In August 1997, in an interview with Guitar World, Dave Grohl said: \"From Kurt, Krist [Novoselic] and I liking the Knack, Bay City Rollers, Beatles and Abba just as much as we liked Flipper and Black Flag ... You listen to any Pixies record and it's all over there. Or even Black Sabbath's \"War Pigs\"—it's there: the power of the dynamic. We just sort of abused it with pop songs and got sick with it.\"", "Aside from the genre's punk and alternative rock roots, many grunge bands were equally influenced by heavy metal of the early 1970s. Clinton Heylin, author of Babylon's Burning: From Punk to Grunge, cited Black Sabbath as \"perhaps the most ubiquitous pre-punk influence on the northwest scene\". Black Sabbath played a role in shaping the grunge sound, through their own records and the records they inspired", ". Musicologist Bob Gulla asserted that Black Sabbath's sound \"shows up in virtually all of grunge's most popular bands, including Nirvana, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains\". The influence of Led Zeppelin is also evident, particularly in the work of Soundgarden, whom Q magazine noted were \"in thrall to '70s rock, but contemptuous of the genre's overt sexism and machismo\". Jon Wiederhorn of Guitar World wrote: \"So what exactly is grunge? ..", ". Jon Wiederhorn of Guitar World wrote: \"So what exactly is grunge? ... Picture a supergroup made up of Creedence Clearwater Revival, Black Sabbath and the Stooges, and you're pretty close", ".\" Catherine Strong states that grunge's strongest metal influence was thrash metal, which had a tradition of \"equality with the audience\", based on the notion that \"anyone could start a band\" (a way of thinking also shared by US hardcore punk, which Strong also cites as an influence on grunge) which was also taken up by grunge bands. Strong states that grunge musicians were opposed to the then-popular \"hair metal\" bands.", "Strong states that \"... sections of what was [US] hardcore became known as grunge.\" Seattle songwriter Jeff Stetson states that \"[t]here is no real difference ... between Punk and Grunge.\" Like punk bands, grunge groups were \"embraced as back-to-basics rock 'n' roll bands which reminded the public that the music was supposed to be raw and raunchy\". One example of the influence of US hardcore on grunge is the impact that the Los Angeles hardcore punk band Black Flag had on grunge", ". Black Flag's 1984 record My War, on which the band combined heavy metal with their traditional sound, made a strong impact in Seattle. Mudhoney's Steve Turner commented, \"A lot of other people around the country hated the fact that Black Flag slowed down ... but up here it was really great ... we were like 'Yay!' They were weird and fucked-up sounding", "... but up here it was really great ... we were like 'Yay!' They were weird and fucked-up sounding.\" Turner explained grunge's integration of metal influences, noting, \"Hard rock and metal was never that much of an enemy of punk like it was for other scenes. Here, it was like, 'There's only twenty people here, you can't really find a group to hate.'\" Charles R. Cross states that grunge was the \"... culmination of twenty years of punk rock\" development", ". Cross states that grunge was the \"... culmination of twenty years of punk rock\" development. Cross states that the bands most representing the grunge genre were Seattle bands Blood Circus, Tad, and Mudhoney and Sub Pop's Denver band the Fluid; he states that Nirvana, with its pop influences and blend of Sonic Youth and Cheap Trick, was lighter-sounding than bands like Blood Circus.", "Neil Young played a few concerts with Pearl Jam and recorded the album Mirror Ball. This was grounded not only in his work with his band Crazy Horse and his regular use of distorted guitar—most notably on the album Rust Never Sleeps—but also his dress and persona. A similarly influential yet often overlooked album is Neurotica by Redd Kross, about which Jonathan Poneman said, \"Neurotica was a life changer for me and for a lot of people in the Seattle music community.\"", "The context for the development of the Seattle grunge scene was a \"...golden age of failure, a time when a swath of American youth embraced the ... vices of indolence and lack of motivation\". The \"... idlers of Generation X [were] trying to forestall the dread day of corporate enrollment\" and embrace the \"cult of the loser\"; indeed Nirvana's 1991 song \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" \"... opens with Cobain intoning 'It's fun to lose.'\"\n\n1985–1991: Early development and rise in popularity", "In 1985, the band Green River released their debut EP Come on Down, which is cited by many as being the first grunge record. Another seminal release in the development of grunge was the Deep Six compilation, released by C/Z Records in 1986. The record featured multiple tracks by six bands: Green River, Soundgarden, Melvins, Malfunkshun, Skin Yard, and the U-Men. For many of them it was their first appearance on record", ". For many of them it was their first appearance on record. The artists had \"a mostly heavy, aggressive sound that melded the slower tempos of heavy metal with the intensity of hardcore\". The recording process was low-budget; each band was given four hours of studio time. As Jack Endino recalled, \"People just said, 'Well, what kind of music is this? This isn't metal, it's not punk, What is it?' ... People went 'Eureka! These bands all have something in common", "... People went 'Eureka! These bands all have something in common.'\" Later that year Bruce Pavitt released the Sub Pop 100 compilation and Green River's Dry As a Bone EP as part of his new label, Sub Pop. An early Sub Pop catalog described the Green River EP as \"ultra-loose GRUNGE that destroyed the morals of a generation\"", ". Sub Pop's Bruce Pavitt and Jonathan Poneman, inspired by other regional music scenes in music history, worked to ensure that their label projected a \"Seattle sound\", reinforced by a similar style of production and album packaging. While music writer Michael Azerrad acknowledged that early grunge bands like Mudhoney, Soundgarden, and Tad had disparate sounds, he noted \"to the objective observer, there were some distinct similarities.\"", "Early grunge concerts were sparsely attended (many by fewer than a dozen people) but Sub Pop photographer Charles Peterson's pictures helped create the impression that such concerts were major events. Mudhoney, which was formed by former members of Green River, served as the flagship band of Sub Pop during their entire time with the label and spearheaded the Seattle grunge movement", ". Other record labels in the Pacific Northwest that helped promote grunge included C/Z Records, Estrus Records, EMpTy Records and PopLlama Records.", "Grunge attracted media attention in the United Kingdom after Pavitt and Poneman asked journalist Everett True from the British magazine Melody Maker to write an article on the local music scene. This exposure helped to make grunge known outside of the local area during the late 1980s and drew more people to local shows. The appeal of grunge to the music press was that it \"promised the return to a notion of a regional, authorial vision for American rock\"", ". Grunge's popularity in the underground music scene was such that bands began to move to Seattle and approximate the look and sound of the original grunge bands. Mudhoney's Steve Turner said, \"It was really bad. Pretend bands were popping up here, things weren't coming from where we were coming from.\" As a reaction, many grunge bands diversified their sound, with Nirvana and Tad in particular creating more melodic songs", ". Dawn Anderson of the Seattle fanzine Backlash recalled that by 1990 many locals had tired of the hype surrounding the Seattle scene and hoped that media exposure had dissipated.", "Chris Dubrow from The Guardian states that in the late 1980s, Australia's \"sticky-floored ... alternative pub scene\" in seedy inner-city areas produced grunge bands with \"raw and awkward energy\" such as the Scientists, X, Beasts of Bourbon, feedtime, Cosmic Psychos and Lubricated Goat. Dubrow said \"Cobain ... admitted the Australian wave was a big influence\" on his music", ". Dubrow said \"Cobain ... admitted the Australian wave was a big influence\" on his music. Everett True states that \"[t]here's more of an argument to be had for grunge beginning in Australia with the Scientists and their scrawny punk ilk.\"", "Grunge bands had made inroads to the musical mainstream in the late 1980s. Soundgarden was the first grunge band to sign to a major label when they joined the roster of A&M Records in 1989. Soundgarden, along with other major label signings Alice in Chains and Mother Love Bone, performed \"okay\" with their initial major label releases, according to Jack Endino. Nirvana, originally from Aberdeen, Washington, was also courted by major labels, while releasing its first album Bleach in 1989", ". Nirvana got signed by Geffen Records in 1990.", "Alice in Chains signed with Columbia Records in 1989, and their debut album, Facelift, was released on August 21, 1990. The album's second single, \"Man in the Box\", was released in January 1991, spent 20 weeks on the Top 20 of Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart and its music video received heavy rotation on MTV. Facelift became the first album from the grunge movement to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on September 11, 1991, for selling over 500,000 copies.", "1991–1997: Mainstream success", "Peak of influence", "In September 1991, Nirvana released its major label debut, Nevermind. The album was at best hoped to be a minor success on par with Sonic Youth's Goo, which Geffen had released a year earlier. It was the release of the album's first single \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" that \"marked the instigation of the grunge music phenomenon\". Due to the constant airplay of the song's music video on MTV, Nevermind was selling 400,000 copies a week by Christmas 1991, and was certified gold on November 27, 1991", ". In January 1992, Nevermind replaced pop superstar Michael Jackson's Dangerous at number one on the Billboard 200. Nevermind was certified diamond by the RIAA in 1999.", "The success of Nevermind surprised the music industry. Nevermind not only popularized grunge, but also established \"the cultural and commercial viability of alternative rock in general.\" Michael Azerrad asserted that Nevermind symbolized \"a sea-change in rock music\" in which the glam metal that had dominated rock music at that time fell out of favor in the face of music that was perceived as authentic and culturally relevant", ". Grunge made it possible for genres thought to be of a niche audience, no matter how radical, to prove their marketability and be co-opted by the mainstream, cementing the formation of an individualist, fragmented culture. Other grunge bands subsequently replicated Nirvana's success. Pearl Jam, which featured former Mother Love Bone members Jeff Ament and Stone Gossard, had released its debut album Ten in August 1991, a month before Nevermind, but album sales only picked up the following year", ". By the second half of 1992 Ten had become a breakthrough success, being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard charts. Ten by Pearl Jam was certified 13× platinum by the RIAA.", "The band Soundgarden's album Badmotorfinger and the band Alice in Chains' album Dirt, along with the band Temple of the Dog's self-titled album, a collaboration featuring members of Pearl Jam and Soundgarden, were also among the 100 top selling albums of 1992. The popular breakthrough of these grunge bands prompted Rolling Stone to nickname Seattle \"the new Liverpool\"", ". Major record labels signed most of the prominent grunge bands in Seattle, while a second influx of bands moved to the city in hopes of success. The grunge scene was the backdrop in the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles. There were several small roles, performances, and cameos in the film by popular Seattle grunge bands including Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains. Filmed in and around Seattle in 1991, the film was not released until 1992 during the height of grunge popularity.", "The popularity of grunge resulted in a large interest in the Seattle music scene's perceived cultural traits. While the Seattle music scene in the late 1980s and early 1990s in actuality consisted of various styles and genres of music, its representation in the media \"served to depict Seattle as a music 'community' in which the focus was upon the ongoing exploration of one musical idiom, namely grunge\"", ". The fashion industry marketed \"grunge fashion\" to consumers, charging premium prices for items such as knit ski hats and tartan shirts. Critics asserted that advertising was co-opting elements of grunge and turning it into a fad. Entertainment Weekly commented in a 1993 article, \"There hasn't been this kind of exploitation of a subculture since the media discovered hippies in the '60s\"", ". Marketers used the \"grunge\" concept to sell grunge air freshener, grunge hair gel and even CDs of \"easy-listening music\" called \"grunge light\". The New York Times compared the \"grunging of America\" to the mass-marketing of punk rock, disco, and hip hop in previous years. Ironically, the New York Times was tricked into printing a fake list of slang terms that were supposedly used in the grunge scene; often referred to as the grunge speak hoax", ". This media hype surrounding grunge was documented in the 1996 documentary Hype!. As mass media began to use the term \"grunge\" in any news story about the key bands, Seattle scene members began to refer to the term as \"the G-word\".", "A backlash against grunge began to develop in Seattle; in late 1992, Jonathan Poneman said that in the city, \"All things grunge are treated with the utmost cynicism and amusement [. . .] Because the whole thing is a fabricated movement and always has been.\" Grunge and grunge bands received criticism from musicians such as Blur's Damon Albarn, who was quoted saying \"fuck grunge\" and \"The Smashing Pumpkins can kiss my fucking ass\" while performing onstage", ". Many grunge artists were uncomfortable with their success and the resulting attention it brought. Nirvana's Kurt Cobain told Michael Azerrad, \"Famous is the last thing I wanted to be.\" Pearl Jam also felt the burden of success, with much of the attention falling on frontman Eddie Vedder.", "Nirvana's follow-up album In Utero (1993) featured an intentionally abrasive album that Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic described as a \"wild aggressive sound, a true alternative record\". Nevertheless, upon its release in September 1993, In Utero topped the Billboard charts. In 1996, In Utero was certified 5× platinum by the RIAA. Pearl Jam also continued to perform well commercially with its second album, Vs. (1993)", ". Pearl Jam also continued to perform well commercially with its second album, Vs. (1993). The album sold a record 950,378 copies in its first week of release, topped the Billboard charts, and outperformed all other entries in the top ten that week combined. In 1993, the grunge band Candlebox released their self-titled album, which was certified by the RIAA. In February 1994, Alice in Chains' EP, Jar of Flies peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 album chart", ". Soundgarden's album Superunknown, which was also released in 1994, peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 chart, and was certified 5× platinum by the RIAA. In 1995, Alice in Chains' self-titled album became their second number 1 album on the Billboard 200, and was certified 2× platinum.", "At the height of grunge's commercial success in the early 1990s, the commercial success of grunge put record labels on a nationwide search for undiscovered talent to promote. This included San Diego, California-based Stone Temple Pilots, Texas-based Tripping Daisy and Toadies, Paw, Chicago-based Veruca Salt, and Australian band Silverchair, bands whose early work continues to be identified broadly (if not in Seattle itself) as \"grunge\"", ". In 2014, Paste ranked Veruca Salt's \"All Hail Me\" #39 and Silverchair's \"Tomorrow\" #45 on their list of the 50 best grunge songs of all time. Loudwire named Stone Temple Pilots one of the ten best grunge bands of all time. Grunge bands outside of the United States emerged in several countries. In Canada, Eric's Trip, the first Canadian band signed by the Sub Pop label, has been classified as grunge and Nickelback's debut album was considered to be grunge", ". Silverchair achieved mainstream success in the 1990s; the band's song \"Tomorrow\" went to number 22 on the Radio Songs chart in September 1995 and the band's debut album Frogstomp, released in June 1995, was certified 2× platinum by the RIAA in February 1996.", "During this period, grunge bands that were not from Seattle were often panned by critics, who accused them of being bandwagon-jumpers. Grunge band Stone Temple Pilots in particular fell victim to this. In a January 1994 Rolling Stone poll, Stone Temple Pilots was simultaneously voted \"Best New Band\" by Rolling Stone readers and \"Worst New Band\" by the magazine's music critics, highlighting the disparity between critics and fans", ". Stone Temple Pilots became very popular; their album Core was certified 8× platinum by RIAA and their album Purple was certified 6× platinum by the RIAA. The British grunge band Bush released their debut album Sixteen Stone in 1994. In a review of their second album Razorblade Suitcase, Rolling Stone criticized the album and called Bush \"the most successful and shameless mimics of Nirvana's music\"", ". In the book Fargo Rock City: A Heavy Metal Odyssey in Rural North Dakota, Chuck Klosterman wrote, \"Bush was a good band who just happened to signal the beginning of the end; ultimately, they would become the grunge Warrant\".", "Decline in popularity and end of subculture", "A number of factors contributed to grunge's decline in prominence. Critics and historians do not agree on the exact point that grunge ended. Catherine Strong states that \"... at the end of 1993 ... [,] grunge had become unstable, and was entering the first stages of being killed off\"; she points out that the \"... scene had become so successful\" and widely known that \"imitators had begun to enter the field\". Paste magazine states by 1994, grunge \"... was fading fast\", with \"..", ". Paste magazine states by 1994, grunge \"... was fading fast\", with \"... Pearl Jam retreating from the spotlight as fast as they could; Alice in Chains, Stone Temple Pilots and hordes of others were battling horrid drug addictions and struggling for survival", ".\" In Grunge: Seattle, Justin Henderson states that the \"downward spiral\" began in mid-1994, as the influx of major label money into the scene changed the culture and it had \"nowhere to go but down\"; he states the death of Hole bassist Kristen Pfaff on June 16, 1994, from a heroin overdose, was \"another nail in grunge's coffin.\"", "In Jason Heller's 2013 article \"Did grunge really matter?\", in The A.V. Club, he stated that Nirvana's In Utero (September 1993) was \"grunge's death knell. As soon as Cobain grumbled, 'Teenage angst has paid off well / Now I'm bored and old,' it was all over.\" Heller states that after Cobain's death in 1994, the \"hypocrisy\" in the grunge of the time \"became ... glaring\" and \"idealism became embarrassing\", with the result being that \"grunge became the new [mainstream] Aerosmith\"", ". Heller states that \"grunge became an evolutionary dead end\", because \"it stood for nothing and was built on nothing, and that ethos of negation was all it was about.\"", "During the mid-1990s many grunge bands broke up or became less visible. On April 8, 1994, Kurt Cobain was found dead in his Seattle home from an apparently self-inflicted gunshot wound; Nirvana summarily disbanded", ". After Cobain's death, Bruce Hardy wrote in Time magazine that he was \"the John Lennon of the swinging Northwest\", that he had struggled with a heroin addiction, and claimed that during the last weeks of his life there had been rumors in the music industry that Cobain had suffered a drug overdose and that Nirvana was breaking up. Cobain's suicide \"served as a catalyst for grunge's ... demise\", because it \"..", ". Cobain's suicide \"served as a catalyst for grunge's ... demise\", because it \"... deflated the energy from grunge and provided the opening for saccharine and corporate-formulated music to regain\" its lost footing.\"", "That same year Pearl Jam canceled its summer tour in protest of ticket vendor Ticketmaster's unfair business practices. Pearl Jam then began a boycott of the company; however, Pearl Jam's initiative to play only at non-Ticketmaster venues effectively, with a few exceptions, prevented the band from playing shows in the United States for the next three years", ". In 1996, Alice in Chains gave their final performances with their ailing and estranged lead singer, Layne Staley, who subsequently died from an overdose of cocaine and heroin in 2002. In 1996, Soundgarden and Screaming Trees released their final studio albums of the 1990s, Down on the Upside and Dust, respectively. Strong states that Roy Shuker and Stout have written that the \"... end of grunge\" can be seen as being \"... as late as the breakup of Soundgarden in 1997\".", "Emergence of post-grunge", "During the latter half of the 1990s, grunge was supplanted by post-grunge, which remained commercially viable into the start of the 21st century. Post-grunge \"... transformed the thick guitar sounds and candid lyrical themes of the Seattle bands into an accessible, often uplifting mainstream aesthetic\". These artists were seen as lacking the underground roots of grunge and were largely influenced by what grunge had become, namely \"a wildly popular form of inward-looking, serious-minded hard rock\"", ". was a more commercially viable genre that tempered the distorted guitars of grunge with polished, radio-ready production. When grunge became a mainstream genre, major labels started signing bands that sounded similar to these bands' sonic identities. Bands labeled as that emerged when grunge was mainstream such as Bush, Candlebox and Collective Soul all are noted for emulating the sound of the bands that launched grunge into the mainstream.", "In 1995, SPIN writer Charles Aaron stated that with grunge \"spent\", pop punk in a slump, Britpop a \"giddy memory\" and album-oriented rock over, the music industry turned to \"Corporate[-produced] Alternative\", which he calls \"soundalike fake grunge\" or \"scrunge\"", ". Bands Aaron lists as \"scrunge\" groups include: Better Than Ezra; Bush; Collective Soul; Garbage; Hootie & the Blowfish; Hum; Silverchair; Sponge; Tripping Daisy; Jennifer Trynin and Weezer; Aaron includes the Foo Fighters in his list, but states that Dave Grohl avoided becoming a \"scrunge fall gu[y]\" by combining 1980s hardcore punk with 1970s arena trash music in his post-Nirvana group", ". Bands described as grunge like Bush and Candlebox also have been largely categorized as These two bands became popular after 1992. Other bands categorized as post-grunge that emerged when Bush and Candlebox became popular include Collective Soul and Live.", "Reaction by Britpop", "Conversely, another rock genre, Britpop, emerged in part as a reaction against the dominance of grunge in the United Kingdom. In contrast to the dourness of grunge, Britpop was defined by \"youthful exuberance and desire for recognition\". The leading Britpop bands, \"Blur and Oasis existed as reactionary forces to [grunge's] eternal downcast glare.\" Britpop artists' new approach was inspired by Blur's tour of the United States in the spring of 1992", ". Justine Frischmann, formerly of Suede and leader of Elastica (and at the time in a relationship with Damon Albarn) explained, \"Damon and I felt like we were in the thick of it at that point ... it occurred to us that Nirvana were out there, and people were very interested in American music, and there should be some sort of manifesto for the return of Britishness.\"", "Britpop artists were vocal about their disdain for grunge. In a 1993 NME interview, Damon Albarn of Britpop band Blur agreed with interviewer John Harris' assertion that Blur was an \"anti-grunge band\", and said, \"Well, that's good. If punk was about getting rid of hippies, then I'm getting rid of grunge\" (ironically Kurt Cobain once cited Blur as his favorite band). Noel Gallagher of Oasis, while a fan of Nirvana, wrote music that refuted the pessimistic nature of grunge", ". Gallagher noted in 2006 that the 1994 Oasis single \"Live Forever\" \"was written in the middle of grunge and all that, and I remember Nirvana had a tune called 'I Hate Myself and I Want to Die,' and I was like ... 'Well, I'm not fucking having that.' As much as I fucking like him [Cobain] and all that shit, I'm not having that. I can't have people like that coming over here, on smack [heroin], fucking saying that they hate themselves and they wanna die. That's fucking rubbish", ". That's fucking rubbish.\" In an interview during Pinkpop Festival 2000, Oasis' Liam Gallagher attacked Pearl Jam, who were also performing, criticizing their depressing lyrical content and writing them off as \"rubbish\".", "1997–present: Successors and revivals\n\nSecond-wave post-grunge", "Following the end of the original grunge movement, post-grunge increased in popularity in the late 1990s and early 2000s with newer bands such as Creed, Nickelback, 3 Doors Down and Puddle of Mudd. Other bands include Foo Fighters, Staind and Matchbox Twenty", ". Other bands include Foo Fighters, Staind and Matchbox Twenty. These post-grunge artists were criticized for their commercialized sound as well as their \"worldview built around the comforts of community and romantic relationships\", as opposed to grunge's lyrical exploration of \"troubling issues such as suicide, societal hypocrisy and drug addiction.\" Adam Steininger criticized post-grunge bands' \"diluted ditties filled with watered-down lyrics, all seemingly revolving around suffering through romance", ".\" Criticizing many bands that have been described as post-grunge, Steininger criticized Candlebox for their \"pop-filled\" sound, focus on \"love lyrics, and writing songs without \"versatility and creativity; Three Days Grace for their \"diluted\" and \"radio-friendly music\"; 3 Doors Down for focusing on \"..", "... snagging hit singles instead of creating quality albums\"; Finger Eleven for going in a \"pop rock\" direction; Bush's \"random phrasings of nonsense\"; Live's \"pseudo pop poetry\" that \"strangled the essence of grunge\", Puddle of Mudd's \"watered down post-grunge sound\"; Lifehouse, for tearing \"... down ... grunge's sound and groundbreaking structure to appeal more to the masses\"; and Nickelback, which he calls the \"featherweight ... punching bags of post-grunge\" whose music is \"dull as dishwater\".", "Grunge revivals", "Many major grunge bands continued recording and touring with success in the 2000s and 2010s. Perhaps the most notable grunge act of the 21st century has been Pearl Jam. In 2006 Rolling Stone writer Brian Hiatt described Pearl Jam as having \"spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame\", he noted the band developed a loyal concert following akin to that of the Grateful Dead", ". They saw a return to wide commercial success with 2006's Pearl Jam, 2009's Backspacer and 2013's Lightning Bolt. Alice In Chains reformed for a handful of reunion dates in 2005 with several different vocalists replacing Layne Staley. Eventually settling on William DuVall as Staley's replacement, in 2009 they released Black Gives Way to Blue, their first record in 14 years. The band's 2013 release, The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here, reached number 2 on the Billboard 200", ". The band's 2013 release, The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here, reached number 2 on the Billboard 200. Soundgarden reformed in 2010 and released their album King Animal two years later which reached the top five of the national albums charts in Denmark, New Zealand, and the United States. Matt Cameron and Ben Shepherd joined Alain Johannes (Queens of the Stone Age, Eleven), Mark Lanegan (Screaming Trees, Queens of the Stone Age) and Dimitri Coats (Off!) to form side project Ten Commandos in 2016.", "Despite Kurt Cobain's death, the remaining members of Nirvana have continued to be successful posthumously. Due to the high sales for Kurt Cobain's Journals and the band's best-of compilation Nirvana upon their releases in 2002, The New York Times argued Nirvana \"are having more success now than at any point since Mr. Cobain's suicide in 1994", ". Cobain's suicide in 1994.\" This trend has continued through the century's second decade, with the reissuing of the band's discography and release of the authorized documentary Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck. In 2012, the surviving members of Nirvana re-united, with Paul McCartney in place of Cobain, to record a track for the soundtrack Dave Grohl's documentary Sound City titled \"Cut Me Some Slack\".", "One of the most successful rock groups of the 21st century, Queens of the Stone Age, has featured major contributions from various grunge musicians. Josh Homme had briefly played in Screaming Trees with off-and-on QOTSA member Mark Lanegan, before forming the group. Nirvana's Dave Grohl and Eleven's Alain Johannes have also provided notable contributions. Homme and Grohl joined with Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones to form the supergroup Them Crooked Vultures in 2009", ". Johannes also performed with the group as a touring member.", "In the early 2000s, grunge would make multiple regionally based resurgences, albeit minor ones. In 2005, The Seattle Times made note of groups returning in the Seattle scene. Similarly, The Guardian reported of grunge-influenced groups from Yorkshire, including Dinosaur Pile-Up, Pulled Apart by Horses, and Wonderswan. Also, in 2003, the New York Times noted a resurgence in grunge fashion.", "The 2010s have birthed a number of bands influenced by grunge. Unlike their forebears, some of these acts ascribe the label to themselves willingly. Many acts have been noted for affiliating and/or collaborating with prominent figures from the original alternative rock era. Steve Albini has produced for or worked with members of bands such as Bully, Vomitface, and Shannon Wright, while Emma Ruth Rundle of Marriages has toured with Buzz Osborne of the Melvins", ". Other notable acts that have been labelled as grunge or as heavily influenced by the grunge era, include Courtney Barnett, Wolf Alice, Yuck, Speedy Ortiz, the Kut, Mitski, 2:54, False Advertising, Slothrust, Baby in Vain, Big Thief, Torres, Lullwater, and Red Sun Rising.", "Media outlets also began referring to a revival of the grunge sound around the mid-2010s, with the label being given to bands such as Title Fight, InCrest, Fangclub, Code Orange, My Ticket Home, Citizen, Milk Teeth and Muskets, some of which have been described as merging the genre with emo.\n\nLegacy", "In 2011, music critic Dave Whitaker wrote, \"every generation since the beginning of recorded music has introduced a game-changing genre\", from swing music in the 1930s, rock and roll in the 1950s, punk rock in the 1970s, and then grunge in the 1990s. However, he states \"grunge was the last American musical revolution\", as no post-grunge generation has introduced a new genre which radically changed the music scene. He states that the \"digital revolution\" (online music, file sharing, etc", ". He states that the \"digital revolution\" (online music, file sharing, etc.) has meant that there has not been a \"... generation-defining genre since grunge\", because, for \"one genre to so completely saturate the market requires ... a music industry with immense control over the market\"", "... a music industry with immense control over the market\". In 2016, Rob Zombie stated that grunge caused the death of the \"rock star\"; he states that unlike previous stars like \"Alice Cooper and Gene Simmons and Elton John\", who \"might as well have been from another fuckin' planet\", with grunge the attitude was \"[we] need all our rock stars to look just like us.\"", "Bob Batchelor states that the indie record mindset and values in Seattle which provided guidance for the development and emergence of Nirvana and Pearl Jam \"... conflicted with the major recording label desire to sell millions of CDs.\" Batchelor also states that despite grunge musicians' discomfort with the major labels' commercial goals, and the resistance by some key bands to do the promotional activities required by the labels, including music videos, MTV's video programs \"..", "... played an instrumental role in making [grunge]\" become \"... mainstream, since many music fans received their first exposure\" on MTV, rather than on local or \"niche radio.\" Gil Troy states that the \"... grunge rebellion, like most others\" in America's \"consumerist\" culture, ended up being \"commodified, mass-produced, ritualized, and thus sanitized\" by major corporations.", "In 2011, John Calvert stated that \"timing\" is the reason why a grunge revival did not happen; he says that the cultural mood of the late 1980s and early 1990s, which inspired the movement, were no longer present. Seattle songwriter Jeff Stetson states that people from the 2010s who are listening to grunge should learn about the \"... context and history of how it all came to be\" and \"..", "... context and history of how it all came to be\" and \"... respect for what a truly amazing thing it was that happened here [in Seattle,] because you probably won't see anything like it again.\" Paste magazine's Michael Danaher states that the grunge \"... movement changed the course of rock 'n' roll, bringing ... tales of abuse and depression\" and socially conscious issues\" into pop culture.", "Calvert stated that Nirvana's \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" has an \"iconic place in history\" as it had \"generation-defining resonance\" for young people from its era\"; he states that \"no other band ... made the urge to self-destruct ... as listenable\", with \"authentic\" pain and \"disaffection\"", "... made the urge to self-destruct ... as listenable\", with \"authentic\" pain and \"disaffection\". Calvert also calls the record \"chart history's most ferocious, dark and intense\" music since early punk rock, and he says it was \"heavy when heavy was needed\" by young people of that era, \"jarr[ing] young America awake\" and giving them something to \"cling to\" in difficult times. A 2017 book stated that grunge \".", ". A 2017 book stated that grunge \"..forever changed the identity of rock music in a way analogous to punk\"; moreover, grunge added \"introspective\" lyrics about \"existential authenticity\" and \"what it means to be true to oneself\". Grunge's Kurt Cobain has been called the \"voice of Generation X\", playing the same role for this demographic as Bob Dylan played for 1960s youth and that John Lennon played for the 1970s generation. Bob Batchelor states that Nirvana was \"as important as Elvis or the Beatles.\"", "In 2008, Darragh McManus of The Guardian states that grunge was not simply a young person's trend or a musical fad; she states that grunge synthesized the key philosophies of the modern era, from \"Feminism, liberalism, irony, apathy, cynicism/idealism ..., anti-authoritarianism, [to] wry post-modernism\". McManus states that grunge dealt with serious, \"weighty\" topics, which does not occur often in popular music", ". McManus stated that for Generation X, grunge was not just music, it was a key cultural influence. Marlen Komar states that Nirvana's success popularized \"non-heterosexist\", non-binary ways of thinking about \"gender and sexuality\", emphasized how men and women were alike and promoted progressive political thinking.", "When asked about the '90s grunge movement in 2021, Mark Lanegan commented, \"It’s not something that was contrived or cooked up around the campfire somewhere. It just happened organically. It’s hard for me to comment, because there’s always great new music and there probably always will be – as long as the sun keeps shining.\"\n\nSee also\n\n List of grunge bands\n List of grunge albums\n Riot grrrl\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n\nHumphrey, Clark (1999). Loser: The Real Seattle Music Story. Harry N. Abrams. .", "Masco, Maire (2015). Desperate Times: The Summer of 1981. Fluke Press. .\nPavitt, Bruce (2014). SUB POP U.S.A.: The Subterraneanan Pop Music Anthology, 1980–1988 Bazillion Points. .\nPavitt, Bruce (2013). Experiencing Nirvana: Grunge in Europe, 1989. Bazillion Points. .\nPeterson, Charles (1995). Screaming Life: A Chronicle of the Seattle Music Scene. HarperCollins. .\nPrato, Greg (2010). Grunge Is Dead: The Oral History of Seattle Rock Music. ECW Press. .", "Prato, Greg (2010). Grunge Is Dead: The Oral History of Seattle Rock Music. ECW Press. .\nPrato, Greg (2023). I Love Grunge: 'Grunge Is Dead' Outtakes. Independently published. .\nTow, Stephen (2011). The Strangest Tribe: How a Group of Seattle Rock Bands Invented Grunge. Sasquatch Books. .", "Music of the Pacific Northwest\nAlternative rock genres\n20th-century music genres\nAmerican styles of music\nAmerican rock music genres\nMusic of Seattle\nMusic of Washington (state)\n1980s in Australian music\n1990s in Australian music\n1980s in American music\n1990s in American music\n1990s in Canadian music\n1990s in British music\n1990s fads and trends\nMusical subcultures\nGeneration X\nUnderground culture\nWashington (state) culture" ]

[ "Environmental issues in China had risen in tandem with the country's rapid industrialisation, as well as lax environmental oversight especially during the early 2000s. China was ranked 120th out of the 180 countries on the 2020 Environmental Performance Index.", "The Chinese government has acknowledged the problems and made various responses, resulting in some improvements, but western media has criticized the actions as inadequate. In recent years, there has been increased citizens' activism against government decisions that are perceived as environmentally damaging, and a retired government official claimed that the year of 2012 saw over 50,000 environmental protests in China.", "Since the 2010s, the government has given greater attention to environmental protection through policy actions such as the signing of the Paris climate accord, the 13th Five-Year Plan and the 2015 Environmental Protection Law reform From 2006 to 2017, sulphur dioxide levels in China were reduced by 70 percent, and air pollution has decreased from 2013 to 2018 In 2017, investments in renewable energy amounted to US$279.8 billion worldwide, with China accounting for US$126", ".8 billion worldwide, with China accounting for US$126.6 billion or 45% of the global investments. China has since become the world's largest investor, producer and consumer of renewable energy worldwide, manufacturing state-of-the-art solar panels, wind turbines and hydroelectric energy facilities as well as becoming the world’s largest producer of electric cars and buses.", "From an international perspective, China is a party to most of the major treaties meant to address environmental issues", ". This includes the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, the Antarctic Treaty, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Climate Change treaty, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, the Endangered Species treaty, the Hazardous Wastes treaty, the Law of the Sea, the International Tropical Timber Agreements of 1983 and 1994, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and agreements on Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, and Wetlands protection", ". China has signed, but not ratified, the Kyoto Protocol (but is not yet required to reduce its carbon emission under the agreement, as is India) and the Nuclear Test Ban treaty.", "Environmental problems\n\nWater resources", "The water resources of China are affected by both severe water quantity shortages and severe water quality pollution. An increasing population and rapid economic growth as well as lax environmental oversight have increased water demand and pollution. China has responded by measures such as rapidly building out the water infrastructure and increased regulation as well as exploring a number of further technological solutions. Water usage by its coal-fired power stations is drying-up Northern China.", "According to Chinese government in 2014 59.6% of groundwater sites are poor or extremely poor quality.\n\nA 2016 research study indicated that China's water contains dangerous amounts of the cancer-causing agent nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). In China, NDMA is thought to be a byproduct of local water treatment processes (which involve heavy chlorination).\n\nDeforestation", "Deforestation\n\nAlthough China's forest cover is only about 20%\n the country has some of the largest expanses of forested land in the world, making it a top target for forest preservation efforts.", "Two large reforestation programs, the Natural Forest Protection Program and the Returning Farmland to Forest program, were announced in late 1998. The programs were piloted in Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu in 1999. They became widely implemented in 2000. The Natural Forest Protection Program called for major reductions in timber harvest, forest conservation, and instituted logging bans in most of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Tibet", ". The program provided for alternative employment opportunities for former logging industry workers, including hiring them for reforestation work. The Returning Farmland to Forest program paid farmers to plant trees on less productive farmland and provided them with a yearly subsidy for lost income.", "In 2001, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) listed China among the top 15 countries with the most \"closed forest,\" i.e., virgin, old growth forest or naturally regrown woods. 12% of China's land area, or more than 111 million hectares, is closed forest. However, the UNEP also estimates that 36% of China's closed forests are facing pressure from high population densities, making preservation efforts especially important", ". In 2011, Conservation International listed the forests of south-west Sichuan as one of the world's ten most threatened forest regions.", "China had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.14/10, ranking it 53rd globally out of 172 countries.\n\nThree Gorges dam", "The three gorges dam produces 3% of the electricity in China but has displaced houses and caused environmental problems within the local environment. Due to the construction of the dam over one million people have been displaced from their homes. The dam has also caused frequent major landslides due to the erosion in the reservoir", ". The dam has also caused frequent major landslides due to the erosion in the reservoir. These major landslides included two incidents in May 2009 when somewhere between 20,000 and 50,000 cubic metres (26,000 and 65,000 cu yd) of material plunged into the flooded Wuxia Gorge of the Wu River.", "Coastal reclamation\nChina's marine environment, including the Yellow Sea and South China Sea, are considered among the most degraded marine areas on earth. Loss of natural coastal habitats due to land reclamation has resulted in the destruction of more than 65% of tidal wetlands around China's Yellow Sea coastline in approximately 50 years. Rapid coastal development for agriculture, aquaculture and industrial development are considered the primary drivers of coastal destruction in the region.", "Desertification", "Desertification remains a serious problem, consuming an area greater than the area used as farmland. Although desertification has been curbed in some areas, it is still expanding at a rate of more than 67 km2 every year. 90% of China's desertification occurs in the west of the country. Approximately 30% of China's surface area is desert. China's rapid industrialization could cause this area to drastically increase. The Gobi Desert in the north currently expands by about per year", ". The Gobi Desert in the north currently expands by about per year. The vast plains in northern China used to be regularly flooded by the Yellow River. However, overgrazing and the expansion of agricultural land could cause this area to increase. In 2009, it was estimated that over 200 high-altitude lakes in Zoigê Marsh, which provides 30% of the Yellow River's water, had dried up.", "Climate change", "Climate change had already impacted China. It increased mortality from extreme weather events, infectious disease, poor air and water quality. The effects of air pollutions are exacerbated by the rise in temperatures. In the future climate change may lead to \"typhoons, floods, blizzards, windstorms, drought, and landslides\" and to more severe damage from infectious diseases In the years 1970-2016 the occurrence of crop pest and diseases increased 4 times. 22% of that rise are due to climate change", ". 22% of that rise are due to climate change. By the year 2100 the occurrence will rise 243% under a low emission scenario and by 460% under a high emissions scenario. China is the biggest producer of wheat and rice in the world. It is in the second place in maize production.", "According to one report, China is the country with the largest number of people who can be impacted by sea level rise.", "One of the main problems is the melting of glaciers and permafrost in Tibet. These glaciers and permafrost supply water to approximately 2 billion people. The temperatures in the region rise 4 times faster than anywhere in Asia. According to Xinhua News Agency 18% of glaciers already melted from the middle of the 20th century. The water level in big rivers is lowering", ". The water level in big rivers is lowering. This has an impact on the water supply of China because many rivers, including the Yangtze and Yellow River are getting water from the Tibet glaciers. According to China's Ministry of Water Resources 28,000 of rivers disappeared in China by the year 2013 and the melting of Tibet glaciers and permafrost can be one of the causes", ". The melting also has an impact on the water supply of others countries in eastern Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and more, that can lead to conflicts over water. According to Chinese Academy of Science \"more than 80 percent of Tibetan Plateau permafrost could be gone by the year 2100, and that almost 40 percent of it would be gone within the “near future.” Some researchers predict that most of the Himalayan glaciers will disappear in 20 years.", "Pollution", "Various forms of pollution have increased as China has further industrialized, which has caused widespread environmental and health problems. China has responded with increasing environmental regulations and a build-up of pollutant treatment infrastructure which have caused improvements on some variables. As of 2013 Beijing, which lies in a topographic bowl, has significant industry, and heats with coal, is subject to air inversions resulting in extremely high levels of pollution in winter months.", "In response to an increasingly problematic air pollution problem, the Chinese government announced a five-year, US$277 billion plan to address the issue. Northern China will receive particular attention, as the government aims to reduce air emissions by 25 percent by 2017, compared with 2012 levels, in those areas where pollution is especially serious", ". According to a report published by Greenpeace and Peking University's School of Public Health in December 2012, the coal industry is responsible for the highest levels of air pollution (19 percent), followed by vehicle emissions (6 percent). Ambient air pollution is measured by the amount of particulate matter in the air. This is a result of burning fossil fuels", ". This is a result of burning fossil fuels. “Because coal is the primary fuel used to power China’s industrial sector, it is responsible for about 40 percent of the deadly fine particulate matter found in China’s atmosphere.” In January 2013, fine airborne particulates that pose the largest health risks, rose as high as 993 micrograms per cubic meter in Beijing, compared with World Health Organization guidelines of no more than 25", ". The World Bank estimates that 16 of the world's most-polluted cities are located in China.", "Coastal pollution is widespread, leading to declines in habitat quality and increasing harmful algal blooms. The largest algal bloom recorded in history occurred in China around the southern Yellow Sea in 2008, and was easily observed from space.\n\nRising affluence is another indirect cause of pollution. In particular, car ownership has skyrocketed. In 2014, China added a record 17 million new cars to the road and car ownership reached 154 million.", "China is the biggest producer of single use plastic which causes severe pollution. The biggest landfill of the country was filled 25 years before it was planned.", "Land pollution", "In July 2015, Council on Foreign Relations Director of Asia Studies Elizabeth Economy writing in The Diplomat listed soil contamination as a \"poor stepchild\" of the Chinese environmental movement, and questioned whether or not recent measures from the Ministry of Environmental Protection would be adequate in combating the problem", ". In her 2004 book The River Runs Black, she wrote, \"China's spectacular economic growth over the past two decades has dramatically depleted the country's natural resources and produced skyrocketing rates of pollution. Environmental degradation has also contributed to significant public health problems, mass migration, economic loss, and social unrest.\"", "Population", "China currently has the world's largest population but population growth is very slow in part due to the one-child policy.", "The environmental issues are also negatively affecting the people living in China. Because of the emissions created from the factories, the number of people diagnosed with cancer in China has increased. Lung cancer is the most common form of cancer that is plaguing the population. In 2015, there were more than 4.3 million new cancer cases in the country and more than 2.8 million people died from the disease.", "Animal welfare", "According to a 2005-2006 survey by Peter J. Li, many farming methods that the European Union is trying to reduce or eliminate were commonplace in China, including gestation crates, battery cages, foie gras, early weaning of cows, and clipping of ears/beaks/tails. In a 2012 interview, Li mentioned that many livestock in China may be transported over long distances and there are currently no humane-slaughter requirements", ". He also mentioned that China is the biggest fur-producing nation, and — while the government had been trying to standardize slaughtering procedures — there were cases where fur animals have been skinned alive or beaten to deaths with sticks.", "About 10,000 Asiatic black bears are farmed for bile production—an industry worth roughly $1.6 billion per year. The bears are permanently kept in cages, and bile is extracted from cuts in their stomachs. Jackie Chan and Yao Ming have publicly opposed bear farming. In 2012, over 70 Chinese celebrities took part in a petition against an IPO application by Fujian Guizhentang Pharmaceutical Co. due to the company's selling of bear-bile medicines.", "Natural disasters \nAccording to Jared Diamond, the six main categories of environmental problems of China are: air pollution, water problems, soil problems, habitat destruction, biodiversity loss and mega projects. He also explained that \"China is noted for the frequency, number, extent, and damage of its natural disasters\". Some natural disasters in China are \"closely related to human environmental impacts\", especially: dust storms, landslides, droughts and floods.\n\nResponse", "Response\n\nGeneral overview of the environmental policy", "In 2012 the Center for American Progress has described China's environmental policy as similar to that of the United States before 1970. That is, the central government issues fairly strict regulations, but the actual monitoring and enforcement is largely undertaken by local governments that are more interested in economic growth", ". Furthermore, due to the restrictive conduct of China's undemocratic regime, the environmental work of non-governmental forces, such as lawyers, journalists, and non-governmental organizations, is severely hampered.", "Since 2002, the number of complaints to the environmental authorities increased by 30 percent every year, reaching 600,000 in 2004; meanwhile, according to an article by the director of the Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs Ma Jun in 2007, the number of mass protests caused by environmental issues grew by 29 percent every year since that time", ". The growing attention upon environmental matters caused the Chinese government to display an increased level of concern towards environmental issues and the creation of sustainable growth. For example, in his annual address in 2007, Wen Jiabao, the Premier of the People's Republic of China, made 48 references to \"environment,\" \"pollution,\" and \"environmental protection\", and stricter environmental regulations were subsequently implemented", ". Some of the subsidies for polluting industries were cancelled, while some polluting industries were shut down. However, although the promotion of clean energy technology occurred, many environmental targets were missed.", "After the 2007 address, polluting industries continued to receive inexpensive access to land, water, electricity, oil, and bank loans, while market-oriented measures, such as surcharges on fuel and coal, were not considered by the government despite their proven success in other countries. The significant influence of corruption was also a hindrance to effective enforcement, as local authorities ignored orders and hampered the effectiveness of central decisions", ". In response to a challenging environmental situation, President Hu Jintao implemented the \"Green G.D.P.\" project, whereby China's gross domestic product was adjusted to compensate for negative environmental effects; however, the program lost official influence in spring 2007 due to the confronting nature of the data. The project's lead researcher claimed that provincial leaders terminated the program, stating \"Officials do not like to be lined up and told how they are not meeting the leadership’s goals ..", "... They found it difficult to accept this.\"", "China included the target of achieving Ecological civilization in its constitution, but there are some concerns about implementation.", "In March 2014, CPC General Secretary Xi Jinping \"declared war\" on pollution during the opening of the National People's Congress. After extensive debate lasting nearly two years, the parliament approved a new environmental law in April. The new law empowers environmental enforcement agencies with great punitive power, defines areas which require extra protection, and gives independent environmental groups more ability to operate in the country", ". The new articles of the law specifically address air pollution, and call for additional government oversight. Lawmaker Xin Chunying called the law \"a heavy blow [in the fight against] our country's harsh environmental realities, and an important systemic construct\". Three previous versions of the bill were voted down. The bill is the first revision to the environmental protection law since 1989.", "In 2019, it launched the Belt and Road Initiative International Green Development Coalition.\n\nIn 2020, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping announced that China aims to peak emissions before 2030 and go carbon-neutral by 2060 in accordance with the Paris climate accord. According to Climate Action Tracker, if accomplished it would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2 - 0.3 degrees - \"the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker\".", "In September 2021 Xi Jinping announced that China will not build \"coal-fired power projects abroad\". The decision can be \"pivotal\" in reducing emissions. The Belt and Road Initiative did not include financing such projects already in the first half of 2021.\n\nDuring COP26 the United States and China agreed on a framework to reduce GHG emission by co-operating on different measures, including lowering the use of methane, phasing down the use of coal and increasing protection of forests.", "Protecting and restoring ecosystems\n\nReforestation \nAccording to the Chinese government website, the Central Government invested more than 40 billion yuan between 1998 and 2001 on protection of vegetation, farm subsidies and conversion of farmland to forest. Between 1999 and 2002, China converted 7.7 million hectares of farmland into forest.", "33.8 million hectares (338,000 km2) of forest had been planted in China in the years 2013 - 2018. The Chinese government pledged to increase the forest cover of the country from 21.7% to 23% in the years 2016 - 2020 and to 26% by the year 2035 According to the government's plan, by 2050, 30% of China's territory should be covered by forests. According to the govrment's Xinhua News Agency one third of the population of China participated in tree planting in the first half on 2020. 1", ". 1.69 billion trees were planted, increasing the forest cover by 4.43 million hectares.", "In December 2020 China proposed a new Nationally Determined Contribution (but still not submitted it). According to it China will increase its forest stock volume by 6 billion cubic metres by 2030 (instead of 4.5 billion cubic metres before)\n\nOu Hongyi the single climate striker of China created an initiative named \"Plant for survival\". In 2 – 3 months, more than 300 trees were planted.", "According to South China Morning Post reforestation in China increased the world tree canopy cover by 25%. The trees were first planted for stopping soil erosion and flooding but now can act as a tool to fight climate change.", "In the years 2012-2022 China restored more than 70 million hectares (700,000 km2) of forests. China committed to plant and conserve 70 billion trees by the year 2030 as part of the Trillion Tree Campaign. A special organization: \"1t.org China Action\" will assist to China with achieving its reforestation and forest conservation goals.", "Conserving and planting mangroves is an important part of the environmental policy of China. Mangroves store more carbon per acre than rainforests. 1 square kilometre of mangrove forests store the same amount of carbon that is emitted by 35,000 cars for an entire year. They also protect the population from storms and flooding in general and serve as important natural habitat for wildlife. Mangroves face considerable threats in China due to large scale development", ". Mangroves face considerable threats in China due to large scale development. China decided to increase its mangrove forests cover by 18,000 hectares by the year 2025 and created 52 protected areas covering 55% of its overall mangrove forest territory.", "Stopping erosion and desertification \nIn 1994, China started the Loess Plateau Watershed Rehabilitation Project.", "In 2001, China initiated a \"Green Wall of China\" project. It is a project to create a \"green belt\" to hold back the encroaching desert. The first phase of the project, to restore 9 million acres (36,000 km2) of forest, will be completed by 2010 at an estimated cost of $8 billion. The Chinese government believes that, by 2050, it can restore most desert land back to forest. The project is possibly the largest ecological project in history", ". The project is possibly the largest ecological project in history. It has also been criticized on various grounds such as other methods being more effective.", "Protecting rivers \nIn 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the Yangtze River. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes.\n\nClimate change mitigation", "Climate change mitigation \n\nThe position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious. China is the world's current largest emitter of carbon dioxide although not the cumulative largest. China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol, but as a non-Annex I country was not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement.", "In September 2020, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping announced that China will \"strengthen its 2030 climate target (NDC), peak emissions before 2030 and aim to achieve carbon neutrality before 2060\". According to Climate Action Tracker if it will be accomplished it will lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2 - 0.3 degrees - \"the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker\". The announcement was made in the United Nations General Assembly", ". The announcement was made in the United Nations General Assembly. Xi Jinping mentioned the link between the corona pandemic and nature destruction as one of the reasons for the decision, saying that \"Humankind can no longer afford to ignore the repeated warnings of nature.\"", "On the 27 September 2020, China's climate scientists presented a detailed plan how to achieve the target, described as \"The most ambitious climate goal the world’s ever seen\". According to the plan GHG emission will begin to decline between 2025 and 2030, while total energy consumption will do so in 2035. By 2050 China will stop producing electricity with coal. By 2025, 20% of energy will be produced without fossil fuels. According to the plan GHG emissions will reach 10", ". According to the plan GHG emissions will reach 10.2 billion tons between 2025 and 2030, decline to 9 billion by 2035, 3 billion by 2050 and 200 million by 2060. The emissions that will rest by 2060 will be mitigated with Carbon capture and storage, Carbon sequestration, Bioenergy.", "In the 2021 Leaders' Climate Summit China pledged to strictly limit the growth in coal consumption by 2025 and reduce the use of coal from 2026.\n\nIn September 2021 Xi Jinping announced that China will not build \"coal-fired power projects abroad\". No details were added.\n\nDuring COP26 the United States and China agreed on a framework to reduce GHG emission by co-operating on different measures. The framework includes commitments to:", "Working for achieving halt in temperature rise on 2 and preferably 1.5 degrees, global Carbon neutrality.\n Establishing environmental standards and policies needed for the transition to clean economy.\n Moving toward Circular economy.\n Control and reduce Methane emissions. China will adopt a national methane reduction plan as the USA has already done. In the first half of 2022 both countries will convene a meeting to accelerate the process.", "Increase Energy efficiency and usage of Renewable energy. The USA will make its electricity sector, carbon pollution-free by the year 2035.\n Working to stop globally the use of unabated thermal coal power generation. China will lower the use of coal how much it can during the 15th Five Year Plan.\n Working to stop illegal deforestation by stopping illegal imports.\n Giving financial and capacity building help to other countries.\n Submitting new NDC to the year 2035 by the year 2025.", "Submitting new NDC to the year 2035 by the year 2025.\n Create a special body: \"“Working Group on Enhancing Climate Action in the 2020s,” that will coordinate the implementation of this agreement.", "In January 2022 the government of China called for a transition to \"green consumption\" and issued some guidelines how to do it. This includes different types of products, but especially transportation. It directed local authorities to encourage \"consumers to buy light, small and low-emission vehicles\".", "Energy efficiency", "According to a 2007 article, during the 1980 to 2000 period the energy efficiency improved greatly. However, in 1997, due to fears of a recession, tax incentives and state financing were introduced for rapid industrialization. This may have contributed to the rapid development of very energy inefficient heavy industry. Chinese steel factories used one-fifth more energy per ton than the international average. Cement needed 45 percent more power, and ethylene needed 70 percent more than the average", ". Cement needed 45 percent more power, and ethylene needed 70 percent more than the average. Chinese buildings rarely had thermal insulation and used twice as much energy to heat and cool as those in the Europe and the United States in similar climates. 95% of new buildings did not meet China's own energy efficiency regulations.", "A 2011 report by a project facilitated by World Resources Institute stated that the 11th five-year plan (2005 to 2010), in response to worsening energy intensity in the 2002-2005 period, set a goal of a 20% improvement of energy intensity. The report stated that this goal likely was achieved or nearly achieved. The next five-year plan set a goal of improving energy intensity by 16%", ". The next five-year plan set a goal of improving energy intensity by 16%. In 2022 China published a plan of energy conservation for the 14th five-year plan (2021 to 2025) with a target of cutting energy consumption per unit of GDP by 13.5% by the year 2025 in comparison to the level of 2020. The plan regards 17 different sectors in the economy. In some sectors 20% - 40% of the capacities are not meeting the standards they need to meet by 2025", ". This policy expects to benefit the biggest companies who have the possibility to reach the targets.", "Adaptation to climate change \nSponge cities in China are a way of adaptation to flooding exacerbated by climate change and urbanization. China has been noted for its effort in adopting the Sponge City initiative. In 2015, China was reported to have initiated a pilot initiative in 16 districts.", "Animal Welfare \nThere are currently no nationwide animal welfare laws in China. However, the World Animal Protection notes that some legislation protecting the welfare of animals exists in certain contexts, especially ones used in research and in zoos.", "In 2006, Zhou Ping of the National People's Congress introduced the first nationwide animal-protection law in China, but it didn't move forward. In September 2009, the first comprehensive Animal protection law of the People's Republic of China was introduced, but it hasn't made any progress.\n\nIn 2016, the Chinese government adopted a plan to reduce China's meat consumption by 50%, for achieving more sustainable and healthy food system.\n\nReducing plastic pollution", "Reducing plastic pollution \n\nIn 2017 China banned the import of most types of plastic. In 2019 it announced a ban on single use plastic, but it should enter into force gradually, through 6 years. China's government is trying to replace it with biodegradable plastic, but it can work only in certain conditions. Refillable containers can solve the problem better.", "In September 2020, the Ministry of Commerce announced a ban on single-use plastic bags and single-use cutlery in big cities by the end of the year, as well as a nationwide ban on single-use plastic straws.", "Community activism", "As a result of more incidents relating to natural disasters and negative health consequences tied to environmental issues, sociologists Deng Yanhua and Yang Guobin write that more people in China are “becoming increasingly environmentally concerned and may organize protests against anticipated pollution", ".” According to Ronggui Huang and Xiaoyi Sun, “many environmental protests are tolerated by the Chinese authority, because protests are seen by the central government as an information-gathering channel to identify the dangerously discontented social groups and to monitor local officials.” This increase in environmental action in the late 20th century has accomplished the growth of awareness which led to the rise of environmental non-governmental organizations (ENGOs)", ". ENGOs have engaged in campaigns that have seen some success. The world and scholars all over have been interested in ENGOs given their existence in an authoritarian state and position that some expect will “counterbalance environment-unfriendly economic forces”. Some of these scholars argue that ENGOs have become more legitimate given new environmental laws that aim to curb negative environmental practices in China.", "Alongside the rise of ENGOs, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (formerly known as the State Environmental Protection Administration or SEPA) began to rise in power since its creation in the 1970s. Bureaucratic constraints forced the Ministry to partner with organizations outside of the government to be more successful. The ENGOs with their vast networks and methods appeared to be a good choice in partner for the ministry.", "Opposition to the Nujiang dam project was one campaign in which shows the partnership between the ENGOs and SEPA. The project introduced in 2003 indented to build reservoirs and dams along the Nujiang River. The movement against the project, which halted construction in 2016 was “a peak in the history of China’s environmental movement", ".” According to sociologists Yanfei Sun and Dingxin Zhao reasons for this was the higher risk involved following the environmental action and government response to the Three Gorges Dam. According to the South China Morning Post cooperation from different activist groups developed during the opposition to the project. Previously these groups “tended to work alone due to the strong personalities of their leaders", ". Previously these groups “tended to work alone due to the strong personalities of their leaders.” Wang Yongchen, founder of the ENGO Green Earth Volunteers has been a strong voice in this campaign against the dam project.", "Organizers employ a variety of methods that have developed in response to potential issues that environmental action faces. Some of these issues include environmental science not being widely accessible and understood by the general population, bureaucratic constraints in legal channels, fear of government suppression, the difficulty in proving the health-related consequences of pollution, economic blackmail, and the antagonistic relationships between local governments and ENGOs.", "Success in environmental action would also appear to depend on the organizers themselves and how effective they can be overall. Several scholars argue that framing environmental issues properly has been a successful method “used by environmental activists to mobilize citizens behind the protests”. Deng Yanhua and Yang Guobin write that piggybacking onto other political issues is another successful method", ". For example, instead of following through with environmental claims, there has been success in piggybacking onto the issue of land claims in order “to maximize the vulnerability of their opponents.” In order to work, the issue in question must be framed not as an environmental issue, but a land-related one. This happened during the 2005 Huashui protest targeting factory pollution that took place in Zhejiang Province where organizers framed the issue as illegal land acquisition.", "The protests that began on June 28, 2019 in Wuhan against a proposed incinerator typify the anti-incinerator movement in China. People took to the streets to force the local government to move the location of the proposed incinerator. The protests were met with violence from the police. Other examples of environmental action include the China PX protest and the Qidong Protest of 2012. Residents of Qidong were successful in protesting a pipeline from the Japanese Oji Paper Company", ". Residents of Qidong were successful in protesting a pipeline from the Japanese Oji Paper Company. The organizers framed “their collective actions in opposition to Oji Paper and even the Japanese.” This played on the anti-Japanese sentiment in China. It also deflected blame away from the government. Shifting blame away from the government, “reduced the chance of activists’ protest being repressed.” Being aware of possible repression is important when engaging in any kind of action in China.", "International action", "In December 2021 China and 53 African countries signed a memorandum on cooperation in the fight against climate change. The action will include both mitigation and adaptation measures. It will be linked to South–South cooperation and the Belt and Road Initiative. The signed countries emphasis the importance of the Congo tropical forest for climate", ". The signed countries emphasis the importance of the Congo tropical forest for climate. China will support initiatives like the Great Green Wall (Africa), the Initiative for the Adaptation of African Agriculture and the Initiative for the Adaptation of Africa.", "A study published by the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment in London found \"enormous opportunities for China to become a stronger leader in climate action and diplomacy\" if it will lead the transition to sustainability.\n\nIn 1 on April 2021 leaders from China and European Union met in a summit. Among other issues they decided to continue cooperation on climate issues, and creating strong policy for protecting biodiversity.", "See also\nAnti-incinerator movement in China\nChinadialogue\nDongtan, Chinese ecocity\nElizabeth Economy (China environment expert)\nEnvironment of China\nEnvironmentalism in China\nEnvironmental issues with the Three Gorges Dam\nHydrogen economy\nLeapfrogging from natural gas to hydrogen\nTan Kai\nWu Lihong\n\nReferences\n\nWorks cited\n\nFurther reading", "Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 (). See chapter 12 entitled \"China, Lurching Giant\" (pages 258–377).\n Elizabeth Economy. The River Runs Black. Cornell University Press, 2005.\n Judith Shapiro. . China's Environmental Challenges. Polity Books, 2012.\n Judith Shapiro. Mao's War Against Nature. Cambridge University Press, 2001.", "Judith Shapiro. Mao's War Against Nature. Cambridge University Press, 2001.\n Jianguo Liu and Jared Diamond, \"China's environment in a globalizing world\", Nature, volume 435, pages 1179–1186, 30 June 2005.\n Shunsuke Managi and Shinji Kaneko. Chinese Economic Development and the Environment (Edward Elgar Publishing; 2010) 352 pages; Analyzes the driving forces behind trends in China's CO2 emissions.", "World Health Organization and the United Nations Development Programme, \"Environment and People’s Health in China\", 2001\nWorld Health Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, \"Indoor air pollution database for China\", Human Exposure Assessment Series, 1995.\nRachel E. Stern. Environmental Litigation in China: A Study in Political Ambivalence (Cambridge University Press, 2013)", "Joanna Lewis. Green Innovation in China: China's Wind Power Industry and the Global Transition to a Low-Carbon Economy (Columbia University Press 2015)\nAnna Lora-Wainwright. Fighting for Breath: Living Morally and Dying of Cancer in a Chinese Village (University of Hawaii Press, 2013)", "External links\n\nReal-time air quality index map\n chinadialogue the bilingual source of high-quality news, analysis and discussion on all environmental issues, with a special focus on China.\n Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China" ]

[ "The following events occurred in March 1922:\n\nMarch 1, 1922 (Wednesday)", "Artur Bernardes of the Mineiro Republican Party won the Brazilian presidential election, defeating former President Nilo Peçanha. He would be inaugurated as the South American republic's 12th president on November 14.\nThe RSFSR (Russia's Republic in the Soviet Union) and Sweden signed a temporary commercial treaty in Stockholm. The Swedish Riksdag would later refuse to ratify it.", "The first trainload of migrating Mennonite Christians in Canada departed from the railway station in Plum Coulee, Manitoba, after that province and Saskatchewan had passed laws requiring regulating schools within their settlements. In all, 6,000 Mennonites would relocate to the Mexican state of Chihuahua to reassemble in the Colonia Manitoba north of Ciudad Cuauhtémoc.\nBorn: \nYitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel 1974 to 1977 and 1992 to 1995; in Jerusalem (assassinated 1995)", "William Gaines, U.S. publisher, of Mad magazine and EC Comics; in Brooklyn, New York (d. 1992)\nMichael Flanders, English actor and songwriter (Flanders and Swann), in London (d. 1975)\nDied: Pichichi (Rafael Moreno), 29, Spanish soccer football forward, died of typhus", "March 2, 1922 (Thursday)\nMargaret Haig Thomas, 2nd Viscountess Rhondda was cleared to become the first female member of the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, after the Committee for Privileges and Conduct agreed with her argument that she was entitled under the law to succeed to the peerage of her father, David Alfred Thomas, 1st Viscount Rhondda, who had died in 1918.", "Charles P. Steinmetz, German-born American electrical engineer and inventor, announced at the General Electric laboratories in Schenectady, New York, that he had \"succeeded in producing and controlling an indoor thunderstorm\" with the successful test of generators that could discharge over 100,000 volts of electricity at 10,000 amperes for 0.01 seconds.", "All 25 crew of the Norwegian freighter Grøntoft died after the ship foundered in a North Atlantic storm about southeast of Nova Scotia. By the time the steamship Estonia arrived to the coordinates radioed from the ill-fated ship, there was no trace of the vessel, which had been carrying cargo from Galveston, Texas to Esbjerg in Denmark. According to the captain of the Estonia, as it was racing to the scene, the last message received, at 12:10 p.m", ".m., was that the crew had waited too long to lower the lifeboats and to evacuate. \"The boats are smashed and some of the men were swept overboard,\" the telegraph operator signaled, \"We are almost awash now. I may be driven out any minute. Hurry. You may not hear from me again.\"", "Born: \nBill Quackenbush, Canadian ice hockey defenceman, inductee to the Hockey Hall of Fame; in Toronto (d. 1999)\nDavid Greenglass, U.S. machinist who was convicted of espionage for passing the secrets of the atom bomb to the Soviet Union, and the chief witness against his older sister and his brother-in-law, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, leading to their executions in 1953; in Manhattan, New York City (d. 2014)", "March 3, 1922 (Friday)\nItalian Fascists carried out a coup d'état in the Free State of Fiume. Riccardo Zanella, the President of the Fiume, yielded after the government palace was shelled by Fascist rebels. Given three minutes to agree to surrender, Zanella yielded to the coup leader, Giovanni Giuriati.", "Variety magazine published its first ranking of most popular films in the United States, initially based on a survey of box office receipts at movie theaters on Broadway in New York City and in other selected cities in the United States, initially as a service \"for benefit of out-of-town showmen\". The most popular film as of the week ending February 28, was Foolish Wives, directed by Erich von Stroheim.", "Montreal's five-story tall City Hall, which had been built in 1891 at a cost of over one million dollars, was completely destroyed in a fire.", "Thirteen people were killed, and 12 others injured when two trains collided with a bus at a crossing in Painesville, Ohio. The bus on Main Street and was approaching the St. Clair Street railroad crossing in Painesville when it was struck by the eastbound New York Central Railroad express train 600. Minutes later, the westbound New York Central train 3 crashed into the wreckage of the bus and the train.\nBorn:", "Born: \nDuane D. Pearsall, American entrepreneur who developed the first battery-powered smoke detector for home use, marketing the \"SmokeGard 700\" in 1971 after starting development in 1965; in Pontiac, Michigan (d. 2010)\nMaurice Biraud, French film actor; in Paris (d. 1982)\nDied: \nHarry Kellar, 72, popular American magician of the 19th century", "Died: \nHarry Kellar, 72, popular American magician of the 19th century\nCharles Robinson Rockwood, 61, American civil engineer and irrigation specialist who designed a canal system to bring development in the Colorado Desert in the Imperial Valley of southern California", "March 4, 1922 (Saturday)\nGeorgy Chicherin, the Foreign Minister of the Soviet Union, announced a reversal of the position of the Communist government and informed food relief officials that the Soviet government would pay the international obligations that had been incurred by the Russian Empire during the rule of the tsars.", "Babe Ruth signed a new, three-year contract with the New York Yankees, providing a base salary of $50,000 per year (equivalent to $746,000 a century later) and a bonus of $500 ($7,460) for each home run hit in a game", ". According to the account of the negotiation, Ruth and Yankees co-owner Tillinghast Huston came to Ruth's proposal that the terms would come down to the flip of a coin; and if Ruth won the toss he would get his demands; if he lost, he would settle for the compromise offered by the Yankees' Jacob Ruppert. \"Babe yelled 'tails', The New York Times reported, \"and the coin so registered when it settled on the carpet in Colonel Huston's room.\"", "The drama film The Cradle, starring Ethel Clayton and Charles Meredith was released.\nBorn: \nRichard E. Cunha, cinematographer and film director; in Honolulu, Hawaii (d. 2005)\nMartha O'Driscoll, actress; in Tulsa, Oklahoma (d. 1998)\nDina Pathak, Indian actor and director; in Amreli, Gujarat, British India (d. 2002)\nJoe Bertony, French-born wartime spy and later an Australian engineer who made the Sydney Opera House possible; in Corsica (d. 2019)", "Died: Bert Williams, 47, popular African-American vaudeville entertainer, died after collapsing on stage at a theater in Detroit a few days earlier.", "March 5, 1922 (Sunday)", "The first vampire movie, the influential German horror film Nosferatu, premiered before a group of guests who had been invited to the theater inside the Berlin Zoological Gardens. An unauthorized adaptation (and blatant imitation) of Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula, it was released to the public ten days later at the Primus-Palast cinema in Berlin. By the time Stoker's heirs won a copyright infringement suit against director F. W", ". By the time Stoker's heirs won a copyright infringement suit against director F. W. Murnau and the Prana Film studios, copies of Nosferatu had been distributed world wide and would go on to be celebrated as one of the best films of the century.", "Former U.S. Postmaster General Will H. Hays began working as the American film industry's censor and assumed the job as director of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPDAA). \"The potentialities of the moving picture for moral influence and education are limitless,\" he told reporters, \"and therefore its integrity should be protected as we protect the integrity of our churches, and its quality developed as we develop our schools.\"", "At the age of 61, famous sharpshooter and entertainer Annie Oakley shot a record 98 out of 100 clay targets from a distance of 16 yards. \nWHK in Cleveland, the first commercial radio station to broadcast in the state of Ohio, went on the air.\nThe strike of Chinese shipping workers in Hong Kong and Canton, which had started on January 12 because of pay inequities compared to foreign workers, was settled after shipping companies agreed to increase wages by up to 30 percent.", "Born: Pier Paolo Pasolini, Italian film director, poet, writer and intellectual; in Bologna (d. 1975)", "March 6, 1922 (Monday)\nWhite miners called for a general strike in South Africa after their employers proposed to open semi-skilled jobs to non-European (i.e. black African or Asian) workers.\nThe engagement of the wealthy heiress Edwina Ashley to Lord Louis Mountbatten was announced.\nBorn: \nWanda Klaff, German war criminal and Nazi camp commandant; Danzig (executed 1946)", "Born: \nWanda Klaff, German war criminal and Nazi camp commandant; Danzig (executed 1946)\nDoriot Anthony Dwyer, American flutist and one of the first women to be awarded a principal chair in a major U.S. orchestra; in Streator, Illinois (d. 2020)\nRobert Koehl, American historian and specialist on the Nazi movement in Germany; in Chicago (d. 2015)", "March 7, 1922 (Tuesday)", "Sigurður Eggerz became Prime Minister of Iceland for a second time.\nThe Graystone Ballroom opened in Detroit.\nThe mystery film Sherlock Holmes starring John Barrymore was released.\nBorn: \nNathan Shapell, Polish-born American real estate developer and philanthropist who survived the Holocaust, and founded Shapell Industries, Inc., one of the largest homebuilders in California; as Nathan Shapelski, in Poland (d. 2007)", "Mochtar Lubis, Indonesian novelist and journalist, later a dissident; in Padang, West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies (d. 2004)\nDied: William Laurentz, 27, French tennis player who won the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF) World Hard Court Championships singles title in 1920; from blood sepsis due to influenza.", "March 8, 1922 (Wednesday)\nWhat would become known as the Hitler Youth, mandatory for German adolescents during World War II, was created as a youth auxiliary for the National Socialist Party, initially as the Jugendbund der NSDAP, with an announcement in the Nazi Party newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter. There were three sections, one for boys aged 14 to 16, another for boys 16 to 18, and a girls' organization. \nThe United States formally declined to participate in the Genoa Conference.", "The United States formally declined to participate in the Genoa Conference.\nThe 14th Canadian Parliament, the first under new Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, opened in Ottawa.\nThe Newswomen's Club of New York was founded, by a group of female reporters, initially as the New York Newspaper Woman's Club.\nWinds of winds were recorded in the Isles of Scilly as a hurricane swept the coast of England.\nBorn:", "Born: \nRalph H. Baer, German-born U.S. electronics engineer who invented the first home video game console, the Magnavox Odyssey; in Rodalben, Germany (d. 2014); \nCyd Charisse, American film actress and dancer, leading lady and co-star of Singin' in the Rain; as Tula Ellice Finklea, in Amarillo, Texas (d. 2008)\nYevgeny Matveyev, Soviet actor and film director; in Novoukrainka, Ukrainian SSR (d. 2003)\nJohn Burke, British playwright, screenwriter and novelist, in Rye, Sussex (d. 2011)", "John Burke, British playwright, screenwriter and novelist, in Rye, Sussex (d. 2011)\nShigeru Mizuki, Japanese historian and manga artist, in Sakaiminato, Tottori, Japan (d. 2015)\nCarl Furillo, U.S. major league baseball player, 1953 National League batting champion; in Stony Creek Mills, Pennsylvania (d. 1989)\nDied: \nElizabeth Cotton, Lady Hope, 79, British evangelist, known for her 1915 claim that Charles Darwin had told her on his deathbed that he regretted publishing his work On the Origin of Species", "William H. Remick, 55, American banker and former President of the New York Stock Exchange; from a heart attack", "March 9, 1922 (Thursday)\nThe Eugene O'Neill play The Hairy Ape opened at the Provincetown Playhouse in New York.\n Giovanni Giuriati, a Fascist Party member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, resigned from the Chamber and made plans to become the new leader of the Free State of Fiume, with an objective of having the semi-independent state annexed back into Italy.\nBorn:", "Born: \nU.S. Army Major General George W. Casey Sr., the highest ranking American officer to be killed in the Vietnam War; in Boston (killed 1970)\nFelice Schragenheim, German Jewish resistance fighter and Holocaust victim whose story was later publicized by her former lover, Lilly Wust (d. 1944)\nCount Flemming Valdemar of Rosenborg, Danish prince and Navy commander; in Stockholm, Sweden (d. 2002)\nDied: Kumaraswamy Pulavar, 67, Sri Lankan scholar who worked toward reviving Tamil-language works and traditions", "March 10, 1922 (Friday)\nThe Mahatma Gandhi was arrested in India for sedition.\nMartial law was declared in Johannesburg in response to incidents of sabotage, fighting and looting during the miners' strike. The action came after nine special constables, hired to protect the mines, were shot and killed, while another 27 policemen were taken hostage at Newlands near Johannesburg.", "Germany's Interior Minister Adolf Koester ordered all monarchist emblems removed from public buildings, as well as images of the former Kaiser Wilhelm II. Koester said that exceptions would be made for emblems that were \"structurally incorporated in buildings where their removal would destroy the architectural value and effect\" or images where removal would destroy the \"artistic and historical unity\" of the decorations.\nThe U.S. state of Colorado got its first licensed radio station, KLZ in Denver.", "The U.S. state of Colorado got its first licensed radio station, KLZ in Denver.\nDied: Harry Kellar, 72, American stage magician", "March 11, 1922 (Saturday)\nRiots killed 100 striking gold mine workers in the worst day of the Rand Rebellion in the Witwatersrand region of South Africa. The heaviest casualties were in the city of Benoni, Gauteng, where a South African Army pilot dropped bombs on the Benoni Trades Hall where a meeting of strikers was taking place. In Johannesburg, 19 police and 13 civilians were killed in fighting.", "The National Intercollegiate Basketball Tournament, the first national college basketball championship ever held in the United States, was played in Indianapolis, Indiana, and five conference champions participated, as well as one runner up. The title was won by Wabash College, which had the best record in the Indiana Intercollegiate Athletic Association, and defeated Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association champion Kalamazoo College, 43 to 23", ". Other teams that participated were Mercer College of Georgia (Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association runner up); Grove City College (Western Pennsylvania League); Illinois Wesleyan College (Illinois Intercollegiate Athletic Conference); and the University of Idaho (Pacific Coast Conference).", "Born: \nAbdul Razak Hussein, second Prime Minister of Malaysia (1970 to 1975); in Pekan, Penang, British Malaya (d. 1976)\nJosé Luis López Vázquez, Spanish stage and film actor; in Madrid (d. 2009)\nVincent Mroz, U.S. Secret Service agent and Marine Corps veteran who helped foil the 1950 attempted assassination of Harry S. Truman; in Stanley, Wisconsin (d. 2008)\nDied:", "Died: \nGordon McGregor, 49, Canadian businessman who obtained the rights to finance and form the Ford Motor Company of Canada and created the first Canadian mass-produced automobile, the 1904 Ford Model C; from a blood-vessel disorder\nJoe Gerhardt, 67, American baseball player", "March 12, 1922 (Sunday)", "The Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic was established as a nominally-independent Communist nation by the merger of three soviet socialist republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) with a capital at Tiflis (now the Georgian capital of Tbilisi)", ". It was ruled by a three-member joint council composed of the chief executives of each SSR, Alexander Miasnikian of Armenia, Nariman Narimanov of Azerbaijan and Polikarp Mdivani of Georgia, all with the approval of the Russian SFSR's Joseph Stalin, who wanted the three republics to join a union as one republic. On December 30, 1922, the Transcausian SFSR would join the Russian SFSR, Ukrainian SSR and Byelorussian SSR to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.", "In India, the Mahatma Gandhi offered to plead guilty to the charges against him and declined to present any legal defense. He would receive the minimum sentence for sedition, six years.\nA bullet was fired into the automobile of South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts, but he was not injured. \nBorn: \nJack Kerouac, American novelist known for his 1957 Beat Generation classic On the Road; in Lowell, Massachusetts (died of abdominal hemorrhage, 1969)", "Lane Kirkland, American labor union leader and President of the AFL-CIO from 1979 to 1995; in Camden, South Carolina (d. 1999)\nDied: \nH. Irving Hancock, 54, prolific American author of ten different series of books for boys, from 1890 to 1919, including the popular four-book series The Invasion of the United States; from liver failure.\nHugh Mangum, 44, American photographer, from pneumonia", "March 13, 1922 (Monday)\nThe Prince of Wales Royal Military College was inaugurated in Dehradun in the Doon Valley in India by Edward, Prince of Wales. The academy, now called Rashtriya Indian Military College, is located in India's Uttarakhand state.", "American inventor Charles F. Jenkins, became one of the first persons to file a patent application for a television transmitter and receiver. U.S. Patent No. 1,544,156 was granted on June 30, 1925 for \"Transmitting pictures by wireless\", a mechanical television system that initially allowed scanning and transmission of silhouette images. In 1928, he would open the first television station, W3XK", ". In 1928, he would open the first television station, W3XK. Jenkins's system, which relied on a rotating disc to scan and receive the scene, was superseded by the electronic television system.", "Government forces gained the upper hand in South Africa against the rebels. A total of 2,200 had been captured up to that time.\nDelegates from Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland opened a five-day conference in Warsaw to create a defensive league and arbitrate disputes.\nThe third trial of Fatty Arbuckle began.", "The third trial of Fatty Arbuckle began.\nWRR in Dallas, Texas received its federal license, the first in Texas, to broadcast on 1310 AM. Owned by the city of Dallas, and later broadcasting on the FM band at the 101.1 frequency it is, as of its 100th anniversary it is the oldest radio station that has not changed ownership. It was started by the city of Dallas on August 5, 1921 out of the fire station.\nDied: Henry Otto Wix, 55, German-born American painter, committed suicide", "March 14, 1922 (Tuesday)\nSouth African rebels surrendered in Fordsburg to government troops after 75 minutes of bombardment.\nKenyan anti-colonialist Harry Thuku was arrested by British colonial authorities for his activities in his East African Association. He was exiled to British Somaliland and would remain there for six years before being allowed to return.", "Born: Colin Fletcher, Welsh-born American hiker and writer who popularized wilderness backpacking with his 1968 book The Complete Walker; in Cardiff, Wales (d. 2007) \nDied: \nClemens von Podewils-Dürniz, 72, former Minister-President of Bavaria from 1903 to 1912.\nLewis P. Featherstone, 70, former Populist Party Congressman for Arkansas who made a successful election fraud challenge against incumbent William H. Cate in 1890.", "March 15, 1922 (Wednesday)\nÉamon de Valera announced the formation of a new party, the Cumann na Poblachta. The goal of the new movement was to work toward making Ireland a republic independent of the United Kingdom and to repudiate the Anglo-Irish Treaty that had created the Irish Free State.\nWSB in Atlanta, the first licensed radio station in the U.S. state of Georgia, went on the air.\nKGG in Portland, the first licensed radio station in Oregon, went on the air.", "KGG in Portland, the first licensed radio station in Oregon, went on the air.\nIn the Irish city of Galway, a group of four armed men invaded the St. Bride's Home hospital and shot and killed three constables of the Royal Irish Constabulary while they were in bed recovering from wounds.\nBorn: Richard M. Ketchum, U.S. historian, editor of American Heritage magazine and specialist in the 18th century American Revolutionary War; in Pittsburgh (d. 2012)", "March 16, 1922 (Thursday)\nAhmed Fuad Pasha was proclaimed as King Fuad I of Egypt in a ceremony \"accompanied by the firing of salvos of 100 guns in Cairo, Alexandria and Port Said, and of 21 guns in all the other provincial capitals.\"\nAt least 21 protesters were killed by police in Nairobi, the capital of the British East African colony of Kenya, after a crowd of more than 7,000 people surrounded a police station where dissident Harry Thuku was being held in detention.", "Louis \"Lepke\" Buchalter was released from Sing Sing, the New York state penitentiary in Ossining, New York after completing 26 months of a 30-month sentence for burglary, and teamed up with mobster Jacob Shapiro to begin a takeover of labor unions in New York City's Garment District. Within a decade, he would create a system for carrying out contracts for murder on behalf of various New York gangs by hiring non-mobsters to do the killing.\nThe South African rebellion ended.", "The South African rebellion ended.\nThe French Red Cross and the Soviet government signed an agreement in Berlin on measures to fight the Russian famine. It was the first contract ever concluded between France and Soviet Russia.\nWHD in Morgantown, West Virginia became the first licensed radio station in that state.\nBorn: \nJacqueline Baudrier, French journalist and radio and TV network administrator, President and CEO of Radio France from 1975 to 1981; in Beaufai (d. 2009)", "Zdeněk Liška, Czechoslovakian film score composer; in Smečno (d. 1983)\nKarem Mahmoud, popular Egyptian singer and actor; in Damanhur (d. 1995)\nHarding Lemay, American TV screenwriter and playwright, in Bangor, New York (d. 2018)\nDied: G. B. Halsted, 68, American mathematician and expert on non-Euclidean geometry", "March 17, 1922 (Friday)\nItaly sent troops to occupy the Free State of Fiume in response to the coup, saying it was only doing so because the Treaty of Rapallo assigned Italy the responsibility of policing the state and because it sought to ensure the election of a legal government.", "A team of 15 U.S. Customs Service special agents made one of the first great busts of the Prohibition era as it seized the cargo of the two-masted schooner Clara as \"well-dressed men wearing diamonds\" were unloading 4,000 cases of Scotch whiskey at the shore of the East River in the Bronx. Watching from a well offshore, the crew of a Customs Service launch spotted intermittent flashes of light that appeared to be signals, then pulled up alongside and fought a gunbattle in which nobody was wounded", ". In addition to arresting 20 rumrunners, the customs agents confiscated the cargo (48,000 bottles of scotch, with 12 bottles per case), valued at $500,000., equivalent to $8.1 million dollars in 2021.", "The Warsaw Accord was signed by representatives of Finland, Poland, Estonia and Latvia as a treaty of respect for each other's sovereignty and reciprocity, as well as a pledge to guarantee the rights of ethnic minorities (Finns, Poles, Estonians and Latvians) in each of the signatory countries. However, Finland's Foreign Minister Rudolf Holsti was unable to persuade the Finnish Parliament to ratify the pact.\nWIP, Philadelphia's first commercial radio station, went on the air.\nBorn:", "Born: \nAdmiral Günter Luther, German officer who had served in the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe against the UK, France and the U.S. during World War II; after the war, he rose through the ranks of West Germany's Bundesmarine and, from 1980 to 1982, served as the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR) for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance with the UK, France and the U.S.; in Bestwig, Prussia, Germany (d. 1997)", "Radhia Haddad, Tunisian feminist and advocate for women's rights; in Tunis (d. 2003)\nPatrick Suppes, American scientist and philosopher; in Tulsa, Oklahoma (d. 2014)", "March 18, 1922 (Saturday)\nThe first bat mitzvah ceremony in the U.S. for a Jewish girl, the counterpart to the bar mitzvah coming of age ceremony for a Jewish boy, was conducted for Judith Kaplan, the 12-year-old daughter of Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, at their synagogue in the Society for the Advancement of Judaism building in New York City.", "In Ahmedabad in India, freedom fighter Mohandas K. Gandhi was sentenced to six years in jail after being convicted of sedition. He would serve for 23 months, until his early and unconditional release on February 4, 1924, on the advice of physicians who recommended that he be allowed six months convalescence to recover from illness.\nThe Communist Party of Great Britain assembled in London for its fourth party congress.\nBorn:", "The Communist Party of Great Britain assembled in London for its fourth party congress.\nBorn: \nEgon Bahr, West German government minister and chief adviser to Chancellor Willy Brandt from 1969 to 1974 who formulated Brandt's Ostpolitik strategy; in Treffurt, Germany (d. 2015)\nAaron Shikler, American portrait artist known for the official portraits of John F. Kennedy, Jackie Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson, and others; in Brooklyn (d. 2015)", "Emilio Gatti, Italian nuclear electronics engineer and inventor of the silicon drift detector for the measurement of x-ray radiation; in Turin (d. 2016)", "March 19, 1922 (Sunday)\nFranz Hailer became the first pilot to land a plane on Zugspitze, Germany's highest mountain, when he landed a Rumpler C.I on the Schneeferner glacier 500 metres from the summit.\nBorn: \nHiroo Onoda, Japanese Imperial Army intelligence officer who refused to acknowledge the Japanese surrender in World War II, and remained in hiding in the Philippines until finally surrendering in 1974, more than 28 years after the end of the war; in Kainan, Wakayama (d. 2014)", "FrancEyE (pen name for Frances Dean Smith), American poet; in San Rafael, California (d. 2009)\nDied: \nValente Quintero, 34, former Mexican Army officer who would become the subject of a famous ballad, and later a film, was killed in a duel with an rival, Martín Elenes, both of whom were suitors of the same woman. \nMax von Hausen, 75, German Army commander who had served as the Minister of War for the Kingdom of Saxony from 1902 to 1914, then commanded the German Third Army in World War One.", "March 20, 1922 (Monday)\nThe , converted from the collier USS Jupiter, entered service as the first American aircraft carrier.\nU.S. President Warren G. Harding ordered the withdrawal of the remaining 4,000 U.S. Army troops occupying Germany, with plans to remove all of them by July 1.", "President Harding signed the General Land Exchange Act of 1922 into law, providing for the United States Forest Service to expand the contiguous area of existing national forests by allowing the federal agency to exchange holdings of equal value to acquire privately-owned lands within the boundaries of a forest.\nThe Communist Party of Italy opened its second party congress in Rome.", "The American newspaper comic panel Out Our Way, written and drawn by J. R. Williams, began a run of 55 years, with its first NEA-syndicated strip appearing in several dailies, including the Miami News and the Brooklyn Citizen. One paper introduced it as \"a daily bit of entertaining, homely humor about the kind of people we all 'know'. Don't miss it.\" Within 20 years, the panel was in 725 daily papers and its Sunday strip feature was in 262 papers.", "Born: Carl Reiner, American comedian, film and TV actor, director and producer, best known for creating and acting in The Dick Van Dyke Show; in the Bronx, New York (d. 2020)", "March 21, 1922 (Tuesday)\nUnited Mine Workers of America (UMWA) President John L. Lewis announced a strike of all UWMA coal miners in the United States and Canada, effective at midnight March 31, when the existing contract between the UMWA and coal companies was set to expire. \"This will be the greatest strike in the history of the coal industry,\" Lewis declared, in that would see 600,000 anthracite and bituminous coal miners walking off of their jobs.", "The border dispute between Finland and the Soviet Union was ended by agreement, allowing Karelian refugees from Russia's Kareliya Soviet Socialist Republic to cross into Finland's Karjala provinces until June (with 30,000 taking advantage of the opportunity).\nQueen Mary inaugurated London Waterloo station.\nBorn: Russ Meyer, U.S. film producer and director known for pioneering the first commercially successful softcore \"sexploitation films\"; in San Leandro, California (d. 2004)\nBorn:", "Born: \nDavid H. Malan, British psychiatrist and pioneer in psychotherapy; in Ootacamund, Madras Province, British India (now in Tamil Nadu state) (d. 2020)\nAlan D.B. Clarke, British psychologist and pioneer in responding to children's learning disabilities; in Surrey, England (d. 2011)\nPaul H. Mussen, American psychologist and specialist in children's psychological development; in Paterson, New Jersey (d. 2000)", "Died: C. V. Raman Pillai, 63, Indian Malayalam language novelist and playwright known for Marthandavarma", "March 22, 1922 (Wednesday)", "Giovanni Giuriati, a Fascist Party member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, was installed as the new President of the Free State of Fiume after the coup d'état had removed the previous government.\nIrish republican Rory O'Connor gave an infamous press conference declaring that the IRA would no longer obey the Dáil because, he said, it had abandoned the Republic. When asked if that meant that they were to set up a military dictatorship, he said, \"You can take it that way if you like.\"", "After a session that had started the night before in Paris, the Allied Commission on Reparations called on Germany to put limitations on the amount of paper money that it was printing, and declared that 470 million gold marks were still owed to the Allies as well as 1.45 billion gold marks worth of material resources. Later in the day, the Commission gave Germany's government until May 31 to comply, on the threat of additional action under the Treaty of Versailles.", "J. B. A. Robertson, the Governor of the U.S. state of Oklahoma, was arrested at his home after being indicted earlier in the day on charges of accepting a bribe from the Guaranty State Bank of Okmulgee in order to permit the insolvent bank to keep operating. Governor Robertson posted a $5,000 bail bond and was released until a trial could be held. Although he would be acquitted of charges and serve until the expiration of his four-year term in January, he would not hold office again.", "All five passengers on a U.S. airliner were killed when the seaplane crashed into the sea during its flight from Miami to the Bahamas, with a destination of Bimini. The crash of the \"Miss Miami\" was the deadliest civilian airplane accident in the U.S. up to that time. The group survived the crash, but over the next 56 hours, drifted at sea, dying one-by-one.\nBorn:", "Born: \nAnnamma Mathew, Indian publisher who founded Vanitha, the highest circulation women's magazine in India; in West Godavari district, Madras Province, British India (d. 2003)\nDavid Lansana, Sierra Leone military officer who attempted to overthrow the government of the west African nation in 1976; in Baiima (executed, 1975)", "Uthradom Thirunal Marthanda Varma, Indian businessman who had acquired the hereditary title of Maharaja of Travancore after India had abolished hereditary royal titles; in Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) (d. 2013)\nDied: \nKazi Dawa Samdup, 53, Sikkimese-born linguist who was the first to translate texts from Tibetan Buddhism into English, introducing Buddhism to the English-speaking world", "March 23, 1922 (Thursday)\nThe British Royal Navy submarine H42 was lost along with all 24 of its crew after making the mistake of surfacing into the path of the destroyer HMS Versatile. Both vessels were participating in training maneuvers off of the coast of Gibraltar when the H42 came to the surface at a point no further than from the Versatile, which was traveling at 20 knots, equivalent to or almost 34 feet per second. A few seconds later, the bow of Versatile rammed the conning tower of H42.", "Lawrence Sperry became the first pilot to land a plane at the U.S. Capitol. His small scout plane touched down on the concrete plaza in front of the Capitol building and rolled up the steps in order to stop because the plane had no brakes.", "U.S. Congressman Martin C. Ansorge, a Republican from New York, nominated an African-American student to United States Naval Academy., which had not happened since 1871. Although there had been three Black midshipmen at Annapolis in the 1870s, Emile Treville Holley was not accepted for enrollment because of racist attitudes at the time. As the New York Times reported, U.S", ". As the New York Times reported, U.S. Navy officers and Annapolis midshipmen who \"will not talk for publication on this matter\" expressed the idea that \"the fate that awaits the candidate is social ostracism\" and that \"it is safe to say that the midshipmen have condemned him to Coventry, just as nearly fifty years ago the midshipmen of 1873, 1874 and 1875 refused to receive as equals three other negro boys..", "...\" Holley enrolled instead at Middlebury College in Vermont and became its first black graduate, then went on to becoming a college professor.", "In Argentina, a party of explorers sponsored by the Buenos Aires Zoo departed for Patagonia on an expedition to a lake in the Chubut Province, where a large creature had been reportedly seen. According to the Director of the Zoo, the lake was from the 16 de Octubre valley. Reports had described it variously as a plesiosaurus, a glyptodon or a megatherium, and the group was given six weeks to arrange for \"the capture or destruction of the anachronistic creature.\"", "The U.S. state of Kansas got its first licensed radio station, WEY in Wichita.\nWKC in Baltimore became the first licensed radio station in the state of Maryland.\nWKN in Memphis, Tennessee became the first commercial radio station in that state.\nBorn: \nAbderrahim Bouabid, Moroccan politician and Minister of Finance from 1958 to 1960; in Salé (d. 1992)\nRobert Simons, English cricketer and wicket-keeper; in Watford, Hertfordshire (d. 2011)", "Robert Simons, English cricketer and wicket-keeper; in Watford, Hertfordshire (d. 2011)\nUgo Tognazzi, Italian comedian and film actor, in Cremona, Italy (d. 1990)", "March 24, 1922 (Friday)", "Poland annexed the Republic of Central Lithuania, a puppet state that had been created by Poland in 1920 following an invasion of the Republic of Lithuania.", "The Salomón–Lozano Treaty was signed to settle a border dispute between the South American nations of Peru and Colombia in the Amazon River valley, with Peru ceding a large amount of its northeastern territory to Colombia and Colombia ceding a small amount of its southeastern area to Peru. Dissatisfaction in Peru about the Treaty would lead, more than 10 years later, to an eight month long war between the two nations from September 1, 1932 to May 24, 1933.", "Edsel Ford, the president of the Ford Motor Company, announced that the automobile manufacturer would become the first major corporation to permanently adopt a 40-hour week. Ford Motor reduced its work week to five days, with the no operations on the weekend. The entry wage of six dollars per day (equivalent to $98 per day or $12.25 an hour in 2021) continued unchanged, however, meaning that he weekly wage would be less because of no work on Saturday", ". Edsel Ford said in a statement, \"Every man needs more than one day a week for rest and recreation. The Ford Company always has sought to promote ideal home life for its employees. We believe that in order to live properly every man should have more time to spend with his family.\"", "The U.S. Senate ratified the \"Four-Power Treaty\" by a vote of 67 to 27, with only 12 of the Senate's 35 Democrats in favor. The Treaty had been signed by Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom and France at the Washington Naval Conference at the end of 1921 and the four nations pledged not to further expand their territories in the Pacific Ocean.", "An explosion at the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company's Sopris Mine No. 2 killed the 18 employees inside. The blast, near Trinidad, Colorado, occurred minutes after the 200 coal miners on the day shift had gone home.\nThe McMahon killings of six Roman Catholic civilians, was carried out in Northern Ireland by a group of men dressed in police uniforms, in a home invasion in Belfast.\nMusic Hall won the Grand National horse race in England.", "Music Hall won the Grand National horse race in England.\nThe Swiss Federal Council settled a long-running border dispute between Venezuela and Colombia by siding with Colombia.\nThe Regierungskommission of Germany created a 30-member Regional Council to govern the disputed territory of Saarland. \nBorn: \nDr. Farrokhroo Parsa, the first female cabinet member in Iran, Minister of Education 1968 to 1971; in Qom (executed, 1980)", "Saitō Satoshi, Japanese martial artist of the Negishi-ryū Shurikenjutsu tradition; in Tokyo (d. 2014)", "March 25, 1922 (Saturday)\nBritain and Iraq signed a military agreement giving the British control over Iraqi defenses.\nThe Brazilian Communist Party was founded.\nBorn: Stephen Toulmin, British philosopher and an expert on the effective use of rhetoric; in London (d. 2009)", "March 26, 1922 (Sunday)\nThe Allied Powers agreed to amend the Treaty of Sèvres in an attempt to end the Greco-Turkish War, but the Turkish Nationalists refused to sign an armistice until Greece evacuated all its forces from Anatolia.\nBorn: Syed Ali Ahsan, Bangladeshi poet and scholar; in Alokdia, Bengal Province, British India (d. 2002)", "March 27, 1922 (Monday)\nAs the Russian Civil War continued, troops under the command of General Mikhail Korobeinikov of the anti-Bolshevik Yakut People's Army took control of the Siberian city of Yakutsk.", "Richard Enright, the New York City Police Commissioner, sent a general order to every station advising that a new ordinance had gone into effect, prohibiting women (but not men) from smoking in public places, and directing police to assess a minimum fine of five dollars per offense against any restaurant or resort where women were seen smoking. Murray Hulbert, the chairman of the Board of Aldermen, said that he was unaware of the ordinance (which had supposedly been passed on March 14) but Alderman Peter J", ". McGuinness, who had sponsored the measure, said that he had watched its approval and signing by Mayor John F. Hylan. A subsequent investigation found that a city clerk, Daniel W. F. McCoy, had mistaken a draft of the ordinance for a law that had been passed and had forwarded it to Commissioner Enright.", "The U.S. Supreme Court decided United Zinc & Chemical Co. v. Britt, modifying the attractive nuisance doctrine in common law, which held a landowner responsible for the injuries of trespassing children if the cause of injury had been a dangerous object that could reasonably have been expected to be of interest to a child coming on to the property", ". In a 6 to 3 ruling, the Court held that a defendant was not liable if the child had come on to the property without having been attracted to the cause of injury (in the instance at hand, two boys, aged 8 and 11, had died in 1916 after their discovery of a large pool of contaminated water that had not been visible from the area around the property).", "Born: \nStefan Wul (pen name for Pierre Pairault), French science fiction writer (d. 2003)\nMargaret Stacey, British sociologist and pioneer in developing medical sociology as a subset of her discipline at the University of Warwick (d. 2004) \nJosephine Kabick, American baseball pitcher and AAGPBL star; in Detroit (d. 1978)", "Josephine Kabick, American baseball pitcher and AAGPBL star; in Detroit (d. 1978)\nDied: Lucian W. Parrish, 44, U.S. Representative for the 13th District of Texas since 1919, died of cerebral meningitis contracted in a hospital, 12 days after he was seriously injured in an automobile accident while campaigning for the nomination for U.S. Senator for that state. Parrish had been driving to Roby, where he was scheduled to give a campaign speech, when his car plunged off a bridge.", "March 28, 1922 (Tuesday)\nIn Shanghai, two Koreans attempted to assassinate the former Japanese Minister of War Tanaka Giichi as he was getting off a ship, but they missed and killed an American woman instead. Both would-be assassins were quickly apprehended.", "A gunman attempted to assassinate former Russian Foreign Minister Pavel Milyukov, who had been delivering a speech in Berlin to a gathering of Russians who had left after the October Revolution. The bullet instead struck former Russian Secretary of State Vladimir D. Nabokov, the father of author Vladimir Nabokov, who died at the scene. The assassin, Russian expatriate Sergey Taboritsky, would be sentenced to 14 years hard labor by a German court but released in 1927 under a general amnesty.", "The Toronto St. Pats beat the Vancouver Millionaires, 5 to 1, to win ice hockey's Stanley Cup, three games to two.\nA solar eclipse took place and was visible over most of north Africa.\nBorn: \nMargaret Owens, the first Woman's Professional Rodeo Association champion in barrel racing; in San Angelo, Texas (killed in car accident, 1955)\nJoey Maxim (ring name for Giuseppe Berardinelli), American boxer and world light heavyweight champion 1950 to 1952; in Cleveland (d. 2001)", "Felice Chiusano, Italian singer and part of the popular Quartetto Cetra group; in Fondi (d. 1990)\nJames Richardson, Canadian Minister of National Defence 1972 to 1976; in Winnipeg (d. 2004)", "March 29, 1922 (Wednesday)\nIn New York, American boxing promoter Tex Rickard was acquitted by a jury of all charges of assault and abduction of a 15-year-old girl. The District Attorney's office subsequently quashed three other indictments. \nThe printing press of the Irish newspaper The Freeman's Journal was destroyed by IRA men for its support of the Anglo-Irish Treaty.", "The U.S. Senate unanimously (75 to 0) voted to ratify a treaty banning the use of poison gas in warfare, as well as the use of submarines in warfare. On another measure, U.S. Senator Joseph I. France of Maryland was the only person to vote no in a 74 to 1 decision to approve the Washington Naval Treaty limiting further warship construction.", "March 30, 1922 (Thursday)\nRepresentatives of the Irish Free State, Northern Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Irish Republican Army signed an agreement in London for a halt to hostilities, after an all-day conference at the Office of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London.", "The U.S. Senate unanimously approved the Nine-Power Treaty, 66 to 0, respecting the sovereignty and the territorial integrity of China. Another measure regarding Chinese tariffs passed 58 to 1, with Senator William H. King of Utah being the only one to vote no.", "Portuguese aviator Sacadura Cabral and navigator Gago Coutinho began a trouble-plagued attempt to make the first crossing of the South Atlantic Ocean by airplane, departing from Lisbon in Portugal, en route to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. British aviators John Alcock and Arthur Brown had previously made a nonstop crossing of the North Atlantic by airplane on June 14 to 15, 1919", ". Flying the Portuguese Navy airplane Lusitânia, Cabral and Coutinho landed at Las Palmas in the Canary Islands on the same day they left and noticed a fuel problem that took six days to repair. On their second flight on April 5, they landed on São Vicente Island off of West Africa, and took 12 days for more repairs. Their April 17 flight landed in the waters of Brazil's Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, where the Lusitânia, like the ill-fated RMS Lusitania of 1915, sank in the sea", ". Ultimately, the Portuguese duo would arrive in Rio in a different airplane on June 17.", "Born: \nArthur Wightman, American mathematical physicist who devised the Wightman axioms for quantum field theory; in Rochester, New York (d. 2013)\nTurhan Bey (stage name for Turhan Gilbert Sahultavy), Austrian-born film and TV actor known as \"The Turkish Delight\"; in Vienna (d. 2012)\nDied: John Craig Eaton, 45, Canadian businessman and philanthropist who had built the Eaton's department store chain into the largest in Canada at the time, died of pneumonia", "March 31, 1922 (Friday)", "The Anglo-Irish Treaty was given \"the force of law\" after the Irish Free State Act 1922 received Royal Assent immediately after Parliament had passed it. The terms provided that the Parliament of Southern Ireland would be dissolved within four months and that the provisional government of the Irish Free State would set the terms for new voting", ". Significantly, sections 11 and 12 of the Act provided that the six counties in Northern Ireland would have \"one month from the passing of the Act of Parliament\" to decide whether to become part of the Irish Free State and that unless \"both Houses of the Parliament of Northern Ireland\" passed such a request, \"the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland.\"", "In the deadliest airplane crash of 1922, all 14 people aboard a Beijing-Han Airlines flight were killed when the Handley Page Type O/7 struck the tops of trees while making its approach to Nanyuan Airport in Peiping.\nThe first licensed radio station in the state of Louisiana, WWL in New Orleans, began broadcasting.", "The Hinterkaifeck murders, one of the most gruesome unsolved crimes in Germany, were carried out at a farmstead near Waidhofen, in Bavaria. Five members of the family of Andreas Gruber (including his two young grandchildren) were beaten to death along with their maid, Maria Baumgartner, who had just started working for the family. The bodies of the victims were discovered four days later. Although several suspects were arrested and interrogated, no person was ever charged with the crime.", "Born: Richard Kiley, American stage and television actor, winner of two Tony Awards and three Emmy Awards; in Chicago (d. 1999)", "References\n\n1922\n1922-03\n1922-03" ]

[ "The timeline of ancient Assyria can be broken down into three main eras: the Old Assyrian period, Middle Assyrian Empire, and Neo-Assyrian Empire. Modern scholars typically also recognize an Early period preceding the Old Assyrian period and a post-imperial period succeeding the Neo-Assyrian period.", "Old Assyrian period, 2025–1364 BC", "Puzur-Ashur I (c. 2025 BC) is thought to have been the first independent ruler of Assur following the city's independence from the collapsing Third Dynasty of Ur, founding a royal dynasty which was to survive for eight generations (or 216 years) until Erishum II was overthrown by Shamshi-Adad I. Puzur-Ashur I's descendants left inscriptions mentioning him regarding the building of temples to gods such as Ashur, Adad and Ishtar in Assyria. The length of Puzur-Ashur I's reign is unknown", ". The length of Puzur-Ashur I's reign is unknown. Hildegard Levy, writing in the Cambridge Ancient History, sees Puzur-Ashur I as part of a longer dynasty started by Sulili, suspected by other scholars to perhaps have been a legendary figure. Inscriptions link Puzur-Ashur I to his immediate successors, who, according to the Assyrian King List, are related to the following kings down to Erishum II.", "Shalim-ahum, son and successor of Puzur-Ashur I, is the earliest independent ruler to be attested in a contemporary inscription. Carved in curious archaic character mirror-writing in old Assyrian on an alabaster block found during the German excavations at Assur under Walter Andrae, this sole exemplar of his contemporary inscriptions records that the god Ashur “requested of him” the construction of a temple and that he had “beer vats and storage area” built in the “temple area", ".” He ruled during a period when nascent Assyrian merchant colonies were expanding into Anatolia to trade textiles and tin from Assur for silver, Shalim-ahum and his successors bore the title išši’ak aššur, vice regent of Assur, as well as ensí.", "Ilu-shuma, inscribed DINGIR-šum-ma (c. 2008 BC – c. 1975 BC), son and successor of Shalim-ahum, and is known from his inscription (extant in several copies) where he claims to have \"washed the copper\" and \"established liberty\" for the Akkadians in the Sumerian city-states Ur, Nippur, and Der. This has been taken by some scholars to imply that he made military campaigns into Southern Mesopotamia to relieve his fellow Mesopotamians from Amorite and Elamite invasions", ". His construction activities included building the old temple of Ishtar, a city wall, subdivision of the city into house plots and diversion of the flow of two springs to the city gates, “Aushum” and “Wertum”.", "Erishum I (c. 1974 BC – c. 1935 BC), son and successor of Ilu-shuma, vigorously expanded Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor during his long reign. It was during his reign that karums were established along trade routes into Anatolia in the cities of Kanesh, Amkuwa, Hattusa, and eighteen other locations yet to be identified, some designated warbatums, satellites of and subordinate to the karums. The colonies traded tin, textiles, lapis lazuli, iron, antimony, copper, bronze, wool, and grain.", "Ikunum (c. 1934 BC – c. 1921 BC), son and successor of Ilu-shuma, built a major temple for the god Ningal. He further strengthened the fortifications of the city of Assur and maintained Assyria's colonies in Asia Minor.", "Sargon I or Šarru-kīn I (c. 1920 BC – c. 1881 BC), son and successor of Ikunum, reigned as king of the Old Assyrian Empire for an unusually long 39 years. Sargon I might have been named after his predecessor Sargon of Akkad. The name “Sargon” means “the king is legitimate” in Akkadian. Sargon I is known for his work refortifying Assur. Very little is known about this king.", "Puzur-Ashur II (c. 1881 BC – c. 1873 BC), son and successor of Sargon I, was king of the Old Assyrian Empire for eight years. Due to his father's long reign he came to the throne at a late age since one of his sons, named Ili-bani, was a witness in a contract (and so already a grown man) eleven years before Puzur-Ashur II became ruler.", "Naram-Sin or Narām–Suen, (c. 1872 BC – c. 1818 BC), son and successor of Puzur-Ashur II, was named for the illustrious Naram-Sin of Akkad and, like his grandfather, Sargon I, took the divine determinative in his name. Assyria was wealthy as the hub of the trading network at the height of the Old Assyrian Empire's activity", ". Naram-Sin came under attack from Shamshi-Adad, in an attempt to usurp the Assyrian throne, however the would be usurper was defeated, and The Assyrian King List records that Shamshi-Adad I, “went away to Babylonia in the time of Narām-Sîn.” Shamshi-Adad I was not to return until taking the Assyrian city of Ekallatum, pausing three years and then overthrowing Erishum II (c. 1817 BC – c. 1809 BC), son and successor of Naram-Sin.", "Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1808 BC – c. 1776 BC), conquered Assur, took over the long-abandoned town of Shekhna in north-eastern Syria, converted it into the capital city of his Upper Mesopotamian Empire and renamed it Shubat-Enlil. Shamshi-Adad I placed his sons in key geographical locations and gave them responsibility to look over those areas. While he remained in Šubat-Enlil, his eldest son, Ishme-Dagan I was put on the throne of Ekallatum.", "A main target for expansion was the city Mari, which controlled the caravan route between Anatolia and Mesopotamia. The king of Mari, Iakhdunlim, was assassinated by his own servants, possibly on Shamshi-Adad I's orders. Shamshi-Adad I seized the opportunity and occupied Mari c. 1741 BC. Shamshi-Adad I put his second son, Yasmah-Adad on the throne in Mari, and then returned to Shubat-Enlil", ". With the annexation of Mari, Shamshi-Adad was in control of a large empire, controlling central Mesopotamia, the north eastern Levant and swathes of eastern Asia Minor.", "While Ishme-Dagan I probably was a competent ruler, his brother Yasmah-Adad appears to have been a man of weak character; something the disappointed father was not above mentioning. Shamshi-Adad I clearly kept a firm control on the actions of his sons, as shown in his many letters to them. At one point he arranged a political marriage between Yasmah-Adad to Beltum, the princess of his ally in Qatna. Yasmah-Adad already had a leading wife and put Beltum in a secondary position of power", ". Yasmah-Adad already had a leading wife and put Beltum in a secondary position of power. Shamshi-Adad I did not approve and forced his son to keep Beltum in the palace in a leading position.", "Dadusha, a king of the neighbouring state Eshnunna, made an alliance with Shamshi-Adad I in order to conquer the area between the two Zab rivers c. 1727 BC. This military campaign of joint forces was commemorated on a victory stele which states that Dadusha gives the lands to Shmshi-Adad I. Shamshi-Adad I later turned against Dadusha by attacking cities including Shaduppum and Nerebtum.", "Ishme-Dagan I (c. 1775 BC – c. 1750 BC), son and successor of Shamshi-Adad I, main challenge was in keeping his enemies in check; to his east were the foothills of the Zagros Mountains, inhabited by warlike pastoral peoples such as the Turukku, Kassites and Lullubi, and to the south was the fellow Mesopotamian kingdom of Eshnunna", ". Although politically astute and a capable soldier, Ishme-Dagan I became embroiled in a struggle for dominance of the Near East with Hammurabi, an Amorite who had turned the hitherto minor town of Babylon into a major city-state and begun a war of conquest, creating the Babylonian Empire. It was from this period that the southern half of Mesopotamia came to be known as Babylonia.", "Mut-Ashkur (c. 1749 BC – c. 1740 BC), son and successor of Ishme-Dagan I, was arranged by his father to marry the daughter of the Hurrian king Zaziya. Hammurabi of the newly created Amorite state of Babylon (c. 1696 BC — c. 1654 BC), after first conquering Mari, Larsa, Eshnunna and defeating Elam, eventually prevailed over Mut-Ashkur. With Hammurabi, the various kārum colonies in Anatolia ceased trade activity–probably because the goods of Assyria were now being traded with the Babylonians", ". The Assyrian monarchy survived; however, the three Amorite kings succeeding Ishme-Dagan I (including Mut-Ashkur) were largely vassals and dependent on the Babylonians during the reign of Hammurabi.", "Rimush, inscribed mri-mu-u[š] on the only variant king list on which he appears, (c. 1739 BC – c. 1733 BC), a successor to and probably a descendant of Išme-Dagān I, would appear to be named for the second king of the Akkadian Empire Rimush of Akkad (c. 2214 BC – c. 2206 BC)", ". 2214 BC – c. 2206 BC). This perhaps reflects the extent to which Shamshi-Adad and his successors identified with the prestigious Dynasty of Akkad, although the earlier Rimush was apparently assassinated by his own courtiers, “with their seals”, according to a liver-omen of the monumental Bārûtu series, a somewhat ignominious end", ". The events resulting in the demise of the dynasty are witnessed in only one inscription, that of Puzur-Sin, who boasted of overthrowing the son of Asinum, descendant of Shamshi-Adad I, whose name has not been preserved. This may have been Rimush, or if Asinum followed him, perhaps his grandson. The result was apparently turmoil as a rapid succession of seven usurpers took power, each reigning briefly before being overthrown.", "Asinum (c. 1732 BC), possibly successor or descendant to either Rimush or Mut-Ashkur, was an Amorite king driven out by the Assyrian vice-regent Puzur-Sin; not included in the standard King List; however, attested in Puzur-Sin's inscription. Asinum is believed to had been a descendant of Shamshi-Adad who had founded the brief, foreign Amorite dynasty apparently greatly resented by the native Assyrians judging by an alabaster slab inscription left by Puzur-Sin", ". Puzur-Sin is believed to had been an otherwise unattested Assyrian monarch. Puzur-Sin deposed Asinum to allow for the Assyrian king Ashur-dugul to seize the throne. A period of civil war followed this event which ended Babylonian and Amorite influence in Assyria c. 1665 BC.", "Ashur-dugul, inscribed maš-šur-du-gul, “Look to (the god) Ashur!”, (c. 1731 BC – c. 1725 BC), apparently, “son of a nobody”, seized the throne from the three unpopular Amorite vassals. The Assyrian King List says of Ashur-dugul that he was a “son of a nobody, without right to the throne” meaning that he was not of royal descent and consequently unqualified to govern according to the patrilineal principle of legitimacy relied upon by later monarchs", ". During Ashur-dugul's reign six other kings, “sons of nobodies also ruled at the time”. This may suggest a fragmentation in the small Assyrian kingdom, with rival claims to the throne. Ashur-dugul was unable to retain control for long, and was soon deposed by a rival claimant, Ashur-apla-idi, who was in turn followed by Nasir-Sin, Sin-namir, Ipqi-Ishtar and Adad-salulu.", "The short-lived Babylonian Empire quickly began to unravel upon the death of Hammurabi, and Babylonia quickly lost control over Assyria during the reign of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna (1750–1712 BC)", ". A period of civil war ensued after Asinum (a grandson of Shamshi-Adad I and the last Amorite ruler of Assyria) was deposed in approximately 1732 BC by a powerful native Assyrian vice regent named Puzur-Sin, who regarded Asinum as both a foreigner and a former lackey of Babylon, after which Ashur-dugul seized the throne.", "After a period of civil war lasting six years, a king named Adasi (1720-1701 BC) came to the fore in 1720 BC and stabilised Assyria, inflicting further defeats on the Babylonians and their Amorite rulers, as did his successor Bel-bani (1700-1691 BC}.", "Adasi (c. 1724 BC – c. 1706 BC), “son of a nobody”, was the last of the six kings who ruled during the reign of Ashur-dugul. He managed to quell the civil unrest and stabilize the situation in Assyria. During his reign, he completely drove the Babylonians and Amorites from the Assyrian sphere of influence in the northern half of Mesopotamia", ". Babylonian-Amorite power began to quickly wane in Mesopotamia as a whole; the Sealand Dynasty of the south of Mesopotamia driving out both the Amorites and Babylonians, leaving the Amorites controlling only a weak and small rump state in and around the city of Babylon itself. The Adaside dynasty of Assyria was named after Adasi.", "Bel-bani (c. 1705 BC-c. 1696 BC) succeeded Adasi and continued to campaign successfully against the Babylonians and Amorites, after which Assyria entered a quiet and peaceful period for the next two centuries.", "Little is currently known of many of the kings that followed such as; Libaya (1690–1674 BC), Sharma-Adad I (1673–1662 BC), Iptar-Sin (1661–1650 BC), Bazaya (1649–1622 BC) (a contemporary of Peshgaldaramesh of the Sealand Dynasty), Lullaya (1621–1618 BC) (who usurped the throne from Bazaya), Shu-Ninua (1615–1602 BC) and Sharma-Adad II (1601–1599 BC)", ". However, Assyria seems to have been a relatively strong and stable nation, existing undisturbed by its neighbours such as the Hattians, Hittites, Hurrians, Amorites, Babylonians, Elamites or Mitannians during this period.", "Puzur-Ashur III (1521–1498 BC) proved to be a strong and energetic ruler. He undertook much rebuilding work in Assur, the city was refortified and the southern quarters incorporated into the main city defences. Temples to the moon god Sin (Nanna) and the sun god Shamash were erected during his reign. He signed a treaty with Burna-Buriash I the Kassite king of Babylon, defining the borders of the two nations in the late 16th century BC", ". He was succeeded by Enlil-nasir I (1497–1483 BC) who appears to have had a peaceful and uneventful reign, as does his successor Nur-ili (1482–1471 BC).", "The son of Nur-ili, Ashur-shaduni (1470 BC) was deposed by his uncle Ashur-rabi I (1470–1451 BC) in his first year of rule. Little is known about his nineteen-year reign, but it appears to have been largely uneventful.", "Ashur-nadin-ahhe I (1450–1431 BC) was courted by the Egyptians, who were rivals of Mitanni, and attempting to gain a foothold in the Near East. Amenhotep II sent the Assyrian king a tribute of gold to seal an alliance against the Hurri-Mitannian empire. It is likely that this alliance prompted Saushtatar, the emperor of Mitanni, to invade Assyria, and sack the city of Ashur, after which Assyria became a sometime vassal state, with Ashur-nadin-ahhe I being forced to pay tribute to Saushtatar", ". He was deposed by his own brother Enlil-nasir II (1430–1425 BC) in 1430 BC, possibly with the aid of Mitanni, who received tribute from the new king. Ashur-nirari II (1424–1418 BC) had an uneventful reign, and appears to have also paid tribute to the Mitanni Empire.", "Middle Assyrian Empire, 1363–912 BC", "Ashur-uballit I (1365–1330 BC) succeeded the throne of Assyria in 1365 BC, and proved to be a fierce, ambitious and powerful ruler. Assyrian pressure from the southeast and Hittite pressure from the north-west, enabled Ashur-uballit I to break the power of Mitanni", ". He met and decisively defeated Shuttarna II, the Mitannian king in battle, making Assyria once more an imperial power at the expense of not only Mitanni itself, but also Kassite Babylonia, the Hurrians and the Hittites; and a time came when the Kassite king in Babylon was glad to marry Muballiṭat-Šērūa, the daughter of Ashur-uballit, whose letters to Akhenaten of Egypt form part of the Amarna letters.", "This marriage led to disastrous results for Babylonia, as the Kassite faction at court murdered the half Assyrian Babylonian king and placed a pretender on the throne. Assur-uballit I promptly invaded Babylonia to avenge his son-in-law, entering Babylon, deposing the king and installing Kurigalzu II of the royal line as king there.", "In 1274 BC Shalmaneser I (1274–1244 BC) ascended the throne. He proved to be a great warrior king. During his reign he conquered the Hurrian kingdom of Urartu that would have encompassed most of Eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus Mountains in the 9th century BC, and the fierce Gutians of the Zagros. He then attacked the Mitannian-Hurrians, defeating both King Shattuara and his Hittite and Aramaean allies, finally completely destroying the Hurri-Mitannian kingdom in the process", ". Like his father, Shalmaneser was a great builder and he further expanded the city of Kalhu at the juncture of the Tigris and Zab Rivers.", "Ashur-uballit I attacked and defeated Mattiwaza, the king of Mitanni, despite attempts by the Hittite king Suppiluliumas, now fearful of growing Assyrian power, to help Mitanni. The lands of the Hurrians and Mitanni were duly appropriated by Assyria, making it a large and powerful empire.", "By the reign of Eriba-Adad I (1392–1366 BC) Mitannian influence over Assyria was on the wane. Eriba-Adad I became involved in a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his brother Artatama II and after this his son Shuttarna III, who called himself king of the Hurri while seeking support from the Assyrians. A pro-Assyria faction appeared at the royal court of Mitanni. Eriba-Adad I had thus finally broken Mitannian influence over Assyria, and in turn had now made Assyria an influence over Mitannian affairs.", "Enlil-nirari (1329–1308 BC) succeeded Ashur-uballit I. He described himself as a \"Great-King\" (Sharru rabû) in letters to the Hittite kings. He was immediately attacked by Kurigalzu II of Babylon who had been installed by his father, but succeeded in defeating him, repelling Babylonian attempts to invade Assyria, counterattacking and appropriating Babylonian territory in the process, thus further expanding Assyria.", "The successor of Enlil-nirari, Arik-den-ili (c. 1307–1296 BC), consolidated Assyrian power, and successfully campaigned in the Zagros Mountains to the east, subjugating the Lullubi and Gutians. In Syria, he defeated Semitic tribes of the so-called Ahlamu group, who were possibly predecessors of the Arameans or an Aramean tribe.", "He was followed by Adad-nirari I (1295–1275 BC) who made Kalhu (Biblical Calah/Nimrud) his capital, and continued expansion to the northwest, mainly at the expense of the Hittites and Hurrians, conquering Hittite territories such as Carchemish and beyond. He then moved into north eastern Asia Minor, conquering Shupria. Adad-nirari I made further gains to the south, annexing Babylonian territory and forcing the Kassite rulers of Babylon into accepting a new frontier agreement in Assyria's favour.", "Adad-nirari's inscriptions are more detailed than any of his predecessors. He declares that the gods of Mesopotamia called him to war, a statement used by most subsequent Assyrian kings. He referred to himself again as Sharru Rabi (meaning \"The Great King\" in the Akkadian language) and conducted extensive building projects in Ashur and the provinces.", "Shalmaneser's son and successor, Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1207 BC), won a major victory against the Hittites and their king Tudhaliya IV at the Battle of Nihriya and took thousands of prisoners. He then conquered Babylonia, taking Kashtiliash IV as a captive and ruled there himself as king for seven years, taking on the old title \"King of Sumer and Akkad\" first used by Sargon of Akkad", ". Tukulti-Ninurta I thus became the first Akkadian speaking native Mesopotamian to rule the state of Babylonia, its founders having been foreign Amorites, succeeded by equally foreign Kassites. Tukulti-Ninurta petitioned the god Shamash before beginning his counter offensive. Kashtiliash IV was captured, single-handed by Tukulti-Ninurta according to his account, who \"trod with my feet upon his lordly neck as though it were a footstool\" and deported him ignominiously in chains to Assyria.", "The victorious Assyrian demolished the walls of Babylon, massacred many of the inhabitants, pillaged and plundered his way across the city to the Esagila temple, where he made off with the statue of Marduk. He then proclaimed himself \"king of Karduniash, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of Sippar and Babylon, king of Tilmun and Meluhha", ".\" Middle Assyrian texts recovered at ancient Dūr-Katlimmu, include a letter from Tukulti-Ninurta to his sukkal rabi'u, or grand vizier, Ashur-iddin advising him of the approach of his general Shulman-mushabshu escorting the captive Kashtiliash, his wife, and his retinue which incorporated a large number of women, on his way to exile after his defeat. In the process he defeated the Elamites, who had themselves coveted Babylon. He also wrote an epic poem documenting his wars against Babylon and Elam", ". He also wrote an epic poem documenting his wars against Babylon and Elam. After a Babylonian revolt, he raided and plundered the temples in Babylon, regarded as an act of sacrilege. As relations with the priesthood in Ashur began deteriorating, Tukulti-Ninurta built a new capital city; Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta.", "He stretched the Assyrian Empire further south than before, conquering Dilmun, a pre-Arab civilisation of the Arabian Peninsula that encompassed modern Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and the coastal regions of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.", "However, Tukulti-Ninurta's sons rebelled and besieged the ageing king in his capital. He was murdered and then succeeded by Ashur-nadin-apli (1206–1203 BC) who left the running of his empire to Assyrian regional governors such as Adad-bēl-gabbe", ". Another unstable period for Assyria followed, it was riven by periods of internal strife and the new king only made token and unsuccessful attempts to recapture Babylon, whose Kassite kings had taken advantage of the upheavals in Assyria and freed themselves from Assyrian rule", ". However, Assyria itself was not threatened by foreign powers during the reigns of Ashur-nirari III (1202–1197 BC), Enlil-kudurri-usur (1196–1193 BC) and Ninurta-apal-Ekur (1192–1180 BC), although Ninurta-apal-Ekur usurped the throne from Enlil-kudurri-usur.", "Another very brief period of internal upheaval followed the death of Ashur-Dan I when his son and successor Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur (1133 BC) was deposed in his first year of rule by his brother Mutakkil-Nusku and forced to flee to Babylonia. Mutakkil-Nusku himself died in the same year (1133 BC).", "A third brother, Ashur-resh-ishi I (1133–1116 BC) took the throne. This was to lead to a renewed period of Assyrian expansion and empire. As the Hittite empire collapsed from the onslaught of the Indo-European Phrygians (called Mushki in Assyrian annals), Babylon and Assyria began to vie for Aramaean regions (in modern Syria), formerly under firm Hittite control", ". When their forces encountered one another in this region, the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I met and defeated Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon on a number of occasions. Assyria then invaded and annexed Hittite-controlled lands in Asia Minor, Aram (Syria), and Gutians and Kassite regions in the Zagros, marking an upsurge in imperian expansion.", "Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1077 BC), vies with Shamshi-Adad I and Ashur-uballit I among historians as being regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian empire. The son of Ashur-resh-ishi I, he ascended to the throne upon his father's death, and became one of the greatest of Assyrian conquerors during his 38-year reign.", "His first campaign in 1112 BC was against the Phrygians who had attempted to occupy certain Assyrian districts in the Upper Euphrates region of Asia Minor; after defeating and driving out the Phrygians he then overran the Luwian kingdoms of Commagene, Cilicia and Cappadocia in western Asia Minor, and drove the Neo-Hittites from the Assyrian province of Subartu, northeast of Malatya.\n\nBronze Age collapse", "Bronze Age collapse\n \n\nIn a subsequent campaign, the Assyrian forces penetrated Urartu, into the mountains south of Lake Van and then turned westward to receive the submission of Malatia. In his fifth year, Tiglath-Pileser again attacked Commagene, Cilicia and Cappadocia, and placed a record of his victories engraved on copper plates in a fortress he built to secure his Anatolian conquests.", "He was succeeded by Asharid-apal-Ekur (1076–1074 BC) who reigned for just two years. His reign marked the elevation of the office of ummânu (royal scribe) in importance.", "Ashur-bel-kala (1073–1056 BC) kept the vast empire together, campaigning successfully against Urartu and Phrygia to the north and the Arameans to the west. He maintained friendly relations with Marduk-shapik-zeri of Babylon, however upon the death of that king, he invaded Babylonia and deposed the new ruler Kadašman-Buriaš, appointing Adad-apla-iddina as his vassal in Babylon", ". He built some of the earliest examples of both zoological gardens and botanical gardens in Ashur, collecting all manner of animals and plants from his empire, and receiving a collection of African exotic animals from Egypt. He was also a great hunter, describing his exploits \"at the city of Araziqu which is before the land of Hatti and at the foot of Mount Lebanon.\" These locations show that well into his reign Assyria still controlled a vast empire.", "Ashur-Dan I (1179–1133 BC) stabilised the internal unrest in Assyria during his unusually long reign, quelling instability. During the twilight years of the Kassite dynasty in Babylonia, he records that he seized northern Babylonia, including the cities of Zaban, Irriya and Ugar-sallu during the reigns of Marduk-apla-iddina I and Zababa-shuma-iddin, plundering them and \"taking their vast booty to Assyria", ".\" However, the conquest of northern Babylonia brought Assyria into direct conflict with Elam which had taken the remainder of Babylonia. The powerful Elamites, under king Shutruk-Nahhunte, fresh from sacking Babylon, entered into a protracted war with Assyria, they briefly took the Assyrian city of Arrapkha, which Ashur-Dan I then retook, eventually defeating the Elamites and forcing a treaty upon them in the process.", "Eriba-Adad II ruled for only two years, and in that time continued to campaign against the Arameans and neo-Hittites before he was deposed by his elderly uncle Shamshi-Adad IV (1053–1050 BC) who appears to have had an uneventful reign. Ashurnasirpal I (1049–1031 BC) succeeded him, and during his reign he continued to campaign endlessly against the Arameans to the west. Assyria was also afflicted by famine during this period", ". Assyria was also afflicted by famine during this period. Shalmaneser II (1030–1019 BC) appears to have lost territory in the Levant to the Arameans, who also appear to have also occupied Nairi in southeast Asia Minor, hitherto an Assyrian colony.", "Ashur-nirari IV took the throne in 1018 BC, and captured the Babylonian city of Atlila from Simbar-Shipak and continued Assyrian campaigns against the Arameans. He was eventually deposed by his uncle Ashur-rabi II in 1013 BC.", "During the reign of Ashur-rabi II (1013–972 BC) Aramaean tribes took the cities of Pitru and Mutkinu (which had been taken and colonized by Tiglath Pileser I.) This event showed how far Assyria could assert itself militarily when the need arose. The Assyrian king attacked the Arameans, forced his way to the far off Mediterranean and constructed a stele in the area of Mount Atalur.", "Ashur-resh-ishi II (971–968 BC) in all likelihood a fairly elderly man due to the length of his father's reign, had a largely uneventful period of rule, concerning himself with defending Assyria's borders and conducting various rebuilding projects within Assyria.\n\nTiglath-Pileser II (967–936 BC) succeeded him, and reigned for 28 years. He maintained the policies of his recent predecessors, but appears to have had an uneventful reign.", "His successor, Tukulti-Ninurta II (891–884 BC) consolidated Assyria's gains and expanded into the Zagros Mountains in modern Iran, subjugating the newly arrived Persians, Parthians and Medes as well as pushing into central Asia Minor.", "Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) was a fierce and ruthless ruler who advanced without opposition through Aram and Canaan (modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel) and Asia Minor as far as the Mediterranean and conquered and exacted tribute from Aramea, Phrygia and Phoenicia among others. Ashurnasirpal II also repressed revolts among the Medes and Persians in the Zagros Mountains, and moved his capital to the city of Kalhu (Calah/Nimrud)", ". The palaces, temples and other buildings raised by him bear witness to a considerable development of wealth, science, architecture and art. He also built a number of new heavily fortified towns, such as Imgur-Enlil (Balawat), Tushhan, Kar-Ashurnasirpal and Nibarti-Ashur. Ashurnasirpal II also had a keen interest in botany and zoology; collecting all manner of plants, seeds and animals to be displayed in Assyria.", "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC), a usurper whose original name was Pulu, initiated a renewed period of Assyrian expansion; Urartu, Persia, Media, Mannea, Babylonia, Arabia, Phoenicia, Israel, Judah, Samaria, Nabatea, Chaldea, Cyprus, Moab, Edom and the Neo-Hittites were subjugated, Tiglath-Pileser III was declared king in Babylon and the Assyrian empire was now stretched from the Caucasus Mountains to Arabia and from the Caspian Sea to Cyprus.", "Ashur-Dan II (935–912 BC) oversaw a marked economic and organisational upturn in the fortunes of Assyria, laying the platform for it to once again forge an empire. He is recorded as having made successful punitive raids outside the borders of Assyria to clear Aramean and other tribal peoples from the regions surrounding Assyria in all directions", ". He concentrated on rebuilding Assyria within its natural borders, from Tur Abdin to Arrapha (Kirkuk), he built government offices in all provinces, and created a major economic boost by providing ploughs throughout the land, which yielded record grain production.", "Neo-Assyrian Empire, 911–609 BC \nShalmaneser III (858–823 BC) had his authority challenged by a large alliance of a dozen nations, some of which were vassals, including; Babylonia, Egypt, Elam, Persia, Israel, Hamath, Phoenicia, the Arabs, Arameans, Suteans and Neo-Hittites among others, fighting them to a standstill at the Battle of Qarqar. The failure of this alliance prevented pharaoh Osorkon II from regaining an Egyptian foothold in the Near East.", "Subsequent to this, Shalmaneser III attacked and reduced Babylonia to vassalage, including subjugating the Chaldean, Aramean and Sutean tribes settled within it. He then defeated Aramea, Israel, Moab, Edom, Urartu, Phoenicia, the Neo-Hittite states and the desert dwelling Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula, forcing all of these to pay tribute to Assyria.", "It is in Assyrian accounts of the late 850's BC, recorded during the reign of Shalmaneser III, that the Arabs and Chaldeans first enter the pages of written history.", "His armies penetrated to The Caucasus, Lake Van, and the Taurus Mountains; the Hittites around Carchemish were compelled to pay tribute, and the kingdoms of Hamath and Aram Damascus were subdued. In 831 BC, he received the submission of the Georgian kingdom of Tabal. He consolidated Assyrian control over the regions conquered by his predecessors and, by the end of his 27-year reign, Assyria was master of Mesopotamia, The Levant, western Iran, Israel, Jordan and much of Asia Minor", ". Due to old age, in the last six years of his reign, he passed command of his armies to the \"Turtanu\" (General) Dayyan-Assur.", "However, his successor, Shamshi-Adad V (822–811 BC) (also known as Shamshi-Ramman II), inherited an empire beset by civil war in Assyria itself. The first years of his reign saw a serious struggle for the succession of the aged Shalmaneser III. The revolt, which had broken out by 826 BC, was led by Shamshi-Adad's brother Assur-danin-pal. The rebellious brother, according to Shamshi-Adad's own inscriptions, succeeded in bringing to his side 27 important cities, including Nineveh and Babylon", ". The rebellion lasted until 820 BC, preventing Assyria expanding its empire further until it was quelled.", "Later in his reign, Shamshi-Adad V successfully campaigned against both Babylonia and Elam, and forced a treaty in Assyria's favour on the Babylonian king Marduk-zakir-shumi I. In 814 BCE, he won the battle of Dur-Papsukkal against the new Babylonian king Murduk-balassu-iqbi, and went on to subjugate the immigrant tribes of Chaldeans, Arameans, and Suteans who had recently settled in parts of Babylonia.", "He was succeeded by Adad-nirari III (810–782 BC), who was merely a boy. The Empire was thus ruled by his mother, the famed queen Semiramis (Shammuramat), until 806 BC. Semiramis held the empire together, and appears to have campaigned successfully in subjugating the Persians, Parthians and Medes during her regency, leading to the later Iranian and also Greek myths and legends surrounding her.", "In 806 BC, Adad-nirari III took the reins of power from Semiramis. He invaded the Levant and subjugated the Arameans, Phoenicians, Philistines, Israelites, Neo-Hittites, Moabites and Edomites. He entered Damascus and forced tribute upon its Aramean king Ben-Hadad III. He next turned eastward to Iran, and subjugated the Persians, Medes and the pre Iranian Manneans, penetrating as far north east as the Caspian Sea. He then turned south, forcing Babylonia to pay tribute", ". He then turned south, forcing Babylonia to pay tribute. His next targets were the migrant Aramean, Chaldean and Sutu tribes, who had settled in the far south eastern corner of Mesopotamia, whom he conquered and reduced to vassalage. Then the Arabs in the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula to the south of Mesopotamia were invaded, vanquished and forced to pay tribute also.", "It is from this general period that the Cilician Indo-Anatolian term Surai (Syria) first appears in historical record in what is now called the Çineköy inscription, not in reference to the region of Aramea now encompassing modern Syria in the Levant, but specifically and only to Assyria itself.", "Adad-nirari III died prematurely in 782 BC, which led to a temporary period of stagnation within the empire. Assyria continued its military dominance, however Shalmaneser IV (782 - 773 BC) himself seems to have wielded little personal authority, and a victory over Argishti I, king of Urartu at Til Barsip is accredited to an Assyrian General (Turtanu) named Shamshi-ilu, who does not even bother to mention his king", ". Shamshi-ilu also scored victories over the Arameans, Phrygians, Persians and Neo-Hittites, and again, takes personal credit at the expense of his king.", "Ashur-dan III ascended the throne in 772 BC. He proved to be a largely ineffectual ruler who was beset by internal rebellions in the cities of Ashur, Arrapkha and Guzana; and his personal authority was checked by powerful generals, such as Shamshi-ilu. He failed to make any further gains in Babylonia, Canaan and Aram. His reign was also marred by Plague and an ominous solar eclipse and, as with his predecessor, military victories were credited to Shamshi-ilu.", "Ashur-nirari V became king in 754 BC, the early part of his reign seems to have been one of permanent internal revolution, and he appears to have barely left his palace in Nineveh. However, later in his reign he led a number of successful campaigns in Asia Minor and the Levant. He was deposed by Tiglath-Pileser III in 745 BC bringing a resurgence to Assyrian expansion.", "Shalmaneser V (726–723 BC) consolidated Assyrian power during his short reign, and repressed Egyptian attempts to gain a foothold in the near east, defeating and driving out Pharaoh Shoshenq V from the region. He is mentioned in Biblical sources as having conquered Israel and being responsible for deporting the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel to Assyria", ". He and his successor also brought the Samaritans, people originating from Babylon, Cuthah, Ava, Sepharvaim and Hamath, and settled them in the towns of Samaria to replace the Israelites.", "Tiglath-Pileser III had reorganised the Assyrian army into a professional fighting force, he also incorporated conquered peoples into the imperial army to serve as light infantry, thus expanding the size of the army. He greatly improved the civil administration of his empire, reducing the influence of hitherto powerful nobles, regional governors and viceroys, and deporting troublesome peoples to other parts of his vast empire, setting the template for all future ancient empires", ". Tiglath-Pileser III also introduced Mesopotamian Eastern Aramaic as the Lingua Franca of Assyria and its vast empire, whose Akkadian infused descendant dialects still survive among the modern Assyrian Christian people to this day.", "Beginning with the campaigns of Adad-nirari II (911–892 BC), Assyria once more became a great power, growing to be the greatest empire the world had yet seen. The new king firmly subjugated the areas that were previously only under nominal Assyrian vassalage, conquering and deporting troublesome Aramean, Neo-Hittite and Hurrian populations in the north to far-off places", ". Adad-nirari II then twice attacked and defeated Shamash-mudammiq of Babylonia, annexing a large area of land north of the Diyala River and the towns of Hīt and Zanqu in mid Mesopotamia. Later in his reign, he made further gains against King Nabu-shuma-ukin I of Babylonia. He then conquered Kadmuh and Nisibin from the Arameans, and secured the Khabur region.", "In 716 BCE Sargon II crossed the Sinai and amassed an army on Egypt's border. Osorkon IV personally met the Assyrian king at the \"Brook of Egypt\" (most likely el-Arish) and was forced pay tribute to Sargon II to avoid being invaded. Mannea, Cilicia Cappadocia and Commagene were conquered, Urartu was ravaged, and Babylonia, Chaldea, Aram, Phoenicia, Israel, Arabia, Cyprus and the famed Midas (king of Phrygia) were forced to pay tribute. His stele has been found as far west as Larnaca in Cyprus", ". His stele has been found as far west as Larnaca in Cyprus. Sargon II conquered Gurgum, Milid, the Georgian state of Tabal, and all of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms of the Taurus Mountains. Egypt, now under a Nubian dynasty, once again attempted to gain ground in the region by supporting Israel's rebellion against the empire, however Sargon II once again crushed the uprising, and Piye was routed and driven back over the Sinai", ". Sargon II was killed in 705 BC while on a punitive raid against the Cimmerians, and was succeeded by Sennacherib.", "Sargon II (722–705 BC) maintained the empire, driving the Cimmerians and Scythians from Ancient Iran, where they had invaded and attacked the Persians and Medes, who were vassals of Assyria. Deioces, king of the Medes and Persians was then forced to pay tribute after launching a failed rebellion against Assyria. When in 720 BCE a revolt occurred in Canaan against Sargon II, king Hanno sought the help of Pharaoh Osorkon IV of the 22nd Dynasty of Egypt", ". The Egyptian king sent a general named Raia as well as troops in order to support the neighboring ally. However, the coalition was defeated in battle at Raphia: Raia fled back to Egypt, Raphia and Gaza were looted and Hanno was burnt alive by the Assyrians.", "Sennacherib (705–681 BC), a ruthless ruler, defeated the Greeks who were attempting to gain a foothold in Cilicia, and then defeated and drove the Nubian ruled Egyptians from the Near East where the new Nubian Pharaoh Taharqa had once again fomented revolt against Assyria among the Israelites, Judeans and Canaanites.", "Sennacherib was forced to contend with a major revolt within his empire, which included a large alliance of subject peoples, including Babylonians, Persians, Medes, Chaldeans, Elamites, Parthians, Manneans and Arameans. The prime movers in this rebellion were Mushezib-Marduk of Babylonia, Achaemenes of Persia, Khumban-umena III of Elam, and Deioces of Media. The Battle of Halule was fought in 691 BC between Sennacherib and his enemies, in which this vast alliance failed to overthrow Sennacherib", ". The Assyrian king was then able to subjugate these nations individually, Babylon was sacked and largely destroyed by Sennacherib. He sacked Israel, subjugated the Samaritans and laid siege to Judah, forcing tribute upon it. He installed his own son Ashur-nadin-shumi as king in Babylonia. He maintained Assyrian domination over the Medes, Manneans and Persians to the east, Asia Minor and the southern Caucasus to the north and north west, and the Levant, Phoenicia and Aram in the west.", "Esarhaddon also completely rebuilt Babylon during his reign, bringing peace to Mesopotamia as a whole. The Babylonians, Egyptians, Elamites, Cimmerians, Scythians, Persians, Medes, Manneans, Arameans, Chaldeans, Israelites, Phoenicians and Urartians were vanquished and regarded as vassals and Assyria's empire was kept secure.", "Sennacherib's palace and garden at Nineveh have been proposed by some scholars as the true location of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. During the reign of Sennacherib, the major city of Nineveh (extant since approximately 3000 BC) which at the end of the Bronze Age had a population of 35,000, was transformed into the capital of Assyria, growing at its height to be the largest city in the world at the time, with a population of up to 150,000 people.", "Sennacherib was murdered by his sons (according to the Bible the sons were named Adrammelech, Abimelech and Sharezer) in a palace revolt, apparently in revenge for the destruction of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, including the Assyrians.", "To the west, the kings of Judah, Edom, Moab, Israel, Sidon, Ekron, Byblos, Arvad, Samarra, Ammon, Amalek, and the ten Greek kings of Cyprus, are listed as Assyrian subjects. Esarhaddon expanded the empire as far south as Arabia, Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun (modern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain the United Arab Emirates and Qatar).", "The conquest by Esarhaddon effectively marked the end of the short-lived Kushite Empire. He imposed a so-called Vassal Treaty upon his Persian, Parthian and Median subjects, forcing Teispes of Persia and Deioces of Media to submit both to himself, and in advance to his chosen successor, Ashurbanipal. Esarhaddon died whilst preparing to leave for Egypt to once more eject the Nubians, who were attempting to encroach on the southern part of the country", ". This task was successfully completed by his successor, Ashurbanipal.", "Ashurbanipal began his rule by once more defeating and chasing out the Nubian/Cushite king Taharqa, who had attempted to invade the southern part of Assyrian-controlled Egypt. Memphis was sacked. Ashurbanipal then puts down a series of rebellions by the native Egyptians themselves, installing Necho I as a vassal Pharaoh, who himself succeeded in heralding the 26th Dynasty of Egypt and kicking Assyrians eventually afterwards", ". However, in 664 BC, the new Nubian-Kushite king Tantamani once more attempted to invade Egypt. However he was savagely crushed, Thebes was sacked, and he fled to Nubia, bringing to an end, once and for all, Nubian-Kushite designs on Egypt.", "Ashurbanipal built vast libraries and initiated a surge in the building of temples and palaces. After the crushing of the Babylonian revolt, Ashurbanipal appeared master of all he surveyed. To the east, Elam was devastated and prostrate before Assyria, the Manneans and the Iranian Persians and Medes were vassals. To the south, Babylonia was occupied, the Chaldeans, Arabs, Sutu and Nabateans subjugated, the Nubian empire destroyed, and Egypt paid tribute", ". To the north, the Scythians and Cimmerians had been vanquished and driven from Assyrian territory, Urartu (Armenia), Phrygia, Corduene and the Neo-Hittites were in vassalage, and Lydia pleading for Assyrian protection. To the west, Aramea (Syria), the Phoenicians, Israel, Judah, Samarra and Cyprus were subjugated, and the Hellenised inhabitants of Caria, Cilicia, Cappadocia and Commagene paid tribute to Assyria.", "In 652 BC, just one year after his victory over Phraortes, his own brother Shamash-shum-ukin, the Assyrian king of Babylon who had spent seventeen years peacefully subject to his sibling, became infused with Babylonian nationalism, declaring that Babylon and not Nineveh should be the seat of empire", ". Shamash-shum-ukin raised a powerful coalition of vassal peoples resentful of being subject to Assyria, including- Babylonians, Chaldeans, Persians, Medes, Arameans, Suteans, Arabs, Elamites, Scythians, Cimmerians, Phoenicians, Israelites and even some disaffected Assyrians. War raged between the two brothers for five years, until in 648 BC, Babylon was sacked, and Shamash-shum-ukin was slain", ". Ashurbanipal then wrought savage revenge, Elam was utterly destroyed, the Aramean, Chaldean, Sutean tribes were brutally punished, Arabia was sacked and ravaged by the Assyrian army, and its rebellious sheikhs put to death. Cyrus I of Persia (grandfather of Cyrus the Great) was forced into submission, as a part of this defeated alliance.", "Esarhaddon (680–669 BC) expanded Assyria still further, campaigning deep into the Caucasus Mountains in the north, defeating king Rusas II and breaking Urartu completely in the process. Esarhaddon campaigned successfully subjugating the Scythian king Išpakaia, and the Cimmerian king Teušpa in Asia Minor, and in Ancient Iran, the Manneans, Gutians, Persians and Phraortes the king of the Medes were subjugated.", "Phraortes, the king of the Medes and Persians, also rebelled against Assyria, and attempted to attack Assyria itself in 653 BC, however, he met with defeat at the hands of Ashurbanipal and was killed. His successor, Cyaxares, was in turn subjugated by Ashurbanipal's ally, the Scythian king Madyes, who imposed Scythian hegemony on the Medes. At around this time, Gyges king of Lydia in western Asia Minor, offered his submission to Ashurbanipal.", "Mass alliances against Assyria were not a new phenomenon. During the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), peoples such as the Hittites, Babylonians, Mitannians/Hurrians, Elamites, Phrygians, Kassites, Arameans, Gutians and Canaanites had formed various coalitions at different times in vain attempts to break Assyrian power", ". During the Neo-Assyrian Empire, in the reigns of Shalmaneser III in the 9th century BC, Sargon II in the 8th century BC, and Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal in the earlier part of the 7th century BC, combined attempts to break Assyrian dominance by alliances including at different times; Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Elamites, Nubians, Medes, Chaldeans, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Lydians, Arameans, Suteans, Israelites, Judeans, Scythians, Cimmerians, Manneans, Urartians, Cilicians", ", Arameans, Suteans, Israelites, Judeans, Scythians, Cimmerians, Manneans, Urartians, Cilicians, Neo-Hittites and Arabs had all failed, Assyria being strong, well led and united, at the height of its power, and able to deal with any threat", ".", "Downfall, 626–609 BC", "By 627 BC, Nabopolassar, (a previously unknown Malka of the Chaldean tribes who had settled the far southeast of Mesopotamia circa 900 BC) took the lead of those who sought for independence. Sin-shar-ishkun amassed a large army to eject Nabopolassar from Babylon; however, yet another massive revolt broke out in Assyria proper, forcing the bulk of his army to turn back, where they promptly joined the rebels in Nineveh", ". Similarly, Nabopolassar was unable to gain control over all of Babylonia, and could not make any inroads into Assyria despite its weakened state, being repelled at every attempt. The next four years saw bitter fighting in the heart of Babylonia itself, as the Assyrians tried to wrest back control.", "Meanwhile, the Median king Cyaxares the Great, a hitherto vassal of Assyria, had taken advantage of the upheavals in Assyria to free the Iranian peoples from Assyrian vassalage and unite the Iranian Medes, Persians and Parthians, together with the remnants of the pre-Iranian Elamites, Gutians, Kassites and Manneans, into a powerful Median-dominated force.", "Ashur-etil-ilani came to the throne in 631 BC. He died in 627 BC, succeeded by his brother Sin-shar-ishkun (627–612 BC) in uncertain circumstances. Sinsharishkun was soon faced with the revolt of Sin-shumu-lishir, an Assyrian eunuch official who seized power in parts of Babylonia", ". Sin-shumu-lishir was defeated after three months of civil war, but remaining tensions led to wholescale revolution in Babylonia, and during the reign of Sin-shar-ishkun many Assyrian colonies to the west, east and north similarly took advantage and ceased to pay tribute to Assyria, most significantly the Medes, Persians, Scythians, Cimmerians, Babylonians, Chaldeans and Arameans.", "In 615 BC, Cyaxares attacked the Assyrian Empire and his forces defeated the Assyrians at Arrapha. The next year, the Medes decisively defeated the Assyrians at the devastating battle of Assur. This assault greatly affected the Assyrian morale.", "Ashur-uballit II (612- 609 BC) took the throne amid the street by street fighting in Nineveh and refused a request to bow in vassalage to Nabopolassar, Cyaxares and their allies. He managed to break out of Nineveh and successfully fight his way to the northern Assyrian city of Harran, and founded it as a new capital. Ashur-uballit II somehow managed to keep control of a now greatly reduced Assyria for three years or so, repelling attacks by his enemies", ". However, Harran too was eventually besieged and taken by the Medes, Babylonians and Scythians in 609 BC.", "Certainly by 609 BC at the very latest, Assyria had been destroyed as an independent political entity, although it was to launch major rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire in 546 BC and 520 BC, and remained a geo-political region, ethnic entity and colonised province until the late 7th century AD, with small Assyrian states emerging in the region between the 2nd century BC and 4th century AD.\nThe fate of Ashur-uballit II remains unknown; his Limmu Lists end after the fall of Harran.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nMorris Jastrow Jr., The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria: its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature, London: Lippincott (1915)—a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; also available in layered PDF format\n\n01\nAssyrian Empire, Timeline\nAssyrian Empire, Timeline\nAssyrian Empire\nAssyrian Empire, Timeline\nHistories of empires" ]

[ "Big Star was an American rock band formed in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1971 by Alex Chilton (vocals, guitar), Chris Bell (vocals, guitar), Jody Stephens (drums), and Andy Hummel (bass). The group broke up in late 1974, and reorganized with a new lineup 18 years later following a reunion concert at the University of Missouri. In its first era, the band's musical style drew on the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Byrds. Big Star produced a style that foreshadowed the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s", ". Big Star produced a style that foreshadowed the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s. Before they broke up, Big Star created a \"seminal body of work that never stopped inspiring succeeding generations\", in the words of Rolling Stone, as the \"quintessential American power pop band\", and \"one of the most mythic and influential cult acts in all of rock & roll\". Three of Big Star's studio albums are included in Rolling Stone's list of the Top 500 Albums of All-Time.", "Big Star's debut album, 1972's #1 Record, was met by enthusiastic reviews, but ineffective marketing by Stax Records and limited distribution stunted its commercial success. Frustration took its toll on band relations: Bell left not long after the first record's commercial progress stalled, and Hummel left to finish his college education after a second album, Radio City, was completed in December 1973", ". Like #1 Record, Radio City received excellent reviews, but label issues again thwarted sales—Columbia Records, which had assumed control of the Stax catalog, likewise effectively vetoed its distribution.", "After a third album, recorded in the fall of 1974, was deemed commercially unviable and shelved before receiving a title, the band broke up late in 1974. Four years later, the first two Big Star LPs were released together in the UK as a double album. The band's third album was finally issued soon afterward; titled Third/Sister Lovers, it found limited commercial success, but has since become a cult classic. Shortly thereafter, Chris Bell was killed in a car accident at the age of 27.", "During the group's hiatus in the 1980s, the Big Star discography drew renewed attention when R.E.M. and the Replacements, as well as other popular bands, cited the group as an influence. In 1992, interest was further stimulated by Rykodisc's reissues of the band's albums, complemented by a collection of Bell's solo work.", "In 1993, Chilton and Stephens reformed Big Star with recruits Jon Auer and Ken Stringfellow of the Posies, and gave a concert at the University of Missouri. The band remained active, performing tours in Europe and Japan, and released a new studio album, In Space, in 2005. Chilton died in March 2010 after suffering from heart problems. Hummel died of cancer four months later. These deaths left Stephens as the sole surviving founding member. Big Star was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame in 2014.", "Since December 2010, several surviving members have appeared in a series of live tribute performances of the album Third/Sister Lovers, under the billing \"Big Star's Third\". , that project has remained active.\n\nFirst era: 1971–1974", "Formation of the band", "From 1967 to 1970, Chilton was the lead singer for the blue-eyed soul group the Box Tops, who scored a No. 1 hit with the song \"The Letter\" when he was 16. After leaving the group, he recorded a solo studio album. He was offered the role of lead vocalist for Blood, Sweat & Tears, but turned down the offer as \"too commercial\"", ". Chilton had known Chris Bell for some time: Both lived in Memphis, each had spent time recording music at Ardent Studios, and each, when aged 13, had been impressed by the music of the Beatles during the band's 1964 debut U.S. tour. A song Chilton wrote nearly six years after he first witnessed a Beatles performance, \"Thirteen\", referred to the event with the line \"rock 'n' roll is here to stay\".", "Chilton asked Bell to work with him as a duo modeled on Simon & Garfunkel; Bell declined, but invited Chilton to a performance by his own band, Icewater, comprising Bell, drummer Jody Stephens, and bassist Andy Hummel. Attracted by Icewater's music, Chilton showed the three his new song \"Watch the Sunrise\", and was asked to join the band. Both \"Watch the Sunrise\" and \"Thirteen\" were subsequently included on Big Star's first album, #1 Record.", "The now four-piece band adopted the name Big Star when one member was given the idea from a grocery store often visited for snacks during recording sessions. One of many Big Star Markets outlets in the Memphis region at the time, it had a logo consisting of a five-pointed star enclosing the words \"Big Star\"; as well as the store's name, the band used its logo but without the word \"Star\" to avoid infringing copyright.\n\n#1 Record", "Although all four members contributed to songwriting and vocals on the first album, Chilton and Bell dominated as a duo intentionally modeled on John Lennon and Paul McCartney. The album was recorded by Ardent founder John Fry, with Terry Manning contributing occasional backing vocals and keyboards. The title #1 Record was decided towards the end of the recording sessions and evinced, albeit as a playful hope rather than a serious expectation, the chart position to be achieved by a big star", ". Although Fry—at the band's insistence—was credited as \"executive producer\", publicly he insisted that \"the band themselves really produced these records\". Fry recalled how Ardent, one of the first recording studios to use a sixteen-track tape machine, worked experimentally with the band members: \"We started recording the songs with the intent that if it turned out OK we'd put it out [..", "...] I wound up being the one that primarily worked on it: I recorded all the tracks and then they would often come late at night and do overdubs. One by one, they all learned enough engineering.\"", "Describing the mix of musical styles present on #1 Record, Rolling Stones Bud Scoppa notes that the album includes \"reflective and acoustic\" numbers, saying that \"even the prettiest tunes have tension and subtle energy to them, and the rockers reverberate with power\". Scoppa finds that in each mode, \"the guitar sound is sharp-edged and full\". #1 Record was released in June 1972, and quickly received strong reviews. Billboard went as far as to say, \"Every cut could be a single\"", ". Billboard went as far as to say, \"Every cut could be a single\". Rolling Stone judged the album \"exceptionally good\", while Cashbox stated, \"This album is one of those red-letter days when everything falls together as a total sound\", and called it \"an important record that should go to the top with proper handling\".", "Proper handling, however, was not forthcoming: Stax Records proved unable to either promote or distribute the record with any degree of success, and even when the band's own efforts to get airplay generated interest, fans were unable to buy it as Stax could not make it available in many stores. Stax, in an effort to improve its catalog's availability, signed a deal with Columbia Records, already successful distributors in the U.S., making Columbia responsible for the entire Stax catalog", ".S., making Columbia responsible for the entire Stax catalog. But Columbia had no interest in dealing with the independent distributors previously used by Stax and removed even the existing copies of #1 Record from the stores.", "Radio City", "The frustration at #1 Records obstructed sales contributed to tension within the band. There was physical fighting between members: Bell, after being punched in the face by Hummel, retaliated by smashing Hummel's new bass guitar to pieces against the wall. Hummel took revenge at a later date: finding Bell's acoustic guitar in the latter's unattended car, he repeatedly punched it with a screwdriver. In November 1972, Bell quit the band", ". In November 1972, Bell quit the band. When work continued on songs for a second album, Bell rejoined, but further conflict soon erupted. A master tape of the new songs inexplicably went missing, and Bell, whose heavy drug intake was affecting his judgment, attacked Fry's parked car. In late 1972, struggling with severe depression, Bell quit the band once more, and by the end of the year Big Star disbanded.", "After a few months Chilton, Stephens, and Hummel decided to reform Big Star, and the three resumed work on the second album. The title chosen, Radio City, continued the play on the theme of a big star's popularity and success, expressing what biographer Robert Gordon calls the band's \"romantic expectation\". As Hummel put it:", "Stephens recalled: \"Radio City, for me, was just an amazing record. Being a three-piece really opened things up for me in terms of playing drums. Drums take on a different role in a three-piece band, so it was a lot of fun. [...] Radio City was really more spontaneous, and the performances were pretty close to live performances.\"", "Although uncredited, Bell contributed to the writing of some of the album's songs, including \"O My Soul\" and \"Back of a Car\". Shortly before the album's release, Hummel left the band: judging that it would not last, and in his final year at college, he elected to concentrate on his studies and live a more normal life. He was replaced by John Lightman for a short tenure prior to the band dissolving.", "Rolling Stones Ken Barnes, describing the musical style of Radio City, opens by noting as a backdrop that the band's debut, #1 Record, established them as \"one of the leading new American bands working in the mid-Sixties pop and rock vein\"", ". Radio City, Barnes finds, has \"plenty of shimmering pop delights\", although \"the opening tune, 'O My Soul,' is a foreboding, sprawling funk affair\"; Barnes concludes that \"Sometimes they sound like the Byrds, sometimes like the early Who, but usually like their own indescribable selves\".", "Radio City was released in February 1974 and, like #1 Record, received excellent reviews. Record reported, \"The sound is stimulating, the musicianship superb, and the result is tight and rollickingly rhythmic.\" Billboard judged it \"a highly commercial set\". Rolling Stones Bud Scoppa, then with Phonograph Record, affirmed, \"Alex Chilton has now emerged as a major talent, and he'll be heard from again\"", ". Cashbox called it \"a collection of excellent material that hopefully will break this deserving band in a big way\". But just as #1 Record had fallen victim to poor marketing, so too did Radio City. Columbia, now in complete control of the Stax catalog, refused to process it following a disagreement. Without a distributor, sales of Radio City, though far greater than those of #1 Record, were minimal at only around 20,000 copies.", "Third/Sister Lovers\n\nIn September 1974, eight months after the release of Radio City, Chilton and Stephens returned to Ardent Studios to work on a third album. They were assisted by producer Jim Dickinson and an assortment of musicians (including drummer Richard Rosebrough) and Lesa Aldridge, Chilton's girlfriend, who contributed on vocals. The sessions and mixing were completed in early 1975, and 250 copies of the album were pressed with plain labels for promotional use.", "Parke Putterbaugh of Rolling Stone described Third/Sister Lovers as \"extraordinary\". It is, he wrote, \"Chilton's untidy masterpiece. [...] beautiful and disturbing\"; \"vehemently original\"; of \"haunting brilliance\":", "To listen to it is to be \"plunged into a maelstrom of conflicting emotions. Songs are drenched in strings and sweet sentiment one minute, starkly played and downcast the next. No pop song has ever bottomed out more than \"Holocaust\", an anguished plaint sung at a snail's pace over discordant slide-guitar fragments and moaning cello [..", "...] On the up side, there's the delicious pop minuet \"Stroke It Noel\", the anticipatory magic of \"Nightime\" (\"Caught a glance in your eyes and fell through the skies,\" Chilton rhapsodizes) [...] Big Star's baroque, guitar-driven pop reaches its apotheosis on songs like \"Kizza Me\", \"Thank You Friends\" and \"O, Dana\". [...] Without question, Third is one of the most idiosyncratic, deeply felt and fully realized albums in the pop idiom.", "Fry and Dickinson flew to New York with promotional copies and met employees of a number of record labels, but could not generate interest in the album. When a similar promotion attempt failed in California, the album was shelved as it was considered not commercial enough for release. Fry recalled, \"We'd go in and play it and these guys would look at us like we were crazy\". In late 1974, before the album was even named, the band broke up, bringing Big Star's first era to its end", ". Dickinson later said that he was \"nailed for indulging Alex on Big Star Third, but I think it is important that the artist is enabled to perform with integrity. What I did for Alex was literally remove the yoke of oppressive production that he had been under since the first time he ever uttered a word into a microphone, for good or ill.\"", "Since quitting the band in 1972, Bell had spent time in several different countries trying to develop his solo career. In 1978, after his return to Memphis, the first two Big Star albums were released together in the U.K. as a double album, drawing enthusiastic reviews and interest from fans. Soon afterward, Big Star's recognition grew further when, four years after its completion, the third album too was released in both the U.S. and the U.K", ".S. and the U.K. By now, the hitherto untitled Third/Sister Lovers had become known by several unofficial names, including Third (reflecting its position in the discography), Beale Street Green (acknowledging the legendary site nearby, once a focal point for Memphis blues musicians), and Sister Lovers (because during the album's recording sessions, Chilton and Stephens were dating sisters Lesa and Holliday Aldridge).", "Not long after the release of Third/Sister Lovers, Bell died in a car accident. He apparently lost control of his car while driving alone and was killed when he struck a lamp post after hitting the curb a hundred feet before. A blood test found that he was not drunk at the time, and no drugs were found on him other than a bottle of vitamins. Bell is believed to have either fallen asleep at the wheel or become distracted.", "Second era: 1993–2010\nBig Star returned in 1993 with a new lineup when guitarist Jon Auer and bassist Ken Stringfellow joined Chilton and Stephens. Auer and Stringfellow remained members of the Posies, founded by the pair in 1986. Stringfellow is also known for his work with R.E.M. and the Minus 5. Hummel elected not to participate. First-era material dominated Big Star's performances, with the occasional addition of a song from the 2005 album In Space.", "Stringfellow recalled that during the 1990s, \"We were working out the set list and we went to this little cafe. Little did I know we'd be playing that set for the next ten years\". The resurrected band made its debut at the 1993 University of Missouri spring music festival. A recording of the performance was issued on CD by Zoo Records as Columbia: Live at Missouri University. The concert was followed by tours of Europe and Japan, as well as an appearance on The Tonight Show.", "Big Star's first post-reunion studio recording was the song \"Hot Thing\", recorded in the mid-1990s for the Big Star tribute album Big Star, Small World. As with their prior studio release, however, the tribute album was delayed for years due to its record company going under. Originally scheduled for a 1998 release on Ignition Records, the album was eventually released in 2006 on Koch Records.", "In Space was released on September 27, 2005, on the Rykodisc label. Recorded during 2004, the album consisted of new material mostly co-written by Chilton, Stephens, Auer, and Stringfellow. Reviewing In Space, Rolling Stones David Fricke first pointed out that the context of the release was now \"a world expecting that American Beatles ideal all over again\" from a band that \"achieved its power-pop perfection when no one else was looking", ".\" In Fricke's estimation, this seemingly unrealistic expectation was met in part: \"It's here – in the jangly longing and ice-wall harmonies of 'Lady Sweet'\" — however, Fricke found that the successful songs were interleaved with \"the eccentric R&B and demo-quality glam rock that have made Chilton's solo records a mixed blessing,\" and that \"'A Whole New Thing' starts out like old T.Rex, then goes nowhere special", ".Rex, then goes nowhere special.\" Warming nevertheless to \"the rough sunshine\" of \"Best Chance\", Fricke concluded, \"In Space is no #1 Record, but at its brightest, it is Big Star in every way.\"", "The band appeared at San Francisco's Fillmore Auditorium on October 20, 2007. San Francisco-based band Oranger performed as opening act. Big Star performed at the 2008 Rhythm Festival, staged from August 29–31 in Bedfordshire, U.K. On June 16, 2009, the #1 Record/Radio City double album was reissued in remastered form. The same month, it was announced that a film of Big Star's history, based on biographer Rob Jovanovic's book Big Star: The Story of Rock's Forgotten Band, was in pre-production", ". On July 1, 2009, Big Star performed at a concert in Hyde Park, London, U.K. On September 15, 2009, Rhino Records issued a four-CD box set containing 98 recordings made between 1968 and 1975. Keep an Eye on the Sky included live and demo versions of Big Star songs, solo work, and material from Bell's earlier bands Rock City and Icewater. On November 18, 2009, the band performed at the Brooklyn Masonic Temple in New York City.", "Post-Chilton releases and tributes\n\nAlex Chilton memorial shows \nOn March 17, 2010, Chilton suffered a fatal heart attack. He was pronounced dead on arrival at Tulane Medical Center in New Orleans. Big Star had been scheduled to play at SXSW Music Festival that same week. The remaining members, joined by special guests original bassist Andy Hummel, M. Ward, Evan Dando, R.E.M. bassist Mike Mills, and Chris Stamey, staged the concert as a tribute to him.\n\n\"Big Star's Third\" shows", "Four months after Chilton's death, Hummel died of cancer on July 19, 2010. Asked about the band's plans after the death of Chilton and Hummel, Stephens told Billboard, \"It's music we all really love to play, and we love to play it together, so we're trying to figure out a way forward where we can keep doing it", ".\" In a Rolling Stone interview, Stephens said that the May 2010 tribute performance would be the group's final show as Big Star, although not his last show with Auer and Stringfellow, stating, \"I can't see us going out as Big Star ... But I would hate to compound the loss of Alex by saying,'That's it' for Ken and Jon, too. I can't imagine not playing with them. There's so much fun—but an emotional bond there too.\"", "In December 2010, under the billing \"Big Star's Third\", Stephens teamed with Mitch Easter, Stamey, and Mills, along with a string section, to perform a live tribute performance of Big Star's album Third/Sister Lovers in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Joined by additional performers such as Matthew Sweet, Big Star's Third was performed in a similar tribute concert in New York City on March 26, 2011, and at the Barbican in London on May 28, 2012", ". The project continued with concerts in Chicago and New York in 2013, a January 2014 concert in Sydney, Australia, and a series of U.S. shows that included Seattle's Bumbershoot festival on August 31, 2014. In November 2014, Auer and Stringfellow rejoined Stephens, Easter, Stamey, and Mills for a free benefit performance in Athens, Georgia. , Big Star's Third were still performing.", "On April 21, 2017, Concord Records released a Big Star's Third live concert documentary on two DVDs, along with a three-CD live album, both titled Thank You, Friends: Big Star's Third Live... and More. The concert was performed in April 2016 at Glendale, California's Alex Theatre.", "Posthumous releases", "In June 2011, Ardent Records released the EP Live Tribute to Alex Chilton, and Stephens confirmed on the Ardent blog that the tribute performance in May 2010 was the last performance for Big Star as a band. A documentary titled Big Star: Nothing Can Hurt Me (2012), directed by Drew DeNicola and Olivia Mori, chronicled the group's career and band members' solo efforts. In 2013, the documentary was released in theaters and on DVD, and it had a limited theatrical re-release in England in August 2014", ". In November 2014, Live in Memphis was released by Omnivore Recordings on CD, vinyl, and as a DVD of Big Star's performance of October 29, 1994, their only known show to be professionally filmed in its entirety. According to Mojo, the DVD documents how Big Star's 1990s lineup defied expectations and endured for another 16 years: \"Chilton's musicality is mesmerising as he drives the band. … Alternating between lead and rhythm, he plays with a mix of laser focus and utter insouciant cool.\"", "Musical style and influences", "Bell took up guitar when 12 or 13, but only on hearing the first Beatles records was he motivated to play the instrument regularly. He acted as lead and rhythm guitarist and vocalist for a sequence of bands, performing songs by the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Kinks, the Zombies, and the Animals. Chilton's first awareness of music came at the age of 6 when his brother repeatedly played a record by the Coasters", ". His father's liking for jazz then exposed him over the next few years to the music of Glenn Miller, Ray Charles, and Dave Brubeck. Chilton's enthusiasm for music took hold when at age 13 he first heard Beatles records; he recalled having known of 1950s rock 'n' roll, but \"by 1959 Elvis was syrup and Jerry Lee was pretty much gone, and the rockabilly thing was sort of over so I didn't get really caught up in the rock scene until the Beatles came along\".", "Chilton took up electric guitar at 13, playing along with Beatles songs, later saying, \"I really loved the mid-sixties British pop music [...] all two and a half minutes or three minutes long, really appealing songs. So I've always aspired to that same format, that's what I like. Not to mention the rhythm and blues and the Stax stuff, too\"", ". Not to mention the rhythm and blues and the Stax stuff, too\". Chilton abandoned his guitar-playing during his time with the Box Tops and then took up the instrument again; he met Roger McGuinn, guitarist for the Byrds, and developed particular interest in electric guitar and acoustic folk. Stephens enjoyed the music of Otis Redding, the Isley Brothers, the Who, the Kinks, and especially the Beatles.", "Hummel likewise was a member of more than one band during his early musical years, again influenced by the Beatles and other British Invasion acts. The bassist also played acoustic guitar for personal enjoyment, following the styles of Simon & Garfunkel and Joni Mitchell and using finger-picking techniques to play folk and bluegrass. Most songs on the first three albums are credited to either Bell/Chilton or Chilton, but some credit Hummel, Stephens and others, as either writer or co-writer", ". At the only seven live performances in the original era, the last of which took place before the second album's release, all four members contributed vocally.", "While primarily inspired by the music of the Beatles and other British Invasion bands, acknowledging too the jangle pop and power pop of the period, Big Star also incorporated dark, nihilistic themes to produce a striking blend of musical and lyrical styles. The body of work resulting from the first era was a precursor of the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s, at the same time yielding material today considered an outstanding example of power pop", ". The stylistic range is evident from modern day critiques. Bogdanov et al., commenting on #1 Record in their All Music Guide to Rock, perceive in \"The Ballad of El Goodo\" a \"luminous, melancholy ballad\", whereas John Borack's Ultimate Power Pop Guide singles out Radio Citys \"September Gurls\" as a \"glorious, glittering jewel\" of power pop.", "Borack notes too that Third/Sister Lovers is \"slower, darker and a good deal weirder\" than the first two albums, identifying \"Holocaust\" as \"Alex Chilton at his haunting best\", yet finds \"Thank You Friends\" exemplifying \"left-field gems\" also present in which \"the hooks are every bit as undeniable\" as before", ". Jovanovic writes that when recording what Peter Buckley in his Rough Guide to Rock terms the \"snarling guitar rock\" of the first album's \"Don't Lie to Me\", the band, deeming conventional instruments inadequate for the task, wheeled two Norton Commando motorcycles into the studio and gunned the engines to intensify the song's bridge. Bogdanov et al", ". Bogdanov et al. reserve \"snarl\" for a Radio City song, \"Mod Lang\"; here Buckley writes that \"the power of the performance and the erratic mix gave a sense of chaos which only added to the thrill\".", "Legacy and influence", "Although Big Star's first era came to an end in 1974, the band acquired a cult following in the 1980s when new acts began to acknowledge the early material's significance. R.E.M.'s Peter Buck admitted, \"We've sort of flirted with greatness, but we've yet to make a record as good as Revolver or Highway 61 Revisited or Exile on Main Street or Big Star's Third. I don't know what it'll take to push us on to that level, but I think we've got it in us", ". I don't know what it'll take to push us on to that level, but I think we've got it in us.\" Chilton, however, told an interviewer in 1992, \"I'm constantly surprised that people fall for Big Star the way they do... People say Big Star made some of the best rock 'n roll albums ever. And I say they're wrong.\"", "In 2014, Paul Stanley cited Big Star as an influence to early Kiss moments: \"We've always been about verses, choruses, bridges (...) It's called a hook for a reason, because it grabs you. And that's my mentality. Give me the Raspberries. Give me Small Faces. Give me Big Star.\"", "\"While the band no longer exists, the music that Alex, Chris, Andy and I originally made together under the auspices of John Fry still calls a community of those of us with like minds to come together and have fun with it,\" Stephens wrote in 2017 in a note published in the liner notes of The Best of Big Star.", "Critics have continued to cite Big Star's first three albums as a profound influence on subsequent musicians. Rolling Stone notes that Big Star \"created a seminal body of work that never stopped inspiring succeeding generations of rockers, from the power-pop revivalists of the late 1970s to alternative rockers at the end of the century to the indie rock nation in the new millennium\"", ". Jason Ankeny, music critic for AllMusic, identifies Big Star as \"one of the most mythic and influential cult acts in all of rock & roll\", whose \"impact on subsequent generations of indie bands on both sides of the Atlantic is surpassed only by that of the Velvet Underground\". Ankeny describes Big Star's second album, Radio City, as \"their masterpiece—ragged and raw guitar-pop infused with remarkable intensity and spontaneity\".", "In 1992, Rykodisc generated further interest in the band when it reissued Third/Sister Lovers and released a posthumous compilation of Bell's solo material, I Am the Cosmos. In his 2007 book Shake Some Action: The Ultimate Power Pop Guide, John Borack ranks the #1 Record/Radio City double album at No. 2 in his chart \"The 200 Greatest Power Pop Albums\"", ". 2 in his chart \"The 200 Greatest Power Pop Albums\". Rolling Stone includes #1 Record, Radio City and Third/Sister Lovers in The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and \"September Gurls\" and \"Thirteen\" in The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In addition to R.E.M., artists including Teenage Fanclub, The Replacements, Primal Scream, the Posies, and Bill Lloyd and the dB's cite Big Star as an inspiration, and the band's influence on Game Theory, Matthew Sweet, and Velvet Crush is also acknowledged.", "A cover version of \"September Gurls\" appeared on the Bangles' 1986 triple platinum album Different Light. \"September Gurls\", Borack wrote, \"was and is the sine qua non of power pop, a glorious, glittering jewel with every facet cut and shined to absolute perfection.... a peerless, aching distillation of love and longing. 'September Gurls' may not actually be the greatest song ever recorded, but for the duration of its 2:47 running time, you can be forgiven for believing it is.\"", "The 1987 tribute song \"Alex Chilton\", co-written by three members of the Replacements, was released as a single from the album Pleased to Meet Me and contains the lyric \"I never travel far without a little Big Star.\"\n \"I'm in Love with a Girl\" from Radio City features in the soundtrack of the 2009 film Adventureland.", "In 1998, an ad hoc, shortened version of #1 Records \"In the Street\" (recorded by Todd Griffin) was used as the theme song for the sitcom That '70s Show, and in 1999, a new version titled \"That '70s Song (In the Street)\" was recorded by Cheap Trick also specifically for the show. \"That '70s Song\" and Big Star's own \"September Gurls\" are included on the 1999 album That '70s Album (Rockin') released by the television program's producers.", "The 2006 tribute album Big Star, Small World includes Big Star covers by the Posies, Teenage Fanclub, Gin Blossoms, Wilco, the Afghan Whigs, and Whiskeytown, among others.\n Lucero, a Memphis, Tennessee-based alternative country band, covered \"I'm in Love with a Girl\" on their 2015 release All a Man Should Do, an album which takes its title from a lyric in the song. Founding member Jody Stephens, and later additions to Big Star, provide backup on the track.", "\"Thirteen\" from Big Star is featured in the 2020 Disney+ film Stargirl. The song is then sung by the two leads, Grace VanderWaal as Susan \"Stargirl\" Caraway and Graham Verchere as Leo Borlock.", "Personnel\n Alex Chilton – guitars, piano, vocals (1971–1974, 1993–2010; died 2010)\n Jody Stephens – drums, vocals (1971–1974, 1993–2010)\n Chris Bell – guitars, vocals (1971–1972; died 1978)\n Andy Hummel – bass guitar, vocals (1971–1973, 2010; died 2010)\n John Lightman – bass guitar, backing vocals (1974)\n Jon Auer – guitar, vocals (1993–2010)\n Ken Stringfellow – bass guitar, vocals, keyboards (1993–2010)\n\nTimeline", "Timeline\n\nDiscography\nStudio albums\n#1 Record (Ardent/Stax, 1972)\nRadio City (Ardent/Stax, 1974)\nThird/Sister Lovers (PVC, 1978)\nIn Space (Rykodisc, 2005)", "Live albums\nLive (Rykodisc, 1992)\nColumbia: Live at Missouri University 4/25/93 (Zoo, 1993)\nNobody Can Dance (Norton, 1999) – rehearsals and live recordings\nLive Tribute at the Levitt Shell (Ardent, 2011) – Big Star with John Davis\nLive in Memphis (Omnivore, 2014) – Big Star live on October 29, 1994\nComplete Columbia: Live at University of Missouri University 4/25/93 (Volcano/Legacy, 2016)\nLive at Lafayette's Music Room – Memphis, TN (Omnivore, 2018) – Big Star live in January 1973", "Live at Lafayette's Music Room – Memphis, TN (Omnivore, 2018) – Big Star live in January 1973\nLive On WLIR (Omnivore, 2019) – Remastered and restored performance originally recorded and broadcast in 1974", "Compilations\nBiggest (Line Records, 1994) – greatest hits\nThe Best of (Big Beat Records, 1999) – greatest hits\nBig Star Story (Rykodisc, 2003) – greatest hits with one new track\nKeep an Eye on the Sky (Rhino, 2009) – box set with a live disc\nNothing Can Hurt Me (Omnivore Recordings, 2013) – soundtrack to movie\nPlaylist (1972–2005) (Legacy Recordings, 2013) – first compilation to cover all eras of band\nComplete Third (Omnivore, 2016) – complete recordings from the Third sessions", "Complete Third (Omnivore, 2016) – complete recordings from the Third sessions\nThe Best of Big Star (Craft Recordings, 2017) – greatest hits with some rare mixes and edits of songs", "Big Star's Third\n Thank You, Friends: Big Star's Third Live... and More (2017, Concord) – Big Star's Third concert, recorded live in April 2016 (3 CDs)\n\nVideography\nBig Star\nBig Star: Nothing Can Hurt Me (Magnolia, DVD, 2012)\nLive in Memphis (Omnivore, DVD, 2014) – Big Star live on October 29, 1994\n\nBig Star's Third\n Thank You, Friends: Big Star's Third Live... and More (2017, Concord) – concert documentary of Big Star's Third live performance in April 2016 (2 DVDs)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "References\n\nExternal links\n\n \n for Big Star's Third project\n \n Big Star biography by Jason Ankeny, discography and album reviews, credits & releases at AllMusic\n \n Big Star albums to be listened as stream at Spotify.com", "1971 establishments in Tennessee\nAmerican power pop groups\nAmerican hard rock musical groups\nMusical groups established in 1971\nMusical groups disestablished in 1974\nMusical groups reestablished in 1993\nMusical groups disestablished in 2010\nMusical groups from Memphis, Tennessee\nAmerican musical quartets\nMusical trios from Tennessee\nNorton Records artists\nRock music groups from Tennessee\nRykodisc artists\n20th-century American guitarists" ]

[ "Africa's first confirmed case of COVID-19 was announced in Egypt on 14 February 2020. \nMany preventive measures have been implemented in different countries in Africa, including travel restrictions, flight cancellations, event cancellations, school closures, and border closures. Other measures to contain and limit the spread of the virus has included curfews, lockdowns, and enforcing the wearing of face masks.", "The virus has spread throughout the continent. Lesotho, the last African sovereign state to have remained free of the virus, reported a case on 13 May 2020.", "Timeline of responses\n\nApril\n\n1 April \nEritrea announced a three-week lockdown, commencing 2 April to combat the spread of COVID-19.\nSierra Leone declared that a three-day lockdown would come into effect on Saturday (4 April).", "14 April \nThe Ghana Education Service and Zoomlion Ghana Limited joined forces to launch an initiative to fumigate all Senior High, special and technical schools in the country to curb the spread of the pandemic.", "President of Guinea Alpha Condé makes it compulsory for all citizens and residents to wear face masks, coming into effect on 18 April. Offenders face a civil disobedience tax of 30,000 Guinean francs (US$3.16, €2.8). Condéalso called upon all companies, ministries and NGOs to provide masks to their employees by Saturday and called for masks to be manufactured locally and sold cheaply.", "May", "1 May\nSouth Africa has begun to loosen its lockdown restrictions, allowing some businesses and factories to resume operations. Restaurants will be allowed to provide takeaway services. Recreational activities such as walking, cycling, and running will be allowed for three hours a day. The South African Government has maintained a ban on the sales of cigarettes and alcohol.", "President of Zimbabwe Emmerson Mnangagwa has extended Zimbabwe's lockdown for two more weeks and announced a US$720 million stimulus for affected companies.", "4 May\nThe International Monetary Fund has disbursed Cameroon US$226 million to meet urgent balance of payment needs caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\nThe Nigerian Government has announced that a 24-hour \"stay at home\" order that had been imposed since 30 March in the capital Abuja and the states of Lagos and Ogun will be lifted over a six-week period. This has include allowing businesses and transportation to resume with people wearing face masks.", "In South Africa, Dondo Mogajane, the Director-General of the National Treasury, has warned that South African economy could contract by 12% and that one-third of the workforce could be affected by the coronavirus as a result of the economic fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\nZimbabwean Finance and Economic Development Minister Mthuli Ncube has appealed for the International Monetary Fund to clear its debt arrears in order to access foreign funding for COVID-19 relief efforts.\n\nJune", "June\n\n11 June\nAccording to the Africa Chief of the World Health Organization, the coronavirus pandemic is \"accelerating\" in the continent, with community transmission reported in more than half of all African countries. Data indicates that it took 18 days for Africa to record 200,000 cases compared to the 98 days it took for the continent to record 100,000 cases.", "Rwanda will receive a further $110 million in economic loans from the International Monetary Fund to assist the country in fighting the coronavirus pandemic. The IMF has now provided Rwanda with over $220 million during the crisis.\n\nJuly", "July\n\n2 July\nThe African Union revealed that the African continent has lost $55 billion in travel and tourism revenue during the coronavirus pandemic. The Union's Infrastructure and Energy Committee warned that some African airlines may not survive the economic consequences of the pandemic.\n\nThe coronavirus lockdown imposed in Nigeria's Kano State was lifted.\n\nAugust", "The coronavirus lockdown imposed in Nigeria's Kano State was lifted.\n\nAugust\n\n3 August\nIn The Gambia, Finance Minister Mambury Njie, Energy Minister Fafa Sanyang, and Agriculture Minister Amie Fabureh all tested positive for COVID-19, and will subsequently self-isolate and work from home, taking the total number of cabinet ministers infected with the virus to five.", "4 August\nThe mayor of Kanifing District in The Gambia, Talib Bensouda, tested positive for COVID-19 and was admitted to hospital for treatment, becoming the sixth senior politician in the country to test positive.\nNigerian private airline Air Peace announced that salaries have been cut and that around 70 pilots have been made redundant due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation.", "Vice-President of Zimbabwe Constantino Chiwenga was announced as the country's new Health Minister, following the dismissal of previous minister Obadiah Moyo over several corruption allegations relating to the government's handling of the coronavirus pandemic.\n\nNorth Africa\n\nEgypt\n\nTravel restrictions\nThe minister of aviation closed the airports and suspended all air travel, effective 19 March.\nThe decision to suspend flights in Egypt came into effect from 19 March until 31 March.\n\nTimeline of Testing", "Timeline of Testing \n\nAs of 25 March, the ministry of health announced that 25,000 PCR tests have been done.\n\nAs of 17 April, 55,000 PCR tests have been done \n\nAs of 23 April, 90,000 PCR tests have been done \n\nAs of 9 May 105,000 PCR tests have been done \n\nEgypt now has more than 40 PCR testing equipment dispersed all over the country\n\nCensorship \nForeign media outlets have reported that certain individuals have been arrested for allegedly spreading false information about the coronavirus pandemic.", "Morocco\n\nFlight bans", "On 13 March 2020 the Government of Morocco announced they were suspending all passenger flights and ferry crossings to and from Algeria, Spain and France until future notice.", "On 14 March 2020, the Government announced it was suspending flights with an additional 25 countries. By that date, flights had been suspended to/from Algeria, Spain, France, Italy and China. Subsequently, air travel was to cease shortly between Morocco and Austria, Bahrain, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chad, Denmark, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Jordan, Lebanon, Mali, Mauritania, Netherlands, Niger, Norway, Oman, Portugal, Senegal, Switzerland, Sweden, Tunisia, Turkey and the UAE.", "On 15 March 2020, the Government suspended all international flights, and did not announce an expected date for international flights to resume. It allowed a minority of flights for foreigners wishing to leave to embark on before completely shutting down its airports on the 22nd.\nOn 21 June, the government re-opened the major airports to serve domestic flights only.", "On 21 June, the government re-opened the major airports to serve domestic flights only.\nOn 9 July, the government announced that international flights were to resume, with access only for Moroccans or for foreigners residing within the Kingdom. Incoming passengers were required to bring a Coronavirus test result from their country of departure, issued less than 48 hours of the time of arrival. Moroccans living outside of, or foreigners residing within the Kingdom were allowed to leave the country.", "State of medical emergency", "Morocco declared a state of medical emergency on 19 March 2020, to take effect on 20 March 2020 at 6:00 pm local time and to remain in effect until 20 April 2020 with possibility to extend for a longer period. This directive requires the authorization of local state officials for citizens to leave their homes, while making exceptions for workers at supermarkets, pharmacies, banks, gas stations, medical clinics, telecommunications companies, and essential freelance jobs", ". A direct 24-hour hotline was set up to \"reinforce direct communication and urge vigilance to fight the impact of the coronavirus pandemic and safeguard the health of citizens.\" In April, 2020, the government pardoned 5,654 prisoners, and it put forward procedures to protect inmates from the COVID-19 outbreak.", "Emergency Fund \nOn 15 March, King Mohammed VI announced the creation of an emergency fund (labelled as Fonds spécial pour la gestion de la pandémie du Coronavirus (Covid-19)) in order to upgrade health infrastructure and support the worst affected economic sectors. The fund has a volume of 10 billion dirham ($1 billion).\n\nCentral Africa\n\nAngola", "Central Africa\n\nAngola \n\nEffective from 20 March, all Angolan borders were closed for 15 days. President João Lourenço banned all arrivals at airports and stopped passenger vessels docking at Angolan ports for 15 days. All these bans will last until 4 April. All schools in Angola closed on 24 March.\n\nCameroon\n\nGovernment measures \nOn 18 March, Cameroonian Prime Minister Joseph Dion Ngute closed its land, air and sea borders.", "On 30 March, the Minister of Health announced the imminent launch of a coronavirus test campaign in the city of Douala. Dedicated teams will go door-to-door in the economic capital from 2 to 6 April, says the minister.", "On 10 April, the government took 7 additional measures to stop the spread of COVID-19 in Cameroon. These measures take effect from Monday, 13 April 2020.\n Measure 1: Wearing a mask in all areas open to the public;\n Measure 2: Local production of drugs, screening tests, protective masks and hydro-alcoholic gels; \n Measure 3: Establishment of specialized COVID-19 treatment centers in all regional capitals;\n Measure 4: Intensification of the screening campaign with the collaboration of the Center Pasteur;", "Measure 4: Intensification of the screening campaign with the collaboration of the Center Pasteur;\n Measure 5: Intensification of the awareness campaign in urban and rural areas in both official languages;\n Measure 6: Continuation of activities essential to the economy in strict compliance with the directives of 17 March 2020;\n Measure 7: Sanction", "On 15 April, following the claims of the Human Rights Commission of the Cameroon Bar Association, President Paul Biya announced the release of certain prisoners in connection with COVID-19.\n\nOn Tuesday 5 May, the Minister of Health announced the provision to healthcare personnel of 50,000 coveralls, 320,000 surgical masks, 220 backpack sprayers, 10,000 pairs of overshoes.\nIn late June, the government announced that the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations would be postponed until 2022.", "Democratic Republic of the Congo\n\nPrevention measures\nSchools, bars, restaurants, and places of worship were closed. On 19 March, President Félix Tshisekedi announced flight suspensions. On 24 March, he imposed a state of emergency and closed the borders.\n\nWest Africa\n\nGhana", "West Africa\n\nGhana\n\nThe first two cases of the corona virus disease was confirmed on 12 March 2020, when two infected people came to Ghana; one from Norway and the other from Turkey.\nOn 11 March, President Nana Akufo-Addo directed the Minister of Finance, Ken Ofori-Atta, to make the cedi equivalent of $US100 million available to enhance Ghana's coronavirus preparedness and response plan. The Ghana COVID-19 Private Sector Fund was also initiated to aid in the fight against the pandemic.", "Bans and Lock downs", "On 15 March, at 10 pm, President Nana Akufo-Addo banned all public gatherings including conferences, workshops, funerals, festivals, political rallies, church activities and other related events to reduce the spread of COVID-19 at a press briefing on the state of COVID-19. Basic schools, senior high schools and universities, both public and private, have also been closed. Only BECE and WASSCE candidates were permitted to remain in school under social distancing protocols.", "The use of Veronica buckets have become very popular in Ghana following the outbreak of the novel coronavirus as citizens engage in frequent hand washing to stem its spread.", "On 30 March, the partial lock down of Accra and Kumasi took effect. In April 2020, At a press briefing, the Director General of the Ghana Health Service, announced the commencement of local production of nose masks as part of efforts to arrest the spread of the pandemic. According to the new Executive Instrument, E.I", ". According to the new Executive Instrument, E.I. 164, signed by the President on 15 June 2020, people who refuse to wear face masks in public could face jail terms of between 4–10 years or a fine of between GHS12,000 (approx US$2,065) and GHS60,000 (approx US$10,320) or both would be made. This came after the mandatory wearing of nose masks", "Government responses\nFrom 3 April, over 464 markets were disinfected across the country.\nThe second phase of nationwide fumigation begun in July. On 23 September, the MoE with GES collaborated with Zoomlion to disinfect SHS across Ghana to pave way for the reopening of schools.", "The Finance Minister claimed in his report that the Government spent about 54.3 million Ghana cedis to provide cooked and uncooked food to the vulnerable during the 3-week lockdown. He also claimed Government would provide free electricity and water for the rest of 2020.", "The Parliament of Ghana granted a tax waiver of GHS174 million cedis (equivalent to US$30 million) on income taxes of frontline workers. This spanned for three months from July to September 2020. On 15 October, the MoH received a COVID-19 AI software for detecting the virus on Chest X-rays.\nGovernment also relaunched the GH COVID-19 tracker app after it was launched on 13 April.", "Government also relaunched the GH COVID-19 tracker app after it was launched on 13 April.\nGhana begun the local production of nose masks as well as Medical gowns, head covers, and medical scrubs. The government stated that about 18.8million face masks have been manufactured by the country with one industry producing one million face masks a day. \nVarious treatment centers were built across the country such as the Ghana Infectious Disease Centre,\nto help in the National COVID-19 Treatment.", "to help in the National COVID-19 Treatment.\nGhana became the first country to use drone aircraft in the fight against the pandemic through the transport of COVID-19 test samples and PPEs.", "Guinea-Bissau\n\nRestrictions", "On 27 March, a state of emergency was declared to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic by the government of Guinea-Bissau. Transportation through the sea and air as well as the borders of the land were closed. The government also implemented guidelines and laws to prevent the spread of the COVID-19 virus within the community. These laws limited social gatherings and made screenings available for early detection of the virus", ". The prevention of COVID-19 was led by religious leaders and public figures, as well as traditional power entities and social collectives during communication and social mobilisation", ". Guinean families were supported through awareness and prevention information against COVID-19 which were provided through networks, associations and most importantly radio stations, which helps to reduces socio-cultural barriers such as attitudes, cultural differences, ethnicity and status which affects access to information about COVID-19 in Guinea-Bissau. Both Guinea-Bissau's government and the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) have helped in Guinea-Bissau containment of the pandemic", ". The UNICEF and the Secretary of State for Social Communication embedded preventative measures and techniques to the Bissau-Guinean public through social media as well as national television to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Public sanitations across 960 communities were provided by the UNICEF (WASH program) around the country to curb the spread of the virus.", "Financial support", "Guinea-Bissau has been supported by many organisations including Global Partnership for Education (GPE), MPTF and GAVI, as well as the government of Guinea-Bissau which has made available $200, 000 for the country to help detain COVID-19. The Ministries of Finance and Health financially supported hospitals in Guinea Bissau on 27 March 2020. The Fiscal policy supported and improved hospitals", ". The Fiscal policy supported and improved hospitals. Doctors and nurses received pay benefits of $55,000 monthly and $50,000 for medicine whiles $100,000 was reserved for meals to feed patients and the hospital staff. An official of the WHO in Guinea-Bissau has reported that Cuba has sent a medical team consisting doctors and nurses to assist in fighting the pandemic during the outbreak.", "Mali\n\nIbrahim Boubacar Kéïta, the President of the Republic of Mali declared a state of emergency and instituted a curfew from 9.00 p.m. to 5:00 a.m. On 18 March, President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita suspended flights from affected countries, closed schools and banned large public gatherings. However planned elections in March–April, which had already been postponed several times for the poor security situation in the country, went ahead as planned.\n\nNigeria", "Nigeria\n\nTravel ban \nOn 18 March Nigeria placed a travel ban on 13 countries with high cases of the virus, the countries are; United States, United Kingdom, South Korea, Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, China, Spain, Netherlands, Norway, Japan and Iran.", "Federal government reaction \nThe Federal government of Nigeria has instructed institutions to shut down for 30 days as a lockdown measure to limit the spread of COVID-19. It has also banned public gatherings. The state government of Lagos has asked schools to close and banned public gatherings of more than 50 people, particularly religious gatherings.", "The Nigerian Government announced on 4 April about the creation of a 500 billion naira (US$1.39 billion) coronavirus crisis intervention fund to upgrade its healthcare infrastructure.President of Malawi Peter Mutharika announces several measures to support small and medium businesses including tax breaks, reducing fuel allowances and increasing risk allowances for health workers. The President also announces that he and his Cabinet will take a 10 percent salary cut.", "Several schools in Nigeria have shut down, following the directives of the federal government at Abuja. This led the Management of one of the most populated schools in Nigeria, the Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri to declare an emergency holidays a precaution against COVID-19, stating that the emergency holiday will last for 30 days. The institution had already fixed the dates for the 2019/2020 academic year examinations.", "State government responses \nOn 9 March, the President Muhammadu Buhari established a Presidential Task Force for the control of the virus in the country.", "On 30 March, Adamawa State government announced the closure of their state borders for 14 days with effect from 31 March, ordering a total lockdown in the state. The state government also announced that the ban affects tricycle, taxis and bus operators throughout the state. The state government also banned social activities and ordered the closure of all markets, except food markets, medicine markets and filling stations, directing banks to provided skeletal services", ". The lockdown of Ogun State that was supposed to start from 30 March, was shifted to commence from 3 April, after the state government made a request to the federal government to allow them provide food for their residents.", "East Africa\n\nEthiopia \n\nOn 16 March 2020, the office of the Prime Minister announced that schools, sporting events, and public gatherings shall be suspended for 15 days.\nOn 20 March 2020, Ethiopian Airlines suspended flights to 30 countries affected with the corona virus \nand by 29 March 2020, it extended to more than 80 countries.", "It was announced on 20 March that, anyone entering the country should undergo a mandatory self-quarantine for 14 days. Night clubs in Addis Ababa are also to remain closed until further notice.", "On 23 March 2020, Ethiopia closed all land borders and deployed security forces to halt the movement of people along the borders.\nOn 8 April 2020, the Council of Ministers declared a five-month long state of emergency in response to the growing number of coronavirus cases. The state of emergency was approved on 10 April by the parliament.", "Regional governments\nAfter multiple cases of the virus were reported, several regions of the country took measures to prevent further spread of the virus. Travel restrictions and lock downs were imposed by Amhara, Oromia, Tigray, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, Benishangul Gumuz, Afar, Somali, Gambela regions.\n\nAmhara\nOn 25 March 2020, the Amhara regional government ordered civil servants that are at high risk to work from home.", "On 29 March 2020, a ban on all incoming public transportation vehicles were ordered.\n\nOn 30 March 2020, it was announced that anyone who returned from abroad in the previous three weeks should report to the local health offices.\n\nOn 31 March 2020, a 14-day total lockdown of Bahir Dar and three other towns was imposed.", "On 31 March 2020, a 14-day total lockdown of Bahir Dar and three other towns was imposed.\n\nOromia\nOn 29 March 2020, city of Adama in Oromia ordered a complete ban on public transportation systems. The order came after two people tested positive for the virus in the city. The town of Asella and Metu also took measures banning movement of all public transportation to and from the city.", "On 30 March 2020, a complete ban on cross-country and inter-city public transportation was imposed. On 7 April 2020, the regional state released 13,231 prisoners.\n\nTigray\nOn 26 March 2020, Tigray Region declared a 15-day region-wide state of emergency, banning all travel and public activities within the region to prevent the spread of the virus.", "On 29 March 2020, closure of all cafes and restaurants were ordered. The measures taken also include banning landlords from evicting tenants or increasing rent. Any travelers entering the state are also required to report to the nearest health office.\n\nOn 6 April 2020, the regional state released 1,601 prisoners.\n\nKenya", "On 6 April 2020, the regional state released 1,601 prisoners.\n\nKenya \n\nIn response to the rise of coronavirus cases in Kenya to three, on 15 March the government of Kenya closed all schools and directed remote work wherever possible. Travel restrictions were later imposed to prevent non-residents from entry. Kenyan nationals and residents were required to self-quarantine for a minimum of fourteen days.", "On 22 March, following the confirmation of an additional eight cases, bringing the total to 16 nationally, the Kenyan government introduced additional measures and directives to reduce the spread of coronavirus in the country. These measures included a suspension of all international flights effective at midnight on 25 March, with the exception of cargo flights (all persons entering the country will be compelled to undergo quarantine at a government facility)", ". The government further stipulated that any persons, including senior government officials, found to be in violation of quarantine measures would be forcefully quarantined at their own expense. All bars were to remain closed from 22 March, with restaurants allowed to remain open for takeaway services only. All public service vehicles such as matatus and buses had to adhere to passenger-distancing guidelines previously stipulated on 20 March", ". Further, all public gatherings at churches, mosques, funerals and elsewhere were restricted to no more than 15 people, and weddings were banned.", "Nationwide curfew and police response\nThe 7pm – 5am curfew announced on 25 March was accompanied by reports of police brutality. First-hand accounts and video footage in several cities, including Nairobi and Mombasa, indicated that police used beatings and tear gas on 27 March. Some accounts indicate that detention resulted in crowding of people into small areas, contrary to the curfew's goal of increasing social distancing. Kenyan officials and government outlets later condemned police behaviour.", "Economic response\nOn 25 March, President Uhuru Kenyatta, following the reporting of an additional three cases, announced a nationwide curfew on unauthorized movement from 7pm to 5am beginning on Friday, 27 March. The government also unveiled measures to buffer Kenyans against financial hardships arising movement restrictions associated with the coronavirus crisis.\n\nMadagascar", "Madagascar \n\nLockdowns were implemented in at least two cities. The government announced on 17 March that all international and regional flights would be suspended for 30 days starting 20 March. In the central region with Antananarivo, a lockdown was imposed from 6 to 20 July in response to a spike in new cases in the capital.\n\nThe Central Bank of Madagascar injected hundreds of billions of ariary into the banking system to ease the economic damage caused by COVID-19.", "On 20 April 2020, Madagascar President Andry Rajoelina officially launched a coronavirus \"cure\" dubbed Covid-Organics. Developed by the Madagascar Institute of Applied Research (MIAR), the herbal tea was made using artemisia and other locally sourced herbs. Soldiers were dispatched to hand out batches of Covid-Organic, with Colonel Willy Ratovondrainy announcing on state television that the tea would \"strengthen immunity\"", ". However, the National Academy of Medicine of Madagascar (ANAMEM) voiced its skepticism, while the World Health Organization (WHO) cautioned that there was no proof for any coronavirus cure at the time of Covid-Organic's launch. The African Union has entered into discussions with the Malagasy government to test the drug's safety and efficiency.", "Mauritius\n\nClosure of educational institutions\nOn 18 March 2020, amidst a surge in fresh cases being confirmed in Mauritius, the Government of Mauritius announced that all schools and universities would be shut until further notice. Education programs were provided to all students online and on the television through the Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation.\nIn May 2020, the government approved the distribution of 2,500 Tablet computer to children who are on the social security register.", "Travel and entry restrictions", "On 18 March 2020, the Mauritian Prime Minister announced that all passengers, including Mauritians and foreigners, would be prohibited from entering Mauritian territory for the next 15 days, which started at 6:00 GMT (10:10 am Mauritian time). Passengers wishing to leave Mauritius would be allowed to leave. Cargo airplanes and ships would also be allowed to enter the country. Some Mauritians who were stranded in different airports around the world were allowed to enter Mauritian territory on 22 March 2020", ". They were required to spend 14 days in isolation at different premises provided by the government.", "Legislation\nOn 19 March 2020, the following notices, order and regulations were published in the Government Gazette:\n The Ministry of Health was of the view that Mauritius appeared to be threatened with, or infected by the coronavirus and notice was given that sections 79 to 83 of the Public Health Act shall apply to Mauritius;\n The Quarantine (Quarantinable Diseases) Regulations 2020 were published.", "The Quarantine (Quarantinable Diseases) Regulations 2020 were published.\n The Ministry of Health gave order under sections 79 to 83 of the Public Health Act to prohibit the conveyance, excluding any conveyance transporting goods, from entering the territory of Mauritius as from 10:00 am on 19 March 2020 for a period of 15 days under Regulation 3 of The Quarantine (Quarantinable Diseases) Regulations 2020.", "The Ministry of Health gave an order under Regulation 5 of The Quarantine (Quarantinable Diseases) Regulations 2020, prohibiting any passenger, excluding crew members, from boarding or disembarking from a conveyance as from 10:00 am on 19 March 2020 for a period of 15 days.", "The Prevention and Mitigation of Infectious Disease (Coronavirus) Regulations 2020 were published in the Government Gazette on 20 March 2020. Any person who contravenes the regulations shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding MUR 500 and to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months. The regulation was amended on 22 March 2020. On 22 March 2020, the Curfew Order (General Notice No", ". The regulation was amended on 22 March 2020. On 22 March 2020, the Curfew Order (General Notice No.512 of 2020) was issued by the Government of Mauritius, aimed at mitigating the spread of COVID-19 in Mauritius. The Curfew Order became effective as at 23 March 2020 at 20:00 hrs local time. Any person who contravenes the Curfew Order, shall on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding MUR 500 and to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months", ". On 30 March 2020, the Curfew Order was extended till 15 April 2020 at 20:00 hrs local time. On 16 May 2020, the COVID-19 (Miscellaneous Provisions) Bill and the Quarantine Bill were passed in the National Assembly. The COVID-19 (Miscellaneous Provisions) Bill aims at empowering the economy, save enterprises and jobs, and build for a recovery overtime", ". The objectives of the Quarantine Bill are to prevent the resurgence of COVID-19 infection, and step up the preparedness and response of the country to any future pandemic. Any person who contravenes the Quarantine Act, shall on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding MUR 500,000 and to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years. The two bills were heavily criticized by some Mauritians.", "The Prevention of Resurgence and Further Spread of Epidemic Disease (COVID-19) Regulations 2020 was published in the Government Gazette on 17 May 2020. As per the regulation, any person who does not wear protective mask and respect social and physical distancing rule shall commit an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding 50,000 rupees and to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years.", "Rwanda \n\nIn an attempt to stop the spread of coronavirus, \nthe Rwandan Ministry of Health announced on 18 March, that all international commercial passenger flights would be suspended for 30 days, with effect from 20 March. Less than a day later, on 21 March, officials announced a two-week lockdown. Remote work was mandated by public and private employees, under strict measures. All borders are also to be closed, cargo and Rwandan nationals being exempt, with a mandatory 14-day quarantine.", "In addition to the lockdown measures taken in March (see above), Rwanda National Police on 12 April announced the usage of drones to deliver messages to local communities on how to combat the coronavirus.\n\nUganda", "Uganda \n\nAs a precautionary measure, on 18 March, President Yoweri Museveni banned all incoming and outgoing travel to specified highly affected counties for a period of 32 days. Schools have been closed and public gatherings banned. The president extended the lock down period for another 21 days on top of the 14 days. This lock down period continued from 15 April and ran up to 5 May 2020.\n\nHe made the announcement on 5 May 2021, while addressing the nation on the status of coronavirus pandemic in Uganda.", "Uganda re-entered a partial lockdown starting on 7 June 2021. A presidential directive banned travel between districts, restricted gatherings, and suspended schools and communal/religious gatherings for 42 days, in response to an uptick in community spread of the virus. People refusing to follow the new lockdown regulations would be fined instead of arrested.", "Responses for businesses amid the outbreak\nUp until 5 May 2020, most businesses had to remain closed. Food markets remained open, but many vendors were unable to return home and had to sleep in markets due to the suspension of public transport. A small number of businesses such as factories, garages, hardware shops, metalworks and restaurants for takeaway were allowed to reopen on 5 May, while others such as hair salons and business arcades remained closed until 27 July.\n\nSouthern Africa\n\nNamibia", "Southern Africa\n\nNamibia \n\nOn 17 March President Hage Geingob declared a state of emergency as a legal basis to restrict fundamental rights. The prohibition of large gatherings was clarified to apply to 50 or more people. Measures such as the closure of all borders, suspension of gatherings were implemented. All public and private schools were also closed for a month. By 14 April, a National lockdown was enforced to all regions in the country.", "Access to information and surveillance \nA COVID-19 communication hotline (0800100100) was established on 15 March 2020 which is run by the Ministry of Health and Social Services and the Centre for Disease Control of Namibia (CDC). The hotline serves to answer general enquiries of the public, assisting persons seeking guidance from the Ministry and reporting possible symptoms or cases of COVID-19.", "The Government also announced on 18 March that it will strengthen their communication to the public via various platforms, such as the COVID-19 communication centre operated by NBC, in an attempt to \"mitigate and refute misinformation, fear and panic especially from social media\". The centre was fully functional by middle April 2020.", "With the establishment of a multi-disciplinary Emergency Response team, the Ministry intensified their surveillance in monitoring the situation of COVID-19 in the country, especially at the borders of Namibia. The response team operates 24/7.", "Testing", "Before the confirmation of COVID-19 in Namibia, tests could not be done locally. Test samples were instead sent to South Africa, which accounted for longer than usual waiting times. Namibian Institute of Pathology (NIP) started testing locally in Windhoek at the end of March 2020. In late April, private laboratory PathCare started testing samples", ". In late April, private laboratory PathCare started testing samples. Namibia was hit by a lack of reagents at the end of April, which slowed down testing however, private testing at PathCare was expensive compared to that of the state (NIP) which offers free COVID-19 tests.", "Economic stimulus package \nAn Emergency Income Grant was set up by government to distribute N$ 750 to every person whose income was affected by the pandemic or faced difficult conditions due to the lockdown. Over 800,000 people applied for this grant; 346,000 of them were paid by the end of April.\n\nSouth Africa", "President Cyril Ramaphosa declared that South Africa would undergo a national lockdown, for a period of 21 days, from 26 March to 16 April 2020. This drastic measure was intended to help keep the viral infection rate as low as possible and save lives. On Thursday 9 April, President Ramaphosa announced an extension of two weeks to the lockdown, until the end of April", ". Exempt from the lockdown are people deemed necessary for the effective response to the pandemic such as health workers, pharmacy and laboratory personnel, emergency personnel,", "security services, \nsupermarkets, transportation and logistical services, petrol stations, banks, essential financial as well as payment services and\nthose working in industries that can affect the economy when shut down. This include mines and steel mills.", "Testing\nThe National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD) started testing people in South Africa for SARS-CoV-2 on 28 January 2020, and by 7 February had conducted 42 of such tests. State hospitals were offering free COVID-19 testing by mid-March.\nOn 30 March 2020, the government announced its intentions of initiating an enhanced screening and testing programme.\nBy the start of April, 67 mobile testing units had been established and people had been tested, some in drive-through facilities.", "So far South Africa has been able to conduct almost 5 million tests with over 700 000 people testing positive.", "Clinical trials, vaccines and treatment\nOn 17 March 2020, the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority announced that it would expedite review of treatments, vaccines and clinical trials.\nA team from 8 universities and 14 hospitals led by Helen Rees and Jeremy Nel from the University of the Witwatersrand participated in the World Health Organization Solidarity Clinical Trials that investigated medications.", "A COVID-19 vaccine trial was launched in Gauteng province, towards the end of June 2020 in collaboration with the Jenner Institute, University of Oxford and AstraZeneca.\nA second vaccine trial was launched during mid August 2020 in collaboration with a US Maryland based biotechnology company, Novavax, with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.\nA third vaccine trial was launched in September 2020 by Johnson & Johnson/Janssen.", "Prevention in other territories\n\nBritish Indian Ocean Territory \nAs of 5 May there have been no cases in the British territory. Access to the islands, already heavily restricted due to the presence of a military base on Diego Garcia, have been further curtailed, with licenses for visiting vessels suspended.\n\nAll people arriving into the territory are subject to a 14-day quarantine; social distancing measures have also been enacted.\n\nEconomic reliefs", "Economic reliefs\n\nAs a financial response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Ghana initiated the Ghana COVID-19 Private Sector Fund which funded projects such as catering basic needs of Kayayei(head porters) amid the pandemic\nas well as the construction of the Ghana Infectious Disease Centre.", "The government of Kenya implemented economic measures to reduce the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. This included:\n 100% tax relief to Kenyans earning KSh 24,000 (US$228) and below.\n Pay as you earn (PAYE) reduction from a maximum of 30% to 25%.\n Reduction of turnover tax rate from 3% to 1% for all micro, small and medium enterprises.\n Reduction of resident income tax to 25%.\n Making available KSh 10 billion (US$95 million) to vulnerable groups including the elderly and orphans, among others.", "Temporary suspension of the listing of loan defaulters for of any person, micro, small and medium enterprise and corporate entities whose loan account is in arrears effective 1 April 2020.\n Reduction of VAT from 16% to 14% effective 1 April 2020.", "In Nigeria, the Coalition Against COVID-19 was launched on 26 March 2020, following an announcement made by the Governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria, Godwin Emefiele. The purpose of the relief fund is to \"support the Federal government of Nigeria in containing the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria; to ensure patients get the care they need and frontline workers get essential supplies and equipments; and to accelerate efforts to provide tests and treatments", ".\" Major companies, including Dangote Group, Access Bank and MTN have donated to the CACOVID Relief Fund, in addition to several private organizations and individuals.", "On 15 March, King Mohammed VI announced the creation of an emergency fund (labelled as Fonds spécial pour la gestion de la pandémie du Coronavirus (Covid-19)) in order to upgrade health infrastructure and support the worst affected economic sectors as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco. The fund has a volume of 10 billion dirham ($1 billion).", "Over 800,000 people applied for the stimulus grant as an economic response to the pandemic by the government of Namibia. 346,000 of them were paid by the end of April.", "Economic responses in Mauritius included the Government implementation of a Self-Employed Assistance Scheme (SEAS) through the Mauritius Revenue Authority (MRA) on 31 March 2020 to assist self-employed persons who have suffered a loss of revenue as a consequence of the lockdown in the fight against COVID-19. Additional financial support was also provided to Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises.\n\nReopening in some African countries\n\nGhana", "Reopening in some African countries\n\nGhana\n\nOn 19 April 2020, It was announced by the President of Ghana in his address to the nation that the partial lockdown that had been imposed three weeks earlier was lifted but the other preventive protocols were still in effect.\n\nStage one of the process of easing restrictions took effect on 5 June 2020. Religious services, funerals, weddings and other social gatherings were allowed but with reduced capacity and length.", "On 18 November 2020, following the reopening of Ghana's economy, the Ghana CARES program was launched by Nana Akufo-Addo. The initiative is to serve as a 'blueprint' for the recovery of Ghana's economy post COVID-19.\n\nSouth Africa\nEasing of the national lockdown restrictions, based on a risk-adjusted strategy, started on 1 May 2020, becoming level 4.\n\nSee also\nNational responses to the COVID-19 pandemic\nCOVID-19 pandemic in Africa\nCOVID-19 pandemic by country and territory\nSolaWash\n\nNotes\n\nReferences", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nNational responses to the COVID-19 pandemic by country" ]

[ "Italian Brazilians (, ) are Brazilians of full or partial Italian descent, whose ancestors were Italians who emigrated to Brazil during the Italian diaspora, or more recent Italian-born people who've settled in Brazil. Italian Brazilians are the largest number of people with full or partial Italian ancestry outside Italy, with São Paulo being the most populous city with Italian ancestry in the world", ". Nowadays, it is possible to find millions of descendants of Italians, from the southeastern state of Minas Gerais to the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, with the majority living in São Paulo state and the highest percentage in the southeastern state of Espírito Santo (60-75%). Small southern Brazilian towns, such as Nova Veneza, have as much as 95% of their population of Italian descent.", "There are no official numbers of how many Brazilians have Italian ancestry, as the national census conducted by IBGE does not ask the ancestry of the Brazilian people. In 1940, the last census to ask ancestry, 1,260,931 Brazilians were said to be the child of an Italian father, and 1,069,862 said to be the child of an Italian mother. Italians were 285,000 and naturalized Brazilians 40,000. Therefore, Italians and their children were, at most, just over 3.8% of Brazil's population in 1940.", "The Embassy of Italy in Brazil, in 2013, reported the number of 32 million descendants of Italian immigrants in Brazil (about 15% of the population), half of them in the state of São Paulo, while there were around 450,000 Italian citizens in Brazil. Brazilian culture has significant connections to Italian culture in terms of language, customs, and traditions. Brazil is also a strongly Italophilic country as cuisine, fashion and lifestyle has been sharply influenced by Italian immigration.", "Italian immigration to Brazil", "According to the Italian government, there are 31 million Brazilians of Italian descent. All figures relate to Brazilians of any Italian descent, not necessarily linked to Italian culture in any significant way. According to García, the number of Brazilians with actual links to Italian identity and culture would be around 3.5 to 4.5 million people", ".5 to 4.5 million people. Scholar Luigi Favero, in a book on Italian emigration between 1876 and 1976, pinpointed that Italians were present in Brasil since the Renaissance: Genoese sailors and merchants were between the first to settle in colonial Brazil since the first half of the 16th century, and so, because of the many descendants of Italians emigrated there from Columbus times until 1860, the number of Brazilians with Italian roots should be increased to 35 million.", "Although they were victims of some prejudice in the first decades and in spite of the persecution during World War II, Brazilians of Italian descent managed to integrate and assimilate seamlessly into the Brazilian society.", "Many Brazilian politicians, artists, footballers, models, and personalities are or were of Italian descent. Italian-Brazilians have been state governors, representatives, mayors and ambassadors", ". Four Presidents of Brazil were of Italian descent (but none of the first three directly elected to such a position): Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli (Senate president who served as interim president), Itamar Franco (elected vice-president under Fernando Collor, whom he eventually replaced as the latter was impeached), Emílio Garrastazu Médici (third of the series of generals who presided over Brazil during the military regime, also of Basque descent) and Jair Messias Bolsonaro (elected in 2018).", "Citizenship\n\nAccording to the Brazilian Constitution, anyone born in the country is a Brazilian citizen by birthright. In addition, many born in Italy have become naturalized citizens after they settled in Brazil. The Brazilian government used to prohibit multiple citizenship. However, that changed in 1994 by a new constitutional amendment. After the changes, over half a million Italian-Brazilians have requested recognition of their Italian citizenship.", "According to Italian legislation, an individual with an Italian parent is automatically recognized as an Italian citizen. To exercise the rights and obligations of citizenship, individual must have all documents registered in Italy, which normally involves the local consulate or embassy", ". Some limitations are applied to the process of recognition such as the renouncement of the Italian citizenship by the individual or the parent (if before the child's birth), a second limitation is that women transferred citizenship to their children only after 1948. After a constitutional reform in Italy, Italian citizens abroad may elect representatives to the Italian Chamber of Deputies and the Italian Senate", ". Italian citizens residing in Brazil elect representatives together with Argentina, Uruguay and other countries in South America. According to Italian Senator Edoardo Pollastri, over half-a-million Brazilians are waiting to have their Italian citizenship recognized.", "History\n\nItalian crisis in late 19th century\n\nItaly did not become a unified national state until 1861. Before then, Italy was politically divided into several kingdoms, duchies, and other small states. The legacy of political fragmentation influenced deeply the character of the Italian migrant: \"Before 1914, the typical Italian migrant was a man without a clear national identity but with strong attachments to his town or village or region of birth, to which half of all migrants returned.\"", "In the 19th century, many Italians fled the political persecutions in Italy led by the Imperial Austrian government after the failure of Italian unification movements in 1848 and 1861. Although very small in numbers, the well-educated and revolutionary group of emigrants left a deep mark where they settled. In Brazil, the most famous Italian was then Líbero Badaró (died 1830)", ". In Brazil, the most famous Italian was then Líbero Badaró (died 1830). However, the mass Italian immigration tide that would only be second to the Portuguese and German migrant movements in shaping modern Brazilian culture started only after the 1848-1871 Risorgimento.", "During the last quarter of the 19th century, the newly united Italy suffered an economic crisis. The more industrial northern half of Italy was plagued with high unemployment caused in part by the introduction of modern agricultural techniques, while southern Italy remained underdeveloped and almost untouched by agrarian modernization programs. Even in the North, industrialization was still in its initial stages and illiteracy remained common", ". Thus, poverty and lack of jobs and income stimulated Northern (and Southern) Italians to emigrate. Most Italian immigrants were very poor rural workers ().", "Brazilian need of immigrants", "In 1850, under British pressure, Brazil finally passed a law that effectively banned transatlantic slave trade. The increased pressure of the abolitionist movement, on the other hand, made it clear that the days of slavery in Brazil were coming to an end. Slave trade was effectively suppressed, but the slave system still endured for almost four decades. Thus, Brazilian landowners claimed that such migrants were or would soon become indispensable for Brazilian agriculture", ". They would soon win the argument, and mass migration would begin in earnest.", "An Agriculture Congress in 1878 in Rio de Janeiro discussed the lack of labor and proposed to the government the stimulation of European immigration to Brazil. Immigrants from Italy, Portugal, and Spain were considered the best ones because they were Latin-based and mainly Catholic. In particular, Italian immigrants settled mainly in the São Paulo region, where there were vast coffee plantations.\n\nAt the end of the 19th century, the Brazilian government was influenced by eugenics theories.", "At the end of the 19th century, the Brazilian government was influenced by eugenics theories.\n\nBeginning of Italian settlement in Brazil\n\nThe Brazilian government, with or following the Emperor's support, had created the first colonies of immigrants (colônias de imigrantes) in the early 19th century. The colonies were established in rural areas of the country, being settled by European families.", "The first groups of Italians arrived in 1875, but the boom of Italian immigration in Brazil happened between 1880 and 1900, when almost one million Italians arrived.\n\nMany Italians were naturalized Brazilian at the end of the 19th century, when the 'Great Naturalization' automatically granted citizenship to all the immigrants residing in Brazil prior to 15 November 1889 \"unless they declared a desire to keep their original nationality within six months.\"", "During the end of the 19th century, denouncement of bad conditions in Brazil increased in the press. Reacting to the public clamor and many proved cases of mistreatment of Italian immigrants, the government of Italy issued in 1902 the Prinetti Decree forbidding subsidized immigration to Brazil. In consequence, the number of Italian immigrants in Brazil fell drastically in the beginning of the 20th century, but the wave of Italian immigration continued until 1920.", "Over half of the Italian immigrants came from northern Italian regions of Veneto, Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna, and from the central Italian region of Tuscany. About 30% emigrated from Veneto. On the other hand, in the 20th century, southern Italians predominated in Brazil, coming from the regions of Campania, Abruzzo, Molise, Basilicata and Sicily.", "Prince Umberto's visit in 1924", "In 1924, Umberto, Prince of Piedmont (the future King Umberto II of Italy) came to Brazil as part of a state visit to various South American countries. That was part of the political plan of the new fascist government to link Italian people living outside of Italy with their mother country and the interests of the regime. The visit was disrupted considerably by the ongoing Tenente revolts, which made it impossible for Umberto to reach Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo", ". Nevertheless, he was hosted at Bahia, where members of the Italian colony in the city were very happy and proud about his visit, thus achieving some of the visit's purposes.", "Statistics\n\n1940 Brazilian census\nThe Brazilian census of 1940 asked Brazilians where their fathers came from. It revealed that at that time there were 3,275,732 Brazilians who were born to an immigrant father. Of those, 1,260,931 Brazilians were born to an Italian father. Italian was the main reported paternal immigrant origin, followed by Portuguese with 735,929 children, Spanish with 340,479 and German with 159,809 children.", "The census also revealed that the 458,281 foreign mothers of 12 or more years who lived in Brazil had 2,852,427 children, of whom 2,657,974 were born alive. Italian women had more children than any other female immigrant community in Brazil: 1,069,862 Brazilians were born to an Italian mother, followed by 524,940 who were born to a Portuguese mother, 436,305 to a Spanish mother and 171,790 to a Japanese mother", ". The 6,809,772 Brazilian-born mothers of 12 or more years had 38,716,508 children, of whom 35,777,402 were born alive.", "Others", "On the other hand, in 1998, the IBGE, within its preparation for the 2000 Census, experimentally introduced a question about \"origem\" (ancestry) in its \"Pesquisa Mensal de Emprego\" (Monthly Employment Research) to test the viability of introducing that variable in the census (the IBGE ended by deciding against the inclusion of questions about it in the Census)", ". The research interviewed about 90,000 people in six metropolitan regions (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Salvador, and Recife).", ".* Comissariato Generale dell'Emigrazione\n\n.** Consulates", "The 1920 census was the first one to show a more specific figure about the size of the Italian population in Brazil (558,405). However, since the 20th century, the arrival of new Italian immigrants to Brazil has been in steady decline. The previous censuses of 1890 and 1900 had limited information. In consequence, there are no official figures about the size of the Italian population in Brazil during the mass immigration period (1880–1900)", ". There are estimates available, and the most reliable was done by Giorgio Mortara even though his figures may have underestimated the real size of the Italian population. On the other hand, Angelo Trento believes that the Italian estimates are \"certainly exaggerated\" and \"lacking of any foundation\" since they found a figure of 1,837,887 Italians in Brazil for 1927. Another evaluation conducted by Bruno Zuculin found 997,887 Italians in Brazil in 1927", ". Another evaluation conducted by Bruno Zuculin found 997,887 Italians in Brazil in 1927. All of those figures include only people born in Italy, not their Brazilian-born descendants.", "Main Italian settlements in Brazil\n\nAreas of settlement\nAmong all Italians who immigrated to Brazil, 70% went to the State of São Paulo. In consequence, São Paulo has more people with Italian ancestry than any region of Italy itself. The rest went mostly to the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Minas Gerais.", "Internal migration made many second- and third-generation Italians move to other areas. In the early 20th century, many rural Italian workers from Rio Grande do Sul migrated to the west of Santa Catarina and then farther north to Paraná.", "More recently, third- and fourth-generation Italians have migrated to other areas and so people of Italian descent can be found in Brazilian regions in which the immigrants had never settled, such as in the Cerrado region of Central-West, in the Northeast and in the Amazon rainforest area, in the extreme North of Brazil.\n\nSouthern Brazil", "Southern Brazil\n\nThe main areas of Italian settlement in Brazil were the Southern and Southeastern Regions, namely the states of São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais.", "The first colonies to be populated by Italians were created in the highlands of Rio Grande do Sul (Serra Gaúcha). They were Garibaldi and Bento Gonçalves. The immigrants were predominantly from Veneto, in northern Italy. After five years, in 1880, the great numbers of Italian immigrants arriving caused the Brazilian government to create another Italian colony, Caxias do Sul", ". After initially settling in the government-promoted colonies, many Italian immigrants spread into other areas of Rio Grande do Sul, seeking better opportunities, and created many other Italian colonies on their own, mainly in highlands, because the lowlands were already populated by German immigrants and native gaúchos.", "Italians established many vineyards in the region. The wine produced in those areas of Italian colonization in southern Brazil is much appreciated within the country, but little is available for export. In 1875, the first Italian colonies were established in Santa Catarina, which lies immediately to the north of Rio Grande do Sul. The colonies gave rise to towns such as Criciúma, and later also spread further north, to Paraná.", "In the colonies of southern Brazil, Italian immigrants at first stuck to themselves, where they could speak their native Italian dialects and keep their culture and traditions. With time, however, they would become thoroughly integrated economically and culturally into the larger society. In any case, Italian immigration to southern Brazil was very important to the economic development and the culture of the region.\n\nSoutheastern Brazil", "Some of the immigrants settled in the colonies in Southern Brazil. However, most of them settled in Southeastern Brazil (mainly in the State of São Paulo). At first, the government was responsible for bringing the immigrants (in most cases, paying for their transportation by ship), but later, the farmers were responsible for making contracts with immigrants or specialized companies in recruiting Italian workers", ". Many posters were spread in Italy, with pictures of Brazil, selling the idea that everybody could become rich there by working with coffee, which was called by the Italian immigrants the green gold. Most coffee plantations were in the States of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, and in a smaller proportion also in the States of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro.", "Rio de Janeiro was declining in the 19th century as a farming producer, and São Paulo had already taken the lead as a coffee producer/exporter in the early 20th century, as well as big producer of sugar and other important crops. Thus, migrants were naturally more attracted to the State of São Paulo and the southern states.", "Italians migrated to Brazil as families. The colono, as a rural immigrant was called, had to sign a contract with the farmer to work in the coffee plantation for a minimum period of time. However, the situation was not easy. Many Brazilian farmers were used to command slaves and treated the immigrants as indentured servants.", "In Southern Brazil, the Italian immigrants were living in relatively well-developed colonies, but in Southeastern Brazil they were living in semislavery conditions in the coffee plantations. Many rebellions against Brazilian farmers occurred, and public denouncements caused great commotion in Italy, forcing the Italian government to issue the Prinetti Decree, which established barriers to immigration to Brazil.\n\nIn 1901, 90% of industrial workers and 80% of construction workers in São Paulo were Italians.", "In 1901, 90% of industrial workers and 80% of construction workers in São Paulo were Italians.\n\nSão Carlos and Ribeirão Preto were two of the main coffee plantation centers. Both were respectively in the North-Central and Northeastern regions of São Paulo state, a zone known by its hot temperature and a fertile soil in which some of the richest coffee farms were and attracted most immigrants arriving in São Paulo, including Italians, between 1901 and 1940.", "Other parts of Brazil\nIn the State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Italian descendants are 5% of the population.\n\nDecline of Italian immigration", "Decline of Italian immigration\n\nIn 1902, the Italian immigration to Brazil started to decline. From 1903 to 1920, only 306,652 Italians immigrated to Brazil, compared to 953,453 to Argentina and 3,581,322 to the United States. This was mainly due to the Prinetti Decree in Italy, banning subsidized immigration to Brazil. The Prinetti Decree was issued because of the commotion in the Italian press about the poverty faced by most Italians in Brazil.", "The end of slavery made most former slaves left the plantations and so there was a labour shortage on coffee plantations. Moreover, \"natural inequality of human beings\", \"hierarchy of races\", Social Darwinism, Positivism and other theories were used to explain that the European workers were superior to the native workers. In consequence, passages were offered to Europeans (the so-called \"subsidized immigration\"), mostly to Italians, so that they could come to Brazil and work on the plantations.", "Those immigrants were employed in enormous latifundia (large-scale farms), formerly employing slaves. In Brazil, there were no labour laws (the first concrete labour laws appeared only in the 1930s, under President Getúlio Vargas) and so workers had almost no legal protection. Contracts signed by the immigrants could easily be violated by the Brazilian landowners who were accustomed to dealing with African slaves.", "The remnants of slavery influenced on how Brazilian landowners dealt with Italian workers: immigrants were often monitored, with extensive hours of work. In some cases, they were obliged to buy products that they needed from the landowner. Moreover, the coffee farms were located in rather isolated regions. If the immigrants became sick, they would take hours to reach the nearest hospital.", "The structure of labor used on farms included the labor of Italian women and children. Keeping their Italian culture was also made more difficult: the Catholic churches and Italian cultural centers were far from farms. The immigrants who did not accept the standards imposed by landowners were replaced by other immigrants. That forced them to accept the impositions of landowners, or they would have to leave their lands", ". That forced them to accept the impositions of landowners, or they would have to leave their lands. Even though Italians were considered to be \"superior\" to blacks by Brazilian landowners, the situation faced by Italians in Brazil was so similar to that of the slaves that farmers called them escravos brancos (white slaves in Portuguese).", "The destitution faced by Italians and other immigrants in Brazil caused great commotion in the Italian press, which culminated in the Prinetti Decree in 1902. Many immigrants left Brazil after their experience on São Paulo's coffee farms. Between 1882 and 1914, 1.5 million immigrants of different nationalities came to São Paulo, and 695,000 left the state, or 45% of the total", ". The high numbers of Italians asking the Italian consulate a passage to leave Brazil was so significant that in 1907, most Italian funds for repatriation were used in Brazil. It is estimated that, between 1890 and 1904, 223,031 (14,869 annually) Italians left Brazil, mainly after failed experiences on coffee farms. Most of the Italians who left the country were unable to add the money they wanted. Most returned to Italy, but others remigrated to Argentina, Uruguay or to the United States.", "The output of immigrants concerned Brazilian landowners, who constantly complained about the lack of workers. Spanish immigrants began arriving in greater numbers, but soon, Spain also started to create barriers for further immigration of Spaniards to coffee farms in Brazil. The continuing problem of lack of labor in the farms was, then, temporarily resolved with the arrival of Japanese immigrants, from 1908.", "Despite the high numbers of immigrants leaving the country, most Italians remained in Brazil. Most of the immigrants remained only one year working on coffee farms and then left the plantations. A few earned enough money to buy their own lands and became farmers themselves. However, most migrated to Brazilian cities. Many Italians worked in factories (in 1901, 81% of the São Paulo's factory workers were Italians). In Rio de Janeiro, many the factory workers were Italians", ". In Rio de Janeiro, many the factory workers were Italians. In São Paulo, those workers established themselves in the center of the city, living in cortiços (degraded multifamily row houses). The agglomerations of Italians in cities gave birth to typically Italian neighborhoods, such as Mooca, which is until today linked to its Italian past. Other Italians became traders, mostly itinerant traders, selling their products in different regions.", "A common presence on the streets of São Paulo were the Italian boys working as newspaper boys, as an Italian traveler observed: \"In the crowd, we can see many Italian boys, shabby and barefoot, selling the newspapers from the city and from Rio de Janeiro, bothering the passersby with their offerings and their shouting of street roguish.\"", "Despite the poverty and even semi-slavery conditions faced by many Italians in Brazil, most of the population achieved some personal success and changed their lower-class situation. Even though most of the first generation of immigrants still lived in poverty, their children, born in Brazil, often changed their social status as they diversified their field of work, leaving the poor conditions of their parents and often becoming part of the local elite.", "Assimilation", "Except for some isolated cases of violence between Brazilians and Italians, especially between 1892 and 1896, integration in Brazil was quick and peaceful. For Italians in São Paulo, scholars suggest that assimilation occurred within two generations. Research suggests that even first-generation immigrants born in Italy soon became assimilated in the new country", ". Even in Southern Brazil, where most of the Italians were living in isolated rural communities, with little contact with Brazilians, which kept the Italian patriarchal family structure, and therefore the father chose the wife or husband for their children, giving preference to Italians, assimilation was also quick.", "According to the 1940 census in Rio Grande do Sul, 393,934 people reported to speak German as their first language (11.86% of the state's population). In comparison, 295,995 reported to speak Italian, mostly dialects (8.91% of the state's population). Even though Italian immigration was larger and more recent than German immigration, the Italian group tended to be more easily assimilated due to the Latin cultural link", ". In the 1950 Census, the number of people in Rio Grande do Sul who reported to speak Italian dropped to 190,376.", "In São Paulo, where more Italians settled, in the 1940 census 28,910 Italian-born people reported to speak Italian at home (only 13.6% of the state's Italian population). In comparison, 49.1% of the immigrants of other nationalities reported to keep speaking their native languages at home (with the exception of Portuguese). Thus, the prohibition of speaking Italian, German, and Japanese during World War II was not so serious to the Italian community as it was to the other two groups.", "A major measure of the government occurred in 1889, when Brazilian citizenship was granted to all immigrants, but the act had little influence on their identity or assimilation process. Both the Italian newspapers in Brazil and the Italian government were uncomfortable with the assimilation of Italians in the country, which occurred mostly after the Great Naturalization period. Italian institutions encouraged the entry of Italians in Brazilian politics, but the presence of immigrants was initially small", ". Italian dialects came to dominate the streets of São Paulo and in some Southern localities. Over time, languages based on Italian dialects tended to disappear, and their presence is now small.", "At first, especially in rural Southern Brazil, Italians tended to marry only other Italians. Over time and with the decrease of more immigrants arriving, in Southern Brazil they started to integrate themselves with Brazilians. About Italians in Santa Catarina, the Italian consul asserted:", "There is little information about this trend, but it was noticed a large process of integration since World War I. However, some more closed members of the Italian community saw this integration process as negative. Brazilian Indians were often treated as wild people, and conflicts between Italians and Indians for the occupation of lands in Southern Brazil were common.\n\nProsperity", "Prosperity\n\nHistorically, Italians have been divided into two groups in Brazil. Those in Southern Brazil lived in rural colonies in contact with mostly other people of Italian descent. However, those in Southeast Brazil, the most populated region of the country, integrated into Brazilian society quite quickly.", "After some years working in coffee plantations, some immigrants earned enough money to buy their own land and become farmers themselves. Others left the rural areas and moved to cities, mainly São Paulo, Campinas, São Carlos and Ribeirão Preto. A very few became very rich in the process and attracted more Italian immigrants. In the early 20th century, São Paulo became known as the City of the Italians, because 31% of its inhabitants were of Italian nationality in 1900", ". The city of São Paulo had the second-highest population of people with Italian ancestry in the world at this time, after only Rome. In Campinas, street signs in Italian were common, a large commercial and services sector owned by Italian Brazilians developed, and more than 60% of the population had Italian surnames.", "Italian immigrants were very important to the development of many big cities in Brazil, such as São Paulo, Porto Alegre, Curitiba and Belo Horizonte. Bad conditions in rural areas made thousands of Italians move there. Most of them became laborers and participated actively in the industrialization of Brazil in the early 20th century", ". Others became investors, bankers and industrialists, such as Count Matarazzo, whose family became the richest industrialists in São Paulo byholding of more than 200 industries and businesses. In Rio Grande do Sul, 42% of the industrial companies have Italians roots.", "Italians and their descendants were also quick to organize themselves and establish mutual aid societies (such as the Circolo Italiano), hospitals, schools (such as the Istituto Colégio Dante Alighieri, in São Paulo), labor unions, newspapers as Il Piccolo from Mooca and Fanfulla (for the whole city of São Paulo), magazines, radio stations and association football teams such as: Clube Atlético Votorantim, the old Sport Club Savóia from Sorocaba", ", the old Sport Club Savóia from Sorocaba, Clube Atlético Juventus of Italians Brazilians from Mooca (old worker quarter from city of São Paulo), Esporte Clube Juventude and the great clubs (which had the same name) Palestra Italia, later renamed to Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras in São Paulo and Cruzeiro Esporte Clube in Belo Horizonte", ".", "Characteristics of Italian immigration in Brazil\n\nAreas of origin", "Most of the Italian immigrants to Brazil came from Northern Italy; however, they were not distributed homogeneously among the extensive Brazilian regions. In the State of São Paulo, the Italian community was more diverse including a large number of people from the South and the Center of Italy. Even today, 42% of the Italians in Brazil came from Northern Italy, 36% from Central Italy regions, and only 22% from Southern Italy", ". Brazil is the only American country with a large Italian community in which Southern Italian immigrants are a minority.", "In the first decades, the vast majority of the immigrants came from the North. Since Southern Brazil received most of the early settlers, the vast majority of its immigrants came from the extreme North of Italy, mainly from Veneto and particularly from the provinces of Vicenza (32%), Belluno (30%) and Treviso (24%). In Rio Grande do Sul, many came from Cremona, Mantua, from parts of Brescia, and also from Bergamo, in the region of Lombardy, close to Veneto", ". The regions of Trentino and of Friuli-Venezia Giulia also sent many immigrants to the South of Brazil. Of the immigrants in Rio Grande do Sul, 54% came from the Veneto, 33% from Lombardy, 7% from Trentino, 4.5% from Friuli-Venezia Giulia and only 1.5% from other parts of Italy.", "From the early 20th century, the agrarian crisis started to affect Southern Italy as well, and many people immigrated to Brazil, mostly to the state of São Paulo, since it needed workers to embrace the coffee plantations. The Italian immigrants in São Paulo came from mostly Veneto, Calabria, Campania", ". The Italian immigrants in São Paulo came from mostly Veneto, Calabria, Campania. After the end of World War II, a small number of Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians emigrated to Brazil during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus, leaving their homelands, which were lost to Italy and annexed to Yugoslavia after the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947.", "Italian influences in Brazil\n\nLanguage\n\nMost Brazilians with Italian ancestry now speak Brazilian Portuguese as their native language. During World War II, the public use of Italian, German, and Japanese was forbidden.", "Italian dialects have influenced the Portuguese spoken in some areas of Brazil. Italian was so widespread in São Paulo that the Portuguese traveler Sousa Pinto said that he could not speak with cart drivers in Portuguese because they all spoke Italian dialects and gesticulated as Neapolitans.", "The Italian influence on Portuguese spoken in São Paulo is no longer as great as before, but the accent of the city's inhabitants still has some traces of the Italian accents common in the beginning of the 20th century like the intonation and such expressions as Belo, Ma vá!, Orra meu! and Tá entendendo?. Other characteristic is the difficulty to speak Portuguese in plural, saying plural words as they were singulars", ". The lexical influence of Italian on Brazilian Portuguese, however, has remained quite small.", "A similar phenomenon occurred in the countryside of Rio Grande do Sul but encompassing almost exclusively those of Italian origin. On the other hand, is a different phenomenon: Talian, which emerged mostly in the northeastern part of the state (Serra Gaúcha). Talian is a variant of the Venetian language with influences from other Italian dialects and Portuguese", ". In Southern Brazilian rural areas marked by bilingualism, even among the monolingual Portuguese-speaking population, the Italian-influenced accent is fairly typical.", "Music\nThe Italian influence in Brazil affects also music with traditional Italian songs and the merging with other Brazilians music styles. One of the main results of the fusion is samba paulista, a samba with strong Italians influence.\n\nSamba paulista was created by Adoniran Barbosa (born João Rubinato), the son of Italians immigrants. His songs translated the life of the Italian neighborhoods in São Paulo and merged São Paulo dialect with samba, which latter made him known as the \"people's poet.\"", "One of the main example is Samba Italiano, which that has a Brazilian rhythm and theme but (mostly) Italian lyrics. Below, the lyrics of this song have the parts in (mangled) Portuguese in bold and the parts in Italian in a normal font:\n\nSt. Vito Festival", "St. Vito Festival is one of the most important Italian festivals in São Paulo and celebrates Saint Vito, a Christian martyr who was killed in June 303 AD who is the patron saint of Polignano a Mare, a city in the Apulia region of Southern Italy. Italian immigrants from Apulia moved in great numbers to the Brás neighborhood of São Paulo in the late 19th century, bringing with them a devotion to Saint Vito", ". The festival is also a time when the Italian community in São Paulo gathers to party and eat traditional food. Other important Italian celebrations in São Paulo are Our Lady of Casaluce, also in Brás (in May), Our Lady of Achiropita, in Bela Vista (August), and St. Gennaro, in Mooca (September).", "Just like Polignano a Mare, Brás eventually had a church devoted to St. Vito. An association was formed and hosted the first festival in June 1919. As São Paulo grew, so did the Italian community and St. Vito Festival. An estimated 140,000 people were expected to attend the festival in 2008.\n\nCuisine", "Cuisine\n\nItalians brought new recipes and types of food to Brazil and also helped in the development of the cuisine of Brazil. Italian staple dishes like pizza and pasta are very common and popular in Brazil. Pasta is extremely common, either simple unadorned pasta with butter or oil or accompanied by a tomato- or bechamel-based sauce.", "Aside from the typical Italian cuisine like pizza, pasta, risotto, panettone, milanesa, polenta, calzone, and ossobuco, Italians helped to create new dishes that today are typically considered Brazilian", ". Galeto (from the Italian galletto, little rooster), frango com polenta (chicken with fried polenta), Bife à parmegiana (a steak prepared with Parmigiano-Reggiano), Mortadella sandwich (a sandwich made of mortadella sausage, Provolone cheese, sourdough bread, mayonnaise and Dijon mustard), Catupiry cheese, new types of sausage like linguiça Calabresa and linguiça Toscana (literally Calabrian and Tuscan sausage)", ", chocotone (panettone with chocolate chips) and many other recipes were created or influenced by the Italian community", ".", "The nhoque de 29 (\"gnocchi of 29\") defines the widespread custom in some South American countries of eating a plate of gnocchi, a type of Italian pasta, on the 29th of each month. The custom is widespread especially in the states of the Southern Cone such as Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay; these countries being recipients of a considerable Italian immigration between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century", ". There is a ritual that accompanies lunch with gnocchi, namely putting money under the plate which symbolizes the desire for new gifts. It is also customary to leave a banknote or coin under the plate to attract luck and prosperity to the dinner.", "The tradition of serving gnocchi on the 29th of each month stems from a legend based on the story of Saint Pantaleon, a young doctor from Nicomedia who, after converting to Christianity, made a pilgrimage through northern Italy. There Pantaleon practiced miraculous cures for which he was canonized. According to legend, on one occasion when he asked Venetian peasants for bread, they invited him to share their poor table. In gratitude, Pantaleon announced a year of excellent fishing and excellent harvests", ". In gratitude, Pantaleon announced a year of excellent fishing and excellent harvests. That episode occurred on 29 July, and for this reason that day is remembered with a simple meal represented by gnocchi.", "Other influences\n\n Use of ciao (\"tchau\" in Brazilian-Portuguese) as a 'goodbye' salutation (all of Brazil)\n Wine production (in the South)\n 218 loanwords (italianisms), such as agnolotti, rigatoni, sugo as regards gastronomy, ambasciata, cittadella, finta as regards sport, lotteria, tombola as regards games, raviolatrice, vasca as regards technology and stiva as regards the navy.\n Early introduction of more advanced low-scale farming techniques (Minas Gerais, São Paulo and all Southern Brazil)", "Education\nItalian international schools in Brazil:\n Scuola Italiana Eugenio Montale - São Paulo\n Istituto Italo-Brasiliano Biculturale Fondazione Torino - Belo Horizonte\n\nCurrent Italian emigration in Brazil\nIn 2019, 11,663 people with Italian nationality emigrated from Italy to Brazil according to the Italian World Report 2019, totaling 447,067 Italian citizens living in Brazil until 2019.", "See also\nBrazil–Italy relations\nItalian Americans\nItalian Argentines\nItalian Australians\nItalian Canadians\nItalian Chileans\nItalian Colombians\nItalian Peruvians\nItalian Uruguayans\nItalo-Venezuelans\nItalian diaspora\nItalian immigration in Minas Gerais\nDemography of Brazil\nWhite Brazilians\nWhite Latin Americans\nList of Portuguese words of Italian origin\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "Bertonha, João Fábio. Os italianos. Editora Contexto. São Paulo, 2005 \n Cenni, Franco. Os italianos no Brasil. EDUSP. São Paulo, 2003 \n Clemente, Elvo (et al.). Italianos no Brasil: contribuições na literatura e nas ciências, séculos XIX e XX EDIPUCRS. Porto Alegre, 1999 \n Franzina, Emilio. Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. Donzelli Editore. Roma, 2002 \n Favero, Luigi y Tassello, Graziano. Cent'anni di emigrazione italiana (1876–1976). Cser. Roma, 1978", "Trento, Ângelo. Do outro lado do Atlântico. Studio Nobel. São Paulo, 1988", "External links\n\noriundi.net, a site for descendants from Italians in Brazil\nItalianisms in Brazilian Portuguese (In Italian)\n\nItalian Brazilian" ]

[ "Social cues are verbal or non-verbal signals expressed through the face, body, voice, motion (and more) and guide conversations as well as other social interactions by influencing our impressions of and responses to others. These percepts are important communicative tools as they convey important social and contextual information and therefore facilitate social understanding.\n\nA few examples of social cues include:\n\neye gaze\nfacial expression\nvocal tone\nbody language", "Social cues are part of social cognition and serve several purposes in navigating the social world. Due to their social nature, humans rely heavily on the ability to understand other peoples' mental states and make predictions about their behaviour. Especially in the view of evolution, this ability is critical in helping to determine potential threats and advantageous opportunities; and in helping to form and maintain relationships in order to fulfill safety and basic physiological needs", ". These cues allow us to predict other people's meanings and intentions in order to be able to respond in an efficient and adaptive manner, as well as to anticipate how others might respond to one's own choices. For instance, people were found to behave more prosocially in economic games when being watched which indicates potential reputational risk (see also watching eye effect).", "The ability to perceive social signals and integrate them into judgements about others' intentional mental states (e.g. beliefs, desires, emotions, knowledge) is often referred to as theory of mind or mentalization, and is evident from about 18 months of age.", "Processing and decoding social cues is an important part of everyday human interaction (e.g. turn-taking in conversation), and therefore a critical skill for communication and social understanding. Taking into account other people's internal states such as thoughts or emotions is a critical part of forming and maintaining relationships", ". The social monitoring system attunes individuals to external information regarding social approval and disapproval by increasing interpersonal sensitivity, the \"attention to and accuracy in decoding interpersonal social cues\" relevant to gaining inclusion. Being able to accurately detect both positive and negative cues allows one to behave adaptively and avoid future rejection, which therefore produces greater social inclusion. High need for social inclusion due to situational events (e.g", ". High need for social inclusion due to situational events (e.g. rejection) activates higher social monitoring; and individuals that generally experience greater belonging needs are associated with greater interpersonal sensitivity. However, this mechanism should not be confused with rejection sensitivity—a bias that decodes ambiguous social cues as signs of rejection.", "Under-developed awareness of social cues can make interaction in social situations challenging. There are various mental disorders (e.g. schizophrenia) that impair this ability, and therefore make effective communication as well as forming relationships with others difficult for the affected person. Additionally, research shows that older adults have difficulties in extracting and decoding social cues from the environment, especially those about human agency and intentionality", ". Children rely more on social cues than adults as children use them in order to comprehend and learn about their surroundings.", "Examples of social cues\n\nNonverbal cues", "Facial cues", "Facial expressions are signals that we make by moving our facial muscles on our face. Facial expressions generally signify an emotional state, and each emotional state and/or state of mind has a specific facial expression, many of which are universally used around the world. Without seeing someone's facial expression, one would not be able to see if the other person is crying, happy, angry, etc", ". Furthermore, facial expressions enable us to further comprehend what is going on during situations that are very difficult or confusing.", "Facial cues do not only refer to explicit expressions but also include facial appearance. There is a wealth of information that people gather simply from a person's face in the blink of an eye, such as gender, emotion, physical attractiveness, competence, threat level and trustworthiness. One of the most highly developed skills that humans have is facial perception. The face is one of the greatest representations of a person", ". The face is one of the greatest representations of a person. A person's face allows others to gain information about that person, which is helpful when it comes to social interaction. The fusiform face area of the human brain plays a large role in face perception and recognition; however, it does not provide useful information for processing emotion recognition, emotional tone, shared attention, impulsive activation of person knowledge and trait implications based on facial appearance.", "The fallacy of making inferences about people's personality traits from their facial appearance is referred to as overgeneralization effect. For instance, baby face overgeneralization produces the biased perception that people whose facial features resemble those of children have childlike traits (e.g. weakness, honesty, need to be protected); and an attractive face leads to judgements tied to positive personality traits such as social competency, intelligence, and health", ". It is mainly facial features which resemble low fitness (anomalous face overgeneralization), age (baby face overgeneralization), emotion (emotion face overgeneralization) or a particular identity (familiar face overgeneralization) that affect impression formation; and even a trace of these qualities can lead to such a response. These effects are prevalent in spite of a general awareness that those impressions most likely do not represent a person's true character.", "An important tool for communication in social interactions are the eyes. Gaze cues are the most informative social stimulus as they are able to convey basic emotions (e.g. sadness, fear) and reveal a lot about a person's social attention. Infants that are already 12 months old respond to the gaze of adults, which indicates that the eyes are an important way to communicate, even before spoken language is developed", ". Eye gaze direction conveys a person's social attention; and eye contact can guide and capture attention as well as act as a signal of attraction. People must detect and orient to people's eyes in order to utilize and follow gaze cues. Real-world examples show the degree to which we seek and follow gaze cues may change contingent on how close the standard is to a real social interaction. People may use gaze following because they want to avoid social interactions", ". People may use gaze following because they want to avoid social interactions. Past experiments have found that eye contact was more likely to occur when a speaker's face was available, for longer periods of real-world time. Individuals use gaze following and seeking to provide information for gaze cuing when information is not provided in a verbal manner. However, people do not seek gaze cues when they are not provided or when spoken instructions contain all of the relevant information.", "Motion cues \n\nBody language and body posture are other social cues that we use to interpret how someone else is feeling. Other than facial expressions, body language and posture are the main non-verbal social cues that we use. For instance, body language can be used to establish personal space, which is the amount of space needed for oneself in order to be comfortable. Taking a step back can therefore be a social cue indicating a violation of personal space.", "People pay attention to motion cues even with other visual cues (e.g. facial expression) present. Already brief displays of body motion can influence social judgements or inferences regarding a person's personality, mating behaviour, and attractiveness. For example, a high amplitude of motion might indicate extraversion and vertical movements might form an impression of aggression.", "Gestures are specific motions that one makes with the hands in order to further communicate a message. Certain gestures such as pointing gestures, can help direct people's focus to what is going on around them that is important. Not only does using gestures help the speaker to better process what they are saying, but it also helps the listener to better comprehend what the speaker is saying.", "Mechanisms", "Recent work done in the field studying social cues has found that perception of social cues is best defined as the combination of multiple cues and processing streams, also referred to as cue integration. Stimuli are processed through experience sharing and mentalizing and the likelihood of the other person's internal state is inferred by the Bayesian logic", ". Experience sharing is a person's tendency to take on another person's facial expressions, posture and internal state and is often related to the area of empathy. A stimulus that is perceptually salient can cause a person to automatically use a bottom-up approach or cognitive top-down intentions or goals. This causes one to move in a controlled and calculated manner. A peripheral cue is used to measure spatial cuing, which does not give away information about a target's location", ". Naturally, only the most relevant contextual cues are processed and this occurs extremely fast (approx. 100-200 milliseconds). This type of fast, automating processing is often referred to as intuition and allows us to integrate complex multi-dimensional cues and generate suitable behaviour in real time.", "Cognitive learning models illustrate how people connect cues with certain outcomes or responses. Learning can strengthen associations between predictive cues and outcomes and weaken the link between nondescriptive cues and outcomes. Two aspects of the EXIT model learning phenomena have been focused on by Collins et al. The first is blocking which happens when a new cue is introduced with a cue that already has meaning", ". The second is highlighting which happens when an individual pays close attention to a cue that will change the meaning of a cue that they already know. When a new cue is added along with a previous one it is said that individuals only focus on the new cue to gain a better understanding as to what is going on.", "Brain regions involved in processing \nBenjamin Straube, Antonia Green, Andreas Jansen, Anjan Chatterjee, and Tilo Kircher found that social cues influence the neural processing of speech-gesture utterances. Past studies have focused on mentalizing as being a part of perception of social cues and it is believed that this process relies on the neural system, which consists of:\n\n paracingulate cortex\ntemporal poles\nsuperior temporal sulcus.", "When people focus on things in a social context, the medial prefrontal cortex and precuneus areas of the brain are activated, however when people focus on a non-social context there is no activation of these areas. Straube et al. hypothesized that the areas of the brain involved in mental processes were mainly responsible for social cue processing", ". It is believed that when iconic gestures are involved, the left temporal and occipital regions would be activated and when emblematic gestures were involved the temporal poles would be activated. When it came to abstract speech and gestures, the left frontal gyrus would be activated according to Straube et al. After conducting an experiment on how body position, speech and gestures affected activation in different areas of the brain Straube et al. came to the following conclusions:", "When a person is facing someone head on the occipital, inferior frontal, medial frontal, right anterior temporal and left hemispheric parietal cortex were activated.\n When participants watched an actor who was delivering a speech talking about another person an extended network of bilateral temporal and frontal regions were activated.", "When participants watched an actor who talked about objects and made iconic gestures the occipito-temporal and parietal brain areas were activated. The conclusion that Straube et al. reached was that speech-gesture information is effected by context-dependent social cues.", "The amygdala, fusiform gyrus, insula, and superior and middle temporal regions have been identified as areas in the brain that play a role in visual emotional cues. It was found that there was greater activation in the bilateral anterior superior temporal gyrus and bilateral fusiform gyrus when it came to emotional stimuli. The amygdala has been connected with the automatic evaluation of threat, facial valence information, and trustworthiness of faces.", "When it comes to visual cues, individuals follow the gaze of others to find out what they are looking at. It has been found that this response is evolutionarily adaptive due to the fact that it can alert others to happenings in the environment. Almost 50% of the time, peripheral cues have a hard time finding the location of a target. Studies have shown that directed gaze impacts attentional orienting in a seemingly automatic manner", ". Part of the brain that is involved when another person averts their gaze is also a part of attentional orienting. Past researchers have found that arrow cues are linked to the fronto-parietal areas, whereas arrow and gaze cues were linked to occipito-temporal areas. Therefore, gaze cues may indeed rely on automatic processes more than arrow cues. The importance of eye gaze has increased in importance throughout the evolutionary time period.", "Higher level visual regions, such as the fusiform gyrus, extrastriate cortex and superior temporal sulcus (STS) are the areas of the brain which studies have found to link to perceptual processing of social/biological stimuli. Behavioral studies have found that the right hemisphere is highly connected with the processing of left visual field advantage for face and gaze stimuli. Researchers believe the right STS is also involved in using gaze to understand the intentions of others", ". While looking at social and nonsocial cues, it has been found that a high level of activity has been found in the bilateral extrastriate cortices in regards to gaze cues versus peripheral cues. There was a study done on two people with split-brain, in order to study each hemisphere to see what their involvement is in gaze cuing. Results suggest that gaze cues show a strong effect with the facial recognition hemisphere of the brain, compared to nonsocial cues", ". The results of Greene and Zaidel's study suggest that in relation to visual fields, information is processed independently and that the right hemisphere shows greater orienting.", "Pertaining to emotional expression the superior temporal cortex has been shown to be active during studies focusing on facial perception. However, when it comes to face identity the inferior temporal and fusiform cortex is active. During facial processing the amygdala and fusiform gyrus show a strong functional connection. Face identification can be impaired if there is damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)", ". Face identification can be impaired if there is damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). The amygdala is active during facial expressions and it improves long-term memory for long term emotional stimuli. It has also been found that there are face response neurons in the amygdala. The connection between the amygdala, OFC, and other medial temporal lobe structures suggest that they play an important role in working memory for social cues", ". Systems which are critical in perceptually identifying and processing emotion and identity need to cooperate in order to maintain maintenance of social cues.", "In order to monitor changing facial expressions of individuals, the hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex may be a crucial part in guiding critical real-world social behavior in social gatherings. The hippocampus may well be a part of using social cues to understand numerous appearances of the same person over short delay periods", ". The orbitofrontal cortex being important in the processing of social cues leads researchers to believe that it works with the hippocampus to create, maintain, and retrieve corresponding representations of the same individual seen with multiple facial expressions in working memory", ". After coming across the same person multiple times with different social cues, the right lateral orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampus are more strongly employed and display a stronger functional connection when disambiguating each encounter with that individual. During an fMRI scan the lateral orbitofrontal cortex, hippocampus, fusiform gyrus bilaterally showed activation after meeting the same person again and having previously seen two different social cues", ". This would suggest that both of these brain areas help retrieve correct information about a person's last encounter with the person. The ability to separate the different encounters with different people seen with different social cues leads researchers to believe that it permits for suitable social interactions", ". Ross, LoPresti and Schon offer that the orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampus are a part of both working memory and long-term memory, which permits flexibility in encoding separate representations of an individual in the varying social contexts in which we encounter them.", "Oxytocin has been named \"the social hormone\". Research done on rats provide strong evidence that social contact enhances oxytocin levels in the brain which then sets the stage for social bonds. In recent years it has been found that inhaling oxytocin through the nasal passage increases trust toward strangers and increases a person's ability to perceive social cues. Activation of face-induced amygdala was found to be increased by oxytocin in women", ". Activation of face-induced amygdala was found to be increased by oxytocin in women. There have been findings that oxytocin increases occurrence of attention shifts to the eye region of a face which suggests that it alters the readiness of the brain to socially meaningful stimuli. Dopamine neuron from the ventral tegmental area codes the salience of social as well as nonsocial stimuli. Bartz et al", ". Bartz et al. found that the effects of oxytocin are person-dependent, meaning that every individual will be affected differently by oxytocin, especially those who have trouble in social situations. Research done by Groppe et al. supports that motivational salience of social cues is enhanced by oxytocin. Oxytocin has been found to increase cues that are socially relevant.", "Use of social cues during early childhood\nFrom a young age people are taught to use the social cues of others to gain insight about the world around them. There is also evidence that reliance on social cues is a naturally occurring tendency.", "Research has found that from birth, babies prefer infant directed speech over adult directed speech. At as young as 6 months old, babies prefer someone that has previously talked to them and who speaks their native language, over someone who speaks a foreign language. According to Guellai and Steri, at 9-weeks-old, babies fixate more on an adult's eye region when they are talking to them, than when they are silent and looking at them", ". Guellai and Steri concluded that at birth, babies are able to read two forms of social cues: eye gaze and voice.", "Children use social cues such as eye gaze and engaging facial expressions to understand adults' intentions while using different signs and symbols. Leekam, Soloman and Teoh hypothesized that children would pay more attention to a task if the adult had an engaging facial expression. They tested their hypothesis on 2 and 3 year olds using three signs: a pointer finger, a replica and an arrow. After their first experiment their hypothesis was supported", ". After their first experiment their hypothesis was supported. They found that young children understood the reasons behind the symbol or sign with the presence of an engaging face. However, when no face was visible, performance significantly declined. Leekam et al. state that it is understandable that children understood the significance of the pointing sign due to their familiarity with it; children can comprehend the reference of pointing as early as 12 months", ". The researchers came to the conclusion that it is easier for children to identify an action carried out by a bare hand, as early as 7 months, than to understand the intent behind an action of a gloved hand. An important social cue that helps children when it comes to the function of a sign or symbol is that of an engaging face. During the difficult and unfamiliar tasks of the study, children looked for social cues more.", "According to studies conducted on social referencing, infants use the emotional cues of others to guide their behavior. Vocal cues are seen as more effective because infants are used to vocal-only cues from their parents. This was shown in a visual cliff study conducted by Vaish and Striano where infants were left on the shallow end of a plexy glass cliff and mothers were on the other end. The mothers used either facial and vocal cues, facial cues only, or vocal cues only to beckon their child forward", ". The study showed that infants crossed over faster in response to vocal-only cues than facial-only cues. It is believed that the reason infants do this is because they are accustomed to vocal-only cues from their parents.", "In past studies, it has been found that infants use social cues to help them learn new words, especially when there are multiple objects present. Most studies have used two or more objects simultaneously to test if infants could learn if they paid attention to the cues presented. At 14 months old, infants followed an adult's gaze to an object, indicating that they believe that the eyes are important for looking. Head turning and gaze are other gazes that infants view as referential cues", ". Head turning and gaze are other gazes that infants view as referential cues. At around 18 months old, social cues become beneficial to infants, though they are not always useful. Young infants rely on attentional cues while older infants rely more on social cues to help them learn things. However, it was found that 12-month-old infants could not use cues such as eye gaze, touching, and handling to learn labels", ". Research shows that 15-month-old infants are sensitive to gaze direction directed by adults and are able to correctly use these cues to help with referent novel words.", "Even as toddlers, we gain social cues from others and determine how we should behave based upon these cues we receive from adults. Smith and LaFreniere mention recursive awareness of intentionality (RAI), which is the understanding of how the cues one provides will influence the beliefs and actions of those receiving them. RAI is absent in children under the age of 5, but develops during middle childhood", ". RAI is absent in children under the age of 5, but develops during middle childhood. They tested to see if children of ages 4, 6, and 8 were able to read the intentions of their partner in a game through both nonverbal hints and facial expressions. They found that 8-year-olds were better able to read their partner's cues and based their decisions off of those cues.", "In school\nIn the classroom there is a development of cues between the teacher and student. It seems that classrooms develop their own ways of talking and communicating information. Once a set of verbal and nonverbal behaviors takes place in a classroom on a consistent basis, it becomes a norm/set of rules within the classroom. The following cues are nonverbal indications that give way to certain norms in the classroom:\n pitch\n stress\n inflection", "Teachers and students develop a way of understanding the way each other thinks, believes, acts and perceives things. A teacher can use the gaze of their eyes and the position of their body to indicate where the student's attention should be held. Sometimes when students are stuck in a previous discussion or cannot determine an appropriate response to the current topic, it could mean that they did not correctly perceive the cues that the teacher was displaying", ". Both students and teachers must read the classroom cues to gather what is going on, if and how they are supposed to be doing something, and the reasoning underlying actions.", "Impairments in psychological disorders\nAccurately interpreting social cues is a vital part of normal social function. However, individuals with certain psychological disorders, including schizophrenia, social anxiety disorder, and ADHD, tend to have difficulties in interpreting and using these cues.\n\nSchizophrenia", "According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), schizophrenia is a psychological disorder, which has to include two out of the five symptoms listed below: \n delusions\n hallucinations \n disorganized speech \n grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior \n negative symptoms: affective flattening, alogia, or avolition", "Schizophrenic people find it hard to pick up on social cues. More specifically, people with schizophrenia are found to have deficits in emotional facial recognition, social knowledge, empathy, and non-verbal cues, and emotional processing. Most of these aspects are part of a category called social cognition. However, most tasks that are related to social cognition involve emotional processing, empathy, and social norms knowledge", ". When dealing with facial expression recognition, recent research has found that people with this disorder are unable to recognize facial expressions that exhibit negative emotions, including fear, sadness, anger, and disgust. As a result, Schizophrenic people have trouble comprehending situations that involve different types of empathy, especially situations that require empathy for pain.", "In addition, research has found that those with schizophrenia are more likely to make additional false positives when aspects of the task are more abstract. A false positive is made whenever a participant mistakenly believes that they observed a specific social cue in the vignette shown to them. Therefore, the social cue that they believe they saw happening in the video was nonexistent", ". Therefore, the social cue that they believe they saw happening in the video was nonexistent. To see whether someone is able to correctly identify both types of cues, researchers use the Social Cue Recognition Test (SCRT). When the task is defined as being too abstract, this means that it contains abstract cues, which are cues that can be inferred from a social setting. This would consist of actions and situations that contain affect, goals, and rules", ". This would consist of actions and situations that contain affect, goals, and rules. Thus, people with Schizophrenia have trouble making inferences about social situations and settings that deal with abstract aspects. On the other hand, schizophrenic people are better at identifying features that use concrete cues, which are cues that can be observed directly. The reason for this is because concrete clues are more apparent while abstract cues are more ambiguous.", "Autism Spectrum Disorder\n\nAutistic individuals often have trouble reading social cues correctly. Misreading social cues can lead to a person acting out, which can then result in negative interactions and social disapproval. Therefore, social cues are believed to be an important aspect of inclusion and comfort in personal, interpersonal and social environments.", "The DSM-V states that Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder involving persistent deficits in social communication as well as repetitive and restricted behaviors. These deficits must be clinically impairing and present since childhood.\n Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, as manifested by the following, currently or by history (must have all three):", "deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, ranging, for example, from abnormal social approach and failure of normal back-and-forth conversation; to reduced sharing of interests, emotions, or affect; to failure to initiate or respond to social interactions.", "deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction, ranging, for example, from poorly integrated verbal and nonverbal communication; to abnormalities in eye contact and body language or deficits in understanding and use of gestures; to a total lack of facial expressions and nonverbal communication.", "deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships, ranging, for example, from difficulties adjusting behavior to suit various social contexts; to difficulties in sharing imaginative play or in making friends; to absence of interest in peers.\n Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following, currently or by history (must have at least two out of four):", "stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech (e.g., simple motor stereotypes, lining up toys or flipping objects, echolalia, idiosyncratic phrases). \n insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behavior (e.g., extreme distress at small changes, difficulties with transitions, rigid thinking patterns, greeting rituals, need to take same route or eat same food every day).", "highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus (e.g., strong attachment to or preoccupation with unusual objects, excessively circumscribed or perseverative interests). \n hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects of the environment (e.g. apparent indifference to pain/temperature, adverse response to specific sounds or textures, excessive smelling or touching of objects, visual fascination with lights or movement).", "The main social cue impairments of those on the Autistic Spectrum include interpreting facial expressions, understanding body language, and deciphering gaze direction. All three of these cues are classified under the nonverbal communication category. However, research has found that Autistic children and Autistic adults have no difficulty in identifying human bodily movements or body language that is used in everyday and normal activities", ". The aspect that Autistic people have trouble with is more so the ability that is needed to verbally describe the emotions that are connected with these types of bodily movements.", "Children who are not Autistic learn to relate the body movements that they see with the emotions and mental states of others when they have face to face interactions with other children. Having face to face interactions with other people helps children increase their knowledge of what these body movements represent. After seeing these representations being used multiple times, children are then able to make inferences about the representations and the people making them", ". Thus, the children will be able to make assumptions about a person that they interact with in the future, since they already understand what body movements or body language represents.", "Social anxiety\nSocial anxiety disorder, also known as social phobia, is a disorder that the DSM identifies as someone who experiences some of the following: \n persistent fear of one or more social or performance related situations in which the person with the fear is exposed to people that are unfamiliar \n constantly fears that he or she will be humiliated, embarrassed, and/or criticized by those unfamiliar people", "when exposed to the feared situation, the person exhibits anxiety that may take the form of a panic attack, in children this could be crying out or a tantrum \n avoids the feared situation at all costs \n the avoidance of the feared situation causes one to be in distress which causes a significant interference with the person's normal routine, relationships, and functioning in either school or work", "People with Social Anxiety Disorder are found to be overly concerned with the disapproval and approval of others around them. Due to this obsession with what others think of them, people with this disorder tend to interact with few or no people at all. As a result, they do not get an appropriate amount of social interaction, which contributes to their deficit in interpreting emotions and facial expressions", ". More specifically, people with Social Anxiety disorder tend to have a negative bias towards both facial expressions and emotions, which leads them to interpret such cues that are normal and/or happy as being negative. Previous research has found that because people with this disorder tend to have a negative bias towards social cues, they take longer to process and comprehend social cues that represent happiness.", "ADHD\nADHD stands for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, which is a psychological disorder that most commonly exists in children and adults that also have learning disabilities.", "It has been found that children who have both ADHD and a learning disability also have trouble comprehending social cues, have poor social skills, have difficulty creating and/or maintaining friendships, and have trouble reacting to other people's thoughts and feelings. However, part of the reason that children with ADHD have deficits in the social realm is their lack of focus and self control, which obstructs their ability to properly interpret social cues.", "More specifically, people with ADHD tend to focus on too many cues, which disables them from interpreting which cues are more important. Because of this, certain social situations are especially hard for people with ADHD to interpret. One situation that would meet this criteria would be when someone is being deceptive towards them. The reason a deceptive situation would be harder for some with this disorder is because the social cues one gives off when being deceptive are very subtle", ". Since people with ADHD already have trouble interpreting social cues, subtle social cues would be even more difficult for someone with this disorder to comprehend and interpret.", "However, many studies have found that people with ADHD that take stimulants or prescribed medication for ADHD are better able to interpret which social cues are of the most importance. As a result, they are better at interacting and communicating with others, which then enables them to make and maintain better friendships or relationships.", "In Internet communication\nCommunication on the Internet is very different from communication with others face to face. McKenna and Bargh identified four main differences between face to face communication and communication that takes place on the internet.", "These four differences are: \n anonymity \n physical distance \n physical appearance \n time", "Anonymity is a major feature that internet communication can provide. Not only are you not able to see the face of the person that you are emailing or communicating with, but they are also not able to see your face. This can be a very positive feature for those that are socially anxious or have a social anxiety disorder because it eliminates the possibility of being publicly humiliated and/or embarrassed, which is something that most people who are socially anxious are very worried about", ". As a result, people with social anxiety are more inclined to open up, allowing them to get closer to and form more relationships with others.", "On the other hand, being anonymous can cause deindividuation, which is when one is no longer an individual, but rather just seen as being part of a group. In other words, it is when one can feel like they are just one person among a thousand others, and because of this, they are not as noticeable. This has been found to cause some people to behave more impulsively and have less self monitoring", ". This has been found to cause some people to behave more impulsively and have less self monitoring. This type of behavior and thinking can cause one to be more blunt and aggressive towards the people that they are communicating with. However, the blunt and aggressive responses can also be due to the fact that the person is not communicating with the other person face to face", ". However, others have suggested that whether or not the reduced availability of social cues results in negative behavior may depend upon the situation and the individual's goals.", "Unlike with face-to-face communication, physical distance and proximity are not barriers to communicating on the Internet. The Internet allows people from all over the world to come together and interact with each other. No matter what city or country one lives in, one is able to communicate or interact with anyone around the world who is also on the Internet. As a result, people are able to make friends and communicate with others that they normally would not have been able to due to physical distance", ". Furthermore, people are enabled to communicate and stay in contact with their family and friends that may live too far away to visit on a regular basis.", "As with physical distance, time is a feature that does not matter when one is communicating on the internet. For instance, people are able to communicate with others even if the person(s) they are communicating with is not online at the same moment. One way this is done is through the process of email. By communicating through email, one is able to send another person a message at any time. Using email also allows one to think about what they would like to say and edit one's response before sending it", ". Furthermore, when one receives an email, they do not have to respond right away; there is no time constraint on when one must respond.", "Along with proximity and time, physical appearance is another factor about the internet that is of no importance. People are unable to see the physical characteristics of the person or persons that they are interacting with on the internet. This sets the condition for the possibility for people to talk to others that they normally would not if they were seeing the person face-to-face. So, people can connect on a more meaningful level and create closer relationships, physical attraction notwithstanding", ". This is also considered to be a very positive aspect about the internet.", "A positive feature of the internet is that it hosts millions of different chat rooms and blogs that allow people to communicate with others who share the same interests and values. Not only does this enable people to find others who are similar to them, but it also allows people to find emotional support. However, the ability for people to connect with like-minded others online also has negative implications", ". One negative feature is that it allows people to come together and talk about subjects such as murder; and another is the organization of hate groups.", "The absence of certain social cues online can lead to more misunderstandings than if the communication was occurring face-to-face. For example, when reading an email, people are unable to hear the sender's voice or see the sender's facial expression; both voice and facial expressions are important social cues that allow one to understand how someone else is feeling, and without them, one can be more prone to misinterpret what someone is conveying in an email.\n\nReferences", "References\n\nExternal links\nLearning difficulties and social skills\n\nOral communication\nInterpersonal communication" ]

[ "Aeneas Francon Williams, FRSGS (17 February 1886 – 9 December 1971) was a Minister of the Church of Scotland, a Missionary, Chaplain, writer and a poet. Williams was a missionary in the Eastern Himalayas and China and writer of many published works.\n\nFamily", "Aeneas Francon Williams was born at 15 Leonard Street, Liscard, Wirral, Cheshire, the second son of four to John Francon Williams FRGS, and Barbara Balmain Dougall. Aeneas had three brothers, John Balmain, David Dougal Williams FRSA and George Stanley, and a sister, Margaret Mary Ann Williams. Aeneas was baptized at St. Peter's Church, Liverpool, on 20 July 1886. During Aeneas's formative years, he was educated privately", ". During Aeneas's formative years, he was educated privately. From 1900 to 1906, Aeneas attended the Technical Institute and Student Teacher Centre in Walthamstow, and from 1906 to 1908, he attended the University of Edinburgh and Moray House Training College. In 1932 Aeneas returned to Edinburgh, where he studied at the University of Edinburgh New College for a further two years.", "Aeneas's father, John Francon Williams, born in 1854 in the village of Llanllechid in Caernarvonshire, North Wales, was a published writer, newspaper editor, geographer, inventor, historian and cartographer. Aeneas's mother, Barbara, was born in Perthshire, Scotland.\nBy 1901, the Williams family was living at Queens Grove Road in the affluent area of Chingford, Essex, where, on the 1901 England and Wales Census, Aeneas aged 15, is recorded as being an artist and painter.\n\nMissionary work\n\nKalimpong", "At the age of twenty-four, Aeneas Williams attended the 1910 World Missionary Conference hosted at the Assembly Hall in Edinburgh from 14 to 23 June. The conference is a marker for the beginning of the modern Protestant Christian ecumenical movement. The Church of Scotland missionary John Anderson Graham appeared at the conference both as a guest speaker and as a member of the audience. He was also there to encourage donations to aid his mission St Andrew's Colonial Home in Kalimpong, West Bengal", ". The Protestant Christian Missionary community slogan drove the conference's spirit: 'The Evangelization of the World in this Generation.' Whether Aeneas attended one meeting, or several is undocumented, but during the event he got his calling to become a missionary. Later that same year, Aeneas arrived in India and was stationed in Kalimpong at St Andrew's Colonial Home (later renamed Dr. Graham's Homes) – an orphanage/school – where he was the assistant schoolmaster and taught Geography and Science", ". As the school expanded, Williams took on the role of Bursar. His official residence was Wolseley House in the grounds of the school. The house was named after Sir Capel Charles Wolseley, 9th Baronet, who was the secretary of the fund-raising delegation London Committee – a committee formed to solicit funds for Indian missions. The committee funded the building of St. George's Homes in Pulney Hills, Kodaikanal, founded by Rev", ". George's Homes in Pulney Hills, Kodaikanal, founded by Rev. John Breeden in 1914, which was based upon St Andrew's Colonial Homes, hence the connection. Breeden and Wolseley visited St. Andrew's Colonial Homes to draw up plans for St. George's Homes.", "Aeneas quickly settled into his life at St. Andrew's as a missionary and took on several other roles, including financial adviser to Dr. John Anderson Graham, and as a fundraiser for the children's home. Kalimpong was the centre of missionary activity in the region, with Darjeeling steadfastly remaining the political powerhouse. In Darjeeling, missionaries played a supporting role to the official political figures and aristocracy that governed the region", ". In Kalimpong that reversed, missionaries reigned supreme.", "On 2 December 1914, Aeneas and Clara Anne Rendall were married at Macfarlane Memorial Church in Kalimpong by Rev. Evan Mackenzie. Dr. John Anderson Graham officiated as best man and a witness at the ceremony. Clara (a true Orcadian) was born on 24 July 1887 in Kirkwall on the Orkney Islands and was also a Church of Scotland missionary and a teacher at St. Andrew's Colonial school.", "Aeneas was a keen sportsman and footballer and played outside forward (left-wing) in the Grahams' home football team. On 7 October 1916, Clara gave birth to twins, Alfred Francon and Beatrice Clara. Rev. John Anderson Graham baptized Alfred and Beatrice in Kalimpong on 19 November 1916. Aeneas and his growing family remained at St Andrew's Colonial Home until 1924.", "Williams’ first book, A Pronouncement of the Public Conscience, was published in 1921. At the beginning of January 1921, Aeneas, his wife, and their two young offspring (aged 4) sailed from Calcutta on board the (Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company Line) SS Soudan en route to the UK. The family arrived in the Port of London on 18 January from where they travelled up to Scotland. It was the first time the two young children Alfred and Beatrice, had visited Britain", ". It was the first time the two young children Alfred and Beatrice, had visited Britain. During the trip, Aeneas undertook a short fundraising tour in aid of St Andrew's Colonial Home in Kalimpong, during which he gave lantern shows with spoken commentary. His shows were performed on variety bills and in Church Halls. The photographic slides were projected upon a large screen and depicted life at St Andrew's Colonial Home, views of the Eastern Himalayas, and his experience as a missionary in India", ". One of Williams’ presentations was given at a variety concert at Elie in Fife held on 23 September at which Major-General Sir George Kenneth Scott-Moncrieff introduced the acts. Williams shared the bill with various vocal and instrumental performers, as well as a young dancer.", "Aeneas Francon Williams was elected a Fellow of The Royal Scottish Geographical Society (FRSGS) in 1921.", "The Williams family returned to Kalimpong from the U.K. in early 1922. In late March/early April 1922, St Andrew's Colonial Home played host to the first Mount Everest expedition. There had been a reconnaissance expedition the previous year, but the 1922 expedition was the first attempt to conquer the summit", ". The main team members were General Charles Granville Bruce, Edward Lisle Strutt, George Mallory, George Ingle Finch, Edward Felix Norton, Henry Treise Morshead, Howard Somervell, Arthur Wakefield, and the photographer and movie maker John Noel. Making up the rest of the team was a large group of Tibetan and Nepalese Sherpa's and porters who tendered the pace of donkey's laden with food and equipment", ". The party arrived by steam train at Kalimpong Road Station from where they trekked the short distance up the hillside to St Andrew's Colonial Home for three days relaxation. There was much excitement among the staff and children at St Andrew's, with football games, golf, and group evening sing-alongs taking place in the main school hall, with members of the expedition partaking in the activities", ". Aeneas, his wife Clara, and their two 6-year-old children were at the centre of the hospitality, with Wolseley House (among other houses in the school compound) providing temporary accommodation for the lead mountaineers. At the end of their stay, the expedition headed off to Phari Dzong and further on to Kampa Dzong, which they reached on 11 April. They arrived at Rongbuk Glacier base camp on 1 May. Alas, the expedition's attempt to ascent Everest turned out to be unsuccessful", ". Alas, the expedition's attempt to ascent Everest turned out to be unsuccessful. John Noel produced a movie of the expedition titled Climbing Mount Everest (1922). The film shows the team arriving on a steam train at Kalimpong Road Station and at St. Andrew's Colonial Home, although footage taken inside the school compound is not included in the movie. The 1922 expedition did establish a new world record climbing height of 8,326 metres (27,320 ft)", ". The 1922 expedition did establish a new world record climbing height of 8,326 metres (27,320 ft). The team's next attempt to conquer Everest took place in 1924. It was during this expedition that George Mallory and his companion Andrew Irvine made an attempt to reach the summit together but, at some point, died in a fall. However, until this day, it is still unsure whether or not the pair did reach the summit. Mallory's body was only retrieved in 1999; Irvine's body has never been found.", "In 1923, Sheldon Press published Aeneas Williams’ instructional hardback, Everyone's Book of the Weather. ‘A pleasant and instructive little book,’ said the Sheffield Daily Telegraph in their review of it. The Scotsman found it, ‘a readable, instructive, and usefully illustrated manual.’ Williams wrote the book in Kalimpong during his time working at St Andrew's Colonial Home", ". In the preface, he explains his reasons for writing it, and by doing so hopes the book will reach a wider readership than a book about weather might ordinarily do; ‘In these days of wireless reports, meteorological charts and forecasts, journeys by aeroplane or airship, scientific farming and plantation work and the like, interest in the weather is becoming more and more widespread, and a knowledge of atmospheric phenomena is useful as well as fascinating", ". The object of the present work is to present the facts of meteorology to the general reader in a popular form, and to show how observers equipped with quite simple instruments can find pleasure as well as profit in the study of weather conditions.’", "Two years later, Macmillan Publishers published Surveying for Everyone, another of Williams’ instructional hardbacks aimed at scholars.", "Yichang, China", "On 5 February 1924, Aeneas and Clara, with their two young children (aged seven), sailed from Calcutta aboard SS Hosang (Indo-China Steam Navigation Company) to Shanghai, China. Upon their arrival, they then caught a steamer and sailed 1,000 miles up the Yangtze River to the Church of Scotland (Training Institution) in Yichang (then romanized as \"Ichang\"). Here, Aeneas was Principal at the Anglo-Chinese College Mission in Ichang from 1924 to 1927", ". Here, Aeneas was Principal at the Anglo-Chinese College Mission in Ichang from 1924 to 1927. Alfred and Beatrice attended the private Redcroft School in the resort of Guling, where they boarded during the school terms. Aeneas and Clara immediately took Chinese language lessons, and both became fluent in Mandarin. The port of Yichang was one of four ports open to foreign trade, and the highest reached by steamers", ". The city of Yichang was situated right in the center of China, on a low promontory on the North bank of the Yangtze River. It was a prefectural city of considerable importance in the province of Hubei, and conveniently situated as a mart for the tea trade of Hoh-fung-chow. Opium was also grown in the district, as was the tung tree, from which tung oil is extracted", ". Opium was also grown in the district, as was the tung tree, from which tung oil is extracted. ‘The China Inland Mission possessed a number of unique features which set it apart from established missionary societies and gave it an intensity and, perhaps, a glamour, which other more conventional organisations must have envied.’ During his stay in China, Aeneas wrote the poem Voice of an Oracle (in Old China)", ".’ During his stay in China, Aeneas wrote the poem Voice of an Oracle (in Old China). In December 1926, Aeneas received a worrying letter from the Church of Scotland offices in Edinburgh talking of anxious happenings in Hankou and the possibility of a General Strike in China. In the House of Commons, the Foreign Secretary Austen Chamberlain intimated that the British Government was talking of taking immediate steps to protect U.K. nationals stationed in China", ".K. nationals stationed in China. The letter also mentioned that alternative arrangements had been made for the Williams' two 10-year-old children, Alfred and Beatrice. Soon after, Clara and her two children departed from China for their safety and sailed to the U.K. When Clara and her two children arrived back in the U.K., they travelled to Edinburgh, where they temporarily resided with Clara's brother in Leith", ".K., they travelled to Edinburgh, where they temporarily resided with Clara's brother in Leith. Due to the political instability in China and the uncertainty of whether Clara and her children could return, the two children attended school in Edinburgh, Alfred at George Watson's Boys’ College, Edinburgh, and Beatrice at George Watson's Ladies’ College, Edinburgh. Their first term commenced on 11 March 1927, and both children would continue their studies at the College until 26 July 1934", ". Also, in March 1927, due to growing civil unrest in Yichang and localised uprisings in the surrounding province, Aeneas was advised by the British Consulate to leave China for his own safety. Aeneas departed Shanghai on 4 April 1927 just before the Shanghai massacre occurred on 12 April 1927. From Shanghai, Aeneas sailed to British Columbia on missionary work, and then to Vancouver", ". From Shanghai, Aeneas sailed to British Columbia on missionary work, and then to Vancouver. In late April 1927, Aeneas sailed from the Port of Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada, on board the SS Montclare (Canadian Pacific Line). The ship arrived in Liverpool, England, on 1 May, from where he journeyed to Edinburgh to be reunited with his wife and two children who were now staying at 22 Queen Street, Edinburgh.", "In October 1927, while in the U.K., Aeneas was invited to attend the annual Church of Scotland Young Men's Guild Conference held in Kirkcaldy, Fife, over the weekend commencing Friday 21 October. The main objectives of the conference were to revive interest in the work of the Guild, and to demonstrate anew the value and usefulness of such an organization as auxiliary of Church life. Two halls were booked for the occasion, the Beveridge and Adam Smith Halls", ". Two halls were booked for the occasion, the Beveridge and Adam Smith Halls. On Friday evening, Aeneas gave a missionary address at the Beveridge Hall about his work in Kalimpong and Yichang. It was at the 1888 meeting of the Guild held in the town of Kirkcaldy that Dr. John Anderson Graham made the momentous decision and choice to establish a charitable school for destitute children in India, and was thus ordained as the first missionary supported by the Guild", ". It was with high regard that Aeneas had been invited to represent the now thriving St. Andrew's Colonial School and Homes in Kalimpong upon which honors from the Indian and British Governments’ had since poured. The Central Committee of Management of the Guild, headed by the chairman Rev. T.B. Stewart Thomson, had compiled an interesting program of events throughout the weekend", ". T.B. Stewart Thomson, had compiled an interesting program of events throughout the weekend. The conference opened with a civic reception by the Provost and Magistrates at the Beveridge Hall on the Friday, followed by a welcoming tea, after which Aeneas gave his missionary address at Beveridge Hall. The conference concluded on Sunday evening with a public meeting at the Adam Smith Hall with guest speakers the Right Hon. William Murdoch Adamson M.P. and the Very Rev Dr", ". William Murdoch Adamson M.P. and the Very Rev Dr. John White DD LLD, ex-Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.", "Mahakalguri, West Bengal", "In late 1927, Aeneas and Clara returned to India, and were stationed at Mahakalguri, Eastern Dooars (Duars). Here Aeneas took on the role of missionary Pastor. Their two children Alfred and Beatrice, remained in Edinburgh to continue their studies at George Watson's College", ". The Church of Scotland ran a children's home in the little country village of Duddingston, near Edinburgh, which was founded specifically for children of foreign missionaries, whose parents were unable to take their children abroad with them. The home was called Home House and run by Miss Paterson (a Deaconess of the Church of Scotland) and her sister Minnie. The two sisters were referred to as ‘Aunty’ by the children", ". The two sisters were referred to as ‘Aunty’ by the children. The house in Old Church Lane had a large rear garden and was close enough to Edinburgh for the children to attend school there, yet surrounded by the bracing fresh air of the open countryside. It was at Home House that Alfred and Beatrice boarded during part of their education at George Watson's College.", "In Jalpaiguri, on 16 January 1928, Aeneas and his wife, Clara, were appointed non-official visitors of the Alipur Duar Dub-Jail in the district of Jalpaiguri for a period of two years by the Commissioner of the Rajshahi Division.\nAlso in 1928, Aeneas was licensed by the Presbytery of Eastern Himalaya. In November of that same year he took his holy orders and was ordained by the Presbytery at Siliguri in North Bengal. The Presbytery of Edinburgh admitted Williams to the Church of Scotland on 28 May 1932.", "Matelli, West Bengal", "In 1929, Aeneas was stationed at the Church of Scotland Guild Mission in Matelli in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, where he was the Minister of the Jalpaiguri Parish. At the Mission compound in Matelli, Aeneas and Clara resided at the Manse. Through its schools – St. Ninian's 'Middle' school, St", ". Through its schools – St. Ninian's 'Middle' school, St. Margaret's 'High' school, and its boys and girls Day Schools in Calcutta, a boys school in Chinsura, and the Abbey School, and various primary schools in Budge Budge, and its College – the Church of Scotland Mission offered Christian education from the kindergarten to the University stage.", "In 1930, Hymn Book in Jalpaiguri Mech by Aeneas Francon Williams was published. The book was intended for the use of Christians of the Mech Tribes living at the foot of the Himalayas in the Jalpaiguri district. It was the first Hymn Book to be published in this regional dialect of Hindi.\nWhile Aeneas was living in Matelli, he owned a Cinchona (quinine) plantation.", "On 7 March 1930, Clara, being the only female along with two Babu's, was appointed under the provisions of rule 63(2), Chapter IV of the Bengal Jail Code, as a non-official visitor of the Alipur Duar Suli Jail in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal for two years. The appointment of the three non-official visitors was to help rehabilitate the inmates by helping to change the offender's values, motivations, and attitudes, so that they could become contributing members of society upon their release", ". The non-official visitors would visit the jail periodically and attend to the inmates' requests about their care and welfare. At the end of their visits, they would enter any observations about their time at the jail in the visitor's book. Clara had been a non-official visitor for the previous two years at the Alipur Duar Dub-Jail in the district of Jalpaiguri.", "In 1932, Williams visited Scotland, during which he supported as many church events and meetings as he could comfortably fit into his schedule. In late-September, Williams showed his support for the ‘Forward Movement’ campaign launched by West Lothian Churches. At the campaign, he gave a powerful speech detailing his all-absorbing work in India as a missionary. On 3 October, Williams attended the Young Men's Guild of the Linlithgow and Falkirk Council", ". On 3 October, Williams attended the Young Men's Guild of the Linlithgow and Falkirk Council. He addressed the large attendance with more stories of his work and adventures as a missionary in North Bengal. ‘Mr. Williams’ address brought out in a wonderful way the romance of the mission fields, and the speaker dealt in a most interesting manner with his own particular work among the depressed races in the Eastern Duars", ".’ In 1934, Aeneas and Clara's son Alfred aged eighteen, enrolled at the University of Edinburgh, where he studied medicine for the next six years.", "In the summer of 1937, Aeneas and Clara, accompanied by their two offspring, Alfred (a medical student) and Beatrice (a nurse), sailed from Dooars, India, to America where they arrived in New York City on 16 August 1937 aboard SS Caledonia II.", "Williams’ first volume of poems Dream Drift, by a Young Lover, was published in 1938. The book was dedicated to his wife, Clara. The suggestion of a protestant minister being perceived as a ‘young lover’ was a bold move on Williams and the publisher's part. It was certainly uncommon for a minister to reveal a poetic side that included talk of lovemaking. The Dundee Courier, in their appraisal of the work, noted that, ‘Mr", ". The Dundee Courier, in their appraisal of the work, noted that, ‘Mr. Williams' poems reveal their author in many moods, as a nature lover, sportsman, and lover. Only an angler could have written his poems on Fishing and Wound Up. There is a whimsical, almost ‘Barriesque’ (James M. Barrie) touch about some of his nature poems, which is infinitely attractive.’ ‘Mr. Francon Williams looks through a poet's window and can tell what he sees, as a poet tells, and as those to whom he speaks can understand", ". Life, in life's vocabulary, lit by a poet's candle, is what he tells to us; and in odd hours of quiet, he is worth listening to.’ The Very Rev. Lauchlan Maclean Watt, DD LLD.", "Aeneas would find small nuggets of inspiration obscured in the noise of life. In his poem, To A Dead Bird, Williams immortalizes a solitary dead bulbul, an Indian nightingale he found lying near a bush in the Manse in Bengal where he lived. He explains, 'I put it in my pocket-handkerchief, and with a little burial service, I laid it to rest in our consecrated burial ground opposite Manse Gate.", "On 13 May 1942, Aeneas and Clara's daughter Beatrice married Dr. Stephen Ian Pugh of Builth Wells, Breconshire, Wales. The couple later emigrated to Tasmania, where they lived their entire lives in Launceston.", "In 1945, Aeneas and Clara spent a summer vacation at Kodaikanal, a resort in the Cardamom Hills (Yela Mala), a mountain range in South India, where their son Alfred, who was now a Captain in the RAMC (Royal Army Medical Corps) and stationed in Burma, joined them. It was while Aeneas was in the Cardamom Hills that he wrote his poem Flowers.", "On 1 January 1946, in the New Year Indian Honours List, Clara (Mrs. Francon Williams) was awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal (Emperor of India) Bronze Medal for her work during WWII being in-charge of Red Cross work in Dooars, Bengal.", "In 1947, when India was granted Independence, Clara returned to Scotland to set up a home in Edinburgh. Aeneas remained in India at the Mission during the handover.", "After the inauguration of Indian Independence on 15 August 1947, Aeneas wrote 'Report 1947, The Work of the Church of Scotland Mission in Bengal During a Momentous Year', documenting what he saw and encountered in India during and after the handover. Much rejoicing took place in all the Mission institutions. The new Constitution (not yet fully adopted) guaranteed freedom 'to profess, practice and propagate' any religion", ". When pupils were asked, now that India was free would they rather there was no teaching about Christianity in school, the answer was always the same, that it was because of such education that they wished to study at the Mission. The Mission had since Independence Day been besieged with new applications for admission. However, Aeneas noted the College was experiencing a communal 'low' in staffing levels, with the shortage of Christian professors becoming an 'anxiety", ".' The Mission staffing levels had also fallen (to eight women and four men), and the Foreign Mission Committee was doing everything in its power to find recruits.", "Looking ahead, Aeneas spoke of a 'partnership,' a 'Home Mission,' uniting the Mission of the Church of Scotland in India with the Church in India. In his Report 1947, Aeneas stated: The Indian Church is now alive to her missionary responsibilities in this land and is heartily in favor of the new proposals, but the task is out of all proportion to her present resources, and it is only if the Church of Scotland continues her support in personnel and in finances that it can be accomplished", ". For the Church as for the nation, it may be that a new day is dawning.", "In 1948 after the handover, Aeneas sold his Cinchona plantation and other personal property and returned to the U.K. to join his wife in Edinburgh, where they resided at 46 Belgrave Road. When Aeneas and Clara returned to Edinburgh for good they brought with them their pet chimpanzee named ‘Glyris,’ which lived with them at their home at Belgrave Road.", "Aeneas and Clara's son Alfred married Jane Warhurst (née Smith) on 29 March 1950 at St. Aidan's Church, Sheffield, Yorkshire. Jane is a second cousin once removed of the author David Herbert Lawrence through her mother Lillian Rex, whose sister Ada (née Rex), married George Beardsall.", "Later life\nAeneas and Clara were both polyglots; Aeneas spoke eight languages fluently, including Hindi and Mandarin. In Edinburgh, Aeneas was Chaplain of Edinburgh Social Services Department from 1952 and was affiliated with several churches, including the former Stockbridge Free Church and St. Giles Cathedral. He was assistant Chaplain of HMP Edinburgh (Saughton) from 1948 to 1954.", "As a youngster, Aeneas grew up in a literary household (his father John Francon Williams was a newspaper and journal editor and a published writer of many books). As such, Aeneas was encouraged by his father to pursue writing. Throughout Aeneas's life, he had many books published in various fields of knowledge and was also a published poet. In 1942, upon the death of Dr. John Anderson Graham, Aeneas was commissioned by Oxford University Press to write Dr", ". John Anderson Graham, Aeneas was commissioned by Oxford University Press to write Dr. Graham's biography for inclusion in their Dictionary of National Biography.", "Clara Anne Williams died in Edinburgh on 25 January 1959 and is buried at Dean Cemetery, Edinburgh.", "After Clara passed away, Aeneas sold their house at Belgrave Road and spent time travelling the world, circumnavigating it several times. There is evidence contained in correspondence between Aeneas and the London publishing house MacMillan & Co. Ltd. that he wrote two books during these travels. His regular visits to Australia and New Zealand, and especially Tasmania – where his daughter Beatrice lived in Launceston with her husband, Dr", ". Stephen Pugh, and their daughter Andrea – appear to have sparked his imagination. Original correspondence from Aeneas to MacMillan held at The Museum of English Rural Life and Special Collections at the University of Reading mentions two new manuscripts he had written relating to his travels that he'd submitted to the publishing house", ". Whether MacMillan or another company published these books is unclear from the letters, as the books identify with Australasia and may only have been published in that territory, or remained unpublished. The two books in question are Tasmanian Apples and Kiwiland. The later work is possibly associated with the flightless Kiwi bird, which Aeneas had grown particularly fond of during his visits to New Zealand. ‘I fed these interesting flightless birds in Wellington Zoo,’ Aeneas writes keenly to MacMillan", ". ‘I fed these interesting flightless birds in Wellington Zoo,’ Aeneas writes keenly to MacMillan. He also fed the tuatara, courtesy of his friend ‘the Superintendent Mr. Curtis,’ who told him where he could see the ‘pre-historic little tuatara, the only true Saurian left on this earth, whose ancestors were at least 3,000,000 years on this planet, long before we were", ".’ Aeneas also mentions to his publisher that his friend Henry Kelly of the New Zealand Wildlife Department was arranging ‘to send us a live Kiwi, the first Kiwi to be in Scotland.’ After returning from his travels abroad, Aeneas moved into 10 Carlton Street, Stockbridge, Edinburgh, where he lived until his early-80s, before moving to Sheffield, Yorkshire, to live with his son Alfred.", "Aeneas died in Nether Edge Hospital, Sheffield on 9 December 1971 and is buried with his wife Clara in Dean Cemetery, Edinburgh.\n\nAeneas Francon Williams is the brother of artist David Dougal Williams and the grandfather of writer Iain Cameron Williams.", "A niece of Aeneas's named Jane Williams married American Edward Burton Hughes. In 1967, Governor Nelson Rockefeller appointed Edward Burton Hughes as Executive Deputy Commissioner of New York State Department of Transportation. In 1970, Edward Burton Hughes founded the E. Burton Hughes Achievement Award given annually to an outstanding Department employee of the New York State Department of Transportation.", "On 9 December 2021, Aeneas Francon Williams was remembered in Ireland at the Praying in Advent (during the four-week period leading up to Christmas). Prayers were offered by the Irish Anglican priest Revd. Canon Patrick Comerford. The occasion marked the 50-year anniversary of Williams's death.\n\nAwards", "Awards\n\n The Kaisar-i-Hind Medal, public award, was awarded to Clara Anne Williams (Mrs. Francon Williams), in 1946 by the Viceroy of India Louis Mountbatten for her distinguished service in the advancement of the interests of the British Raj.\n\nPublished works\n\n Kalidasa and Shakespeare by A. Francon Williams, Poetry Review, 1943:\n In response to", "Unpublished works\n Tasmanian Apples by A. Francon Williams, 1960, with a preface by Tasmania's Agent General in London Hon. A.J. White. (In 1961, Williams submitted the manuscript to the publishing house Macmillan and Co., St. Martin's Street, London WC2.)", "Kiwiland by A. Francon Williams, 1961, with a preface by Sir Compton Mackenzie. (In 1961, Williams submitted the manuscript to the publishing house Macmillan and Co., St. Martin's Street, London WC2). The work includes an extract from The Road to the Isles, (the famous Scottish traditional song), which Sir Compton Mackenzie helped Aeneas get permission to use within the book.", "Archives\n The University of Texas, Austin - Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center – Compton Mackenzie archive: index Compton Mackenzie: An Inventory of his Papers at the Harry. Incl. correspondence from Aeneas Francon Williams: ref. Williams, Aeneas Francon, 1886 - 154.5.", "See also\n List of University of Edinburgh people\n Find A Grave clara-anne-williams\n Find A Grave aeneas-francon-williams\n The Royal Geographical Society, London, holds various photographs by the photographer John Noel of the 1922 British Mount Everest expedition", "Ogilvie, The Very Rev. J. N., An Indian Pilgrimage: Travel notes on a visit to the Indian Fields of the Church of Scotland publ. William Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh, 1922 – St Andrew's Colonial Homes, Chapter XIX, page 133-142 – The pilgrimage to India took place between September 1921–March 1922.\n 1922 photograph of St Andrew's Colonial Homes, Kalimpong", "References\n\nFurther reading\n\n Included in one letter is Aeneas's first-hand account of the National Strike uprising (Chinese revolution) and the unrest that was affecting Ichang and surrounding vicinity around the Mission where he was stationed.", "Contains original letters to and from Aeneas Francon Williams and Clara Williams during their life spent as Missionaries in India.\n St. Andrew's Colonial Homes at Kalimpong: Objectives and historical significance.\n Has references to the 1922 & 1924 visits to the Dr Graham ‘Homes’ in Kalimpong by the Everest Expeditions, p. 18, 164-166", "International Mission Photography Archive (IMPA) USC Digital Library - Kalimpong circa 1860-1960:\n The Kalimpong Kids: The New Zealand story, in pictures, published September 30, 2020, Otago University Press, ISBN 9781988592367\n The Kalimpong Kids Sept. 08, 2017, (retrieved October 20, 2022),\n The Kalimpong Kids\n\nExternal links\n\nSt. Andrew's Colonial Homes became Dr. Graham's Homes in 1947, to honor the founder.\nAeneas Francon Williams World Catalogue\nLibrary of Congress, USA – Aeneas Francon Williams", "1886 births\n1971 deaths\nAlumni of the University of Edinburgh\nClergy from Liverpool\nEnglish male poets\nEnglish people of Scottish descent\nEnglish Presbyterian missionaries\n20th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland\nAlumni\nIndia\nPresbyterian missionaries in India\nPresbyterian missionaries in China\nRecipients of the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal\nScottish Presbyterian missionaries\n20th-century British writers\n20th-century English poets\n20th-century English male writers" ]

[ "The 2016 Hong Kong Legislative Council election was held on 4 September 2016 for the 6th Legislative Council of Hong Kong (LegCo). A total of 70 members, 35 from geographical constituencies (GCs) and 35 from functional constituencies (FCs), were returned. The election came after the rejection of the 2016/2017 constitutional reform proposals which suggested the electoral method for the 2016 Legislative Council remains unchanged.", "An unprecedented number of 2.2 million voters, 58 per cent of the registered electorate, turned out in wake of the 2014 pro-democracy Occupy movement often dubbed as the \"Umbrella Revolution\" with the localists emerged as a new political force behind the pro-Beijing and pan-democracy camps by winning six seats in the geographical constituencies and gaining nearly 20 per cent of the vote share", ". Many new faces rose from the post-Occupy political forces got elected which was described as the \"youthquake\" by the media. Demosisto's Nathan Law, a 23-year-old Occupy student leader became the youngest candidate to be elected in history along with his allies Lau Siu-lai and Eddie Chu.", "Baggio Leung and Yau Wai-ching from the radical localist groups Youngspiration, and Cheng Chung-tai of Civic Passion, also won seats after they were allowed to enter the race following the government controversially disqualifying six localists for their advocacy of Hong Kong independence", ". As a result, four pan-democrats lost their seats, namely, Neo Democrats' Gary Fan, as well as three veterans, Lee Cheuk-yan and Cyd Ho of the Labour Party and Frederick Fung of the Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood.", "Many veteran pro-Beijing incumbents, including the LegCo president Jasper Tsang, also Chan Kam-lam and Tam Yiu-chung of the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong's (DAB) and Chan Yuen-han of the Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (FTU) decided to step down, while pan-democrat heavyweights, including Civic Party leader Alan Leong, Democratic Party chairwoman Emily Lau and veterans Albert Ho and Sin Chung-kai, as well as pro-Beijing Liberal Party honorary chairman James Tien", ", as well as pro-Beijing Liberal Party honorary chairman James Tien, chose to stand as second candidate to get their party's newcomers elected", ". Young Democrat Kwong Chun-yu received the most votes by winning nearly 500,000 votes in the District Council (Second) \"super seat\".", "Together with the six post-Occupy radicals and localists, the anti-establishment forces won 29 out of 70 seats; managed to retain the majority in the geographical constituencies to block the pro-establishment camp's attempt to amend the rule of procedures to curb radicals' filibustering, as well as the opposition's crucial one-thirds minority to maintain the veto power on government's constitutional reform proposals.", "These were the last fully free elections to be held in Hong Kong prior to the national security law that was implemented in 2020.\n\nBackground\n\nElectoral reform failure and Umbrella Revolution", "The election comes after the rejection of constitutional reform proposals of the Leung Chun-ying administration in mid-2015 meant the electoral method for the Legislative Council (LegCo) in 2016 was unchanged. On 31 August 2014, the National People's Congress Standing Committee (NPCSC) set limits for the 2016 Legislative Council and 2017 Chief Executive elections", ". While reaffirming the electoral method for the 2016 Legislative Council election remained unchanged, the 2014 NPCSC decision allowed the Chief Executive (CE) to be directly elected but \"unpatriotic\" candidates would have to be screened out by a Beijing-controlled nominating committee. In response to the NPCSC decision, the student activists staged a class boycott which led into a months-long large-scale occupy movement as proposed by the Occupy Central, which was referred as the \"Umbrella Revolution\".", "The government proposals were overwhelmingly rejected in the Legislative Council following a failed walk-out by the pro-Beijing camp on 18 June 2015. In response, Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying urged the voters to \"punish\" the opposition democratic candidates by voting them out in the upcoming legislative election.\n\nEmergence of new political forces", "The emergence of new political groups led by young activists began to influence the political landscape: Edward Leung of Hong Kong Indigenous, a pro-independence localist group, received a better-than expected result in the New Territories East by-election in February 2016 by taking more than 66,000 votes and gaining about 15 percent of the total votes", ". After the election, Edward Leung claimed localism had become the third most important power grouping in Hong Kong politics alongside the pan-democracy and pro-Beijing camps. A day after the election, three localist groups, Wong Yuk-man's Proletariat Political Institute, Wong Yeung-tat's Civic Passion and Chin Wan's Hong Kong Resurgence Order, announced to run in the upcoming election.", "On 10 April 2016, six localist groups which emerged after the 2014 Umbrella Revolution, Youngspiration, Kowloon East Community, Tin Shui Wai New Force, Cheung Sha Wan Community Establishment Power, Tsz Wan Shan Constructive Power and Tuen Mun Community, formed an electoral alliance under the name \"ALLinHK\" planned to field candidates in four of the five geographical constituencies with the agenda to put forward a referendum on Hong Kong's self-determination", ", while Hong Kong Indigenous and another new pro-independence Hong Kong National Party also stated that they would run in the upcoming election", ".", "Also on 10 April 2016, the student leaders in the Umbrella Revolution, Joshua Wong, Oscar Lai and Agnes Chow of Scholarism and Nathan Law of the Hong Kong Federation of Students (HKFS) formed a new party called Demosistō and aimed to field candidates in Hong Kong Island and Kowloon East. The new party calls for referendum on Hong Kong's future after 2047 when the one country, two systems is supposed to expire.", "Ronny Tong's Path of Democracy and Tik Chi-yuen's Third Side, the two new political groups which split from the Civic Party and Democratic Party respectively, seek a middle path between the pro-Beijing camp and pan-democracy camp on achieving democracy, with plans to field candidates in the geographical constituency election.", "Political scientist Professor Ma Ngok believed the soaring number of political groups and candidates, which was the reflection of the increasing fragmentation of the pro-democracy camp, might split the pro-democracy votes.", "ThunderGo plan", "In early 2016, Occupy Central co-founder Benny Tai, who was inspired by the electoral victory the Democratic Progressive Party received in the 2016 Taiwan legislative election, mapped out a \"ThunderGo plan\" for pan-democrats to grab half of the seats in the Legislative Council election to increase political leverage in future political reform", ". He suggests the anti-establishment forces to field no more than 23 lists if their goal was to win 23 seats in the geographical constituencies, six tickets for nine-seat New Territories West and New Territories East, four tickets for six-seat Hong Kong Island and Kowloon West, and three for five-seat Kowloon East respectively", ". For the functional constituencies, Tai suggested that besides retaining the current six trade-based functional constituencies and three territory-wide directly elected District Council (Second) super seats, the camp needs to target three additional seats in Medical, Engineering and Architectural, Surveying, Planning and Landscape. The plan met with reservations from the very diverse interests within pro-democracy political parties, who could not agree on a united front", ". Tai's plan hit its setback when the Neo Democrats decided not to support the proposed coordinating mechanism for the District Council (Second) super seats in May.", "Tai also worked on a \"smart voters\" system involving 25,000 voters who would indicate their preferences on an interactive poll via Telegram and would be informed of the popularity of candidates according to polls the day before the official vote and which would be updated through exit polling two and a half hours before polls closed", ". Such \"smart voters\" would delay voting until 8 pm and then be signalled to support candidates whose numbers were weaker instead wasting votes on stronger candidates who were already through.", "Pre-election issues\n\nLeung Chun-ying's re-election", "The pan-democracy camp campaigned to block Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying, whose popularity dropped to a new low, from serving a second term. Technology and media entrepreneur Ricky Wong Wai-kay, whose Hong Kong Television Network (HKTV) free-to-air television licence was denied by Leung's Executive Council in October 2013 and sparked public uproar and protests, also started his \"ABC campaign\" (Anyone but CY) by announcing Leung's exit as his key campaign platform", ". Wong was backed by the Liberal Party, a pro-Beijing party representing the business sector which had been at odds with the Chief Executive since the 2012 Chief Executive election when the Liberals openly opposed Leung.", "On 28 July, President of the Legislative Council Jasper Tsang and Financial Secretary John Tsang both expressed interest in running for the Chief Executive in 2017 on different occasions. Political analysts said that the duo's moves would take some pressure off pro-Beijing camp preparing for the Legislative Council election as pro-Beijing candidates had struggled when asked in public if they supported Leung's re-election.\n\nCauseway Bay bookseller disappearances", "Lam Wing-kee, one of the five Causeway Bay booksellers who went missing from October 2015 returned to Hong Kong and revealed at a press conference in June 2016 that he was kidnapped at the China–Hong Kong border in October and put through eight months of mental torture. The controversy ignited fears that mainland law enforcement officers might have acted within the territory of Hong Kong and shook Hong Kong's confidence in the one country, two systems", ". Professor Lau Siu-kai, former head of the Hong Kong government's think tank, the Central Policy Unit, worried that more people might vote for pan-democracy camp in September's election.", "Resignations of ICAC heads controversy", "In July, acting head of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) Rebecca Li Bo-lan resigned after she was removed from her position by ICAC commissioner Simon Peh Yun-lu, less than a year after he appointed her. The rare move amid speculation that Li was removed over an investigation into Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying's receipt of HK$50 million from Australian firm UGL", ". Less than a week later, long-serving ICAC principal investigator Dale Ko also resigned without any meaningful official explanation. The controversy sparked calls for a special Legislative Council investigation and raised fears about the reputation of the anti-corruption body.", "Ban on pro-independence candidates controversy", "On 14 July 2016, the Electoral Affairs Commission (EAC) announced its plan to require all candidates to sign an additional \"confirmation form\" in the nomination to declare their understanding of Hong Kong being an inalienable part of China as stipulated in the Basic Law, in response to many potential localist candidates advocating or promoting Hong Kong independence. The EAC states that anyone making a false declaration in the nomination form was liable to criminal sanction.", "EAC returning officers also sent emails to several applicants who had not been confirmed as official candidates, including Hong Kong Indigenous' Edward Leung, Civic Passion's Alvin Cheng, Hong Kong National Party's Chan Ho-tin, to ask whether they would still advocate independence after submitting the nomination form. Those questions were claimed to be a factor to determine the validity of their nominations.", "After the end of the nomination period, six localist candidates received emails from the EAC which said their nominations were \"invalidated\", which included Chan Ho-tin, Democratic Progressive Party's Yeung Ke-cheong, Nationalist Hong Kong's Nakade Hitsujiko, Conservative Party's Alice Lai Yee-man, Hong Kong Indigenous' Edward Leung and independent Chan Kwok-keung", ", Hong Kong Indigenous' Edward Leung and independent Chan Kwok-keung, although many of them had signed the additional confirmation form; all except Yeung had signed the declaration statement in the nomination form saying they would \"uphold the Basic Law and pledge allegiance to the Hong Kong SAR\" as required by the Legislative Council Ordinance", ". New Territories East constituency returning officer Cora Ho Lai-sheung rejected Edward Leung's nomination on the basis that she did not trust Leung \"genuinely changed his previous stance for independence.\"", "Contesting parties and candidates", "An unprecedented number of 289 validly nominated candidates contested in the election, two more than the previous election, after seven candidates were disqualified, six of whom due to their pro-independence stance, and two withdrew their candidatures. 84 lists with a total of 213 candidates contested the 35 geographical constituencies, while 55 candidates contested in the traditional functional constituencies, 43 of them ran for 18 seats in the functional constituencies", ". A total of 21 candidates belonging to 9 lists contested the five \"super seats\" in the District Council (Second) functional constituency.", "Pro-Beijing camp", "Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB): The flagship Beijing-loyalist party fielded nine candidate lists in the geographical constituencies and District Council (Second) direct elections, two fewer than the 2012 election. Four veterans including the Legislative Council President Jasper Tsang and former party chairman Tam Yiu-chung stepped down from the office, while new faces Cheung Kwok-kwan and Wilson Or took up the candidacies in Hong Kong Island and Kowloon East", ". North District Councillor Lau Kwok-fan won a four-way intra-party primary to take up Ip Kwok-him's District Council (First) functional constituency. Incumbent Hong Kong Island legislator Christopher Chung who initially led a candidate list but was withdrawn by the party later protested against the party's decision, but later on accepted to be placed second on Cheung's list.", "Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong (BPA): Six of the seven legislators from the pro-business party sought for re-election. The party honorary chairman Lau Wong-fat retired from the Heung Yee Kuk and was succeeded by his son Kenneth Lau uncontestedly, while party chairman Andrew Leung and Abraham Shek were also re-elected uncontestedly in their trade-based constituencies. The party's sole geographical constituency legislator Priscilla Leung sought for her third term in Kowloon West.", "Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (FTU): The pro-labour federation rose as the third largest party in the last election in 2012. The FTU remained its five tickets in four geographical constituencies and District Council (Second) \"super seat\", as well as two candidates in the three-seat Labour functional constituency", ". Veteran Chan Yuen-han stepped down from the \"super seat\" and was taken up by Wong Kwok-hing, while Wong's Hong Kong Island seat was taken up by Kwok Wai-keung from the Labour functional constituency.", "Liberal Party: The pro-business party had been vocal for its criticism against the Leung Chun-ying administration and positioned itself as the anti-Leung voice within the pro-establishment camp. The party honorary chairman James Tien initially planned to stand in Hong Kong Island but later stood in New Territories East as the second place with the party's rising star Dominic Lee. The party finalised its target of winning seven seats, two geographical constituencies and five functional constituencies", ". Incumbents Felix Chung, Tommy Cheung and Frankie Yick sought for re-election in their sectors while vice-chairman Peter Shiu to take up retiring leader Vincent Fang's place in Wholesale and Retail constituency and Joseph Chan Ho-lim to run in Commercial (First) functional constituency against BPA's Jeffrey Lam.", "New People's Party (NPP): Regina Ip's party planned to field candidates with herself and Michael Tien seeking re-election in Hong Kong Island and New Territories West and young barrister Eunice Yung running in New Territories East with the help of its local ally, district-based Civil Force.", "Pan-democracy camp", "Civic Party: The Civic Party became the largest pro-democracy party along with the Democratic Party from the last election. The party received 17 nominations for the intra-party primary in January. Four incumbents, Claudia Mo, Kwok Ka-ki, Alvin Yeung and Dennis Kwok would seek re-election while party leader Alan Leong and Kenneth Chan decided to step down", ". The party decided to field Jeremy Tam in Kowloon East where Leong would stand in Tam's list in the second place and Tanya Chan would contest Hong Kong Island. Tsuen Wan District Councillor Sumly Chan also won the party's nomination to run in District Council (Second). Ken Tsang, who failed to get the party's nomination for running in Social Welfare left the party and ran as an independent.", "Democratic Party: The Democratic Party decided to drastically reduce their candidate lists from ten tickets to only seven in the election by conducting intra-party pre-election primaries for the candidacies. A total number of 14 nominations were received with veterans Emily Lau, Albert Ho and Sin Chung-kai not standing for re-election. The three retirees later decided to run as second candidates in the tickets led by new faces Lam Cheuk-ting, Andrew Wan and Hui Chi-fung who won the primaries", ". The three other incumbents, James To, Helena Wong and Wu Chi-wai would also seek re-election, while young Yuen Long District Councillor Kwong Chun-yu led a ticket in District Council (Second) \"super seat\".", "Labour Party: All three of the directly elected Labour incumbents, Lee Cheuk-yan, Cyd Ho and Fernando Cheung sought re-election in New Territories West, Hong Kong Island and New Territories East respectively, while the Social Welfare legislator Cheung Kwok-che announced his retirement. The newly elected chairwoman Suzanne Wu and vice-chairman Chiu Shi-shun also stood in Kowloon East.", "People Power–League of Social Democrats (PP–LSD): Facing challenges from the emerging radical post-Occupy groups, the League of Social Democrats (LSD) and the People Power formed an electoral alliance in the name of \"progressive democrats\"", ". The alliance fielded nine candidates aiming to win at least six seats, New Territories East incumbents Leung Kwok-hung and Raymond Chan sought re-election with two separate tickets, while League chairman Avery Ng and People Power former chairman Christopher Lau and chairwoman Erica Yuen ran in Kowloon West and Hong Kong Island respectively. People Power's Tam Tak-chi ran in Kowloon East, while League vice-chairman Raphael Wong formed a join ticket with People Power's Albert Chan in New Territories West.", "Hong Kong Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood (ADPL): Although being barred from running in the District Council (Second) constituency after he lost his District Council seat in the 2015 District Council election, incumbent legislator Frederick Fung changed to run in the New Territories West geographical constituency", ". 2012 Kowloon West candidate and vice-chairman Tam Kwok-kiu narrowly defeated chairwoman Rosanda Mok in a primary to stand in the same constituency, while Sham Shui Po District Councillor Ho Kai-ming took up Fung's place in District Council (Second).", "Neighbourhood and Worker's Service Centre (NWSC): The veteran NWSC legislator Leung Yiu-chung left his longtime base of New Territories West to contest in District Council (Second) constituency, while his place in New Territories West was succeeded by his long-time protege Wong Yun-tat.", "Neo Democrats: Once vowed not to participate in the District Council (Second) constituency created under the Democratic Party's modified reform proposals in 2010 which the Neo Democrats broke away from the party to oppose, the Neo Democrats fielded Kwan Wing-yip in District Council (Second), besides its current seat held by Gary Fan in New Territories East.", "Localist groups", "ALLinHK and Hong Kong Indigenous: An electoral alliance formed by six post-Occupy groups emerged from the 2014 protests, consisting of Youngspiration, Kowloon East Community, Tin Shui Wai New Force, Cheung Sha Wan Community Establishment Power, Tsz Wan Shan Constructive Power and Tuen Mun Community, field candidates in four of the five constituencies while supporting Hong Kong Indigenous' Edward Leung who received a better-than-expected result in the February by-election to run again", ". Youngspiration's convenor Baggio Leung who initially intended to run in Hong Kong Island and stood in New Territories West finally submitted his nomination to stand in New Territories East in the wake of the EAC's measure, which he claimed to be a \"substitute candidate\" in case Edward Leung was disqualified in the constituency. Although nominations of all candidates from the alliance's were accepted, Edward Leung's nomination was invalidated on 2 August.", "Civic Passion–Proletariat Political Institute–Hong Kong Resurgence Order (CP–PPI–HKRO): Wong Yeung-tat's Civic Passion, Wong Yuk-man's Proletariat Political Institute and Chin Wan's Hong Kong Resurgence Order announced their plan in running in all five geographical constituencies in February 2016. The alliance fielded Wong Yuk-man and Wong Yeung-tat for the two Kowloon constituencies, Chin Wan for New Territories East, Cheng Chung-tai for New Territories West and Alvin Cheng for Hong Kong Island", ". Despite their localist stance, all five tickets were validated under the EAC's new election measure.", "Demosistō: The new party emerged from the 2014 Umbrella Revolution led by the movement leaders planned to field two tickets in Hong Kong Island led by chairman Nathan Law and Kowloon East by vice-chairman Oscar Lai, but Lai later dropped out due to lack of funding. Its allies in the election were Democracy Groundwork's Lau Siu-lai in Kowloon West and Land Justice League's Eddie Chu in the New Territories West who ran as a nonpartisan.", "Hong Kong National Party (HKNP): Convenor Chan Ho-tin of the first party who officially advocated for Hong Kong independence planned to run in New Territories West but was disqualified, as the EAC claimed that Chan's platform violated the Basic Law.", "Moderate groups\n Path of Democracy: The new moderate group led by former Civic Party legislator Ronny Tong fielded two candidates, governors Gary Wong Chi-him and Raymond Mak Ka-chun in Hong Kong Island and New Territories East.", "Third Side: The new moderate party led by former Democratic Party vice-chairman Tik Chi-yuen planned to field candidates in Kowloon West and two New Territories constituencies, but later dropped out of the New Territories East contest and triggered the departure of ten party member including two vice-chairmen Marcus Liu Tin-shing and Ben Kuen Ping-yiu. Liu and Kuen later led an independent ticket in New Territories East; another party member Wong Sing-chi decided to run in Social Welfare as an independent", ".", "Retiring incumbents\n\nCampaign", "Election strategies", "Many political parties and groups and individuals formed strategic alliances in the campaign. Alvin Yeung of the Civic Party who led in the opinion polls in the New Territories East cooperated with Labour Party's Fernando Cheung who traced behind in the polls. Leung Yiu-chung of the Neighbourhood and Worker's Service Centre (NWSC) who ran in the territory-wide District Council (Second) \"super seat\" also had joint-promotional leaflets with Lau Siu-lai of Democracy Groundwork in Kowloon West", ". Liberal Party honorary chairman James Tien who was running in the New Territories East and \"middle-of-the-road\" politician Ricky Wong Wai-kay who aimed at the last seat in Hong Kong Island also went out of their constituencies and campaigned for each other. James Tien also campaigned for the \"middle-of-the-road\" party Third Side's Tik Chi-yuen who aimed at the last seat in Kowloon West against Yau Wai-ching of the localist group Youngspiration", ". On 15 August, it was reported that volunteers and staff from Kowloon West New Dynamic chaired by pro-Beijing politician Priscilla Leung helped Tik arrange a meet-the-public event in Sham Shui Po.", "In the District Council (Second) constituency, the Democratic Party also asked the supporters of veteran James To who led in the polls to vote for another Democrat candidate Kwong Chun-yu who was fighting for the last seat against Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB) candidate Holden Chow. The Democratic Party invited former Chief Secretary Anson Chan to back Kwong, who also endorsed Civic Party's Sumly Chan who ran in the same constituency.", "In late August, the pro-Beijing parties also began to campaign for each other. DAB District Council (Second) candidate Holden Chow campaigned for New People's Party (NPP) New Territories East candidate Eunice Yung who was behind in the opinion polls, in exchange for the 24 NPP New Territories district councillors to campaign for Chow", ". Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (FTU) District Council (Second) candidate Wong Kwok-hing also campaigned with Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong (BPA) Kowloon West candidate Priscilla Leung, the only constituency where the FTU did not field their candidate.", "Issues and election forums", "Issues including Hong Kong independence, filibustering, universal retirement protection scheme, standard working hours and Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying's administration and re-election took central stage at the election forums", ". Pro-Beijing candidates questioned pan-democrat parties' stance on Hong Kong independence, while localist Kowloon East Community's Chan Chak-to declared his support for independence at the TVB Kowloon East electoral forum despite six pro-independence candidates had been disqualified. Localist candidates exchanged criticisms with the pan-democrats as the pan-democrat candidates dismissed localists' pro-independence call as empty talk.", "The pro-Beijing candidates also accused the pan-democrats of their filibustering and obstructionism in the Legislative Council, while pan-democrat candidates attacked the pro-Beijing candidates did not push for a more progressive universal retirement protection scheme and standard working hours policies", ". The pan-democrats also criticised the pro-Beijing camp being allies of the Leung Chun-ying government and opposed to use Powers and Privileges Ordinance to investigate into Leung's receipt of HK$50 million from UGL Limited and resignations of ICAC heads.", "Ken Chow's dropout", "On 25 August, Liberal Party's Ken Chow Wing-kan who ran for New Territories West announced he would stop his electioneering at the Cable TV election forum for fear of \"people close to him paying a heavy price\". He earlier revealed that he was approached by a middleman to quit the race for a hefty sum of money", ". Chow passed a voice clip to the media before the election forum, in which a man claimed he would bring 20 to 30 Ho supporters to \"pursue\" Chow before and after the forum so that he would \"lose mood\" for the debate. The man in the clip also said the supporters should wear another candidate Lawyer Junius Ho’s vests during the forum. Ho denied having any plans to intimidate Chow and claimed he had rejected one of his supporters' proposal to \"pursue\" Chow.", "Pan-democrat candidates' dropouts", "On 2 September less than 48 hours before the election day and after the release of the large-scale opinion poll conducted by University of Hong Kong Public Opinion Programme (HKUPOP) and sponsored by pro-democracy group Power for Democracy, five pro-democrat candidates, independents Paul Zimmerman and Chui Chi-kin in Hong Kong Island, Labour Party's Suzanne Wu in Kowloon East and Civic Party's Sumly Chan and Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood's (ADPL) Kalvin Ho in District Council (Second)", ", suspended their campaigns in the hope of deflecting support to fellow pan-democrats who were seen as standing a better chance", ". Clarice Cheung Wai-ching, a non-aligned independent also abandoned her campaign in New Territories West and called her supporters to vote for pan-democrat candidates. On 3 September, the third pro-democratic District Council (Second) candidate Kwan Wing-yip also aborted his campaign but marked it as \"a dark day for democracy\".", "Opinion polling", "The reliability of the rolling poll conducted by the University of Hong Kong Public Opinion Programme (HKUPOP) was widely questioned. The sample size of the poll, fewer than 300 respondents in each of the five geographical constituencies each day, was criticised as being too small", ". Additionally, pollsters only mentioned the first candidate on the list during interviews which could have made a difference in the results, as many veterans, including Democrats Sin Chung-kai, Albert Ho and Emily Lau, Liberal James Tien, Civic Party's Alan Leong, and People Power Albert Chan, stood in the second place behind the new faces on their party lists while their lists continued to trail behind in the polls", ". After the complaints, the HKUPOP decided to mention two candidates on the candidate list to respondents from 22 August night onwards.", "Results\n\nBefore election:\n\nChange in composition:", "|- style=\"text-align:center\"\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" class=\"unsortable\" width=\"4\" rowspan=2|\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" class=\"unsortable\" width=\"5\" rowspan=2|\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;\" colspan=2 rowspan=2 width=150px | Political affiliation\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" colspan=4 |Geographical Constituencies\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" colspan=4 |Traditional Functional Constituencies", "! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" colspan=4 |District Council (Second) FC\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" rowspan=2|Totalseats\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" rowspan=2|±\n|-\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |Votes\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |%\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" |±pp", "! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" |±pp\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |Seats\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |Votes\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |%\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" |±pp\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |Seats", "! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |Seats\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |Votes\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |%\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" |±pp\n! style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;\" data-sort-type=\"number\" |Seats\n|-\n| rowspan=8 style=\"background-color:LightPink;border-bottom-style:hidden;\" |\n| style=\"background-color:\"|", "| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | DAB\n| 361,617 || 16.68 || 3.54 || 7 || 98 || 0.06 || 0.01 || 3 || 568,561 || 29.77 || 0.19 || 2 || 12 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | BPA\n| 49,745 || 2.29 || N/A || 1 || 4,622 || 2.76 || N/A || 6 || - || - || - || - || 7 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | FTU\n| 169,854 || 7.83 || 0.77 || 3 || - || - || - || 2 || 233,236 || 12.11 || 3.36 || 0 || 5 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|", "|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Liberal \n| 21,500 || 0.99 || 1.70 || 0 || 6,381 || 3.82 || 3.06 || 4 || - || - || - || - || 4 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | NPP\n| 167,589 || 7.73 || 3.97 || 3 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 3 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | FLU\n| - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 1 || - || - || - || - || 1 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | New Forum", "|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | New Forum\n| - || - || - || - || 1,389 || 0.83 || - || 1 || - || - || - || - || 1 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:#DDDDDD;\" |\n| style=\"text-align:left;\" colspan=2 | Pro-Beijing others\n| 100,711 || 4.64 || N/A || 2 || 40,255 || 24.07 || N/A || 5 || - || - || - || - || 7 || 1\n|-class=\"sortbottom\" style=\"background-color:LightPink\" \n| colspan=4 style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total for pro-Beijing camp", "| colspan=4 style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total for pro-Beijing camp\n| 871,016 || 40.17 || 2.49 || 16 || 52,745 || 31.54 || 4.62 || 22 || 801,797 || 41.98 || 3.45 || 2 || 40 || 3\n|-\n| rowspan=10 style=\"background-color:LightGreen;border-bottom-style:hidden;\" |\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Democratic\n| 199,876 || 9.22 || 4.43 || 5 || 1,231 || 0.74 || 0.29 || 0 || 735,597 || 38.51 || 4.25 || 2 || 7 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Civic", "|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Civic\n| 207,885 || 9.59 || 4.49 || 5 || 3,405 || 2.04 || 1.11 || 1 || 28,311 || 1.48 || N/A || 0 || 6 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | PP–LSD\n| 156,019 || 7.20 || 7.39 || 2 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 2 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Professional Commons\n| - || - || - || - || 18,384 || 10.99 || N/A || 2 || - || - || - || - || 2 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|", "|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Labour\n| 101,860 || 4.70 || 1.49 || 1 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 1 || 3\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | NWSC\n| 20,974 || 0.97 || 1.45 || 0 || - || - || - || - || 303,457 || 15.89 || N/A|| 1 || 1 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | PTU\n| - || - || - || - || 45,984 || 27.49 || 5.28 || 1 || - || - || - || - || 1 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | ADPL", "|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | ADPL\n| 33,255 || 1.53 || 0.16 || 0 || - || - || - || - || 17,175 || 0.90 || 15.57 || 0 || 0 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Neo Democrats\n| 31,595 || 1.46 || 0.12 || 0 || - || - || - || - || 23,631 || 1.24 || N/A || 0 || 0 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:#DDDDDD;\" |\n| style=\"text-align:left;\" colspan=2 | Other democrats\n| 29,704 || 1.37 || N/A || 0 || 29,895 || 17.87 || N/A || 3 || - || - || - || - || 3 || 2", "| 29,704 || 1.37 || N/A || 0 || 29,895 || 17.87 || N/A || 3 || - || - || - || - || 3 || 2\n|-class=\"sortbottom\" style=\"background-color:LightGreen\"\n| colspan=4 style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total for pan-democrats\n| 781,168 || 36.02 || 20.14 || 13 || 98,899 || 59.13 || 3.15 || 7 || 1,108,171 || 58.02 || 7.29 || 3 || 23 || 3\n|-\n| rowspan=5 style=\"background-color:Moccasin;border-bottom-style:hidden;\" |\n| style=\"background-color:#F4681D\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | ALLinHK", "| style=\"background-color:#F4681D\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | ALLinHK\n| 81,422 || 3.75 || New || 2 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 2 || 2\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | CP–PPI–HKRO\n| 154,176 || 7.11 || N/A || 1 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 1 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Demosistō\n| 50,818 || 2.34 || New || 1 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 1 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|", "|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Democracy Groundwork\n| 38,183 || 1.76 || New || 1 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 1 || 1\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:#DDDDDD;\" |\n| style=\"text-align:left;\" colspan=2 | Other localists\n| 87,294 || 4.03 || N/A || 1 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 1 || 1\n|-class=\"sortbottom\" style=\"background-color:Moccasin\"\n| colspan=4 style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total for localists", "| colspan=4 style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total for localists\n| 411,893 || 19.00 || - || 6 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 6 || 5\n|-\n| rowspan=3 style=\"background-color:#DDDDDD;border-bottom-style:hidden;\" |\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Path of Democracy\n| 18,112 || 0.84 || New || 0 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 0 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Third Side", "|-\n| style=\"background-color:\"|\n| align=\"left\" colspan=2 | Third Side\n| 13,461 || 0.62 || New || 0 || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || 0 || 0\n|-\n| style=\"background-color:#DDDDDD;\" |\n| style=\"text-align:left;\" colspan=2 | Non-aligned independents\n| 72,761 || 3.36 || N/A || 0 || 15,613 || 9.33 || N/A || 1 || - || - || - || - || 1 || 1\n|-class=\"sortbottom\" style=\"background-color:#DDDDDD\"\n| colspan=4 style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total for non-aligned others", "| colspan=4 style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total for non-aligned others\n| 103,334 || 4.81 || 3.71 || 0 || 15,613 || 9.33 || 7.78 || 1 || - || - || - || - || 1 || 1\n|- class=\"sortbottom\"", "|colspan=4 style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"|Total || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 2,167,411 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 100.00 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 35 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 167,257 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 100.00 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 30 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 1,909,968 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 100", ".00 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 5 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 70 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| -", "|- class=\"sortbottom\"\n| colspan=\"18\" style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"|\n|- class=\"sortbottom\"", "|colspan=4 style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" | Valid votes || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 2,167,411 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 98.42 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 0.04 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" rowspan=4 | || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 167,257 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 96.78 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 2.81 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" rowspan=4 | || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 1,909,968 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 96", ".31 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 1.15 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" colspan=3 rowspan=4 |", "|- class=\"sortbottom\"\n|colspan=4 style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" | Invalid votes || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 34,872 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 1.58 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 0.04|| style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 5,563 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 3.22 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 2.81 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 73,081 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 3.72 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 1.15\n|- class=\"sortbottom\"", "|- class=\"sortbottom\"\n|colspan=4 style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" | Votes cast / turnout || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 2,202,283 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 58.28 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 4.97 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" | 172,820 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 74.33 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 4.68 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" | 1,983,049 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 57.09 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 5.14\n|- class=\"sortbottom\"", "|- class=\"sortbottom\"\n|colspan=4 style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" | Registered voters|| style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 3,779,085 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\" | 100.00 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 9.03 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 232,498 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 100.00 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 7.15 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 3,473,792 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 100.00 || style=\"background-color:#E9E9E9\"| 7.89\n|}", "Votes summary\n\nSeats summary\n\nResults by district\n\nIncumbents defeated\nFifteen incumbents lost re-election.\n\nOutcome", "A unprecedented number of 2.2 million voters cast their votes, which composed of 58 per cent of the total electorate. Many voters queued outside the polling stations even after polling stations were due to close at 10:30 pm and a polling station in Taikoo Shing, the last vote was cast at almost 2:30am", ". the anti-establishment forces, including the pan-democrats and the localists, won 29 out of 70 seats; managed to retain the majority in the geographical constituencies to block the pro-Beijing camp's attempt to amend the rule of procedures to curb radicals' filibustering and the opposition's crucial one-thirds minority to maintain the veto power on government's constitutional reform proposal.", "The localists, six backers of self-determination for Hong Kong, including Yau Wai-ching and Baggio Leung from the post-Occupy group Youngspiration, Occupy student leader Nathan Law of the Demosisto, who became the youngest ever candidate to be elected, Polytechnic University lecturer Lau Siu-lai, Eddie Chu, were returned in the geographical constituencies, securing of nearly 20 per cent of the vote share", ". Eddie Chu, a social activist and environmentalist, bagged more than 84,000 votes, the highest votes received in the geographical constituencies, without any party backing in New Territories West, leading the first runner-up, New People's Party's Michael Tien by about 13,000 votes. His allies, Nathan Law and Lau Siu-lai also became the pro-democrats which received the highest votes in Hong Kong Island and Kowloon West. The three took a total of 173,122 votes", ". The three took a total of 173,122 votes. For the ardently localist faction, Baggio Leung, leader of Youngspiration won in New Territories East after his ally, Hong Kong Indigenous' Edward Leung was barred from poll while Yau Wai-ching won last seat in Kowloon West by about 400 votes at the expense of veteran Wong Yuk-man of the Proletariat Political Institute. Wong's ally, Civic Passion leader Wong Yeung-tat also lost in his second bid in Kowloon East", ". Wong's ally, Civic Passion leader Wong Yeung-tat also lost in his second bid in Kowloon East. Only Cheng Chung-tai from the electoral alliance won a seat in the New Territories West.", "The pan-democrats saw their big names losing, including Labour Party's Lee Cheuk-yan and Cyd Ho and Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood's (ADPL) Frederick Fung. As a result, ADPL and Neo Democrats were ousted from the legislature while Labour retained only one seat. Benny Tai's ThunderGo plan was blamed as he released on the election day a list of recommended pro-democratic candidates based on pre-polling", ". It drew the voters to vote for the candidates who were on the brink of losing as shown in the polls from other candidates, which resulted in highest votes received by Eddie Chu, Lau Siu-lai and Nathan Law at other veteran democrats' expenses", ". Kwong Chun-yu, a Democratic Party young candidate in the District Council (Second) \"super seat\" who was also tracing behind in the polls received the highest votes of nearly 500,000 votes as a result, while the former \"King of Votes\", veteran Democrat James To who had led in the polls for weeks faced a tough battle with pro-Beijing Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions's (FTU) Wong Kwok-hing for the last of the five \"super seats\"", ". To secured the third seats for the pan-democrats with a thin margin of 10,694 votes. By putting themselves on the second place in their candidate lists, the veteran Democrats also managed to help their young colleagues to be elected, which made the Democratic Party the largest pro-democratic party again, overtaking the Civic Party", ". The pro-democrats retained their six out of nine seats in New Territories East, with both radicals democrats, Leung Kwok-hung of the League of Social Democrats (LSD) and Chan Chi-chuen of the People Power retained their seats despite the overcrowding of the pro-democratic tickets. Leung, who took the last seat in the New Territories East by the margin of only 1,051 votes.", "The pan-democrats also boost their functional constituency seats to 10. Besides retaining the pan-democrats' traditional strongholds including Legal and Education, as well as Kenneth Leung's Accountancy and Charles Mok's Information Technology, pan-democrat Edward Yiu made a surprise victory in Architectural, Surveying, Planning and Landscape, defeating incumbent pro-Beijing Tony Tse who became the only incumbent who lost in the functional constituencies", ". The pro-Beijing camp remained dominant in the functional constituencies. The pro-business Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong (BPA) dominated in the functional constituencies by retaining six seats as well as Priscilla Leung's seat in Kowloon West. The Liberal Party came second by retaining the four functional constituency despite Joseph Chan's unsuccessful challenge against BPA's Jeffrey Lam in Commercial (First) and Dominic Lee's failed bid in New Territories East", ". The Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB) maintained its status as the largest party by winning 12 seats in total, one seat fewer than the previous election, while Regina Ip's New People's Party took one extra seat in New Territories East with a young barrister Eunice Yung who was supported by the Liaison Office. Another pro-Beijing candidate supported by the Liaison Office, independent lawyer Junius Ho, also won the last seat in New Territories West against Lee Cheuk-yan.", "Candidate lists and results\nThe nominations received and validated by the Electoral Affairs Commission listed as following:\n\nGeographical Constituencies (35 seats)\nVoting system: Party-list proportional representation with largest remainder method and Hare quota.\n\nDistrict Council (Second) Functional Constituency (5 seats)\nVoting system: Party-list proportional representation with largest remainder method and Hare quota.", "Other Functional Constituencies (30 seats)\nVoting systems: Different voting systems apply to different functional constituencies, namely for the Heung Yee Kuk, Agriculture and Fisheries, Insurance and Transport, the preferential elimination system of voting was used; and for the remaining 24 FCs the first-past-the-post voting system.", "Aftermath", "New People's Party chairwoman Regina Ip's car was caught driving out from the Liaison Office few hours after the election. Ip initially told Ming Pao her car was at the Liaison Office because she was sending some books she wrote to her friends there. She later admitted she lied about it as she \"was requested by the other party to keep the meeting confidential\". She also denied that she went there to thank Beijing for its support in the election", ". She also denied that she went there to thank Beijing for its support in the election. She was criticised as the Liaison Office had been accused for meddling in local politics and elections.", "Rosanda Mok of the Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood and Erica Yuen of the People Power resigned as chairwoman after the parties' election defeats. Gary Fan who lost Neo Democrats' only seat in the legislature also resigned from the party's executive committee", ". Three Neo Democrats' Sha Tin District Councillors, Yau Man-chun, Billy Chan Shiu-yeung and Sunny Chiu Chu-pong, who campaigned for another pro-democrat Andrew Cheng without the party's consent were expelled from the party after the election. Fan criticised Cheng, Fan's mentor, for splitting the votes and causing his defeat.", "Benny Tai's tactical voting plan ThunderGo was also blamed for causing the losses of the veteran pan-democrats, including Labour Party's Lee Cheuk-yan, as well as Civic Passion's Wong Yeung-tat, in whom the plan advise to drop to make way for League of Social Democrats' Wong Ho-ming and People Power's Tam Tak-chi in New Territories West and Kowloon East respectively. The seats were eventually won by pro-Beijing independents Junius Ho and Paul Tse in those constituencies", ". Benny Tai said the root of the matter was the fragmenting of the opposition camp, leading to many candidate lists which led to the need for tactical voting.", "After the election, nonpartisan Eddie Chu, who was widely known for taking on the Heung Yee Kuk over its land rights, complained of \"imminent\" death threats against him and his family", ". Chu's campaign drew public attention to the long-time allegations of collusion between the government, business, landlords and triads behind the Wang Chau housing project, which made the government to scale down the housing project from 17,000 flats to only 4,000 due to the pressure from the powerful rural leader Tsang Shu-wo who owned the brownfield land in Wang Chau. He was placed under round-the-clock protection by the police days after the election", ". He was placed under round-the-clock protection by the police days after the election. The incident escalated into the a major political crisis in the following weeks as the government was questioned over the alleged collusion.", "On 8 September, Chan Ho-tin of the Hong Kong National Party (HKNP) who was disqualified from standing in the election challenged the government through an election petition. Edward Leung of Hong Kong Indigenous also filed his legal petition over his disqualification on 7 October. On 13 February 2018, the High Court ruled against Chan Ho-tin on his petition.", "See also\n6th Legislative Council of Hong Kong\n2016 President of the Hong Kong Legislative Council election\n2018 Hong Kong by-election\nHong Kong legislative elections\nHong Kong LegCo members' oath-taking controversy\n2014 NPCSC Decision on Hong Kong, which affected this election\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial websites\n 2016 Legislative Council election official website\n Electoral Affairs Commission\n Legislative Council of Hong Kong", "Manifestos and platforms\n Civic Party: \"Our Future Our Say\"\n Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong: \"Moving Forward · Hong Kong\"\n Neighbourhood and Worker's Service Centre: Autonomy for the Grassroots and Fight Against Hegemony of All Kinds \n\n \nLegislative\nL\nHong Kong\nLegislative Council of Hong Kong\nHong Kong" ]

[ "The fictional characters from the manga and anime series Blue Exorcist were created by Kazue Kato. The story revolves around Rin Okumura, a teenager who discovers he is the son of the god demon Satan, born from a human woman and the inheritor of Satan's powers. When Rin's guardian dies while fighting Satan, Rin decides to become an exorcist in order to defeat his father", ". Entering into the True Cross Academy to learn how to fight demons, Rin meets several other exorcist apprentices whom he starts to bond with. Critical reception to the characters has been positive for their traits and interactions.", "Main characters", "Rin Okumura", "is the fifteen-year-old protagonist of the story. He is a son of Satan, born from a human woman and is the inheritor of Satan's powers. His powers were sealed at birth into the demon-slaying blade by Mephisto Pheles, the True Cross Academy principal, allowed him to live a normal human life for nearly 15 years with his twin brother Yukio and his foster father Shiro Fujimoto", ". Rin becomes aware of his true identity after Kurikara can no longer seal his powers, setting off a chain of events that lead to the death of Shiro at the hands of Satan, who attempts to drag Rin back to the demon realm, Gehenna. Mephisto Pheles later confronts Rin, who demands that Mephisto let him join the exorcists to fight against the demons", ". Mephisto Pheles—the director of True Cross Academy—personally enrolls Rin into the True Cross Academy so that Rin can pursue his goal to obtain the title of \"Meister\" in Knight, then become a Paladin and defeat Satan. He also wants to earn Yukio's respect. While currently an Esquire, Rin wishes to obtain the highest rank of an Exorcist, Paladin, to prove Fujimoto did not want to use him as a weapon. Rin is also a good cook, preparing meals for himself and Yukio.", "Rin can access the power he has inherited from Satan through drawing Kurikara. The sheath acts as a portal to Gehenna, which, when the blade is drawn, returns Rin to his demon form. While in his human form, Rin exhibits a number of physical traits that are signs of his demonic nature that are intensified in the demon forms. In both forms, Rin can control incredibly destructive bright blue flames, the trademark sign of anything related to Satan", ". However, when he draws Kurikara, the magnitude of the flames dramatically increases and often leads to Rin being \"consumed\" by his own flames and losing his mind. Rin later meets a spirit named Kongo Ucchusma who teaches him how to control his flames (in the anime, this was changed to Shura and Yukio who helped him). Rin also has a Cat Sith, Kuro, who was initially Shiro's, as his familiar, and it has 2 tails like a nekomata", ". When Yukio awakened Satan's power in his eyes and shot him, the demon part of Rin awakens and for a moment takes over his body and nearly kill his friends when he unleash the full power of Satan's flame until Rin takes back control. The resulting awakening caused Rin's appearance to change to similar in appearance with his demonic self.", "Rin is voiced by Nobuhiko Okamoto in Japanese and by Bryce Papenbrook in English, while in VOMIC he is voiced by Daisuke Namikawa. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Ryou Kimura.", "Yukio Okumura", "is Rin's younger fraternal twin brother. When it was discovered that the woman impregnated by Satan was going to have twins, it was believed that Satan's powers would be split between them. Due to the weakness of Yukio's body, however, he did not inherit any of Satan's power, thus being born fully human with the full extent of Satan's powers going to Rin. Yukio did, however, receive a spirit wound at birth from his brother, which allowed him to be aware of demons for as long as he can remember", ". Yukio secretly trained to become an Exorcist from the age of seven in order to protect Rin through the help of Fujimoto. While both Yukio and Rin are in their first year at True Cross Academy, Yukio is already an instructor at the Exorcist cram school teaching Anti-Demon Pharmacology to Rin's class.", "It is often stated that Yukio is considered a prodigy, having already acquired the title \"Meister\" in both the Dragoon and Doctor class, while ordinarily most people would aim for Meister in only one class (both are still fully qualified exorcists). He is currently ranked a Middle First class exorcist", ". He is currently ranked a Middle First class exorcist. Though it is shown that Yukio had once cared for his brother, after beginning to train to become an exorcist to protect Rin, he begins to loathe his brother due to Rin's special treatment as the son of Satan with powers and blames him for their adoptive father's death, which adds to the fire fueling his resentment. However, as the series goes by, Yukio starts to care about his brother like he did before", ". However, as the series goes by, Yukio starts to care about his brother like he did before. Fearing Rin will be consumed by his demonic nature, Yukio often berates him for his impulsive actions and reckless attitude. Despite being usually kind, it is shown that he has a somewhat sadistic side that he hides. During the fight against Todo, Yukio discovers he also inherited Satan's flame through his eyes that unconsciously protects him whenever he was near death", ". The discovery causes Yukio to be obsessed to know the truth behind his and Rin's birth. After reading the file sent by Lightning that contains the Order of True Cross' secret, Yukio came to believe that Shiro never loved him and only raised him to become a living weapon while his brother was loved because he completely inherited Satan's power. His obsession to find out the truth and jealousy towards Rin leads Yukio to join Illuminati.", "In the anime, It is changed so that he has the powers of Satan although this is not canon.\nHe is voiced by Jun Fukuyama in Japanese and by Johnny Yong Bosch in English, while in VOMIC he is voiced by Ryūichi Kijima. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Kimito Totani.\n\nExorcists", "Exorcists\n\nShiemi Moriyama\n is the daughter of the woman who runs an Exorcist-only shop. She is kind and has an abiding love of gardening, but often lacks confidence in herself. Before the series, Shiemi never went out of her home and tended to the garden with her grandmother. After her grandmother died, Rin and Yukio exorcise the demon that was leeching her life force and she decides to become an Exorcist.", "She is currently an Esquire and with Yukio's help, she later passes the exams to study in the Academy's regular classes as well. Initially, Shiemi scored poorly in tests despite her upbringing, but it was soon discovered that she was using the names that she has created herself. After learning to use official names, Shiemi's grades went up. At first while at the academy, Shiemi only talked with Rin and Yukio, but she eventually comes to amicable terms with Ryuji, Konekomaru, and Renzo", ". She also earns Izumo's friendship despite being initially used and mistreated by her. Shiemi becomes devastated upon learning Rin's secret, feeling she is not trustworthy enough to them to have initially included her with this knowledge. However, on the Kyoto mission, she reconciles with Rin upon seeing how much he is suffering as a result of his nature. Shiemi has the talent to become a Tamer and can summon a reliable Greenman spirit that can produce healing herbs and plant-related barriers", ". Shiemi is shown to have great inner strength as she can keep her Greenman around for extended periods without tiring. Her Greenman is able to understand her way of naming plants and is able to produce the correct one when asked.", "Shiemi admits that she doesn't really understand the difference between romantic love and friendship due to her isolated childhood and still considers herself too young for love. However, after Yukio left and Rin was nearly killed by his own flame, Shiemi realized that she has been in love with Rin all along. She is voiced by Kana Hanazawa in Japanese and by Christine Marie Cabanos in English. In the Blue Exorcist musical, she was portrayed by Ari Nakajima.", "Ryuji Suguro", "(nicknamed ) is a stubborn and hot-tempered individual. Despite his delinquent appearance and attitude, he is very hardworking and the best student in class. Ryuji is the heir to the Cursed Temple in Kyoto. Because of the destruction of the temple in the Blue Night and his anger towards his father Tatsuma Suguro, he swears he will defeat Satan and rebuild his Temple", ". When Rin's identity is revealed, Ryuji, along most of his classmates start avoiding him, but after a confrontation with his father and Rin, Ryuji and his classmates help Rin escape impending execution and reconciles with him, claiming that he only blames Rin for not trusting his friends with his secret", ". During the battle with the Impure King he inherits a familiar named Karura (a phoenix like demon which has the ability to use strong amount of red flames to incinerate almost everything and reincarnate when it dies) from his father Tatsuma Suguro, he uses its power to create a Gouhaen (a fire-element barrier) in order to prevent any miasma coming out from the Impure King from spreading further. Ryuji is currently an Esquire just like Rin and the others, trying to achieve Meister in both Aria and Dragoon", ". He later becomes Lightning's apprentice, as at this point Bon had lost his direction in life and needed a new path to follow. He is voiced by Kazuya Nakai in Japanese and by Kyle Hebert in English. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Yūki Tomotsune.", "Renzo Shima", "is a very carefree yet fearful character. He is very loyal to Bon and Konekomaru, since they both grew up with him at the Cursed Temple in Kyoto. Renzo is the second of the cast who accepts Rin after discovering his identity, finding ignoring Rin to be troublesome. He is obsessed with women, and particularly infatuated with Izumo. In elementary school, he was referred to as the \"Erotic Demon\". Now that he is in high-school, he is trying to be more refined", ". Now that he is in high-school, he is trying to be more refined. His hair is naturally black, but he dyed it pink (to the chagrin of his father). Renzo carries a K'rik (Khakkhara) staff to fight like his two brothers and plans to achieve the Meister in Aria. Later in the manga, it is revealed that Renzo has all this time hidden his true abilities as he is capable of summoning high level demons to do his bidding. However, using said summoning really drains him", ". However, using said summoning really drains him. Revealing himself as an spy for Illuminati, Renzo abandons the Academy and returns to the organization, but later his brother confides to Rin and the others that he is in fact a double agent recruited by Mephisto, eventually returning to his friends' side. Despite he claims that he was on the True Cross' side all along, there is lingering doubts among the members of the order regarding his true loyalty", ". He is voiced by Kōji Yusa in Japanese and Brian Beacock in English. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Kazuki Watanabe.", "Konekomaru Miwa", "is a timid but brilliant individual, able to come up with complex strategies in a short window of time. He is very loyal to Ryuji and Renzo, as they had grown up together at the same Temple in Kyoto. He is kind to everyone, but it takes a long time for him to reconcile with Rin after discovering his secret, despite seeing his true character. He is an orphan and the surviving head of the Miwa family. He plans to achieve the Meister in Aria", ". He is an orphan and the surviving head of the Miwa family. He plans to achieve the Meister in Aria. In the anime, a crow demon took advantage of Konekomaru's fear of Rin and possessed him, before Rin is able to save Konekomaru. He is voiced by Yuki Kaji in Japanese and Miki Moran in English. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Jun Muruyama.", "Izumo Kamiki", "Hailing from a family of shrine maidens dedicated to the deity Inari, is easily one of the best students and she is aware of it. She has a tsundere attitude and is offensive towards everyone except her childhood friend Noriko Paku, who was the only one in her elementary school who would talk to her. Very prideful and often difficult to talk to, Izumo does care about her fellow Esquire and is the first of Rin's classmates to accept Rin after his identity as Satan's son was revealed", ". Izumo attempts to achieve a Meister in Tamer, and can summon two Kitsune (foxes) to fight for her. During the school festival, Izumo is captured by Renzo after he reveals himself as an spy from Illuminati. Izumo's past is also revealed; the kitsune she summons actually lived with her family for generations. Her mother loved Izumo and her sister dearly, but accidentally caused herself to become possessed by the nine-tailed fox when her boyfriend rejected her", ". Izumo called the Illuminati for help and they took over her shrine for their own nefarious purposes. After realizing that she has been tricked but was powerless to do anything, she reluctantly attends True Cross Academy as an exorcist student to become a new vessel for the nine-tailed fox in exchange Illuminati won't harm her sister", ". When she was forced to move the nine-tailed fox from her mother into herself, Izumo finally admitted how much she loves the friends she made during her time at the academy and accepted their help. Once she was rescued and found her sister safe but forgot about her, Izumo determines to stop pitying herself and move forward with her life. She is voiced by Eri Kitamura in Japanese and Kira Buckland in English. In the Blue Exorcist musical, she was portrayed by Anna Hachimine.", "True Cross Order", "The is the main organization of Exorcists within the series, a global exorcist institution that is controlled by the Vatican. The True Cross Order has roots in Christianity, and was founded by medieval Christian knights. Originally established as a military order, the organization's centuries-long campaign against demons has allowed it to discover and develop new exorcism techniques from all around the globe. As of today, the Order is the largest and most powerful exorcist organization in the world", ". As of today, the Order is the largest and most powerful exorcist organization in the world. Given that they have defended mankind from demons for roughly 2000 years, the Order trains exorcists. In addition, the Order takes it upon itself to heal humans who have been harmed by demons, as well as to proactively investigate possible demonic activity", ". An additional mission of the True Cross Order is to find and destroy human organizations that support demons and demonic activity, such as Demon Eaters or the Illuminati.", "Mephisto Pheles", "is the Chairman of True Cross Academy's Japanese branch (using the name in public). He is portrayed as a man with more money than sense but is very cheap when it comes to spending on others. After Shiro Fujimoto's death, he is ordered to kill Rin but instead accepts Rin's proposal of becoming an Exorcist and enrolled him into True Cross Academy. Mephisto is a powerful exorcist—he is an Honorary Knight (but does not hold a Meister), and claims that he desires to \"bring peace to both Assiah and Gehenna\"", ". Despite having served the True Cross for at least two centuries, elements of the Order still consider him suspicious. Their mistrust has its reasons as during the series it is hinted that indeed Mephisto has some secret agenda which involves Rin, working behind the scenes regarding the events around him since he joined the order. Mephisto says Assiah is the best playground for him; he fully enjoys Japanese culture, and proudly admits to Rin that he is an otaku", ". He owns a large collection of anime and manga-related items, some of which feature characters from Kazue Kato's first manga series, Robo & Usakichi.", "Just like Amaimon, Mephisto is a son of Satan, making him Rin and Yukio's half-brother, and one of the \"Eight Demon Kings\", originally known as Samael, the \"King of Time\". This is confirmed by how, numerous times in the series, he can be heard chanting \"Eins, zwei, drei\", which is German for \"One, two, three\". In Gehenna's hierarchy of Demon Kings he is second only to Lucifer, his older brother and the \"King of Light", ".\" His ability to transform into a small dog or conjure a giant cuckoo clock are only glimpses of his true powers which allow him to control space and time. Mephisto is suggested to know what will happen, likely due to being King of Time, and has made more than one comment about how he is manipulating the other characters behind the scenes. In a fourth wall break, he tells the readers he believes humans have three desires, which are lust (procreation), greed (financies) and knowledge (curiosity)", ". He is voiced by Hiroshi Kamiya in Japanese and Sam Riegel in English, while in VOMIC he is voiced by Tōru Ōkawa. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Yūya Nakahara.", "His name is derived from Mephistopheles, a demon from the German legend of Faust.", "Shiro Fujimoto", "is a Catholic priest at the Southern Cross Monastery, a Paladin in the True Cross Order (the title awarded to the strongest exorcist), Shura Kirigakure's mentor, and foster father to Rin and Yukio Okumura. He was qualified as a Knight, Dragoon, Doctor, Aria and Tamer through his cait sith familiar, which he called Kuro. Shiro is a man dedicated to his duties and was considered the strongest exorcist", ". Shiro is a man dedicated to his duties and was considered the strongest exorcist. Stealing the demon-slaying sword Kurikara, Shiro and Mephisto ultimately used the sword to seal the demon heart of the son of Satan and Yuri Egin. Shiro then adopted Yuri's children, Yukio who did not inherit Satan's power, and Rin, full inheritor of Satan's powers.", "It is revealed that Shiro is actually born a clone from the Asylum, a facility that gathered orphans and trained them to become exorcists, with a branch called Section 13 serves as experimentation lab to create a suitable vessel for Lucifer. In Shiro's case, he was a clone of Azazel. Resenting the place, Shiro escaped and met the orphaned Yuri and for a while they stayed together until the Asylum retrieved him together with Yuri who was able to see demons", ". Desperate for freedom, Shiro strikes a deal with Mephisto to make him exorcist, though even after reaching the rank of Paladin, he was still bound to the Section 13 albeit having more freedom. During this time, he formed a close relationship with Yuri, and even possibly fell in love with her despite having rejected her earlier love confession.", "Shiro is thought to be the only man in the world able to sustain possession by Satan himself and thus Satan was constantly after his body. He fights off Satan's attempts at possessing his body through sheer willpower, but after receiving a mental shock from Rin accusing him of \"playing father\" and not caring, Satan takes over his body. After Satan summons the Gehenna's Gate to retrieve Rin, Shiro regains control of his body temporarily and commits suicide in order to stop Satan", ". Due to his death, the already tense relationship between Rin and Yukio become worse as Yukio blames Rin for Shiro's death and resents Rin for that. Because of this, Rin decides to avenge Fujimoto by killing Satan with his own hands; he also considers him to be the coolest person he knows. He is voiced by Keiji Fujiwara in Japanese and Kirk Thornton in English, while in VOMIC he is voiced by Yoshito Yasuhara. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Yasuhiko Imai", ". In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Yasuhiko Imai. In 2017 anime, Shiro is voiced by Hiroaki Hirata.", "Shura Kirigakure", "is an Upper First Class Exorcist. She trained under the guidance of Shiro Fujimoto to obtain the title \"Meister\" in Knight and can draw a demon sword from a symbol above her chest when she states, \"Devour the Eight Princesses, slay the Serpent\". She dresses revealingly, with bikini tops and shorts. Her sword skills allow her to fight on par with upper level demons like Amaimon. Frequently chipper and obnoxious, Shura is carefree about her job, as she drinks alcohol in excess and oversleeps", ". She appears to harbor a dark past, as she claims Shiro \"came and rescued\" her. Its later revealed Shura is cursed by a pact her ancestor made with a snake deity; she will die atrders to investigate the Japanese Branch and eliminate anything she discovered related to Satan. Shura intended to dispose of \"her master's mess\", Rin, after verifying that Rin was Satan's son, but Rin convinces her he would become a Paladin and prove Shiro was right to let him live", ". Shura decides to teach Rin how to control his powers in accordance with Shiro's wishes. Later it is revealed that her true mission is to keep an eye on Mephisto, whose real intentions are still shrouded in mystery. She is voiced by Rina Satō in Japanese and Wendee Lee in English.", "Igor Neugauss", "is an Upper First Class Exorcist as well as lecturer in the Academy, who obtained the titles of Tamer, Doctor and Aria. He wears an eyepatch over his left eye, and has Aria incantations and magic circles tattooed on both arms. He had a run-in with Satan when he was younger, which robbed him of his family and the sight in his left eye, which is why he holds immense hatred for Satan and demons that are related to Satan", ". Yet ironically, he is extremely loyal to Mephisto, willing to listen to his every command, which is why he stopped his attacks on Rin prior to the latter becoming an Exorcist.", "In the anime, he ends up the suspect for the Masked Man attacks on those allied with Rin; however, the truth is much worse. \"Someone\" used a demon to bring his wife, Michelle, back to life, and her mental instability at the horrible memory of the Blue Night caused her to attack anything related to Satan, even the friends of his sons. He is voiced by Ryōtarō Okiayu and Patrick Seitz in English.", "Arthur Auguste Angel", "is the newly appointed Paladin. He was ordered by the Grigori to interrogate Mephisto and capture Rin as evidence. Arthur is a respected Exorcist with dubious ethics, as said by Shura to be like a saint on the outside but really a devil inside. He uses the sentient demon sword Caliburn. When speaking, Caliburn shows extreme affection towards him and talks like a love-struck teenage girl", ". Arthur has a great dislike of Rin (simply because of his lineage), being annoyed that the son of Satan destroyed the Impure King. Arthur is a terrible liar, and hinted to be somewhat of an idiot (by Shura) since he always lets Lightning do the thinking for him. In the spin-off, Salaryman Exorcist, it is shown that Arthur has an immense distaste for dirty objects getting near him and draws Caliburn to eliminate the dirt. In the anime, Arthur is replaced by Yukio when Ernst takes over the Vatican.", "He is voiced by Daisuke Ono in Japanese and by David Vincent in English.", "Nemu Takara", "is a quiet and mysterious character that carries around a sock puppet. He uses ventriloquism to talk and he is usually rude. Although initially posing as an Esquire, Nemu's powers are revealed to be equivalent to that of an upper first class Exorcist. He is hired by Mephisto as a 'moderator' for the cram students", ". He is hired by Mephisto as a 'moderator' for the cram students. It's suggested Nemu's puppet is sentient and is actually the one controlling his body, since it was telling Nemu to calm down; adding to this is that Nemu's eyes are usually seen closed, suggesting that he is in a trance. He is voiced by Tsubasa Yonaga in Japanese and by Brianne Siddall in English.", "Lewin Light\n\nOther characters", "Amaimon", "is the \"King of the Earth\" and another son of Satan. Among the Eight Demon Kings, he is the seventh in strength. Amaimon has vast control over the land, such as being able to create earthquakes. He is eccentric and hates being laughed at or ignored. Unlike his father and elder brother Mephisto Pheles, Amaimon initially had little interest in Rin, instead wishing to tour Japan upon arrival, but quickly became obsessed with his younger half-brother after fighting him", ". Amaimon mentions he has a cousin who has an interest in the occult and even goes on to say that he would be happy if he brought him a human eye. After Rin defeats Amaimon in the anime, he turns into a green hamster for the rest of the episodes, running in a hamster wheel located in Mephisto's office. He retains his ability to speak to Mephisto", ". He retains his ability to speak to Mephisto. In the manga, Mephisto Pheles stopped Rin and Amaimon from fighting when Rin went berserk; he is later kept in another dimension, skewered in place by Mephisto until Amaimon's desire to kill Rin cools. Once he promised not to do anything violent for the time being, Amaimon attends True Cross Academy as Mephisto's nephew and is placed in the same class as Shiemi. He has an obsession with sweets, as he is seen with a lollipop in his mouth most of the time", ". He has an obsession with sweets, as he is seen with a lollipop in his mouth most of the time. He is voiced by Tetsuya Kakihara in Japanese and Darrel Guilbeau in English. In the Blue Exorcist musical, he was portrayed by Yūki Tamaki.", "Saburota Todo", "is a former Upper Second Class exorcist, teacher at the Exorcist Cram School, and Director of the Saishinbu, an area of the True Cross Academy containing dangerous artifacts including Right and Left Eyes of the Impure King. He is sly and skillfully manipulates others to achieve his still-unknown goals. After stealing the Left Eye of the Impure King, he officially left the True Cross Order. He can take control of demons and use their abilities", ". He can take control of demons and use their abilities. He seems to be interested in Yukio's development due to him being a son of Satan, and even attempted to convince him to kill Rin. He became hotter by gaining Karura's power. He is voiced by Kazuhiro Yamaji and by Junichi Suwabe in his youth in Japanese and Ray Chase in English.", "Satan\n is the main antagonist and the lord of demons who wishes to take control of the humans' world, Assiah. While father to Mephisto Pheles, Amaimon, and Lucifer, he also fathered Rin and Yukio Okumura through their human mother. When Rin awakes his demonic powers inherited from his father, Satan takes control of Rin's guardian, Shiro Fujimoto, in order to encounter and use his son to destroy Assiah. However, Fujimoto's suicide causes him to lose contact with Rin.", "Years before the start of the series, Satan was a spirit known as Rinka and has yet to develop an ego. He often played with the child Yuri and kept her company as she grew up until he inadvertently possessed one of the clones created at the Asylum. Using the clone, he went berserk like a child throwing tantrum and would only listen to Yuri", ". Using the clone, he went berserk like a child throwing tantrum and would only listen to Yuri. When Shiro defeated him in a game during an attempt to get him to expand his sociality, he began to change, beginning to read books to expand his knowledge of the world and eventually claimed himself to be a god, taking on his current identity as Satan. This belief makes him looking down on other beings and dismiss the value of life", ". This belief makes him looking down on other beings and dismiss the value of life. He escaped from Asylum for six months until he finally returned after the clone body he was possessing began to rot. He took over Section 13 to demand new body while delaying his deteriorating vessel through the use of Elixir. This earned him Lucifer's loyalty and allowed Section 13 to continue their experimentation on the Elixir", ". The Order took this to their advantage to preserve Section 13 under pretext the whole Asylum being taken hostage by Satan. Only until Yuri confronted him and he realized his love for Yuri that Satan decided to abandon Section 13 so he could spend his remaining life with her. Unfortunately, the researchers leaked their plan, allowing the Order to capture the weakened Satan and Yuri", ". While officially being declared dead, Satan's immobile body was used as lab rat for the order to continue improving Elixir, which eventually led to the Blue Night incident.", "In the anime series, Satan once again tries to achieve his plans by using Yukio as his vessel, but Yukio is freed by Rin. He really seemed to care about Rin and Yukio's mother; it was their shared dream to make world where demons and humans lived together in harmony. He meets her spirit at the end of the anime, where she comforts him on his failure by explaining their sons are the first step", ". He is voiced by Keiji Fujiwara in Japanese and Kirk Thornton in English, while in VOMIC he is voiced by Atsushi Imaruoka.", "Reiji Shiratori", "was the leader of the delinquent gang. He attacks Rin after Astaroth, King of Rot takes over his body. Astaroth was exorcised by Shiro Fujimoto and Reiji hasn't been seen since. Reiji was a delinquent gang leader and likes troubling others. Due to his evilness he was further possessed by Astaroth, the King of Rot. He is very sadistic. In contrast with his delinquent personality, Reiji comes from a rather rich family. Later on, it is revealed that he too attends True Cross Academy as a student", ". Later on, it is revealed that he too attends True Cross Academy as a student. He is voiced by Kentarō Itō in Japanese and Derek Stephen Prince in English.", "Tsukumo Kamiki", "is Izumo's little sister. She is four or so when we are introduced to her and about nine years old when we see her after the whole nine-tailed fox mess. After an incident when her mother got possessed by a nine-tailed fox demon, she and Izumo were taken to an Illuminati headquarters. They were told they were there for their \"protection\" and that the Illuminati was \"taking care of their mother\". One day Izumo awoke without her sister without beside her as usual", ". One day Izumo awoke without her sister without beside her as usual. An Illuminati agent named Maria Yoshida said that she had found out they were going to use Tsukumo for experiments, so the night before, Maria had taken Tsukumo to be adopted. She was adopted right away because of her young age. Five years later it is revealed that Maria had not been lying to Izumo, Tsukumo had been adopted by Nemu Takaras' aunt and uncle", ". Tsukumo was safe from the Illuminati because she had been taken in by people protected by the True Cross Order. Unfortunately, when Izumo approached her sister for the first time in five years, her sister did not remember her.", "Yuri Egin", "was the mother of Rin and Yukio Okumura. She was an orphan who was taken by the Order of True Cross to the Asylum where she is trained as an exorcist. She eventually became Lower Second Class Exorcist as a Tamer. Despite her talent, she refused to fight in the frontlines because she loved demons and prefer to work at the Demon Farm. Yuri was well-known and popular amongst her peers, but she only has eyes for Shiro whom despite being outwardly violent, she believed has kindness deep inside him", ". She professed her love for Shiro and got rejected, but this also softened Shiro's heart who gradually began to socialize well with others. Ever since she was a child, she was accompanied by a spirit Rinka, who later eventually became known as Satan. After Rinka possessed one of the clones created by Section 13, Yuri decided to take care of him since he would only listen to her or else he'll throw a tantrum", ". Even after Rinka changed and took identity as Satan, Yuri still decided to wait for the day until he return and then save him. When Satan did return after his vessel became to deteriorate, Yuri confronted and convinced him to stop his obsession in getting a new body, promising to stay by his side until he dies. She eventually bore him twin children and they decided to leave Section 13, but their escape was leaked, resulting them being captured by the Order", ". To cover the existence of Section 13, Yuri was blamed for the entire incident and deemed as a witch for being pregnant with Satan. Despite the consequence, Yuri refused to abort her children, insisting she will protect them.", "In the anime, she was a Lower Second Class Exorcist, and about sixteen years ago, bore Satan's children. Her personality was somewhat like Rin's, rebelling against her father's wishes by living in the forest. Despite being an Exorcist, she regarded demons, such as the Goblins and the Snowmen, as her friends. She believed they were curious about life in Assiah and only acted evil because they resented being ostracised by humans. She first encountered Satan on a mission investigating spontaneous combustion", ". She first encountered Satan on a mission investigating spontaneous combustion. Unlike her companions, Yuri was able to resist being incinerated by Satan's flames. She took pity on him and allowed him to possess her to experience life in Assiah. Not long after, their children Rin and Yukio were conceived. Her own father ordered her to be burned alive after she refused to abort her unborn children. She was saved by Satan and fled back to the woods and gave birth before passing away", ". She was saved by Satan and fled back to the woods and gave birth before passing away. Many have claimed that the twins strongly resemble their mother. She is voiced by Megumi Hayashibara in Japanese and Cherami Leigh in English.", "Kuro", "is a cat sith and Rin Okumura's familiar, but before he was once the familiar of Shiro Fujimoto until his death at the hands of Satan. He is a black cat with two tails (which is considered to be sacred in ancient Japan) who possesses the abilities of change from a small cat into a nekomata, a giant demon cat with immense strength and power, and the demon telepathy, which allow him to mentally communicate with other demons, including Rin", ". In ancient times, Kuro used to be the guardian deity of some local silk farmers, until be forgotten by people as the times changed, going berserk, but Fujimoto tamed him and made him his familiar. He soon gained a new role as one of the guardians of the True Cross Academy. After learning of Shiro's death, Kuro lost control and begin attacking the academy, until Rin calm him down, becoming his familiar in the process. He is voiced by Ayahi Takagaki in Japanese and Stephanie Sheh in English.", "Anime-only characters", "Ernst Frederik Egin", "is an anime-only, non-canon character. He is Yuri Egin's father and Rin and Yukio's grandfather. He holds a deep hatred against Satan and demons for ruining his life. In the anime only arc, Ernst gave the order to have his daughter, Yuri Egin, executed when he found out that she was pregnant with the children of Satan, indicating that his hatred is unbound by family love. His hatred only grew after the blue night, when he was possessed by Satan, who was trying to save Yuri", ". Following Yuri's escape, he orders her and her children to be hunted down and destroyed, and believed that they were all killed. He also is against the Grigori's decision to allow Mephisto to belong in the Order, going along with his dislike for demons. After discovering his grandsons are actually alive and working as exorcists, He recruits Yukio (since he believes that he is purely human, whereas Rin has awakened his demonic abilities) as a part of his plan to wipe out all demons", ". As such, he hates Rin, and even attempts to kill him to open the Gehenna Gate using his blood. He is killed when a vengeful Satan sucks him through the Gehenna Gate he opened. He is voiced by Toshihiko Miki in Japanese and Dave Mallow in English.", "Usamaro\n is a young demon Rin meets in the Phantom Train subjugation mission during the events of the movie. He seems to be sealed in a shrine for an unknown reason. He is looked after by Rin during the festival. He is voiced by Rie Kugimiya in Japanese and Cassandra Lee Morris in English", "Cheng-Long Liu\n is an Upper First Class Exorcist from the Taiwan branch that is featured in the film. Comes to Japan to help True Cross Academy change a new barrier. From an elite family and has high exorcism skills. He is voiced by Hidenobu Kiuchi in Japanese and Todd Haberkorn in English.", "Reception", "The characters of Blue Exorcist have been well received by publications for manga and anime with Rin Okumura's receiving most with Danica Davidson from Otaku USA praising his heroic traits despite his demonic nature. Although Carl Kimlinger found that the cast contained several stereotypes found in other series, the delivery from them made the series entertaining first noting the comedy and then fight scenes", ". In a later review he noted how the secondary characters were given their own episodes to be developed as well other ones where they get closer with Rin. Similar comments were given by Comic Book Bin reviewer Leroy Douresseaux who enjoyed the interaction between the cast, while Chris Beveridge from The Fandom Post noted that while characters' regrouping may feel forced, the revelation of Rin's nature bring multiple reactions to them", ". The designs by author Kazue Kato were also praised for the way its character is given their distinct traits as well as the changes from Rin when using his demonic powers.", "See also\nList of Blue Exorcist chapters\nList of Blue Exorcist episodes\n\nReferences\nGeneral\nBlue Exorcist manga volumes by Kato, Kazue. Original Japanese version published by Shueisha. English translation published by Viz Media.\n\nOther sources\n\nBlue Exorcist" ]

[ "Batman Forever is a 1995 American superhero film directed by Joel Schumacher and produced by Tim Burton, based on the DC Comics character Batman by Bob Kane and Bill Finger. The third installment of Warner Bros.' initial Batman film series, it is a stand-alone sequel to Batman Returns starring Val Kilmer, replacing Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman, alongside Tommy Lee Jones, Jim Carrey, Nicole Kidman, and Chris O'Donnell, while Michael Gough, and Pat Hingle reprise their roles", ". The film's story focuses on Batman trying to stop Two-Face and the Riddler in their scheme to extract information from all the minds in Gotham City while adopting an orphaned acrobat named Dick Grayson—who becomes his sidekick, Robin—and developing feelings for psychologist Dr. Chase Meridian.", "Schumacher mostly eschewed the dark, dystopian atmosphere of Burton's films by drawing inspiration from the Batman comic books of the Dick Sprang era, as well as the 1960s television series. After Keaton chose not to reprise his role, William Baldwin and Ethan Hawke were considered as a replacement, before Val Kilmer joined the cast.", "Batman Forever was released on June 16, 1995, to mixed reviews from critics, who praised the visuals, action sequences, soundtrack, and performances of Carrey and Jones, but criticized the screenplay, characterizations, Kilmer's performance, and tonal departure from previous films. The film was a box office success, grossing over $336 million worldwide and becoming the sixth-highest-grossing film of 1995", ". It was followed by Batman & Robin in 1997, with Schumacher returning as the director, Chris O'Donnell returning as Robin, and George Clooney replacing Kilmer as Batman.", "Plot\n\nIn Gotham City, local vigilante/superhero Batman defuses a hostage situation orchestrated by a criminal known as \"Two-Face\", formerly district attorney Harvey Dent. Flashbacks reveal that Two-Face was disfigured with acid by mobster Sal Maroni, which Batman failed to prevent, causing Dent to develop a split personality.", "Edward Nygma, an eccentric researcher at Wayne Enterprises, approaches his employer Bruce Wayne, Batman's civilian identity, with an invention that can beam television signals directly into a person's brain. Bruce rejects the device, concerned the technology could manipulate minds. After killing his abusive supervisor and staging it as a suicide, Nygma resigns and plots revenge against Bruce, sending him riddles. Criminal psychologist Chase Meridian diagnoses Nygma as psychotic.", "That night, Bruce attends a Haly's Circus event with Chase. Two-Face hijacks the event and threatens to detonate a bomb unless Batman reveals his identity. Acrobat Richard “Dick” Grayson, the youngest member of the Flying Graysons, manages to throw the bomb into a river, but Two-Face kills his family in the process. Bruce persuades the orphaned Dick to live at Wayne Manor as his ward, where he discovers that Bruce is Batman", ". Determined to avenge his family, Dick demands to join Batman in crime-fighting, hoping to kill Two-Face, but Bruce refuses.", "Meanwhile, Nygma adopts a criminal persona, the Riddler, and allies with Two-Face. They commit a series of robberies to finance Nygma's new company and mass-produce his brainwave device, the \"Box\", which steals information from users' minds and transfers it to Nygma's, which makes him smarter in the process. At a party hosted by Nygma, Batman pursues Two-Face and is almost killed until Dick saves him.", "Batman visits Chase, who explains that she has fallen in love with Bruce, and reveals to her his secret identity. The Riddler and Two-Face, having discovered Bruce's secret through the Box, destroy the Batcave, shooting Bruce and kidnapping Chase. As Bruce recovers, he and his butler, Alfred, deduce that Nygma is the Riddler. Bruce finally accepts Dick as Batman's partner, Robin.", "At the Riddler's lair, Robin almost kills Two-Face, but spares him, allowing the latter to hold the former at gunpoint. The Riddler reveals that Chase and Robin are bound and gagged in tubes above a deadly drop, giving Batman the chance to save only one. Batman distracts the Riddler with a riddle, before destroying the Riddler's brainwave receiver with a Batarang, draining the Riddler's mind, and allowing Batman to rescue both", ". Two-Face corners them and determines their fate by flipping a coin, but Batman throws a handful of identical coins in the air, causing Two-Face to stumble in confusion and fall to his death.", "Committed to Arkham Asylum, Nygma now exclaims that he is Batman, flapping the arms of his straitjacket, now completely delusional. Bruce resumes his crusade as Batman, with Robin as his partner.", "Cast\n Val Kilmer as Bruce Wayne / Batman: After coming across the journal of his father, Bruce Wayne starts questioning his act of vengeance. He struggles with his dual identity as a crime fighter, becoming romantically involved with Dr. Chase Meridian.\n Tommy Lee Jones as Harvey Dent / Two-Face: Formerly the good district attorney of Gotham City. Half of Harvey's face is scarred and his brain is also damaged with acid during the conviction of a crime boss. Driven insane, he becomes the criminal Two-Face.", "Jim Carrey as Edward Nygma / The Riddler: A former Wayne Enterprises employee, Edward resigns after his newest invention is personally rejected by Bruce. He becomes the villainous Riddler, leaving riddles and puzzles at scenes of crime.\n Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian: A psychologist and love interest of Bruce. Chase is fascinated by the dual nature of Batman. She's held as a damsel in distress in the climax.", "Chris O'Donnell as Richard \"Dick\" Grayson: Once a circus acrobat, Dick is taken in by Bruce after Two-Face murders his parents and brother at a circus event. Bruce is reminded when his parents were murdered when he sees the same vengeance in Dick, and decides to take him in as his ward. He eventually discovers the Batcave and learns Bruce's secret identity. In his wake, he becomes the crime fighting partner, Robin.", "Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth: The Wayne family's faithful butler and Bruce's confidant. Alfred also befriends the young Dick Grayson.\n Pat Hingle as James Gordon: The police commissioner of Gotham City.\n George Wallace as The Mayor: The mayor of Gotham City.\n Drew Barrymore as Sugar: Two-Face's \"good\" angelic-like assistant. Has short curly blonde hair. She wears a white corset bodysuit with stockings and a fluffy white robe. She shows more of a sweet attitude and tone than a sinister one.", "Debi Mazar as Spice: Two-Face's \"bad\" gothic-like assistant/girlfriend. She is clad in a black leather corset with fishnet stockings on her legs with shiny black latex heels and long black leather gloves and appears as of a dominatrix. She wears most of her brunette hair up with red highlights. She speaks in a seductive malevolent tone. Spice has a twisted sense of humor and vile nature.", "Ed Begley Jr. as Fred Stickley: Edward Nygma's ill-tempered supervisor at Wayne Enterprises. After Stickley discovers the true nature of Nygma's invention, Nygma kills him and makes it look like suicide. Begley was uncredited for this role.\n Ofer Samra as Harvey's Thug\n Elizabeth Sanders as Gossip Gerty: Gotham's top gossip columnist.\n René Auberjonois as Dr. Burton: Head Doctor of Arkham Asylum.\n Larry A. Lee as John Grayson: Dick Grayson's father and leader of the Flying Graysons", "Larry A. Lee as John Grayson: Dick Grayson's father and leader of the Flying Graysons\n Glory Fioramonti as Mary Grayson: Dick Grayson's mother\n En Vogue as girls on the corner who are hoping to see Batman.\n Joe Grifasi as Hawkins: A bank guard and Two-Face's hostage during the opening scene.\n Michael Paul Chan as Assistant #1\n Jon Favreau as Assistant #2", "Additionally, President pro tempore of the United States Senate and Batman fan Patrick Leahy makes an uncredited appearance as himself.\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment", "Batman Returns was released in 1992 with financial success and generally favorable reviews from critics, but Warner Bros. was disappointed with its box office run, having made $150 million less than the first film. After Batman Returns was deemed too dark and inappropriate for children, with McDonald's even recalling their Happy Meal tie-in, Warner Bros. decided that this was the primary cause of the film's financial results. After the film's release, Warner Bros", ". After the film's release, Warner Bros. was not interested in Tim Burton's return as director. Burton noted he was unsure about returning to direct, writing: \"I don't think Warner Bros. wanted me to direct a third Batman. I even said that to them.\" Burton and Warner Bros. mutually agreed to part ways, though Burton would stay on as executive producer. In June 1993, Joel Schumacher was selected by Warner Bros. while he was filming The Client and with Burton's approval.", "Husband-and-wife screenwriting duo Lee and Janet Scott-Batchler were hired to write the script. Warner Bros. had lost a bidding war for their spec script for an earlier project titled Smoke and Mirrors to Disney's Hollywood Pictures. The project ultimately fell through, and Warner Bros. offered the Batchlers several of their film properties to write. Being familiar with the Batman comics from their childhood, the Batchlers chose to work on the next Batman film as their next project", ". In a meeting with Burton, they agreed that \"the key element to Batman is his duality. And it's not just that Batman is Bruce Wayne.\"", "Their original script introduced a psychotic Riddler, real name Lyle Heckendorf, with a pet rat accompanying him. A scene cut from the final film included Heckendorf obtaining his costume from a fortune-telling leprechaun at the circus. Instead of NygmaTech, the company would have been named HeckTech. The story elements and much of the dialogue still remained in the finished film, though Schumacher felt it could be \"lighte[ne]d down\"", ". Keaton initially approved the selection of Schumacher as director and planned on reprising his role as Batman from the first two films. Schumacher claims he originally had in mind an adaptation of Frank Miller's Batman: Year One and Keaton claimed that he was enthusiastic about the idea. Warner Bros. rejected the idea as they wanted a sequel, not a prequel, though Schumacher was able to include very brief events in Bruce Wayne's childhood with some events of the comic The Dark Knight Returns", ". Akiva Goldsman, who worked with Schumacher on The Client, was brought in to rewrite the script, deleting the initial idea of bringing in the Scarecrow as a villain with Riddler, and the return of Catwoman. Burton, who now was more interested in directing Ed Wood, later reflected he was taken aback by some of the focus group meetings for Batman Forever, a title he hated. Producer Peter MacGregor-Scott represented the studio's aim in making a film for the MTV Generation with full merchandising appeal.", "Casting", "Production went on fast track with Rene Russo cast as Chase Meridian but Keaton decided not to reprise Batman because he did not like the direction the series was headed in and rejected the script. Keaton also wanted to pursue \"more interesting roles\", turning down $15 million", ". Keaton also wanted to pursue \"more interesting roles\", turning down $15 million. A decision was made to go with a younger actor for Bruce Wayne, and an offer was made to Ethan Hawke, who turned it down but eventually regretted the decision; he would eventually voice the character in the preschool animated series Batwheels in 2022", ". Schumacher had seen Val Kilmer in Tombstone, but was also interested in Keanu Reeves (who would later voice Bruce Wayne / Batman in DC League of Super-Pets in 2022), Alec and William Baldwin, Dean Cain, Tom Hanks, Kurt Russell, Ralph Fiennes (who would later voice Alfred Pennyworth in The Lego Batman Movie in 2017), Daniel Day-Lewis and Johnny Depp. Cain was scrapped as he was well known for starring in the TV series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. Burton pushed Depp to get the role", ". Burton pushed Depp to get the role. Kilmer, who as a child visited the studios where the 1960s series was recorded and shortly before had visited a bat cave in Africa, was contacted by his agent for the role. Kilmer signed on without reading the script or knowing who the director was.", "With Kilmer's casting, Warner Bros. dropped Russo, considering her too old to be paired with Kilmer. Sandra Bullock, Robin Wright, Jeanne Tripplehorn and Linda Hamilton were all considered for the role, which was eventually recast with Nicole Kidman", ". Billy Dee Williams took the role of Harvey Dent in Batman on the possibility of portraying Two-Face in a sequel, but Schumacher cast Tommy Lee Jones in the role, although Al Pacino, Clint Eastwood, Martin Sheen and Robert De Niro were considered, after working with him on The Client. Jones was reluctant to accept the role, but did so at his son's insistence.", "Robin Williams was in discussions to be the Riddler at one point, and was reportedly in competition for the role with John Malkovich. In June 1994, the role was given to Jim Carrey after Williams had reportedly turned it down. In a 2003 interview, Schumacher stated Michael Jackson had lobbied hard for the role, but was turned down before Carrey was cast", ". Brad Dourif (who was Burton's original choice to portray the Joker and Scarecrow after), Kelsey Grammer, Micky Dolenz, Matthew Broderick, Phil Hartman, and Steve Martin were said to have been considered.", "Robin had appeared in the shooting script for Batman Returns but was deleted due to having too many characters. Marlon Wayans had been cast in the role and signed on for a potential sequel, but when Schumacher took over, he decided to open up casting to other actors. Leonardo DiCaprio was considered, but decided not to pursue the role after a meeting with Schumacher", ". Matt Damon, Corey Haim, Corey Feldman, Mark Wahlberg, Michael Worth, Danny Dyer, Toby Stephens, Ewan McGregor, Jude Law, Alan Cumming and Scott Speedman were considered also. Chris O'Donnell was cast and Mitch Gaylord served as his stunt double, and also portrayed Mitch Grayson, Dick's older brother, created for the film. Schumacher attempted to create a cameo role for Bono as his MacPhisto character, but both came to agree it was not suitable for the film.", "Filming", "Principal photography began on September 24, 1994, and wrapped on March 5, 1995. Schumacher hired Barbara Ling for production design, claiming that the film needed a \"force\" and good design. Ling could \"advance on it\". Schumacher wanted a design in no way connected to the previous films, and instead inspired by the images from the Batman comic books seen in the 1940s/early 1950s and New York City architecture in the 1930s, with a combination of modern Tokyo", ". He also wanted a \"city with personality,\" with more statues, as well as various amounts of neon.", "Difficulties and clashes", "Schumacher and Kilmer clashed during the making of the film; Schumacher described Kilmer as \"childish and impossible,\" reporting that he fought with various crewmen, and refused to speak to Schumacher for two weeks after the director told him to stop being rude. Schumacher also mentioned Tommy Lee Jones as a source of trouble: \"Jim Carrey was a gentleman, and Tommy Lee was threatened by him. I'm tired of defending overpaid, overprivileged actors. I pray I don't work with them again", ". I'm tired of defending overpaid, overprivileged actors. I pray I don't work with them again.\" In a 2014 interview, Carrey acknowledged Jones was not friendly to him, and recounted an incident wherein Jones found him off-set during the production and told him, \"I hate you. I really don't like you ... I cannot sanction your buffoonery.\"", "Design and effects", "Rick Baker designed the prosthetic makeup. John Dykstra, Andrew Adamson, and Jim Rygiel served as visual effects supervisors, with Pacific Data Images also contributing to visual effects work. PDI provided a computer-generated Batman for complicated stunts. For the costume design, producer Peter MacGregor-Scott claimed that 146 workers were at one point working together. Batman's costume was redesigned along the lines of a more \"MTV organic, and edgier feel\" to the suit", ". Sound editing and mixing was supervised by Bruce Stambler and John Levesque, which included trips to caves to record bat sounds. A new Batmobile was designed for Batman Forever, with two cars being constructed, one for stunt purposes and one for close-ups. Chris O'Donnell has his eyes painted black and then the Robin mask glued on him. Swiss surrealist painter H. R. Giger provided his version for the Batmobile but it was considered too sinister for the film", ". R. Giger provided his version for the Batmobile but it was considered too sinister for the film. Nygma's brainwave device and lair resemble rejected concept artwork of Columbus Lighthouse by Russian avant-garde architect Konstantin Melnikov from 1929.", "The film used some motion capture for certain special effects. Warner Bros had acquired motion capture technology from arcade video game company Acclaim Entertainment for use in the film's production.\n\nMusic", "Music\n\nElliot Goldenthal was hired by Schumacher to compose the film score before the screenplay was written. In discussions with Schumacher, the director wanted Goldenthal to avoid taking inspiration from Danny Elfman, and requested an original composition. The film's promotional teaser trailer however used the main title theme from Elfman's score of 1989's Batman.", "The soundtrack was commercially successful, selling almost as many copies as Prince's soundtrack to the 1989 Batman film. Only five of the songs on the soundtrack are actually featured in the movie. Hit singles from the soundtrack include \"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 and \"Kiss from a Rose\" by Seal, both of which were nominated for MTV Movie Awards. \"Kiss from a Rose\" (whose music video was also directed by Joel Schumacher) reached No. 1 in the U.S. charts as well", ". 1 in the U.S. charts as well. The soundtrack itself, featuring additional songs by The Flaming Lips, Brandy (both songs also included in the film), Method Man, Nick Cave, Michael Hutchence (of INXS), PJ Harvey, and Massive Attack, was an attempt to (in producer Peter MacGregor-Scott's words) make the film more \"pop\".", "Release\n\nMarketing\n\nIn addition to a large line of toys, video games and action figures from Kenner, the McDonald's food chain released several collectibles and mugs to coincide with the release of the film. Peter David and Alan Grant wrote separate novelizations of the film. Dennis O'Neil authored a comic book adaptation, with art by Michal Dutkiewicz.", "Six Flags Great Adventure theme park re-themed their \"Axis Chemical\" arena, home of the Batman stunt show, to resemble Batman Forever, and the new show featured props from the film. Six Flags Over Texas featured a one-time fireworks show to promote the movie, and replica busts of Batman, Robin, Two-Face, and the Riddler can still be found in the Justice League store in the Looney Tunes U.S.A. section. Batman: The Ride opened at Six Flags St. Louis to promote the movie", ".S.A. section. Batman: The Ride opened at Six Flags St. Louis to promote the movie. At Six Flags Over Georgia, The Mind Bender roller coaster was redesigned to look as though it were the creation of The Riddler and some images and props were used in the design of the roller coaster and its queue.", "Video games\nVideo games based on the film were released. A video game of the same name, was released in 1995 for Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy, Sega Genesis, Game Gear, R-Zone and MS-DOS, it was followed by Batman & Robin for the PlayStation, to promote the release of the film. Two arcade versions, Batman Forever: The Arcade Game, was released in 1996 and was ported to the three consoles, and a pinball machine based on the film was released in 1995 by Sega Pinball.", "Home media \nBatman Forever was released on VHS and LaserDisc on October 31, 1995. Over 3 million VHS copies were sold during the first week of release. The film was then released on DVD on May 20, 1997. This release was a double sided disc containing both widescreen (1.85:1) and full screen (1.33:1) versions of the film. Batman Forever made its Blu-ray debut on April 20, 2010. This was followed by an Ultra HD Blu-ray release on June 4, 2019.", "Deleted scenes", "Batman Forever went through a few major edits before its release. Originally darker than the final product, the film's original length was closer to two hours and forty minutes, according to Schumacher. There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film's tenth anniversary in 2005", ". There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film's tenth anniversary in 2005. While all four previous Batman films were given special-edition DVD releases on the same day as the Batman Begins DVD release, none of them were given extended cuts, although some scenes were in a deleted scenes section in the special features.", "Reception", "Box office", "Batman Forever opened in a record 2,842 theaters and 4,300 screens in the United States and Canada on June 16, 1995, grossing $52.8 million in its opening weekend, breaking Jurassic Parks record for highest opening-weekend gross of all time (it was surpassed two years later by The Lost World: Jurassic Parks $72.1 million). For six years, it had the largest opening weekend for a Warner Bros. film until 2001 when it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone", ". film until 2001 when it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. The film also achieved the highest June opening weekend, holding that record until it was beaten by Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me in 1999, followed by Hulk four years later in 2003. It was the first film to gross $20 million in one day, on its opening day on Friday. The film also beat out Congo to reach the number one spot. It grossed $77.4 million in its first week, which was below the record $81", ". It grossed $77.4 million in its first week, which was below the record $81.7 million set by Jurassic Park.", "Additionally, the film held the record for having the highest opening weekend for a superhero film until it was taken by X-Men in 2000. That year, How the Grinch Stole Christmas took Batman Forevers record for scoring the biggest opening weekend for any film starring Jim Carrey. While the film was overtaken by Pocahontas during its second weekend, it still made $29.2 million. It then became the first film of 1995 to reach $100 million domestically", ".2 million. It then became the first film of 1995 to reach $100 million domestically. The film started its international roll out in Japan on June 17, 1995, and grossed $2.2 million in 5 days from 167 screens, which was only 80% of the gross of its predecessor Batman Returns.", "The film went on to gross $184 million in the United States and Canada, and $152.5 million in other countries, totaling $336.53 million. The film grossed more than Batman Returns, and is the second-highest-grossing film from 1995 in the United States, behind Toy Story, as well as the sixth-highest-grossing film of that year worldwide.\n\nCritical response", "On Rotten Tomatoes, Batman Forever has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads: \"Loud, excessively busy, and often boring, Batman Forever nonetheless has the charisma of Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones to offer mild relief.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\"", ". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A−\" on an A+ to F scale.", "Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote: \"Batman Forever still gets in its licks. There's no fun machine this summer that packs more surprises.\" Travers criticized the film's excessive commercialism and felt that \"the script misses the pain Tim Burton caught in a man tormented by the long-ago murder of his parents\", but praised Kilmer's performance as having a \"deftly understated [...] comic edge\"", "...] comic edge\". James Berardinelli of ReelViews enjoyed the film, writing: \"It's lighter, brighter, funnier, faster-paced, and a whole lot more colorful than before.\"", "On the television program Siskel & Ebert, Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune and Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times both gave the film mixed reviews, but with the former giving it a thumbs up and the latter a thumbs down. In his written review, Ebert wrote: \"Is the movie better entertainment? Well, it's great bubblegum for the eyes. Younger children will be able to process it more easily; some kids were led bawling from Batman Returns where the PG-13 rating was a joke.\"", "Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle had a mixed reaction, concluding: \"a shot of Kilmer's rubber buns at one point is guaranteed to bring squeals from the audience.\" Brian Lowry of Variety believed: \"One does have to question the logic behind adding nipples to the hard-rubber batsuit. Whose idea was that supposed to be anyway, Alfred's? Some of the computer-generated Gotham cityscapes appear too obviously fake", ". Elliot Goldenthal's score, while serviceable, also isn't as stirring as Danny Elfman's work in the first two films.\"", "Some observers thought Schumacher, a gay man, added possible homoerotic innuendo in the storyline. Regarding the costume design, Schumacher stated: \"I had no idea that putting nipples on the Batsuit and Robin suit were going to spark international headlines. The bodies of the suits come from Ancient Greek statues, which display perfect bodies. They are anatomically correct.\" O'Donnell felt: \"it wasn't so much the nipples that bothered me. It was the codpiece", ".\" O'Donnell felt: \"it wasn't so much the nipples that bothered me. It was the codpiece. The press obviously played it up and made it a big deal, especially with Joel directing. I didn't think twice about the controversy, but going back and looking and seeing some of the pictures, it was very unusual.\"", "Accolades\n\nAt the 68th Academy Awards, Batman Forever was nominated for Cinematography (lost to Braveheart), Sound (Donald O. Mitchell, Frank A. Montaño, Michael Herbick and Petur Hliddal; lost to Apollo 13) and Sound Effects Editing (John Leveque and Bruce Stambler) (also lost to Braveheart).", "\"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song (lost to \"Colors of the Wind\" from Pocahontas), but was also nominated for the Worst Original Song Golden Raspberry Award (lost to \"Walk into the Wind\" from Showgirls).\n\nAt the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated for Best Fantasy Film (lost to Babe), Make-up (lost to Seven), Special Effects (lost to Jumanji) and Costume Design (lost to 12 Monkeys).", "Composer Elliot Goldenthal was given a Grammy Award nomination.\n\nBatman Forever received six nominations at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards, four of which were divided between two categories (Carrey and Lee Jones for Best Villain; and Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\" and U2's \"Hold Me\" in Best Song from a Movie). However, it won in just one category—Best Song from a Movie for Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\".\n\nLegacy", "Potential director's cut", "Cuts were made to the film based on audience reactions during test screenings, like the rest of the Batman film franchise entries. Photographs from these scenes have always been available since the film's release, shown in magazines such as Starlog. Some excerpts from these scenes appear in the music video for Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me. In 2005, Batman Forever was the only film in the franchise to include a dedicated deleted scenes selection among its bonus content on the special edition DVD.", "After Joel Schumacher died on June 22, 2020, media outlets started reporting the possible existence of an extended cut, with the first rumors being thrown in by American journalist Marc Bernardin. Bernardin claimed it to be darker and contain less camp than the theatrical cut. Some of the differences include Bruce having a vision of a human-sized bat, less of an emphasis on Dick Grayson, and a focus on Bruce's psychological issues with Chase. The cut uses about 50 minutes of additional footage. Warner Bros", ". The cut uses about 50 minutes of additional footage. Warner Bros. confirmed that alternative test screening cuts existed after an interview with Variety, although they have no plans to release it and are unsure about what, if any, footage remains. Later on August 7, Kilmer's appearance at DC FanDome fueled fan speculation about the release of a so-called \"Schumacher Cut\"", ". Batman Forever screenwriter Akiva Goldsman revealed in a YouTube interview in April 2021 that he had recently seen the original cut of the film (dubbed \"Preview Cut: One\") and that he expects a rebirth coming up, suggesting all the footage needed to make the Schumacher cut still exists and that the release of a director's cut might be possible.", "In July 2023, following a private screening of a workprint version by director Kevin Smith, Goldsman confirmed that the original cut does exist and even though Warner Bros. currently has no plans to release it, he said he was hopeful for a possible distribution in the future. Some of the aforementioned deleted scenes make up a portion of this footage.\n\nBatman '89", "An alternate six-issue comic book continuation of Batman Returns titled Batman '89, which ignores the events of Batman Forever and Batman & Robin and brings back Keaton's Batman along with Burton's dark setting seen in his first two Batman films, along with elements of his failed third Batman film (particularly, the return of Billy Dee Williams' Harvey Dent and transformation into Two-Face, the introductions of new versions of Robin and Barbara Gordon, and the return of Catwoman), was launched on August 10", ", and the return of Catwoman), was launched on August 10, 2021, with its issues releasing monthly before ending in January 2022", ".", "In response to a question as to whether Schumacher's Batman films are canon to the world of Batman '89, the first two films' screenwriter Sam Hamm, who also serves as the comics' writer, confirmed that the latter two films take place in a diverging timeline and they are not building toward that fate.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n (Warner Bros.)\n (DC Comics)\n \n \n \n\n1995 films\n1990s action films\n1990s superhero films\n\nBatman (1989 film series)\n\nAmerican action films", "Batman (1989 film series)\n\nAmerican action films\n\nAmerican sequel films\nAmerican superhero films\n\nPolyGram Filmed Entertainment films\nWarner Bros. films", "American films about revenge\nCasting controversies in film\nFilms produced by Tim Burton\nFilms directed by Joel Schumacher\nFilms set in psychiatric hospitals\nFilms about stalking\nFilms adapted into comics\nFilms shot in Los Angeles\nFilms shot in New York City\nFilms shot in Oregon\nFilms shot in San Francisco\nFilms with screenplays by Akiva Goldsman\nFilms scored by Elliot Goldenthal\nMad scientist films\nFilms produced by Peter MacGregor-Scott\n1990s English-language films\n1990s American films" ]

[ "St. Gallen is a Swiss city and the capital of the canton of St. Gallen. It evolved from the hermitage of Saint Gall, founded in the 7th century. Today, it is a large urban agglomeration (with around 167,000 inhabitants in 2019) and represents the center of eastern Switzerland. Its economy consists mainly of the service sector. The city is home to the University of St. Gallen, one of the best business schools in Europe.", "The main tourist attraction is the Abbey of Saint Gall, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Abbey's renowned library contains books from the 9th century. The official language of St. Gallen is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of Alemannic Swiss German. The city has good transport links to the rest of the country and to neighbouring Germany and Austria. It also functions as the gate to the Appenzellerland.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history", "The town of St. Gallen grew around the Abbey of St Gall, founded in the 8th century. The abbey is said to have been built at the site of the hermitage of Irish missionary Gallus, who according to legend had established himself by the river Steinach in AD 612. The monastery itself was founded by Saint Othmar in", ". The monastery itself was founded by Saint Othmar in . The abbey prospered in the 9th century and became a site of pilgrimage and a center of trade, with associated guest houses, stables and other facilities, a hospital, one of the first monastery schools north of the Alps. By the tenth century, a settlement had grown up around the abbey.", "In 926 Magyar raiders attacked the abbey and surrounding town. Saint Wiborada, the first woman formally canonized by the Vatican, reportedly saw a vision of the impending attack and warned the monks and citizens to flee. While the monks and the abbey treasure escaped, Wiborada chose to stay behind and was killed by the raiders.\nBetween 924 and 933 the Magyars again threatened the abbey, and its books were removed for safekeeping to Reichenau. Not all the books were returned.", "On 26 April 937 a fire consumed much of the abbey, spreading to the adjoining settlement. However, the library was spared. Muslim slave-raiders attacked the abbey in 939. About 954 a protective wall was raised around the abbey. By 975, Abbot Notker finished the wall, and the adjoining settlement began growing into the town of St. Gall.", "Independence from the Abbey\nFrom the later 12th century, the town of St. Gall increasingly pushed for independence from the abbey. In 1180, an imperial reeve, who was not answerable to the abbot, was installed in the town.\n \nIn 1207, Abbot Ulrich von Sax was granted the rank of Imperial Prince (Reichsfürst) by Philip of Swabia, King of the Germans. As an ecclesiastical principality, the Abbey of St. Gallen was to constitute an important territorial state and a major regional power in northern Switzerland.", "The city of St. Gallen proper progressively freed itself from the rule of the abbot. Abbot Wilhelm von Montfort in 1291 granted special privileges to the citizens. By about 1353 the guilds, headed by the cloth-weavers guild, had gained control of the civic government. In 1415 the city bought its liberty from the German king Sigismund.", "Ally of the Swiss Confederacy\nIn 1405, the Appenzell estates of the abbot successfully rebelled and in 1411 they became allies of the Old Swiss Confederation. A few months later, the town of St. Gallen also became an ally. They joined the \"everlasting alliance\" as full members of the Confederation in 1454 and in 1457 became completely free from the abbot.\n\nHowever, in 1451 the abbey became an ally of Zurich, Lucerne, Schwyz, and Glarus who were all members of the Confederation.", "Ulrich Varnbüler was an early mayor of St. Gallen and perhaps one of the most colorful. Hans, the father of Ulrich, was prominent in city affairs in St. Gallen in the early 15th century. Ulrich entered public affairs in the early 1460s and attained the various offices and honours that are available to a talented and ambitious man. He demonstrated fine qualities as field commander of the St. Gallen troops in the Burgundian Wars.", "In the Battle of Grandson (1476) his troops were part of the advance units of the Confederation and took part in their famous attack. A large painting of Ulrich returning triumphantly to a hero's welcome in St. Gallen is still displayed in St. Gallen.", "After the war, Varnbüler often represented St. Gallen at the various parliaments of the Confederation. In December 1480, Varnbüler was offered the position of mayor for the first time. From that time on, he served in several leadership positions and was considered the city's intellectual and political leader.\n\nAccording to Vadian, who understood his contemporaries well, \"Ulrich was a very intelligent, observant, and eloquent man who enjoyed the trust of the citizenry to a high degree.\"", "His reputation among the Confederates was also substantial. However, in the late 1480s, he became involved in a conflict that was to have serious negative consequences for him and for the city.\n\nIn 1463, Ulrich Rösch had assumed the management of the abbey of Saint Gall. He was an ambitious prelate, whose goal was to return the abbey to prominence by every possible means, following the losses of the Appenzell War.", "His restless ambition offended the political and material interests of his neighbours. When he arranged for the help of the Pope and the Emperor to carry out a plan to move the abbey to Rorschach on Lake Constance, he encountered stiff resistance from the St. Gallen citizenry, other clerics, and the Appenzell nobility in the Rhine Valley, who were concerned for their holdings.", "At this point, Varnbüler entered the conflict against the prelate. He wanted to restrain the increase of the abbey's power and at the same time increase the power of the town that had been restricted in its development. For this purpose he established contact with farmers and Appenzell residents (led by the fanatical Hermann Schwendiner) who were seeking an opportunity to weaken the abbot.", "Initially, he protested to the abbot and the representatives of the four sponsoring Confederate cantons (Zurich, Lucerne, Schwyz, and Glarus) against the construction of the new abbey in Rorschach. Then on 28 July 1489 he had armed troops from St. Gallen and Appenzell destroy the buildings already under construction, an attack known as the Rorschacher Klosterbruch.", "When the Abbot complained to the Confederates about the damage and demanded full compensation, Ulrich responded with a countersuit, and in cooperation with Schwendiner rejected the arbitration efforts of the non-partisan Confederates. He motivated the clerics from Wil to Rorschach to abandon their loyalty to the abbey and spoke against the abbey at a meeting of the townspeople at Waldkirch, where the popular league was formed", ". He was confident that the four sponsoring cantons would not intervene with force, due to the prevailing tensions between the Confederation and the Swabian League. He was strengthened in his resolve when the people of St. Gallen re-elected him as their highest magistrate in 1490.", "Invasion of 1490", "Ulrich Varnbüler had made a serious miscalculation. In early 1490, the four cantons decided to carry out their duty to the abbey and to invade the St. Gallen canton with an armed force. The people of Appenzell and the local clerics submitted to this force without significant resistance, while the city of St. Gallen braced itself for a fight to the finish", ". Gallen braced itself for a fight to the finish. However, when they learned that their compatriots had given up the fight, they lost confidence, and they agreed to a settlement that greatly restricted the city's power and burdened the city with serious penalties and reparation payments.", "Ulrich, overwhelmed by the responsibility for his political decisions, panicked in the face of the approaching enemy who wanted him apprehended. His life was in great danger, and he was forced to escape from the city disguised as a messenger. He made his way to Lindau and to Innsbruck and the court of King Maximilian. The victors confiscated those of his properties that lay outside of the city of St. Gallen and banned him from the Confederation", ". Gallen and banned him from the Confederation. Ulrich then appealed to the imperial court (as did Schwendiner, who had fled with him) for the return of his property.", "The suit had the support of Friedrich II and Maximilian and the trial threatened to drag on for years: it was continued by Ulrich's sons Hans and Ulrich after his death in 1496, and eventually the Varnbülers regained their properties. However, other political ramifications resulted from the court action, because the Confederation gained ownership of the city of St. Gallen and rejected the inroads of the empire. Thus, the conflict strengthened the relationship between the Confederation and the city of St", ". Thus, the conflict strengthened the relationship between the Confederation and the city of St. Gallen. On the other hand, the matter deepened the alienation between Switzerland and the German Holy Roman Empire, which eventually led to a total separation after the Swabian War.", "Despite the unpropitious end of his career, Ulrich Varnbüler is immortalized in a famous woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, which is now part of the Smithsonian Institution's woodcut collection in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.\n\nAmong Varnbüler's sons, the eldest (Hans/Johann) became the mayor of Lindau. He is the patriarch of the Baden and Württemberg Varnbülers.", "Reformation\nStarting in 1526 then-mayor and humanist Joachim von Watt (Vadian) introduced the Protestant Reformation into St. Gallen. The town converted to the new religion while the abbey remained Roman Catholic. While iconoclastic riots forced the monks to flee the city and remove images from the city's churches, the fortified abbey remained untouched. The abbey would remain a Catholic stronghold in the Protestant city until 1803.", "Modern history\nIn 1798 Napoleon invaded the Old Swiss Confederation, destroying the Ancien Régime. Under the Helvetic Republic both the abbey and the city lost their power and were combined with Appenzell into the Canton of Säntis. The Helvetic Republic was widely unpopular in Switzerland and was overthrown in 1803. Following the Act of Mediation the city of St. Gallen became the capital of the Protestant Canton of St. Gallen.", "One of the first acts of the new canton was to suppress the abbey. The monks were driven from the abbey; the last abbot died in Muri in 1829. In 1846 a rearrangement in the local dioceses made St. Gall a separate diocese, with the abbey church as its cathedral and a portion of the monastic buildings designated the bishop's residence.\n\nGustav Adolf IV, former king of Sweden, spent the last years of his life in St. Gallen, and died there in 1837.", "In the 15th century, St. Gallen became known for producing quality textiles. In 1714, the zenith was reached with a yearly production of 38,000 pieces of cloth. The first depression occurred in the middle of the 18th century, caused by strong foreign competition and reforms in methods of cotton production. But St. Gallen recovered and an even more prosperous era arrived.", "At the beginning of the 19th century, the first embroidery machines were developed in St. Gallen. In 1910 the embroidery production constituted the largest export branch (18% of the total export value) in Switzerland and more than half of the worldwide production of embroidery originated in St. Gallen. One fifth of the population of the eastern part of Switzerland was involved with the textile industry. However, World War I and the Great Depression caused another severe crisis for St. Gallen embroidery", ". Gallen embroidery. Only in the 1950s did the textile industry recover somewhat. Nowadays, because of competition and the prevalence of computer-operated embroidery machines, only a reduced textile industry has survived in St. Gallen; but its embroidered textiles are still popular with Parisian haute couture designers.", "Geography and climate\n\nTopography\nSt. Gallen is situated in the northeastern part of Switzerland in a valley about above sea level. It is one of the highest cities in Switzerland and thus receives abundant winter snow. The city lies between Lake Constance and the mountains of the Appenzell Alps (with the Säntis as the highest peak at ). It therefore offers excellent recreation areas nearby.", "As the city center is built on an unstable turf ground (its founder Gallus was looking for a site for a hermitage, not for a city), all buildings on the valley floor must be built on piles. For example, the entire foundation of the train station and its plaza are based on hundreds of piles.", "St. Gallen has an area, , of . Of this area, 27.7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 28.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 42.1% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (1.9%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes).\n\nClimate\nSt. Gallen has a humid continental climate (Dfb) with short, warm summers and long, moderately cold winters. Precipitation is very high year round. St. Gallen has a very cloudy climate.", "Between 1981 and 2010 St. Gallen had an average of 141 days of rain or snow per year and on average received of precipitation. The wettest month was July during which time St. Gallen received an average of of rain. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 13.8 days. The month with the most days of precipitation were June and July May. The driest month of the year was February with an average of of precipitation over 9.1 days.", "Radioactivity", "St. Gallen is notable for reporting the highest maximum radioactivity measurements of any Swiss city, as published in the 2009 yearly report by the Federal Office of Public Health. While the daily average level of gamma-ray radioactivity in the city is unremarkable at 105 nSv/h, the maximum can reach 195 nSv/h, as high as the average for Jungfraujoch, the location with the highest reported level of radioactivity in Switzerland, due to its high elevation and therefore greater exposure to cosmic rays", ". The same report explains that the unusually high spikes of radioactivity measured in St. Gallen are due to radioactive products of radon gas being washed to the ground during heavy storms, but does not explain where the sufficient quantities of radon gas and its products to account for the anomaly would come from. The yearly report for 2009 on risks associated with radon published by the same governmental agency shows St. Gallen to lie in an area of the lowest level of radon exposure", ". Gallen to lie in an area of the lowest level of radon exposure. In addition to the measured gamma-radiation, the city may be subject to radioactive tritium pollution in Teufen, a satellite town situated 4 km south of the city in the canton of Appenzell Outer Rhodes (this pollution is also covered in the report).", "Politics\n\nCoat of arms\nThe blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent a Bear rampant Sable langued and in his virility Gules and armed and gorged Or.\n\nSubdivisions", "Government", "The City Council (Stadtrat) constitutes the executive government of the City of St. Gallen and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of five councilors (), each presiding over a directorate. The president of the presidential directorate acts as mayor (Stadtpräsident). In the mandate period 2017–2020 (Legislatur) the City Council is presided by Stadtpräsidentin Maria Pappa", ". Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the City Parliament are carried by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of St. Gallen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. The current mandate period is from 1 January 2021 to 31 December 2024", ". The current mandate period is from 1 January 2021 to 31 December 2024. The mayor is elected as such by public election by means of a system of Majorz, while the heads of the other directorates are assigned by the collegiate. The delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz.", ", St. Gallen's City Council is made up of two representatives of the SP (Social Democratic Party) of which one is the mayor, one member of the FDP (FDP.The Liberals), one of the GLP (Green Liberal Party), and one independent. The last regular election was held on 27 September 2020.\n\nManfred Linke is City Chancellor (Stadtschreiber) since for the City Chancellary.\n\nParliament", "Manfred Linke is City Chancellor (Stadtschreiber) since for the City Chancellary.\n\nParliament\n\nThe City Parliament (Stadtparlament) holds legislative power. It is made up of 63 members, with elections held every four years. The City Parliament decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the City Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of proportional representation (Proporz).", "The sessions of the City Parliament are public. Unlike members of the City Council, members of the City Parliament are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of St. Gallen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Parliament. The parliament holds its meetings in the Waaghaus once a week on Tuesdays.", "The last regular election of the City Parliament was held on 27 September 2020 for the mandate period () from January 2021 to December 2024", ". Currently the City Parliament consists of 17 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) and one of its junior section, the JUSO, 11 The Liberals (FDP/PLR), 8 Green Liberal Party (GLP/PVL), 8 Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), 8 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), 7 Green Party (GPS/PES) and 1 of its junior section, the JungeGr, one representative of the Evangelical People's Party (EVP), and one member of the Politische Frauengruppe (PFG) (Political Women Group).", "National elections\n\nNational Council\n\nIn the 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 24.4% (-3.8) of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (17.5%, +8.3), the SVP (16.5%, -4.6), FDP (14.4%, +0.1), the CVP (12.6%, +0.4), and the GLP (10.9%, +4.4). In the federal election a total of 18,821 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 42.9%.", "In the 2015 election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SPS which received 28.1% of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the SVP (21.1%), the FDP (14.3%), the CVP (12.2%), the GPS (9.2%), and the GLP (6.6%). In the federal election, a total of 20,768 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.0%.\n\nInternational relations \n\nSt. Gallen is twinned with:\n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation", "International relations \n\nSt. Gallen is twinned with:\n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation\n\nSt. Gallen has a population (as of ) of . , about 31.4% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. The population has grown at 4.4% per year. Most of the population () speaks German (83.0%), with Italian being second most common (3.7%) and Serbo-Croatian being third (3.7%). Of the Swiss national languages (), 60,297 speak German, 575 people speak French, 2,722 people speak Italian, and 147 people speak Romansh.", "The age distribution, , in St. Gallen is: 6,742 (9.3%) between 0 and 9 years old; 7,595 (10.5%) between 10 and 19; 12,574 (17.3%) between 20 and 29; 11,735 (16.2%) between 30 and 39; 9,535 (13.1%) between 40 and 49; 8,432 (11.6%) between 50 and 59; 6,461 (8.9%) between 60 and 69; 5,633 (7.8%) between 70 and 79; 3,255 (4.5%) between 80 and 89; 655 (0.9%) between 90 and 99; 9 people (0.0%) aged 100 or more.", "there were 16,166 people (22.3%) who were living alone in private dwellings; 17,137 (or 23.6%) who were part of a couple (married or otherwise committed) without children, and 27,937 (or 38.5%) who were part of a couple with children. There were 4,533 (or 6", ".5%) who were part of a couple with children. There were 4,533 (or 6.2%) people who lived in single parent home, while there are 419 persons who were adult children living with one or both parents, 475 persons who lived in a household made up of relatives, 2,296 who lived household made up of unrelated persons, and 3,663 who are either institutionalized or live in another type of collective housing.", "Historical population\nThe historical population is given in the following table:", "Economy", ", St. Gallen had an unemployment rate of 2.69%. , there were 336 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 95 businesses involved in this sector. 11,227 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 707 businesses in this sector. 48,729 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 4,035 businesses in this sector. the average unemployment rate was 4.5%", ". the average unemployment rate was 4.5%. There were 4857 businesses in the municipality of which 689 were involved in the secondary sector of the economy while 4102 were involved in the third. there were 28,399 residents who worked in the municipality, while 8,927 residents worked outside St. Gallen and 31,543 people commuted into the municipality for work.", "Helvetia Insurance is a major company headquartered in St. Gallen.", "Religion", "According to the , 31,978 or 44.0% are Roman Catholic, while 19,578 or 27.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 112 individuals (or about 0.15% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic faith, there are 3,253 individuals (or about 4.48% of the population) who belong to the Orthodox Church, and there are 1,502 individuals (or about 2.07% of the population) who belong to another Christian church. There are 133 individuals (or about 0", ". There are 133 individuals (or about 0.18% of the population) who are Jewish, and 4,856 (or about 6.69% of the population) who are Muslim. There are 837 individuals (or about 1.15% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), 7,221 (or about 9.94% of the population) belong to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 3,156 individuals (or about 4.35% of the population) did not answer the question.", "Education", "St. Gallen is known for its business school, now named the University of St. Gallen (HSG). It was ranked as the top business school in Europe by Wirtschaftswoche, a weekly German business news magazine and is highly ranked by several other sources. Recently, HSG has been building a reputation for Executive Education, with its International MBA recognised as one of Europe's leading programmes, and runs a PhD programme", ". HSG is a focused university that offers degrees in business and management, economics, political science and international relations as well as business law. The Master in Management course was Ranked number 1 in 2014 by The Financial Times ahead of HEC Paris. It is comparatively small, with about 6,500 students enrolled at present, has both EQUIS and AACSB accreditations, and is a member of CEMS (Community of European Management Schools)", ". The university maintains student and faculty exchange programs around the world. The University of St. Gallen is also famous for its high density of clubs. Particularly well known is the International Students’ Committee, which has organised the St. Gallen Symposium for over forty years. The St. Gallen Symposium is the leading student-run economic conference of its kind worldwide and aims to foster the dialogue between generations.", "St. Gallen's state school system contains 64 kindergartens, 21 primary schools and 7 secondary schools and about 6,800 students. In addition to the state system, St. Gallen is home to the Institut auf dem Rosenberg — an élite boarding school attracting students from all over the world. The Institut provides an education in English, German and Italian and prepares the students to enter: American, British, Swiss, Italian, German and other European university programmes.", "The canton's Gewerbliches Berufs- und Weiterbildungszentrum is the largest occupational school in Switzerland with over 10,000 students and various specialty institutes. One for example, the GBS Schule für Gestaltung teaches students design fundamentals in the practice of graphic design. The school is located in Riethüsli, a small section of the city of St. Gallen.", "In St. Gallen about 68.8% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Out of the total population in St. Gallen, , the highest education level completed by 15,035 people (20.7% of the population) was Primary, while 27,465 (37.8%) have completed their secondary education, 10,249 (14.1%) have attended a Tertiary school, and 2,910 (4.0%) are not in school", ".1%) have attended a Tertiary school, and 2,910 (4.0%) are not in school. The remainder did not answer this question.", "Culture and sightseeing\n\nAfter the years of Gallus' death, the place became one of the centers of Germanic culture. This is because of the creative works of the monks who followed the footsteps of the city's founder Gallus. This resulted to numerous heritage sites of national significance of the country.\n\nIn 1992, St. Gallen was awarded the Wakker Prize for the city's effort to create a unified structure and appearance in current and future construction.", "Heritage sites of national significance\nThere are 28 sites in St. Gallen that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance, including four religious buildings; the Abbey of St. Gallen, the former Dominican Abbey of St. Katharina, the Reformed Church of St. Laurenzenkirche and the Roman Catholic parish church of St. Maria Neudorf.", "There are six museums or archives in the inventory. This includes the Textile museum, the Historical and ethnographical museum, the Cantonal library and city archives, the Art and Natural History museum, the Museum in Lagerhaus and the St. Gallen State Archive. The entire city of St. Gallen is the only archeological heritage site. Two bridges are listed, the Eisenbahnbrücke BT (railroad bridge) and the Kräzern-Strassenbrücke with a custom house.", "The twelve other sites include the main train station, main post office, University of St. Gallen, Cantonal School, City Theatre and two towers; the Lokremise with Wasserturm and the Tröckneturm.", "Theatre\n In the modern and somewhat extravagant building of the Theater St. Gallen operas, operettas, ballet, musicals and plays are performed. It has an average utilization of nearly 80 percent.\n Since 2006 a series of open-air operas have been performed in front of the Cathedral starting around the last weekend of June.\n In the nearby concert hall, Tonhalle St. Gallen, with its grand art nouveau style, all sorts of concerts (classic, symphony, jazz etc.) are given.", "Museums\n Historical and ethnographical museum (collections of regional early history, city history, folk art, cultural history as well ethnographical collections from all over the world)\n Art museum (painting and sculptures from the 19th and 20th century)\n St. Gallen art gallery (national and international modern art)\n Natural history museum (natural history collection)\n Museum in the storehouse (Swiss native art and art brut)\n Textile museum (historical laces, embroidery and cloth)", "Textile museum (historical laces, embroidery and cloth)\n Lapidarium of the abbey (building blocks from 8th to 17th century)\n Point Jaune museum (Mail Art, Postpostism, 'Pataphysics)\n Beer bottle museum (located at the Schützengarten brewery—the oldest brewery in Switzerland)", "Music\n The symphony orchestra St. Gallen performs as the Orchestra of the City Theatre, presents numerous symphony concerts in the City Concert Hall.\n During the summer open-air opera and various concerts are performed at numerous locations in town.\n The well known St. Gallen Open Air Festival takes place in the nearby Sitter Valley the first weekend in July.\n St. Gallen is home to the Nordklang Festival, which takes place in February.", "Buildings", "Drei Weieren (three artificial water basins from the zenith of the textile industry with art nouveau-bath houses; reachable by the Mühleggbahn (train) from 1893). The Drei Weieren is a water park by day and a gathering place for young people by night. This results in many complaints by people who live in the vicinity about noise, drug abuse and vandalism. Locals jokingly call the three basins \"Lakes with the most THC in the country\"", ". Locals jokingly call the three basins \"Lakes with the most THC in the country\". The young people who spend their time there claim that the Drei Weieren is a place where they can spend their time in a consumer-free environment.", "Convent of St. Gall with the famous library and abbey (UNESCO World Heritage Site)\n Greek Orthodox Church of St.Constantine and Helena, Athonite icons and a stained glass window of the Last Judgement.\n Wegelin & Co., the oldest bank in Switzerland, founded in 1741\n Tröckneturm Schönenwegen; the tower was built 1828 and was used to hang up freshly colored cloth panels for drying.\n Protestant church Linsebühl, an impressive new renaissance building dating from 1897", "Protestant church Linsebühl, an impressive new renaissance building dating from 1897\n University of St. Gallen (HSG; University for Business Administration, Economics and Law with an excellent reputation in the German-speaking world), founded 1898.\n Embroidery exchange, splendid building with the god of trade Hermes on its roof.\n Volksbad, the oldest public bathhouse still in operation in Switzerland dating from 1908.", "Volksbad, the oldest public bathhouse still in operation in Switzerland dating from 1908.\n Catholic church of St. Martin in the Bruggen district; the concrete church built in 1936 was at that time glaringly modern.\n 1992 the city of St. Gallen received the Wakker Prize.\n Stadtlounge (City Lounge) – a pedestrian area in the city center designed to represent a lounge room, but in the street.", "Synagogue St. Gallen – Built by the architects Chiodera and Tschudy, it is the only synagogue in the Lake Constance region that has been preserved in its original state.", "Parks\n Wildlife park Peter and Paul\n City park at the theater\n Cantonal school park", "Regular events\n The St. Gallen Symposium attracts about 600 personalities from economics, science, politics and society to the University of St. Gallen every year. It hosts the world's largest student essay competition of its kind with about 1,000 participants, of whom the 100 best contributions are selected to participate in the St. Gallen Symposium. The Symposium celebrated its 40th anniversary in May 2010.", "OLMA, traditional Swiss Fair for Agriculture and Nutrition in autumn as well as numerous other exhibitions at the OLMA Fairs St. Gallen.\n OpenAir St. Gallen is an annual open air festival in the Sitter Valley.\n Children's Feast, a triennial observance, originally a product of the textile industry.\n Nordklang Festival takes place in multiple sites around St. Gallen.", "Sport", "The football club FC St. Gallen play in the Swiss Super League. They are the oldest football club in Switzerland and oldest in continental Europe, founded in 1879. Their stadium is the kybunpark.\n The football club SC Brühl play in the 1. Liga Promotion. Their stadium is the Paul-Grüninger-Stadion.\n EHC St. Gallen plays in the Swiss Second League, the fourth tier of Swiss ice hockey.", "EHC St. Gallen plays in the Swiss Second League, the fourth tier of Swiss ice hockey.\n The Rugby Club St. Gallen Bishops (Men) was founded in 1990 and Cindies (Women) in 2014. They play at the Grundenmoos sports fields.", "Transportation\nThe large urban area Zurich is 80 km south-west of St. Gallen, a 60-minute drive or train ride (ICN train).\n\nRoad transportation \nThe A1 motorway links St. Gallen with St. Margrethen, Zurich, Bern and Geneva. In 1987 the city motorway was opened, which conveys the traffic through two tunnels (Rosenberg and Stefanshorn) almost directly below the city center.", "Air transportation \nThe Airport St. Gallen-Altenrhein, near Lake of Constance, provides scheduled airline flights to Vienna and other destinations.\n\nPublic transport\n\nBy rail and tram", "Public transport\n\nBy rail and tram \n\nSt. Gallen railway station is part of the national Swiss Federal Railways network and has InterCity connections to Zurich and the Zurich Airport every half-hour. St. Gallen is the hub for many private railways such as the Südostbahn (SOB), connecting St. Gallen with Lucerne, the Appenzeller Bahnen, which operates the Appenzell–St. Gallen–Trogen railway, connecting to Appenzell and Trogen, and also serves as a tram in downtown.", "By bus \nThe city has a dense local bus system, including the city's trolleybus network, which is operated by the VBSG and is well established on the valley floor, but less so on the hills. As St. Gallen is located near the Appenzell mountain area, it offers also many Postauto (post bus) connections. The agglomeration also has its own St. Gallen S-Bahn system (overground local trains).\n\nExpansion - St. Gallen 2013", "Expansion - St. Gallen 2013 \n\nThe \"St. Gallen 2013\" project aimed to improve local rail services, with infrastructure upgrades and new rolling stock. By December 2013, S-Bahn services would run on six lines, at intervals of 15 to 30 minutes.\n\nNotable people", "Early times \n Joachim Vadian (1484–1551), a Swiss humanist, scholar, mayor and reformer in St. Gallen\n Johannes Zollikofer (1633–1692), a Swiss reformed vicar\n Georg Gsell (1673–1740), a Baroque painter, art consultant and art dealer\n Michael Schlatter (1716–1790), an American German Reformed clergyman \n Rev. John Joachim Zubly (1724–1781), a Swiss-born American pastor, planter and statesman during the American Revolution\n Adrian Zingg (1734–1816), painter, draftsman, etcher, engraver", "Adrian Zingg (1734–1816), painter, draftsman, etcher, engraver\n Prof Christopher Girtanner FRSE (1760–1800), a short-lived but influential Swiss author, physician and chemist\n Johann Baptist Isenring (1796–1860), a landscape painter, printer and Daguerrotypist", "19th century \n Gall Morel (1803–1872), a poet, scholar, aesthete and educationist\n Arnold Otto Aepli (1816–1897), a jurist and statesman, President of the Swiss Council of States 1868–1869\n Johann Jakob Weilenmann (1819–1896), a mountaineer and Alpine writer, made many first ascents in the Alps\n Karl Hoffmann (1820–1895), a politician, President of the Swiss Council of States, 1877–1878 and 1889–1890\n Ernst Götzinger (1837–1896), a Germanist and historian", "Ernst Götzinger (1837–1896), a Germanist and historian\n Alphonse Bory (1838–1891), a politician, President of the Swiss Council of States 1886–1887\n Johannes Dierauer (1842–1920), an historian and librarian of the Stadtbibliothek Vadiana\n Samuel Oettli (1846–1911), a Protestant theologian, specialized in Old Testament studies\n Adolf Schlatter (1852–1938), a Protestant theologian and professor of the New Testament\n Arthur Hoffmann (1857–1927), a politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council 1911–1917", "Arthur Hoffmann (1857–1927), a politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council 1911–1917\n Robert Emden (1862–1940), an astrophysicist and meteorologist\n Julius Billeter (1869–1957), a genealogist and Mormon missionary\n Ernst Rüdin (1874–1952), a German psychiatrist, geneticist, eugenicist and Nazi\n Martha Cunz (1876–1961), an artist and printmaker, mastered the modernist woodcut\n Joseph Joos (1878–1965), a German intellectual, politician and MP in Weimar, lived in St Gallen 1960-1965", "Franz Riklin (1878–1938), a psychiatrist, worked with Carl Gustav Jung\n Otto Schlaginhaufen (1879–1973), an anthropologist, ethnologist and eugenicist\n Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974), a physicist, developed the magnetron and the Greinacher multiplier\n Fritz Platten (1883–1942), a Swiss Communist, the main organizer of Lenin's return trip to Russia from exile in Switzerland\n Regina Ullmann (1884–1961), a poet and storyteller", "Regina Ullmann (1884–1961), a poet and storyteller\n Paul Scherrer (1890–1969), a physicist, proponent of Switzerland developing its own nuclear weapons\n Karl Kobelt (1891–1968), politician, President of the Confederation in 1946 and 1952\n Paul Grüninger (1891–1972), police captain, now recognized as one of the Righteous Among the Nations as he saved about 3,600 Jewish refugees by backdating their visas, for which he was sacked", "Charles Stoffel (1893–1970), a sportsman, competed in the 1924 and 1928 Winter Olympics and the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics\n Walter Mittelholzer (1894–1937), an aviation pioneer, pilot, photographer and travel writer\n Ottó Misángyi (1895–1977), a Hungarian athletics coach, sports official and university professor\n Thomas Holenstein (1896–1962), politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council 1955–1959", "20th century", "Jolanda Neff (born 1993), an olympian, cross-country cyclist\n Berta Rahm (1910–1998), an architect, writer, publisher and feminist activist\n Bärbel Inhelder (1913–1997), a psychologist and epistemologist particularly regards child development\n Peter Maag (1919–2001), a conductor\n Walter Roderer (1920–2012), an actor and screenwriter \n Kevin Fiala (1996 – present), an NHL player for the Los Angeles Kings\n Kurt Furgler (1924–2008) a politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council 1972–1986", "Kurt Furgler (1924–2008) a politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council 1972–1986\n Fred Iklé (1924–2011) a sociologist and defense expert in the US defense policy establishment\n Fred Hayman (1925–2016) an American fashion retailer and entrepreneur\n Hansrudi Wäscher (1928–2016) a Swiss-German comics artist and comics author\n Peter Hildebrand Meienberg (1929–2021) a Swiss Benedictine Missionary based in East Africa\n Ines Torelli (born 1931) a comedian, radio personality and stage, voice and film actress", "Ines Torelli (born 1931) a comedian, radio personality and stage, voice and film actress \n Max Meier (born 1936) a boxer, competed in the men's welterweight at the 1960 Summer Olympics\n Hugo Tschirky (born 1938) a scientist, studies management science, technology management and innovation study\n Hans Eugen Frischknecht (born 1939), a composer and organist\n Niklaus Meienberg (1940–1993) a writer and investigative journalist", "Niklaus Meienberg (1940–1993) a writer and investigative journalist\n Ruth Dreifuss (born 1940) a politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council 1993–2002 \n Dieter Mobius (1944–2015) a German electronic musician and composer\n Daniel Thürer (born 1945), a jurist and law professor \n Karl Ammann (born 1948), a conservationist and wildlife photographer in the Congo basin\n Josef Flammer (born 1948), an ophthalmologist.", "Josef Flammer (born 1948), an ophthalmologist.\n Paola del Medico (born 1950) a singer, she sang for Switzerland in the 1969 and 1980 Eurovision Song Contest\n Christophe Boesch (born 1951), a primatologist who studies chimpanzees\n Peter Liechti (1951–2014) a movie director \n René Tinner (born 1953) a recording engineer and producer \n Hans Fässler (born 1954) an historian, politician, satirical revue artist, political activist and teacher of English", "Simone Drexel (born 1957) a singer and songwriter, she sang for Switzerland in the 1975 Eurovision Song Contest\n Susan Boos (born 1963) a journalist, writes on nuclear and energy policy\n Michael Hengartner (born 1966) a Swiss-Canadian biochemist and molecular biologist\n Prince Maximilian of Liechtenstein (born 1969) CEO of the LGT Group\n Monika Fischer (born 1971) with Mathias Braschler is a photographer of portrait projects", "Monika Fischer (born 1971) with Mathias Braschler is a photographer of portrait projects\n Marco Zwyssig (born 1971), a retired football defender, 302 club caps and 20 for the national team\n Aurelia Frick (born 1975), a Liechtensteiner politician, the current Minister of Foreign Affairs, Education and Culture. \n David Philip Hefti (born 1975), a composer and conductor\n Dominik Meichtry (born 1984), a competitive middle-distance freestyle swimmer", "Dominik Meichtry (born 1984), a competitive middle-distance freestyle swimmer\n Tranquillo Barnetta (born 1985), a professional footballer, nearly 500 team caps and 75 for the national team\n Nevin Galmarini (born 1986), a snowboarder, gold medallist at the 2018 Winter Olympics\n Linda Fäh (born 1987), a model and beauty pageant titleholder, Miss Switzerland 2009", "See also\n List of mayors of St. Gallen\n\nNotes and references\n\nExternal links\n \n \n St. Gallen Symposium\n\n QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR) images of St. Gallen\n \n\n \nCities in Switzerland\nCantonal capitals of Switzerland\nSaint Gallen\nSaint Gallen\nSaint Gallen\nSaint Gallen\nStates and territories established in 1401\nCultural property of national significance in the canton of St. Gallen\nStates and territories disestablished in 1648" ]

[ "The 1st Warwickshire Volunteer Artillery, or 'Balsall Heath Artillery', was a part-time unit of Britain's Royal Artillery recruited from Birmingham. It served on the Western Front during the First World War, including the Battles of the Somme, Vimy Ridge, Messines, Ypres, the German Spring Offensive and the final victorious Hundred Days Offensive. During the Second World War it fought in the Battle of France and was evacuated from Dunkirk. Later in served in the Italian campaign", ". Later in served in the Italian campaign. It continued in the postwar Territorial Army, through a series of mergers, until 1971.", "Volunteer Force", "The 1st Warwickshire Volunteer Artillery was formed at Balsall Heath in Birmingham on 30 May 1900 when Nos 3 and 4 Warwickshire Batteries of the 1st Worcestershire and Warwickshire Artillery Volunteers became an independent unit, increased to four batteries. The batteries were equipped and trained as 'position artillery', to cooperate with the Volunteer Infantry Brigades", ". The Volunteer Artillery were part of the Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA), and the 1st Warwickshire were in the Southern Division, Royal Artillery. However, the divisional structure was abolished on 1 January 1902, when the unit was redesignated 1st Warwickshire RGA (Volunteers). Position artillery was redesignated as 'heavy artillery' in 1903. The new unit built itself a drill hall at Stoney Lane, between Balsall Heath and Sparkhill in Birmingham, in 1903.", "Territorial Force\nWhen the Volunteer Force was subsumed into the new Territorial Force (TF) under the Haldane Reforms of 1908, the 1st Warwickshire RGA (V) was transferred to the Royal Field Artillery (RFA) as the III (or 3rd) South Midland Brigade at Birmingham and a separate IV (4th) South Midland (Howitzer) Brigadeat Coventry. The Birmingham unit had the following organisation:", "III South Midland Brigade\n Brigade HQ: Stoney Lane\n 1st Warwickshire Battery (from 4th Bty)\n 2nd Warwickshire Battery (from 2nd Bty)\n 3rd Warwickshire Battery (from 3rd Bty)\n 3rd South Midland Ammunition Column (from 1st Bty)\n\nBoth brigades were part of the TF's South Midland Division. Each battery of III SM Brigade was issued with four 15-pounder guns.\n\nFirst World War", "First World War\n\nMobilisation\nThe units of the South Midland Division had just departed for their annual summer camp when emergency orders recalled them to their drill halls. All units were mobilised for full time war service on 5 August 1914 and moved to concentrate in the Chelmsford area as part of Central Force by mid-August 1914.", "On 10 August, TF units were invited to volunteer for Overseas Service. On 15 August 1914, the War Office (WO) issued instructions to separate those men who had opted for Home Service only, and form these into reserve units. On 31 August, the formation of a reserve or 2nd Line unit was authorised for each 1st Line unit where 60 per cent or more of the men had volunteered for Overseas Service", ". The titles of these 2nd Line units would be the same as the original, but distinguished by a '2/' prefix and would absorb the flood of volunteers coming forwards. In this way duplicate batteries, brigades and divisions were created, mirroring those TF formations being sent overseas.", "1/III South Midland Brigade, RFA", "The training of 1st South Midland Division proceeded satisfactorily, and it was selected for service on the Western Front. Orders arrived on 13 March 1915 and III South Midland Bde entrained on 30 and 31 March for Southampton aboard eight trains departing at two hour intervals. At Southampton it embarked on two transports, landing at Le Havre under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Cossart (a Regular officer) on 1 April", ". By 3 April the division had concentrated near Cassel, and on 10 April III South Midland Bde's batteries were attached to the Regular RFA brigades of 6th Division in the Armentières sector for introduction to frontline procedures. The batteries were allocated a small number of shrapnel shells for registering the guns, but found that the old fuzes issued in December 1914 were useless", ". On 18/19 April the brigade took over its own section of front near Ploegsteert ('Plugstreet') with observation posts (OPs) near St Yves, and the batteries began registering targets in their respective zones. They came under fire for the first time, from German guns in the direction of Messines. The batteries and brigade ammunition column (BAC) then settled to improving their OPs, gun positions and the supply tracks leading to them", ". The weeks passed with the guns firing their small allowance of ammunition on routine targets or in retaliation for enemy fire.", "On 12 May the division was designated the 48th (South Midland) Division. On 6 June the brigade was relieved and went into billets in La Creche. After another short spell at Plugstreet (22–24 June) the brigade left on a four-day march to Auchel. Here a planned tour of duty in the line was cancelled, and on 21 July 1/III South Midland Bde was re-equipped with modern 18-pounder guns", ". It then took over French gun positions at Sailly-au-Bois near Hébuterne in the Somme sector, where 48th (SM) Division joined the newly formed Third Army.", "Apart from occasional exchanges of fire with German batteries, the sector was quiet for the rest of the year as the brigade learned the routines of trench warfare, switching positions, improving gun pits, strengthening observation posts (OPs), registering targets around Gommecourt and harassing enemy working parties. On the night of 25/26 November the brigade supported a carefully-planned trench raid by 1/6th Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment, on Gommecourt Park", ". The 18-pdrs fired in the afternoon to cut the barbed wire, then the waiting infantry attacked when clouds obscured the bright moonlight. The forward observation officer (FOO) with the infantry support party in No man's land called down a previously registered Box barrage onto the edge of the woods to isolate the sector to be attacked. The raid was a success. On 29/30 January the brigade supported another large raid on Gommecourt Park by 1/6th Gloucesters and 1/5th Battalion, Warwickshire Regiment", ". In the new year the brigade was regularly involved in prearranged bombardments of enemy trenches in conjunction with the Corps heavy artillery, and German artillery fire also increased. On 12 February a German observation aircraft ranged heavy guns onto 1/3rd Warwick Bty, causing a number of casualties and leading to the temporary abandonment of the gun positions.", "1/III South Midland Bde formed an additional battery, D Battery, and sent it to collect its 18-pdrs on 3 May 1916. Then on 18 May the brigade was redesignated CCXLII (or 242nd) Brigade and the old batteries became A, B and C. At the same time D Bty transferred to CCXLIII (IV South Midland) Bde in exchange for D (H) Bty (originally from CXXVI Bde in 37th Division, a Kitchener's Army formation), equipped with four 4.5-inch howitzers, which became D (H) Bty of CCXLII Bde", ".5-inch howitzers, which became D (H) Bty of CCXLII Bde. The BAC was also abolished and merged into the Divisional Ammunition Column (DAC) as its 3rd Section.", "Somme", "After a long period of low-level Trench warfare, 48th (SM) Division's first offensive operation was in the Battle of the Somme. In May 48th (SM) Division was relieved in its trenches in front of Gommecourt by 56th (1st London) Division, which was to make a diversionary attack there, while 48th transferred to Fourth Army where it was to be in reserve to VIII Cops for the main attack. After it was relieved CCXLII (SM) Bde moved to Saint-Léger for rest and training", ". After it was relieved CCXLII (SM) Bde moved to Saint-Léger for rest and training. On 13 June Brigade BQ returned to Sailly, and the batteries moved into positions; 6th Bty of the French 37th Field Artillery Regiment was attached to the brigade with 75mm field guns for firing gas shells on counter-battery (CB) tasks and over enemy communications. The bombardment began on 24 June and was planned to extend over five days designated, U, V, W, X and Y, with the assault coming on Z day", ". The 18-pdrs were employed in wire-cutting and 'searching' trenches and hollows with shrapnel shell, while the 4.5s attempted to destroy communication trenches and machine gun positions. CCXLII (SM) Brigade was assigned trenches between 'The Hook' and 'The Point' and back to La Louviere Farm. Each afternoon the guns ceased fire to allow observation aircraft to photograph the results", ". Each afternoon the guns ceased fire to allow observation aircraft to photograph the results. Bad weather hampered observation, and two extra days (Y1 and Y2) were added to the programme, for which ammunition had to be rationed. On the night of 28/29 June the 1/7th Bn Worcestershire Regiment carried out a raid covered by a shrapnel barrage from A, B and D Btys of CCXLII (SM) Bde, which lifted forward to form a box barrage with high explosive shell behind the German front line and shrapnel on the flanks.", "The battle was launched on 1 July 1916. Most of 48th (SM) Division held the sector between Gommecourt and Serre, which was not being attacked. CCXLII (SM) Brigade had little to do on the day, but suffered a number of casualties from German retaliatory fire. The attacks on either flank had been disasters, and orders for 48th (SM) Division to resume the attacks next day were cancelled", ". The brigade continued firing to cut the German wire, on enemy communications, and to support raids, but no serious attack was made on this sector. The infantry of the division had already been moved southwards and had taken part in the Capture of Ovillers", ". On 21 June CCXLII (SM) Bde moved to Aveluy and brigade HQ took command of Right Group of 48th (SM) Divisional Artillery (DA), including A and half B Btys of CCXL (I SM) and B Bty of CCXLI (II SM) Brigades, being shelled with gas as it moved into position. The Group supported 48th (SM) Division's attacks up 'Mash Valley' as part of the Battle of Pozières Ridge (21–23 June). Afterwards the batteries moved up to positions in Mash Valley, east of La Boisselle", ". Afterwards the batteries moved up to positions in Mash Valley, east of La Boisselle. The brigade suffered a number of casualties before it was relieved on 28 June and went to Saint-Ouen for rest.", "The brigade returned to the line at Bouzincourt on 12 August and next morning the batteries took over the guns of the batteries they were relieving, in action east of La Boiselle, with brigade HQ in the Usna Redoubt, looking up Mash Valley. The division was now under II Corps. Barrage firing was almost continuous on 14–16 August as 48th (SM) Division's infantry worked their way from 'Ration Trench' up towards 'Skyline Trench' but were unable to hold it", ". The guns fired defensive and 'SOS' barrages against German counter-attacks. 48th (SM) Division renewed its attacks on 18 and 21 August, finally capturing most of Leipzig Redoubt by moving closely behind an 'excellent barrage'. The division attacked again on the evening of 27 August; this time some of the infantry ran into their own creeping barrage, but the attack was a partial success. Next day the division was relieved amidst heavy rain and mud", ". Next day the division was relieved amidst heavy rain and mud. Brigade HQ withdrew to Bouzincourt, but the batteries remained in action, supporting 49th (West Riding) Division's attacks on Mouquet Farm ('Mucky Farm') and Thiepval. On 3 September the infantry of 49th (WR) Division advanced behind an 'excellent field gun barrage', but the attack on Thiepval failed. Meanwhile, D (H) Bty had remained at Ovillers, shelling Thiepval with HE and gas shells, both SK (tear gas) and PS (Chloropicrin)", ". The bombardment was intense during the attack on 3 September, and the Germans retaliated with tear gas on the battery positions", "On 6 September the personnel of all the batteries were withdrawn to the wagon lines, leaving the guns in position. After a week's rest the 18-pdr batteries of 48th (SM) DA under CCXLII Bde HQ moved to fresh positions to support an attack by 11th (Northern) Division against the 'Wonder Work'. This was successfully carried out on the evening of 14 September behind another 'excellent barrage'", ". Afterwards the attached batteries went back to support the Canadian Corps, but A, B and C/CCXLII remained in position with II Corps on call for CB fire.", "On 19 September the batteries moved into new positions at Pozières to prepare for the next attack on Thiepval Ridge. Thick mud made moving and preparing gun positions difficult, and enemy shellfire continually cut the telephone lines; the attack was delayed because of the conditions. D (H) Battery now returned to the brigade, and B/CCXlII and D (H)/CCXLI were also attached", ". D (H) Battery now returned to the brigade, and B/CCXlII and D (H)/CCXLI were also attached. A wireless station was established at brigade HQ and worked with aircraft from No 4 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps to register the guns on targets that were invisible to the ground OPs. The brigade was also able to respond to 'area calls' from the aircraft", ". The brigade was also able to respond to 'area calls' from the aircraft. The Battle of Thiepval Ridge began on 26 September: the infantry succeeded in clearing most of Mucky Farm and Thiepval village but were late starting towards the further objectives on the ridge and lost the barrage. Nevertheless, most of the third objective was captured. 'Regina Trench' and 'Stuff Redoubt' remained in German hands and the brigade continued to shell these over the following days", ". On the night of 28/29 September it supported an attack by 11th (N) and 18th (Eastern) Divisions to capture the 'Schwaben Redoubt'.", "On 1 October the brigade withdrew, leaving their guns in position to be taken over by their relieving batteries, and collected others from the gun lines of the 18th (E) Division; these guns proved to be very worn. The brigade then moved through heavy rain to new positions at Sailly, arriving on 5 October, joining with CCXLIII Bde to form Left Group of 48th (SM) DA. The positions were ready by evening on 8 October", ". The positions were ready by evening on 8 October. The brigade spent a quiet few weeks at Foncquevillers, wire-cutting and firing on the approaches to Gommecourt. On 19 October 48th (SM) DA was reorganised to bring the 18-pdr batteries up to six guns each. In CCXLII (SM) Bde this was done by splitting C Bty. On 28 October 531 (H) Bty joined the brigade", ". In CCXLII (SM) Bde this was done by splitting C Bty. On 28 October 531 (H) Bty joined the brigade. This battery had been formed on 30 June in theTF's 3rd Reserve Brigade at Cowshott Camp, near Aldershot, and was assigned to the Hampshire TF Association for administration. It sailed to Le Havre aboard the SS N.W. Miller on 22/23 October. The arrival of this battery gave CCXLII (SM) Bde the following organisation:", "A Bty + Right Section C Bty – 6 x 18-pdrs\n B Bty + Left Section C Bty – 6 x 18-pdr\n C (H) Bty (ex 531 (H) Bty) – 4 x 4.5-inch\n D (H) Bty (ex D (H)/CXXVI Bty) – 4 x 4.5-inch", "Winter 1916–17", "The divisional sector continued quiet, apart from a heavy German bombardment early on the morning of 22 October, when they attempted to raid the British lines at Hébuterne. Brigade HQ in Bienvillers was frequently shelled. On 13 November B Bty participated in a false barrage to support Fifth Army's attack on Beaumont-Hamel (the Battle of the Ancre), while D (H) Bty carried out CB tasks. Thereafter normal trench routine continued, with occasional exchanges of fire with German artillery", ". The brigade was relieved at the end of November and moved back to billets in Saint-Amand, with the gun positions at Martinpuich. CCXLII Brigade HQ commanded a subgroup of artillery including LXX Bde of 15th (Scottish) Division, keeping up fire on the enemy trenches and communications. The weather and ground conditions were bad – at one point the brigade had to lay a light rail track over the mud to get an unserviceable howitzer out and replace it with another.", "CCXLII Army Field Brigade", "In the New Year, CCXLII (SM) Bde was reorganised again: on 16 January 1917, C (H) Bty (formerly 531 (H) Bty) was split up to bring the howitzer batteries of the other two brigades in the division up to six guns each. At the same time D (H) Bty was joined by a section from C (H) Bty of CLXXXVIII Brigade (40th Division)", ". On 20 January the vacant C Bty was filled by an 18-pdr battery from 50th (Northumbrian) Division: A Bty (originally 1/1st Durham Bty) from CCLII (III Northumbrian) Bde, which was being broken up. This brought CCXLII (SM) Bde up to the new standard establishment of three 18-pdr batteries and one of 4.5-inch howitzers:", "A Bty (1/1st Warwickshire + half 1/3rd Warwickshire) – 6 x 18-pdrs\n B Bty (1/2nd Warwickshire + half 1/3rd Warwickshire) – 6 x 18-pdrs\n C Bty (1/1st Durham + half 1/2nd Durham) – 6 x 18-pdrs\n D (H) Bty (D (H)/CXXVI Bty + half C (H)/CLXXXVIII Bty) – 6 x 4.5-inch", "On the same day (20 January 1917) the brigade left 48th (SM) Division and became an Army Field Artillery (AFA) brigade. AFA brigades were a new concept developed to provide an artillery reserve, allowing commanders to move field guns to reinforce a sector without breaking up the divisional structure. In practice, CCXLII AFA Bde remained under 48th (SM) DA until 18 March, when it went for rest", ". In practice, CCXLII AFA Bde remained under 48th (SM) DA until 18 March, when it went for rest. It then joined Canadian Corps on 30 March and was assigned to 4th Canadian Division, preparing for the Battle of Vimy Ridge.", "Vimy Ridge", "First Army had assembled a greater concentration of artillery than ever before, with one field gun for every of front, many brought forward to within of the front trenches. The additional field guns were cautiously registered under cover of the preparatory bombardment, which had begun on 20 March, and they remained undetected. Ample ammunition was dumped at the battery positions. Together with the heavy guns, the surprise bombardment of Vimy Ridge opened at 05", ". Together with the heavy guns, the surprise bombardment of Vimy Ridge opened at 05.30 on 9 April was the most concentrated and powerful of the war. The field guns fired a creeping barrage advancing at in three minutes at a rate of three rounds per gun per minute, from one gun every of front, and also laid a standing barrage only beyond onto the first 'Black Line' objective, while the howitzers fired concentrations at specific targets", ". The infantry advanced behind the barrage in the dark, with snow and sleet at their backs blowing into the eyes of the defenders. 4th Canadian Division's objective was Hill 145, the highest point of the ridge; this was the only part of Canadian Corps attack that was held up, but the hill was secured on the afternoon of 10 April. The division's follow-up attack on 12 April also captured 'the Pimple' with the aid of another devastating barrage (including CCXLII AFA Bde)", ". This was slowed to in four minutes, but even then the infantry were held up by the mud. Nevertheless, the scattered defenders were overcome in close fighting amid another snowstorm. CCXLII AFA Brigade was then attached to 3rd Canadian Division from 15 April to 18 May as the Canadians participated in the continuing Arras offensive.", "Messines", "After a short rest the brigade moved north to join II ANZAC Corps with Second Army on 24 May. It was attached to the New Zealand Division for the Battle of Messines. There was a long preliminary bombardment, and this time the surprise at zero hour on 7 June was the explosion of 19 huge mines. As at Vimy Ridge, the field guns fired creeping and standing barrages ahead of the advancing infantry", ". As each successive objective the creeping barrage became a protective barrage while the infantry reorganised for the next phase of the attack. Because of a bulge in the line, the New Zealanders initially had an open flank, which was protected by an enfilade barrage and smokescreen. The division crossed the Steenbeck stream, took the front trench system and moved steadily up the rising ground towards Messines village", ". For the final assault on the village the barrage was slowed, with 11 minutes between each lift. At 13.45 a German counter-attack was launched from their Oosttaverne Line, but their barrage missed the New Zealanders, who had excellent targets to fire at, and the British protective barrage was increased to intense fire; the attack was stopped before it reached the New Zealanders' advanced posts. Two fresh Australian brigades were passed through and at 15", ". Two fresh Australian brigades were passed through and at 15.10 they advanced down to the Oosttaverne Line behind the barrage, now moving at every three minutes. They were held up by undamaged concrete pillboxes and field gun positions, but the defenders panicked when the Australians penetrated between these strongpoints and the barrage passed beyond them, cutting the Germans' retreat", ". Unfortunately, when the leading ANZAC troops were relieved on 8 June the reserve divisions thought they were German attackers, and brought down their own defensive barrage on them, causing many casualties.", "CCXLII AFA Brigade transferred to 25th Division under II Anzac Corps 9–16 June, then went for a month's rest before returning to the line with 3rd Division on 16 July.", "Ypres", "Fifth Army launched the Third Ypres Offensive on 31 July. Second Army transferred several of its divisions to Fifth Army, and received others in their place, including 37th Division, to which CCXLII AFA Bde was attached from 8 August. On 14 August the brigade was itself sent to Fifth Army to reinforce II Corps for the Battle of Langemarck, being assigned to 18th (E) Division", ". II Corps' attack, on 16 August, went in behind an 18-pdr creeping barrage moving at every five minutes, with standing barrages of 18-pdrs and 4.5-inch howitzers on targets in and beyond the area to be captured. However, a planned bombardment of the enemy pillboxes by heavy artillery had not taken place, and that by the 4.5s was ineffective", ".5s was ineffective. Struggling through exceptional mud and held up by undestroyed machine gun positions, the British attackers lost their barrage and the advance was stopped with few gains. When the enemy counter-attacked the SOS flares put up by the FOOs with the infantry were obscured by the German smokescreen, while the Germans' own standing barrage isolated the most advanced troops, who were forced to pull back by the end of the day.", "As the Langemarck fighting died down, CCXLII AFA Bde came under the command of 14th (Light) Division when it arrived from Second Army on 18 August. The division led II Corps' renewed attempt on 22 August to advance up the Menin Road and take Inverness Copse on the Gheluvelt Plateau. Although the copse was captured, it was lost again on 24 August when Germans attacked at 04.00", ". Although the copse was captured, it was lost again on 24 August when Germans attacked at 04.00. The defenders were hindered by their own supporting artillery shelling the wood: all telephone lines were cut and orders to lengthen the range and allow the infantry to hold a line halfway through the wood did not get through until 14.00, by which time it was too late.", "After the failures thus far, Second Army took over the main direction of the Ypres offensive, with a pause for better preparation: the emphasis would be on the artillery. On 28 August CCXLII AFA Bde moved back to Second Army command under X Corps. It was attached to 23rd Division until 4 September, 24th Division 4–13 September, then back to 23rd Division on 13 September. This formation took part in the renewal of the offensive (the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge) on 20 September", ". This time there were five belts of fire in the covering barrages, a total depth of , of which the field guns formed two, the one closest to the attackers moving rapidly in lifts of every two minutes. This barrage was described by eye-witnesses as 'magnificent both in accuracy and volume', and the infantry followed so closely behind it that many enemy outposts and counter-attack groups were overrun before they had time to climb out of their dugouts", ". The barrage then slowed down and the rate of fire decreased, as the infantry worked their way deep into the defence system. A two-hour halt was made in order to prepare for the second phase, but the standing barrage deterred the expected counter-attacks. At 0953 the barrage began moving again as the troops advanced to take the final objective: 23rd Division found these last few hundred yards the most difficult, with a number of concrete pillboxes to be subdued.", "33rd Division relieved 23rd Division and took over CCXLII AFA Brigade on 25 September for the next forward bound (the Battle of Polygon Wood) starting next day. The artillery had moved up and applied much the same formula as for the Menin Road attack. However, 33rd Division was struck by a German spoiling attack during the relief, and its hastily reorganised attack came under heavy shellfire and failed. The barrages, however, completely disrupted German counter-attacks", ". The barrages, however, completely disrupted German counter-attacks. CCXLII AFA Bde returned to 23rd Division, but moved to 5th Division on 2 October in time for the next attack (the Battle of Broodseinde). The artillery had been advanced another along specially-constructed plank roads, and ammunition had been dumped", ". The artillery plan was designed to mystify the Germans as to the time of the attack: full-scale practice barrages were fired several times from 27 September, but the final barrage only began at zero hour (06.00 on 4 October). 5th Division's attack was a partial success. The Battle of Poelcappelle was fought on 9 October: by now the rain and mud were so bad that many of the guns could not be hauled forward, and ammunition supply even with pack-horses was severely hampered", ". With inadequate artillery support the attack was disappointing.", "Many artillery units by now were exhausted, and CCXLII AFA Bde was sent for rest on 24 October. On 3 November it joined XIX Corps, which had assume command of a sector of Fifth Army's line. CCXLII was one of four AFA brigades that took over a frontage from two exhausted divisional artilleries while the Second Battle of Passchendaele continued. On 7 November 35th Divisional Artillery assumed command of the artillery in this sector, including CCXLII AFA Bde", ". On 2 December the brigade was transferred to 1st Division until it was sent for rest on 15 December.", "Early 1918", "On 27 December CCXLII AFA Bde joined IX Corps, first with 30th Division, then with 20th (Light) Division from 5 January 1918. XXII Corps (formerly II Anzac Corps) took over command of 20th (L) Division on 30 January. The brigade was with 37th Division under XXII Corps from 23 February to 20 March, when it left for rest. The German spring offensive was launched next day, but the brigade was continually posted to quiet sectors and was not involved in the major fighting", ". On 27 March it joined 46th (North Midland) Division with I Corps. The division held the quiet Vimy sector until 13 April when the Canadian Corps took over and the brigade came under 3rd Canadian Division. On 3 May the brigade was transferred to 4th Canadian Division under XVIII Corps, which was taking over the Vimy front. but the 4th joined the rest of the Canadian Corps three days alater nd was replaced by 52nd (Lowland) Division, recently returned from Palestine", ". On 2 July XVIII Corps HQ merged with VIII Corps, which took command of 52nd (L) Division. CCXLII Brigade was rested from 17 July to 14 August, when it returned to VIII Corps, now coming under 20th (L) Division.", "Final advance\nThe Allies' counter-offensive (the Hundred Days Offensive) began with the Battle of Amiens on 8 August, and a series of coordinated attacks started on 26 September. 20th (L) Division made a successful", "diversionary attack against the Fresnoy sector on 27 September, but because it was holding a very wide frontage and the German Drocourt-Quéant Line lay ahead, it went no further. Then on 2 October patrols discovered that the enemy had retired during the night, and VIII Corps began following up. 20th (L) Division was withdrawn from the line on 6 October and sent for training, so on 12 October, CCXLII Bde moved to 58th (2/1st London) Division, which had been leading VIII Corps' advance.", "Fifth Army and I Corps took over command of 58th (2/1st L) Division and CCXLII Bde on 14 October and the advance continued. For the next five weeks I Corps pressed steadily eastward in contact with the retiring enemy. 58th (2/1st L) Division forced a crossing of the Haute Deûle Canal on 16 October and advanced to the Douai–Lille railway behind a barrage. After a pause at the River Scarpe, which was held by German rearguards, the division crossed on 23 October and the steady pursuit continued", ". On 9 November CCXLII AFA Brigade became part of the Mobile Reserve. Hostilities on the Western Front ended two days later when the Armistice with Germany came into force.", "2/III South Midland Brigade, RFA", "The 2nd Line brigade was formed in the autumn of 1914, and in January 1915 it joined the 2nd South Midland Division (later 61st (2nd South Midland) Division) at Northampton. While stationed at Northampton, the division formed part of First Army of Central Force, but once the 48th Division had gone to France, the 61st replaced it around Chelmsford as part of Third Army, Central Force, responsible for coastal defence", ". 2/III South Midland Bde was stationed at Ingatestone, moving to Epping in September, Thorpe-le-Soken and Southminster in October and Great Baddow in December. On 17 September Lt-Col W.S. Tunbridge (formerly commander of 3rd Worcestershire Bty in II SM Bde) took command of the brigade, succeeded by Lt-Col F. Hilder (formerly of the Essex Royal Horse Artillery) on 30 October. Training continued, 2/III SM Bde usually carrying out tactical exercises with 183rd (2nd Gloucester and Worcester) Brigade", ". Equipment was scarce, and until the end of 1915 the only guns available for training were obsolete French De Bange 90 mm guns. Twelve modern 18-pdrs arrived in December for training, but in January 1916 the brigade was equipped with obsolescent 15-pounders handed over by 1st Line TF units. In February the division moved to Salisbury Plain for final battle training. Only when the division prepared to go overseas were 18-pounders issued. In May it concentrated in the Tidworth–Bulford area", ". In May it concentrated in the Tidworth–Bulford area. Here on 16/17 May 1916 2/III (SM) brigade was redesignated CCCVII Brigade RFA (307 Bde) and the batteries became A, B and C. It was joined by 2/5th Warwickshire (Howitzer) Bty from 2/IV South Midland Brigade (now CCCCVIII Bde), which became D (H) Bty, equipped with 4.5-inch howitzers.", "Fromelles\n\nThe brigade entrained at Amesbury on 24 May for Southampton, where it embarked and arrived at Le Havre on 26 May, going into camp at Merville. Two days later 61st (2nd SM) Division completed its concentration. The artillery continued training, and sent parties up to 38th (Welsh) Division in the line for introduction to front line duties. From 11 June the batteries of CCCVII Bde moved into the line at Laventie, relieving Left Group of 38th (W) Divisional Artillery.", "The bombardment for that summer's 'Big Push' (the Battle of the Somme) began on 24 June, and 61st (2nd SM) DA joined in, with CCCVII Bde engaged in wire-cutting and bombarding machine gun positions, as well as supporting trench raids at night. The division's first action was the Attack at Fromelles on 19 July 1916, a diversionary operation in support of the Somme Offensive", ". 61st (2nd SM) DA began relieving 39th DA on 6/7 July with CCCVII Bde in the Left Group at La Couture, supporting 183rd (2nd Gloucester and Worcester) Infantry Bde. Artillery preparation began on 18 July but six hours' fire on 19 July failed to suppress the enemy artillery by Zero hour (15.00). The infantry attack was a disaster, the assaulting battalions taking very heavy casualties. 61st (2nd SM) Division was so badly mauled that it was not used offensively again in 1916", ". 61st (2nd SM) Division was so badly mauled that it was not used offensively again in 1916. It returned to the Laventie sector where the divisional artillery continued harassing and retaliatory fire and supporting trench raids.", "On 16/17 September CCCV (2/I SM) Brigade was broken up among the other brigades of 61st (2nd SM) DA to bring their field batteries up to six guns each, giving CCCVII Bde the following organisation:\n A Bty (2/1st Warwickshire Bty + half 2/2nd Gloucestershire Bty) – 6 x 18-pdrs\n B Bty (2/2nd Warwickshire Bty + half 2/3rd Gloucestershire Bty) – 6 x 18-pdrs\n C Bty (2/3rd Warwickshire Bty + half 2/3rd Gloucestershire Bty) – 6 x 18-pdrs\n D (H) Bty (2/5th Warwickshire Bty) – 4 x 4.5-inch", "After the reorganisation, Lt-Col H.A. Koebel (a Regular officer) came with several officers and men from the HQ of the disbanded CCCV Bde to take over command of CCCVII Bde. The brigade withdrew to the wagon lines, and then took over from Right Group of 31st DA in the Neuve-Chapelle sector.\n\n1916–17", "61st (2nd SM) Division stayed in the line until it was relieved by 56th (1/1st London) Division on 28 October, but its artillery remained in position, carrying out a considerable amount of firing. On 18/19 November CCCVII Bde was relieved and marched to the Somme area, arriving at Pozières on 28 November", ". The brigade carried out intermittent shelling on enemy communication trenches, and received some enemy fire in exchange: Maj Attwood Torrens of D Bty was killed on 8 December while moving bis battery to a safer position. He was buried at Pozières British Cemetery at Ovillers-la-Boisselle.", "Following a two-day bombardment, 61st (2nd SM) DA supported Fifth Army's operations on the Ancre from 11 to 17 January 1917. Afterwards the brigade withdrew to a rest and training area at Fontaine-sur-Maye. On 27 January D (H) Bty was made up to six howitzers when it was joined by Left Section of D (H)/CCCVIII Bty. Two days later Lt-Col Koebel was transferred to the corps heavy artillery, and was replaced in command of the brigade by Lt-Col A. Morton.", "On 16–17 February the brigade returned to the line in the Somme sector, relieving French batteries near Framerville. The incoming British troops were greeted with increased German shellfire and raids, to which the brigade responded with large numbers of shells on SOS tasks and retaliatory fire, assisted by a section of 109th Siege Battery, RGA. Exchanges of fire continued until 17 March when the Germans pulled out of their trenches, beginning their withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line (Operation Alberich)", ". The brigade followed up, covering the advance of 184th (2nd South Midland) Bde. On 5 April B Bty joined CLVI (2/II SM) Bde in supporting an operation by 183rd Bde against Hindenburg Line outposts at Fresnoy-le-Petit, while on 9 April the rest of the brigade supported 182nd (2nd Warwickshire) Bde against Fresnoy. As Fourth Army closed up to the new German line, CCCVIII Bde HQ moved up to Soyécourt on 12 April, when 61st DA came under 35th DA", ". On 15 and 25 April the brigade supported attacks against enemy trenches near Pontruet, while D (H) Bty shelled Bellenglise on the St. Quentin Canal.", "Ypres", "The brigade remained under the tactical control of 35th DA, supporting minor operations and raids, until 8 May, when the batteries were relieved in turn by 11 May and the brigade marched to Outrebois for rest. It returned to the line at Wancourt in the Arras sector on 9 June and resumed the usual programme of harassing fire and supporting trench raids until it was relieved at the end of the month. 61st (2nd SM) Division was then withdrawn and went into reserve for the Third Ypres Offensive", ". 61st (2nd SM) Division was then withdrawn and went into reserve for the Third Ypres Offensive. Like 48th (SM) Division it was not committed until the second phase of the offensive, the Battle of Langemarck, and then only late in the battle (22 August), when 184th Bde gained a few hundred yards of ground against camouflaged concrete pillboxes that were invisible to the artillery observers. On 27 August and 10 September the division was again halted by the strongpoints hidden in the farm buildings.", "The division was then withdrawn to the Arras sector, where the brigade spent a quiet period at Athies, supporting regular raids on enemy lines. On 27 November Lt-Col A.F. Bayley arrived to take over command of the brigade, Maj Chance having been in acting command since the summer. At the beginning of December 61st (2nd SM) Division was sent as reinforcements to the Battle of Cambrai, but the divisional artillery was left in position at Athies and did not participate", ". It was relieved on 23 December and marched by stages to the area of Roye, where it was billeted in surrounding villages.", "Spring Offensive", "In early January 1918 CCCVII Bde moved back into the line, covering the spur by the River Omignon that 61st (SM) Division had taken over from the French. Here the policy was to remain quiet, not firing more than absolutely necessary, while working on the defences. Due to its manpower shortages the BEF had adopted a new policy of defence in depth, with an Outpost or Forward Zone, Battle Zone and Rear Zone", ". These were not continuous trench lines but consisted of a series of wired-in redoubts that could cover the intervening ground with machine gun fire. CCCVIII Bde's batteries in the Forward Zone had pre-prepared alternative and reinforcing positions, and an equivalent number of positions in the Battle Zone. Each 18-pdr battery had one gun deployed in the front line for anti-tank (A/T) duties.", "The German spring offensive opened with a massive bombardment at 04.40 on 21 March, and all telephone lines to CCCVII Bde's batteries and OPs were cut by the shellfire. The German infantry advance 6 hours later was covered by fog, and the outposts, OPs and A/T guns were soon overrun. Where possible the batteries fired their pre-arranged counter-barrages blindly into the mist", ". Where possible the batteries fired their pre-arranged counter-barrages blindly into the mist. CCCVII Bde's liaison officer with 1/5th Bn Gordon Highlanders in Fresnoy Redoubt continued reporting until noon, when the redoubt was surrounded; it finally surrendered at about 13.30. An infantry counter-attack from the Battle Zone failed. During the afternoon 65th Brigade, RGA, came under command of CCCVII Bde HQ, which used it to respond to an SOS call from the infantry in front", ". By the end of the day 61st (2nd SM) Division still held its Battle Zone on the reverse slope of the spur, but it was clear that most of CCCVII Bde's guns in the Forward Zone had been lost. Three guns of A Bty were successfully withdrawn during the afternoon, and two of B Bty fell back to cover the battle line west of Marteville before they too had to be withdrawn under heavy machine gun fire. The surviving gunners of B and C Btys retired having disabled their guns; the commander of C Bty, Maj T.J", ".J. Moss, was killed by a sniper as he withdrew his men. D Battery, in the most forward positions, had been overrun early in the day, firing to the last, and few of its men got away, Maj A.C.M. Riecke being posted missing.) During the night three remaining guns of B Bty and five of C Bty were retrieved. While waiting to try to pull out their guns, the gun teams of B Bty were also able to withdraw two advanced 6-inch howitzers for 65th Bde, RGA", ". The brigade lost no casualties during this recovery operation, and also took two Germans prisoners.", "By 08.00 next morning, A & B Btys had a combined battery back in action covering the Battle Zone, while the remaining C Bty guns were sent back to the wagon lines to refit. That morning the Germans put in another heavy attack on the Holnon Plateau north of the Omignon. At 11.30 CCCVII Bde HQ came under heavy shellfire and became untenable, the staff hastily evacuating it and joining HQ of 65th Bde, RGA, at Villeveque before moving to Quivières", ". Meanwhile, the guns and wagons withdrew to Beauvois, losing one gun knocked out by shellfire. Although 61st (SM) Division was holding its own, flanking formations were in retreat, and the division had to retire, the guns supporting rearguards. Towards evening Beauvois became untenable and at 23.00 the remnants of CCCVII Bde was ordered to withdraw through Béthencourt to the west bank of the Somme. By 05.00 on 23 March the brigade was established at Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise", ". By 05.00 on 23 March the brigade was established at Mesnil-Saint-Nicaise. The division went into reserve early on 23 March, but CCCVII Bde remained in continuous action under 20th (Light) Division as a composite brigade ('Bayley's Group') with its own guns (A & B Bty) and those of CCCVI Bde to defend the bridgehead at Béthencourt.", "During the morning of 24 March FOOs observed Germans deploying from buses to attack Béthencourt. These were out of range but the group had an attached section of 60-pounder guns from 111th Heavy Bty, RGA, and these engaged the buses, while the 18-pdrs supported a counter-attack by 183rd Bde at noon. However, the Germans crossed the Somme and a further retirement was ordered behind the Canal du Nord. CCVI Brigade moved out at 13.30 and CCCVII at 14", ". CCVI Brigade moved out at 13.30 and CCCVII at 14.00 under machine gun fire, while the brigade medical officers used heavy artillery lorries to evacuate wounded from Mesnil. The guns crossed the canal near Dingon and retired to Herly, moving further back to Billancourt at 21.00. By now the British troops in this sector had come under French command", ".00. By now the British troops in this sector had come under French command. During 25 March Bayley's Group fired to cover the French withdrawal, and was almost cut off and captured at Gruny at the end of the day, before arriving at Villers-lès-Roye during the night. It continued to fall back during 26 and 27 March, between halting to cover the French, and was in position in front of Le Plessier by nightfall. The Germans made a heavy attack on the morning of 28 March (the Third Battle of Arras)", ". The Germans made a heavy attack on the morning of 28 March (the Third Battle of Arras). With the enemy still coming on, Bayley's Group was withdrawn across the River Avre at Moreuil, the last batteries withdrawing under machine gun fire, by 16.30. Coming under 30th DA, the group shelled the enemy advancing through Le Plessier. By the end of the day the group was deployed west of Montdidier.", "Allied counter-attacks began on 29 March, and at 07.00 Bayley's Group was moved to cover the front from Plessier to Fresnoy-en-Chaussée, coming into action by 12.30 and causing considerable loss to the enemy massing at Plessier. The French counter-attack failed, and the guns then covered their rapid retirement that evening. The batteries continued in action between Rouvrel and Morisel throughout 30 March–3 April", ". The batteries continued in action between Rouvrel and Morisel throughout 30 March–3 April. On 31 March CCCVI Bde HQ relieved Lt-Col Bayley and his exhausted CCCVII staff in charge of the 61st DA Group. Since the start of the German offensive CCCVII Bde had lost 1 officer and 6 other ranks (ORs) killed, 49 ORs wounded, and 7 officers and 56 ORs missing (mainly prisoners). In addition it had permanently lost 6 howitzers and 6 18-pdrs", ". In addition it had permanently lost 6 howitzers and 6 18-pdrs. The brigade now had A and B Btys in action, while the men and limbers of C Bty were acting as a BAC, and the survivors of D (H) Bty were attached to the DAC. The brigade also had D (H)/CCCVI Bty attached.", "On 4 April the Germans put in a fresh attack (the Battle of the Avre), but their advance on Rouvrel was frustrated by the British barrage; CCCVII Bde around Guyencourt-sur-Noye contributed harassing fire by day and night. This marked the end of the German offensive on this front. The brigade was relieved next day and went to Croixrault where it was refitted with new guns and limbers. On 12 April A and B Btys went back into the line under 58th (2/1st L) Division covering Villers-Bretonneux", ". 61st (2nd SM) Division's exhausted infantry had been relieved and sent north (where they were engaged in the Battle of the Lys from 11 to 18 April), but the divisional artillery remained in position at Villers-Bretonneux, supporting British, Australian and French units.", "CCCVII Brigade was relieved on 22–23 April and sent north to First Army. By the end of the month the batteries were reorganising and overhauling their guns at Liettres, some miles from Béthune. From 4 May the brigade began moving by sections into the line at Lillers, coming under 4th Divisional Artillery and settling into routine trench warfare", ". On 20/21 May CCCVII Bde exchanged with 255th Brigade, Royal Field Artillery of 51st (Highland) Divisional Artillery to cover 184th Bde of 61st (2nd SM) Division, which had returned to the line. The brigade supported the usual trench raids. To assist 5th Division's surprise attack on La Becque (Operation Borderland on 28 June) it carried out diversionary wirecutting on its own front and fired a smokescreen.", "Hundred Days Offensive\n\n61st (2nd SM) Division was relieved in the first half of July and CCCVII Bde was pulled out of the line for training at Estrée-Blanche from 14 to 22 July. The division then moved north, where CCCVII Bde came under the 9th (Scottish) Division DA to renovate and construct new gun positions west of Meteren. It rejoined 61st (2nd SM) Division on 31 July and returned to training at Estrée-Blanche before going into the line west of Merville on 9 August with Fifth Army.", "The Allied Hundred Days Offensive was now under way, and by 18 August Fifth Army's infantry was edging forward as the enemy gave up ground, with CCCVII Bde following up in support. On 31 August the enemy began withdrawing again; CCCVII Bde covered the British line and sent spare ammunition forward to CCCVI Bde as 'Advanced Guard Artillery' supporting 184th Bde", ". As the cautious advance continued CCCVII Bde took over the advanced guard role from 4 to 16 September, with B and D (H) Btys moving with the infantry to support local attacks. From 23 September the guns fired for 184th Bde's operation against the strongpoints of 'Bartlett Farm' and 'Junction Post', which was carried out from 30 September to 2 October.", "61st (2nd SM) Division was transferred to Third Army and CCCVII Bde entrained for Doullens on 6/7 October. It reached Anneux on 11 October and became 'Support Brigade Group', affiliated to 182nd Bde. During Third Army's pursuit to the River Selle it supported an operation against Haussy by 24th Division on 16 October", ". Third Army now prepared a fullscale assault against the German positions (the Battle of the Selle) and on 19 October CCCVII Bde was ordered to hold a battery at immediate readiness to support the infantry advance. The creeping barrage for the battle commenced at 02.00 on 20 October under a full moon and one section of each of the brigade's 18-pdr batteries moved into the river valley in close support at 02.45. The rest of the brigade ceased fire at 03.30 and the infantry were on all their objectives by 08", ". The rest of the brigade ceased fire at 03.30 and the infantry were on all their objectives by 08.30. The advanced sections continued moving forward over the following days while the brigade supported 19th (Western) Division's continued attack on Haussy on 22/23 October.", "61st (2nd SM) Division now prepared to make its first setpiece attack in over a year. It was supported by nine RFA brigades, including its own and 19th (W) Division's. On 24 October the 18-pdrs laid down a creeping barrage, and on the right 183rd Bde reached its final objective in good time. 182nd Brigade alongside got held up by uncut wire, but 184th Bde passed through 183rd later in the day with a special barrage and completed the division's objectives for the day", ". CCCVII Brigade was ordered to move forward at 16.00. Next day the enemy retired and two battalions of 184th Bde advanced with close artillery support, CCCVII Bde being attached to 2/4th Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry (OBLI). The division's attempts to establish bridgeheads across the River Rhonelle on 27 October were unsuccessful, but enemy counter-attacks suffered heavy casualties from the single guns that had been pushed well forward", ". The Rhonelle was crossed on 1–2 November (the Battle of Valenciennes), with 182nd Bde behind a creeping barrage making for the high ground and the village of Maresches. The attack was disrupted by an enemy counter-attack, and a repeat attack that evening with a fresh barrage was also held up; 184th Bde succeeded in gaining the bridgeheads next morning", ". The advance was now turning into a pursuit, and CCCVII Bde moved forward daily supporting 19th (W) and 24th Divisions and pulling off the road into fields for the night. There was little firing, but on 4 November a German bomber dropped two bombs into B Bty's wagon lines, killing two men and wounding 17. Hostilities were ended by the Armistice on 11 November.", "After the Armistice CCCVII Bde marched back into France via Valenciennes, and in early December it went into winter quarters around Beauvoir-Wavans. Demobilisation began in January 1919 and on 11 June the brigade moved to Candas for final dispersal, which was completed on 23 June.", "Interwar\nWhen the TF was reconstituted on 7 February 1920, 3rd South Midland Bde reformed at Birmingham with four batteries: the 1st and 2nd Warwicks at Birmingham, a new 3rd Warwicks formed from the former Warwickshire Royal Horse Artillery at Leamington Spa, and the 4th Warwicks (H) at Rugby from the former 4th South Midland Bde. In 1921 the TF was reorganised as the Territorial Army (TA) and the unit was redesignated as 68th (South Midland) Brigade, RFA, with the following organisation:", "Brigade HQ at Stoney Lane, Birmingham\n 269th (Warwick) Bty at Stoney Lane\n 270th (Warwick) Bty at Stoney Lane\n 271st (Warwick) Bty at Clarendon Place, Leamington Spa\n 272nd (Warwick) Bty (Howitzers) at 72 Victoria Avenue, Rugby", "The brigade was once again part of 48th (SM) Division, which had also reformed in 1920. In 1924 the RFA was subsumed into the Royal Artillery (RA), and the word 'Field' was inserted into the titles of its brigades and batteries. The establishment of a TA divisional artillery brigade was four 6-gun batteries, three equipped with 18-pounders and one with 4.5-inch howitzers, all of First World War patterns. However, the batteries only held four guns in peacetime", ". However, the batteries only held four guns in peacetime. The guns and their first-line ammunition wagons were still horsedrawn and the battery staffs were mounted. Partial mechanisation was carried out from 1927, but the guns retained iron-tyred wheels until pneumatic tyres began to be introduced just before the Second World War", ". In 1938 the RA modernised its nomenclature and a lieutenant-colonel's command was designated a 'regiment' rather than a 'brigade'; this applied to TA field brigades from 1 November 1938.", "Second World War\n\nMobilisation\nThe TA was doubled in size after the Munich Crisis, and most regiments formed duplicates: 68th (SM) Field Rgt formed 120th Field Rgt at Solihull on 12 July 1939. Part of the reorganisation was that field regiments changed from four six-gun batteries to an establishment of two batteries, each of three four-gun troops. For the Warwickshire artillery this resulted in the following organisation:", "68th (South Midland) Field Regiment\n Regimental Headquarters (RHQ) at Birmingham\n 269 (Warwick) Field Bty at Birmingham\n 271 (Warwick) Field Bty at Clarendon Place, Leamington Spa\n\n120th Field Regiment\n RHQ at Solihull\n 270 (Warwick) Field Bty at Birmingham\n 272 (Warwick) Field Bty at Rugby\n\nThe TA mobilised on 1 September 1939, just before the outbreak of war, with 68th (SM) Fd Rgt in 48th (SM) Division and 120th Fd Rgt in the newly formed 61st Infantry Division.\n\n68th (South Midland) Field Regiment", "Battle of France", "The regiment went to Swindon in Wiltshire for intensive training before moving to France with 48th (SM) Division in January 1940 to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The regiment still had 18-pdrs and 4.5-inch howitzers. When the German offensive began with the invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May, the BEF advanced into Belgium under Plan D, and soon its leading divisions were in place on the River Dyle", ". 68th (SM) Field Rgt crossed into Belgium on 15 May and moved up to the southern outskirts of Brussels, establishing gun positions near Waterloo on 16 May. However, the Germans had broken through in the Ardennes and the BEF was forced to retreat: the regiment was ordered to retire to Hal without having fired a shot. It accomplished this during the night along congested roads", ". It accomplished this during the night along congested roads. The BEF was falling back to the line of the Escaut and on 18 May the regiment was ordered across the river to the Bois d'Houtaing a few miles to the west of Ath, where its guns were readied for action at Wez-Velvain.", "On 21 May 48th (SM) Division was heavily engaged in driving back attempts to cross the river. 68th (SM) Field Rgt fired almost all day. Although it had difficulty finding suitable OP positions, and one FOO was killed, the regiment did much predicted shooting on targets indicated by its liaison officers at the infantry brigade and battalion HQs. The shrapnel from its 18-pdrs and 4.5-inch howitzers had considerable effect on the enemy infantry trying to cross. At 15", ".5-inch howitzers had considerable effect on the enemy infantry trying to cross. At 15.00 brigade HQ requested the regiment to lay down a 15-minute preliminary barrage for a counter-attack by a company of the 1st OBLI. This barrage was terminated early, because the attackers had already reached their objective.", "However, the German breakthrough had now reached the sea and the BEF was cut off. The division was among the forces pulled out of the east-facing Escaut line to form a west-facing line along a series of canals in the Bergues–Cassel–Hazebrouck area covering the approaches to Dunkirk, where the division arrived on 25 May", ". Next day the decision was made to evacuate the BEF from Dunkirk (Operation Dynamo), and forces in the 'pocket' in which the BEF was now confined were progressively pulled into the Dunkirk perimeter. 48th (SM) Division held a series of delaying positions and the divisional artillery had a hard fight to get back. 68th (SM) Field Rgt was in action at Elverdinge covering the Rver Yser, where it fired all its ammunition, destroyed its guns, and moved into the bridgehead, embarking on 30 May.", "Home defence\n\nOn return to the UK, 68th (SM) Field Rgt concentrated at Presteigne in Wales and then went to Tavistock in Devon to rejoin 48th (SM) Division, which was reforming in South West England. Slowly the field artillery were re-equipped, first with extemporised guns, later with the modern Mk II 25-pounder towed by Quad tractors.", "One of the lessons learned from the Battle of France was that the two-battery organisation did not work: field regiments were intended to support an infantry brigade of three battalions. As a result, they were reorganised into three 8-gun batteries, but it was not until late 1940 that the RA had enough trained battery staffs to carry out the reorganisation. 68th (SM) Field Rgt accordingly formed 447 Fd Bty by May 1941", ". 68th (SM) Field Rgt accordingly formed 447 Fd Bty by May 1941. 48th (SM) Division remained training in VIII Corps in South West England until late 1941 when it transferred to Lincolnshire in I Corps District.", "From November 1941 48th (SM) Division was placed on a lower establishment, indicating that it was no longer intended for overseas service. It did, however, supply trained units to other formations. 68th (SM) Field Rgt left the division on 22 August 1942 and came under WO control preparatory to embarking for overseas service.\n\nMiddle East", "Middle East\n\n68th (SM) Field Rgt landed in Iraq on 17 March 1943, where it joined Tenth Army. Tenth Army's role was to safeguard the supply route from the Persian Gulf to the Soviet Union. However, by early 1943 the German defeats at Stalingrad and in Tunisia had removed the threat. On 17 August 68th (SM) Field Rgt moved to Palestine where it came under the command of 10th Indian Infantry Division, which was reforming there after service in the Western Desert campaign.", "The regiment trained with 10th Indian Division in Palestine, Syria and Egypt, before returning to Palestine on 14 November. The division was earmarked to reinforce the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI). On 15 March 1944 it moved to Egypt and embarked on 24 March.\n\nItaly", "68th (SM) Field Rgt landed in Italy with the division on 28 March 1944. In May the Allies broke through the German Winter Line in Operation Diadem, and took Rome. By early June 10 Indian Division had concentrated under X Corps to take part in the pursuit through the mountains towards Bibbiena. The division's infantry worked their way up the Tiber Valley through scrub-covered ridges and deep ravines and then secured the mountain tops beyond, attacking usually at night", ". X Corps then went onto the defensive while the rest of the AAI concentrated against the Gothic Line.", "In mid-September 10 Indian Division was switched to V Corps under Eighth Army on the Adriatic front, and on 6 October it crossed the headwaters of the Fiumicino (Rubicon) near Sogliano and early next morning stormed the key feature of Monte Farneto. It then continued through the hills, hustling the Germans off the ridges and turning the defended river lines in the coastal plain", ". However, the artillery of two divisions had to rely for supplies on a single Jeep track through the hills, and 10th Indian Division was halted once it had secured a bridgehead across the Savio at Roversano by 21 October. The division resumed its advance on 23 October, attacking out of its bridgehead and seizing a foothold on Monte Cavallo, the whole of which was then captured after dark", ". The Germans now pulled back hastily to the line of the Ronco, where 10th Indian Division 'bounced' two small bridgeheads on the night of 25/26 October before the defences were set. However, other formations were less successful, and with its supply lines collapsing under floods, V Corps had to close down its operations and 10th Indian Division was sent for rest.", "V Corps was ordered to resume its advance at the beginning of November, 10th Indian Division leading off on 30 October because the ground dried out in front of its Ronco bridgehead first. The advance south of Forlì became rapid once an opposing infantry regiment collapsed: the German commander attributed this to the weight and accuracy of 10th Indian Division's artillery support and a complementary shortage of German artillery ammunition", ". But fresh rain on 2 November stalled the advance and Forlì did not fall until 9 November. The advance then continued as the Germans fell back behind a series of river lines, 10th Indian Division crossing the Montone on 25 November. Once again, heavy rain stalled the planned crossing of the Lamone next day, but 10th Indian Division attacked with heavy artillery support on 30 November, just failing to capture the German military bridge over the river before it was blown up", ". By the time winter ended offensive operations, V Corps had struggled forward to the line of the Senio.", "For the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy (Operation Grapeshot), 10th Indian Division was assigned to XIII Corps in the Apennine Mountains. After Eighth Army had crossed the Senio and taken the Argenta Gap, the Germans in front of XIII Corps pulled out, and 10th Indian Division began a pursuit towards Budrio on 14 April", ". XIII Corps then took over the central sector of Eighth Army's front, and brought round the divisional artillery of 10th Indian Division to support the attack by 2nd New Zealand Division to break out of its bridgehead over the Sillaro. The attack was made at 21.00 on 15 April, supported by a barrage from seven field regiments and four medium regiments, lasting 2 hours 50 minutes and expending 40,000 rounds", ". The breakout was entirely successful, and an even bigger artillery concentration helped the New Zealanders across the steeply-banked Gaiana stream on the evening of 18 April, causing immense devastation to the German units. 10th Indian Division and the New Zealanders wheeled north and reached the Reno on the night of 22/23 April. Next day, Eighth Army began crossing the Po", ". Next day, Eighth Army began crossing the Po. 10th Indian Division was now 'grounded', its transport taken away to help keep the spearhead formations moving as the campaign came to an end. Hostilities in the theatre ended on 29 April with the Surrender of Caserta.", "68th (South Midland) Field Regiment passed into suspended animation on 31 December 1946.\n\n120th (South Midland) Field Regiment", "120th Field Rgt mobilised in 61st Division and remained with it throughout the war. The division never served outside the United Kingdom. Having trained in Southern Command it was sent to Northern Ireland in June 1940 during the post-Dunkirk invasion crisis, remaining there until February 1943. 120th Field Rgt formed its third battery, 485 Fd Bty, on 1 March 1941 when the regiment was stationed at Ballymoney. It was authorised to adopt its parent unit's 'South Midland' subtitle on 17 February 1942.", "61st Division did appear in 21st Army Group's proposed order of battle in the summer of 1943, but it was later replaced by veteran formations brought back from the Mediterranean theatre before Operation Overlord was launched. It remained in reserve in the UK at full establishment.", "On 1 September 1944 120th (SM) Fd Rgt transferred to 48th (SM) Division (now 48th (Reserve) Division), replacing 180th Fd Rgt, which had disbanded the previous day; 120th took over 146 Bty and the remaining personnel from 180th Fd Rgt. The regiment served in 48th (R) Division as a holding unit until the end of the war. It formed 603 Fd Bty as a holding battery on 5 December 1944", ". It formed 603 Fd Bty as a holding battery on 5 December 1944. After the war, 603 Fd Bty disbanded on 1 January 1946 and 120th (South Midland) Field Regiment began entering suspended animation on 14 April 1946, completing the process by 2 May.", "Postwar\nWhen the TA was reconstituted on 1 January 1947, 68th (SM) Field Rgt reformed at Stoney Lane, Sparkbrook, Birmingham, as 268 (Warwickshire) Field Regiment, while 120th reformed at Washwood Heath, Birmingham, as 320 (South Midland) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment. 268 Field Rgt was part of 86 (Field) Army Group Royal Artillery (AGRA), while 320 HAA Rgt was in 92 (AA) AGRA, though that was disbanded on 9 September 1948. 320 HAA Regiment was absorbed into 495 (Birmingham) HAA Rgt on 1 January 1954.", "On 1 October 1954 268 Field Rgt was converted to medium artillery, then on 31 October 1956 it amalgamated with 267 (South Midland) Fd Rgt (the other half of the old 1st Worcestershire and Warwickshire Artillery Volunteers) at Worcester to form 267 (Worcester & Warwickshire) Medium Rgt with its RHQ and Q Bty at Birmingham, and a detachment at Leamington Spa.", "The TA was reorganised on 1 May 1961 after National Service was abolished. The Warwickshire (Birmingham and Leamington Spa) elements of 267 (W&W) Med Rgt combined with Q (Warwickshire) Bty of 442 Light AA Rgt and P and Q Btys of 443 (Warwickshire) LAA Rgt to form a new 268 (Warwickshire) Regiment ('Field' was restored to the title in 1964), while the Worcestershire batteries amalgamated with part of 639 (8th Battalion Worcestershire Regiment) Heavy Rgt to form a new 267 (Worcestershire) Field Rgt", ". The new Warwickshire unit had the following organisation:", "RHQ – ex 267 (W&W) Fd Rgt\n P Bty – ex 443 (W) LAA Rgt\n Q Bty – ex 442 LAA Rgt\n R Bty – ex 267 (W&W) Fd Rgt", "When the TA was reduced into the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve (TAVR) in 1967 the regiment reformed as the Warwickshire Regiment, RA, in TAVR III (Home Defence), absorbing an infantry battalion of the Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers and a squadron of the Royal Corps of Transport (RCT); 48th Divisional/District Provost Company, Royal Military Police, also assisted in its formation. The new unit had the following organisation: \n RHQ – ex 268 (W) Fd Rgt\n P (68 South Midland) Bty – ex 268 (W) Fd Rgt", "RHQ – ex 268 (W) Fd Rgt\n P (68 South Midland) Bty – ex 268 (W) Fd Rgt\n Q (Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers) Bty – ex 7th Bn, Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers\n R (Warwickshire Transport) Bty – ex 516 Squadron, 48th Divisional/District Rgt, RCT", "The TAVR was further reduced on 1 April 1969, when the regiment became a cadre under 35th (South Midlands) Signal Regiment, Royal Corps of Signals, with some men joining 48 (City of Birmingham) Signal Squadron at Sparkbrook in that regiment. Then on 1 April 1971 the cadre was disbanded to form X Troop in A Queen's Own Warwickshire and Worcestershire Yeomanry Squadron of The Mercian Yeomanry, when the Warwickshire artillery lineage ended.", "Honorary Colonels\nThe following served as Honorary Colonel of the unit:\n Sir Hallewell Rogers, former Lord Mayor of Birmingham and later MP for Birmingham Moseley, appointed 10 October 1913.\n Col A. Constantine, TD, former Commanding Officer, appointed 6 July 1929\n Brig-Gen Lord Henry Seymour, DSO and Bar, appointed 3 November 1934, died 8 June 1939.\n Col Frank Allday, OBE, TD, appointed 1 April 1967", "Memorials\nMemorials to the men of III South Midland Brigade who died during the First World War and those of 68th (South Midland) Field Regiment who died in France and Belgium, Iraq and the Middle East, and in Italy during the Second World War, were erected at the Drill Hall at Stoney Lane. They were repositioned in the new Montgomery House Army Reserve Centre that replaced it in 1988.\n\nFootnotes\n\nNotes\n\nReferences", "Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2a: The Territorial Force Mounted Divisions and the 1st-Line Territorial Force Divisions (42–56), London: HM Stationery Office, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .", "Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2b: The 2nd-Line Territorial Force Divisions (57th–69th), with the Home-Service Divisions (71st–73rd) and 74th and 75th Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1937/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .\n Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 3a: New Army Divisions (9–26), London: HM Stationery Office, 1938/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .", "Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 3b: New Army Divisions (30–41) and 63rd (R.N.) Division, London: HM Stationery Office, 1939/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .\n Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 4: The Army Council, GHQs, Armies, and Corps 1914–1918, London: HM Stationery Office, 1944/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .\n Gregory Blaxland, Amiens: 1918, London: Frederick Muller, 1968/Star, 1981, .", "Gregory Blaxland, Amiens: 1918, London: Frederick Muller, 1968/Star, 1981, .\n Burke's Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage, 100th Edn, London, 1953.\n Nigel Cave, Battleground Europe: Arras: Vimy Ridge, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 1996, .\n Basil Collier, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Defence of the United Kingdom, London: HM Stationery Office, 1957/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .", "Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1916, Vol I, London: Macmillan,1932/Woking: Shearer, 1986, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2021, .\n Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol II, Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele), London: HM Stationery Office, 1948/Uckfield: Imperial War Museum and Naval and Military Press, 2009, .", "Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol I, The German March Offensive and its Preliminaries, London: Macmillan, 1935/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1995, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2009, .", "Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol II, March–April: Continuation of the German Offensives, London: Macmillan, 1937/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1995, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2009, .", "Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol III, May–July: The German Diversion Offensives and the First Allied Counter-Offensive, London: Macmillan, 1939/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1994, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2009, .", "Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds & Lt-Col R. Maxwell-Hyslop, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol V, 26th September–11th November, The Advance to Victory, London: HM Stationery Office, 1947/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1993, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2021, .", "Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol I, The German Retreat to the Hindenburg Line and the Battle of Arras, London: Macmillan, 1940/London: Imperial War Museum & Battery Press/Uckfield: Naval and Military Press, 2009, .\n Gen Sir Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Western Front 1914–18, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1986, .", "Gen Sir Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: The Years of Defeat: Europe and North Africa, 1939–1941, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1988/London: Brasseys, 1996, .\n J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol I, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .\n J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol II, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .", "Robin Grist, A Gallant County: The Regiments of Gloucestershire in the Great War, Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2018, .\n Gen Sir William Jackson, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol VI: Victory in the Mediterranean, Part I|: June to October 1944, London: HM Stationery Office, 1987/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .", "Gen Sir William Jackson, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol VI: Victory in the Mediterranean, Part I|I: November 1944 to May 1945, London: HM Stationery Office, 1988/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .\n Norman E.H. Litchfield, The Territorial Artillery 1908–1988 (Their Lineage, Uniforms and Badges), Nottingham: Sherwood Press, 1992, .", "Norman Litchfield & Ray Westlake, The Volunteer Artillery 1859–1908 (Their Lineage, Uniforms and Badges), Nottingham: Sherwood Press, 1982, .\n David Martin, Londoners on the Western Front: The 58th (2/1st London) Division in the Great War, Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2014, .", "Capt Wilfred Miles, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1916, Vol II, 2nd July 1916 to the End of the Battles of the Somme, London: Macmillan, 1938/Imperial War Museum & Battery Press, 1992, /Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2005, .\n Capt Wilfred Miles, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol III, The Battle of Cambrai, London: HM Stationery Office, 1948/Uckfield: Naval and Military Press, 2009, .", "Brig C.J.C. Molony, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol VI: Victory in the Mediterranean, Part I: 1st April to 4th June 1944, London: HM Stationery Office, 1987/Uckfield, Naval & Military Press, 2004, .\n Jerry Murland, Retreat and Rearguard Somme 1918: The Fifth Army Retreat, Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2014, .", "Col G. W. L. Nicholson, Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919, Ottawa: Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery, 1962/Uckfield, Naval & Military, 2004, 978-1-78331-411-9. \n Lt-Col J.D. Sainsbury, The Hertfordshire Yeomanry Regiments, Royal Artillery, Part 1: The Field Regiments 1920-1946, Welwyn: Hertfordshire Yeomanry and Artillery Trust/Hart Books, 1999, .", "War Office, Instructions Issued by The War Office During August 1914, London: HM Stationery Office.\n War Office, Army Council Instructions issued during June 1916, London: HM Stationery Office.\n War Office, Army Council Instructions issued during September 1916, London: HM Stationery Office.\n War Office, Titles and Designations of Formations and Units of the Territorial Army, London: War Office, 7 November 1927 (RA sections also summarised in Litchfield, Appendix IV).", "Everard Wyrall, The Gloucestershire Regiment in the War 1914–1918, London: Methuen, 1931/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2003, .", "External sources\n Chris Baker, The Long, Long Trail\n Commonwealth War Graves Commission records\n The Drill Hall Project\n T.F. Mills, Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth – Regiments.org (archive site)\n Graham Watson, The Territorial Army 1947\n\nWarwickshire\nMilitary units and formations in Warwickshire\nMilitary units and formations in Birmingham\nMilitary units and formations established in 1900" ]

[ "Professor Hamid M. K. Al- Naimiy is Chancellor at the University of Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates as well as Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics.\n\nEducational Profile \n\n Post doctorates, University of Arizona, 1978.\n PhD Astrophysics, University of Manchester, England 1977.\n MSc Astronomy, University of Manchester, England 1975.\n B.Sc. Physics, University of Baghdad, Iraq 1970 / 1971.\n\nConferences, Workshops and Symposiums", "Attending (submitting papers, attendance) more than 150 conferences, Symposia and workshops (National and International, Mainly, IAU, Conferences).\n Organizing more the 30 Conferences and workshops (National, Regional and International).\n Chair of the Scientific Organizing Committee of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th Arab Astronomy & Space Sciences Conferences.", "Chair of the Scientific Organizing Committee of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth Islamic Astronomical Conference.\n Chair of the Local Organizing Committee and member of Scientific Organizing Committee for the eighth UN/ESA workshop on Basic Space Sciences, Jordan 1999.\n Member of Scientific Organizing Committee for the 10th (France 2000), 11th (Mauritius 2001), 12th (Argentina), 13th (China) (UN/ESA workshop on Basic Space).", "Chair of the Organizing committee of the First Workshop in Medical Physics, Dubai. 31 March 2004.\n Chair /Organizing committee / the first Physics Day, 3 May 2004, UAEU.\n Chair /Organizing committee / the second Physics Day, 9 May 2005, UAEU.\n Chair /Organizing committee /the third Physics Day, 10 April 2006, UAEU.\n Chair of the first International Conference of the Biological and Medical Physics, Al-Ain, UAE, 27th – 30th, March 2005.", "Coordinator of the International Conference \"Engage Iraq's Science and Technology Community in Developing its Country\" September, 15th – 18th, 2005, Amman / Jordan.\n Chair of the National Technical Organizing Committee and member of Scientific Organizing Committee for the UN/ESA/NASA/UAE workshop on Basic Space Science and IHY, Al-Ain, UAE, 20 – 23 November 2005.", "Member of the International Scientific Organizing Committee and for the Second UN/ NASA workshop on Basic Space Science and IHY, India, November, 27 – 2 December 2006.\n Member of the International Scientific Organizing Committee and for the Third UN/ ESA / NASA workshop on Basic Space Science and IHY, Tokyo/Japan, June, 18th  – 23rd, 2007.\n President of the first Forum for young and amateur astronomers and space scientists, Lattikia / Syria, 25–30 August 2007.", "Chair of the Local and Scientific Organizing committee for the first international conference on Arab's and Muslim's History of sciences, 24th – 27th / March / 2008.\n Member of the International Scientific Organizing Committee and for the Fourth UN/ ESA / NASA /JAXA workshop on Basic Space Science and IHY, Sozopol /Bulgaria, June, 2nd – 6th, 2008.\n President of the second Forum for young and amateur astronomers and space scientists, Tripoli / Libya, 3–6 August 2007.", "Chair of the Organizing committee of the Conference on Gulf Maritime through Ages, 17th – 19th / March / 2008.\n Chair of the Organizing Committee of the Exploration of the Moon International Congress, 17th – 19th / May / 2008.\n President of the second Forum for young and amateur astronomers and space scientists, Constantine / Algeria, 1–6 August 2007.", "Member of the International Scientific Organizing Committee and for the Fifth UN/ ESA / NASA /JAXA workshop on Basic Space Science and IHY, Deojion /Korea, September, 22nd h – 26th , 2008 .\n Chair of the second International AWSOME workshop (Sharjah – Stanford) in collaboration with NASA/UN, 22 – 24, February 2010. \n Chair of the first Sharjah Science festival and conference, Sharjah University and Sharjah Education Council 7-8/4/2010.", "Chair of the second Sharjah Science festival and conference, Sharjah University and Sharjah Education Council 4-5/5/2011.\n Chairman of the Scientific Committee of Sharjah International Conference on Nuclear and Renewable Energy (SHJ-NRE11) .Energies for the 21st Century, 3–5 April 2011, The University of Sharjah.\n Chair of the Local and Scientific Organizing committee for the 2nd international conference on Arab's and Muslim's History of sciences, 8th – 10th / December / 2014.", "Chair of the Local and Scientific Organizing committee for the 3rd international conference on Arab's and Muslim's History of sciences, 7th – 9th / December / 2018.\n Chair and Member of Many International and Regional Conferences in different field organized by the University of Sharjah 2014 – Up to Date.", "Example of some International conferences and workshops:\n The 12th United Nations/European Space Agency Workshop on Basic Space Science. Hosted by the China National Space Administration, on behalf of the Government of P.R. China, Beijing, P.R. China,24-28 May 2004: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SAP/act2003/china/index.html\n\n The 1st UAE International Conference on Biological and Medical Physics, United Arab Emirates, 27–30 March 2005: http://icbmp.uaeu.ac.ae/", "The 1st UN/ESA/NASA Workshop on the International Heliophysical Year and Basic Space Sciences, United Arab Emirates, 20–23 November 2005: http://www.ihy.uaeu.ac.ae/workshopbg.htm\n\n The 2nd UN/ESA/NASA Workshop on the International Heliophysical Year and Basic Space Sciences, Bangalore, India 27 November – 1 December 2006:http://www.iiap.res.in/ihy/", "The 3th UN/ESA/NASA Workshop on the International Heliophysical Year and Basic Space Sciences, Tokyo, Japan 18–22 June 2007:http://solarwww.mtk.nao.ac.jp/UNBSS_Tokyo07/\n\n The First International Conference on Arabs' and Muslims’ History of Sciences, Sharjah University, UAE 24–27 March 2008:https://www.sharjah.ac.ae/English/Conferences/arabsandmuslims/Pages/default.aspx", "The 4th UN/ESA/NASA/JAXA Workshop on the International Heliophysical Year and Basic Space Sciences, Sozopol, Bulgaria 2–6 June 2008: http://www.stil.bas.bg/UNBSS-IHY/\n\n Global Space Technology Forum / Space Technology Commercialization for the Future, ADNEC, Abu Dhabi, UAE, 16–18 November 2008: http://smg-conferences.com/index.php?module=conferencedetails&page=other&conference=3Teaching Courses:", "International Astronomical Union – UNESCO Conference (IYA2009 OPPINING) & Symposium 260, \"The Rôle of Astronomy in Society and Culture\", Palais de 1'UNESCO, Paris (France) 15-23, 2009: http://www.astronomy2009.fr/opening\n\n The 5th UN/ESA/NASA/Korea Workshop on the International Heliophysical Year and Basic Space Sciences, Korea 22–25 September 2009: http://ihy.kasi.re.kr/meeting.php", "Sharjah International Conference on Nuclear and Renewable Energy (SHJ-NRE11) .Energies for the 21st Century, 3–5 April 2011, The University of Sharjah: http://www.energies2011.com/\n\n The 2nd International Conference on Arabs' and Muslims’ History of Sciences, Sharjah University, UAE 8–10 December 2014: http://www.sharjah.ac.ae/en/about/news-center/Pages/Event-Details.aspx?mcid=120\n\n The IAU General Assembly / the International Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii - 3–14 August 2015: https://astronomy2015.org/", "The 3rd International Conference on Arabs' and Muslims’ History of Sciences, Sharjah University, UAE 5–7 December 2017: http://www.sharjah.ac.ae/en/Media/Conferences/ICHS17/Pages/default.aspx\n\n The XXXth IAU General Assembly / the International Astronomical Conference, Vienna, 20–31 August 2018: https://astronomy2018.univie.ac.at/home/\n\nAwards", "World Education Congress /Asia Award for Outstanding Contribution to Education, 25 September 2011, Dubai, UAE.\n Khalifa Award for Education 2009/2010 (In the Field of Higher Education). United Arab Emirates.\n The Certificate of Appreciation from International Astronomical Union & UNESCO for the Outstanding Contribution to the success of the International Year of Astronomy 2009.", "Korea Astronomy & Space Science Institute Plaque, in recognition of his contribution to the 2009 UN/NASA/ESA/JAXA workshop on Basic Space Sciences and the International Heliophysical Year 2007, 22 September 2009. Daejeon/Korea.\n NASA Plaque in Recognition of his contributions as the Coordinator for the Asian & Pacific region on IHY2007, for the period 2005 – 2009.", "UN appreciation letter for the best scientists who contributed excellently in organizing the UN/ESA/NASA workshops. The third UN/ESA/NASA workshop, Tokyo/Japan, 18th – 22nd, May, 2007.\n Personality of the Week. The International Heliophysical Year IHY2007. On the occasion of the 50 year anniversary for IGY, launching the first world space rocket Sputnik. IHY International Committee, 8 June 2007:  http://ihy2007.org/newsroom/weekly_070612.shtml", "The Award for the best department chair, teacher and researcher for the year 2006 from UAE University.\n Included in International Marquis Who's Who for the 21st century, 19th Edition, 2002 and 2004\n The best scientific public media Publication Prize. The Iraqi Scientific Research Council 1987, Baghdad, Iraq.\n The best Scientific Researcher Prize. The Iraqi Scientific Research Council 1984, Baghdad, Iraq.", "Publications\n\nBooks", "Space Physics, University of Baghdad, Two Volumes.\n Astronomy 1981\n Meteorology 1981\n Space Colonies, Cultural & Media Ministry publications, Baghdad – Iraq 1986.\n The International Radio Telescopes, Scientific Research Council publications, Baghdad, Iraq 1987.\n Calculations of the beginning of the lunar months (during the Period 1987 – 2000) Ministry of Awqaf Publications, Baghdad, Iraq, 1988.\n Intelligent life in the Universe. Cultural & Media Ministry publications, Baghdad, Iraq, 1989.", "Intelligent life in the Universe. Cultural & Media Ministry publications, Baghdad, Iraq, 1989.\n Exploration of Giant Planets, Cultural & Media Ministry publications, Baghdad, Iraq, 1994.\n The Arab Scientists Achievements in Physics and Astronomy, Cultural & Media Ministry publications, Baghdad, Iraq 1993.\n The Secret of the Universe in the Verses of the Holly Qur'an, Arab Scientific Publishers, Beirut, Lebanon, 2001.", "Proceedings /the 1st International Conference on Astronomy and Space Sciences (4–6 May 1998). The Editor / Publications of Al al-Bayt University, 2000.\n Proceedings /the 9th United Nations/European Space Agency workshops in Basic space Science, (13–17 March 1999). Co-Editor / Publications of Astrophysics of Space science 273/1-4, 2001.\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2002–2003, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2003. With Fernini, Ilias & Obaid Allah, Ebraheem.", "The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2003–2004, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2004. With Fernini, Ilias & Obaid Allah, Ebraheem.\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2004–2005, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2005. With Fernini, Ilias & Obaid Allah, Ebraheem.\n Priorities of the Iraqi Science and Technology Community, May 2004, in co-operation with ASTF team.", "The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2005–2006, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2006. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2006–2007, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2007. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal\n Editing the Proceedings of the Crescent Visibility problems between Astronomy and Shareah Symposium, Sharjah University Publications, 2006.", "Editing the Special Issue if the International Journal of Scientific Research volume 16. Proceedings of the 1st UAE International Conference on Biological & Medical Physics (27–30 March 2006). The Editor in Chief / Publications of UAE University, 2007.\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2007–2008, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2008. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.", "The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2008–2009, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2009. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.\n Introduction to Astronomy, University Book Shop/Sharjah, UAE and Ithraa Publishing and Distribution / Jordan, 1st Edition 2010.\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2009–2010, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2010. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.", "The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2010-2011, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2011. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.\n The Astronomical calculations and applications in the services of the Islamic Sharea’ah, Brighter Horizon Group/Sharjah, UAE, 1st Edition 2011 .\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2011-2012, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2012. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.", "The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2012-2013, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2013. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2013-2014, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2014. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2014-2015, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2015. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.", "The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2015-2016, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2015. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.\n The Hijra Calendar in the meridians & setting times for the year 2016-2017, the Emirates Heritage Club publications 2015. With Fernini, Ilias & Sakher Abdullal.\n The Verses of the Holy Qur'an on the Universe,2016, the Qur’an Dubai awards.", "Scientific Papers (International & Regional Journals) \n Al-Naimiy, H. M. K: Determination of the elements of Eclipsing Variables, RW Gem and AY Cam. By Fourier analysis of Their Light Changes, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 46, pp. 261 – 284, 1977.\n\n Al-Naimiy, H. M. K: Theoretical Light Curve of Close Binary System. IAU Bulletins No. XVI, 1976", "Al-Naimiy, H. M. K: Theoretical Light Curve of Close Binary System. IAU Bulletins No. XVI, 1976\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. and Budding, E. : Analysis of Red and IR Wide-Band Photometry of Algol, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 51,     pp. 265 – 282, 1977.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Linearized Limb-Darkening Coefficients For Use in Analysis of Eclipsing Binary Light Curves, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal Vol. 53, pp. 181–192. 1978.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., Budding, E., Jassor, D., and Sadik, A., Observations of UV Psc and XY Cet, IBVS No. 1415, 1978.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Synthetic Light Curves of Two Eclipsing Binary System U Sge and Aw UMa, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 56, pp. 219–238, 1978.\n\n Kopal, Z. and Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Fourier Analysis of the Light Curves of Eclipsing Variables XIX, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 57, pp. 479–489, 1978.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Fourier Analysis of the Light Curves of Eclipsing Variables XIXa, Astrophysics and Space Sciences Journal, Vol. 59, pp. 3–11, 1978.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Observation of the Peculiar Eclipsing Variable ER Vulpecule, IBVS., No. 1481, 1978.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. The star ER Vul. is an RS CVn Eclipsing type Binaries.  IAU publications, No. XVII, 1982.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Photometric Observations and Light Curve Analysis of the Peculiar System ER Vul., Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, Vol. 43, pp. 85–90, 1981.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Light Variation in the W UMa System Tz Boo., Astronomical Journal, Vol. 87, No 1518, pp. 1041–1043, 1982.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., the Iraqi National Astronomical Observatory, Proceeding of the IAU publications, no. XVII, 1982", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, Sadik, A. and Oszczak, S: Astronomical Determination of Latitude and Longitude \"Application to Al-Battani Observatory\" Journal of Space and Astronomy Research (JSAR), Vol. 1., No. 1, pp. 45–53, 1984.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, Flaih, H. A. and Al-Ukaidey, K.: Microcomputer Based Optical Telescope Control of Al- BATTANI Observatory, Journal of Space and Astronomy Research (JSAR), Vol. 1, No.1, pp. (17-31), 1984.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, Mutter, A. A. and Flaih, H.A: Photoelectric Observations of the Eclipsing Variable B Per., IBVS, No. 2520, 1984.\n\n Al - Naimiy, H. M. K. and Sikab, A.: Fourier Analysis of the Light Changes of Four Algol-Type Eclipsing Variables, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 103, pp. 115–124. 1984.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Mutter, A. A. and Flaih, H.: UBV photometry and Light – Curve Analysis of Algol. Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 108, pp. 227–236, 1985.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K: The Iraqi National Astronomical Observatory, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 118, pp. 51–56, 1986.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, Al-Mahdi, H.A, Al-Sekab, A. O. In addition, Mutter A., Geometrical and Physical Elements of Four B Lyrae Type Eclipsing Variables, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 117, pp. 351–361, 1985.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. and Salim, S.: The Scientific Methods of Findings the beginning of the lunar months. مجلة الرسالة الإسلامية The Islamic Resalla Journal. Iraqi Awqaf Ministry Publications, Vol. 202, 1987. (In Arabic).\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. The Iraqi Vision on Remote Sensing Science and Technology, Proceeding of the Scanning Image & Remote Sensing Symposium, Arab Scientific Research Councils / Rabat, Morocco, 1987.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. Space Astrophysics and its applications, Science & Future Journal, no 4, 1987.\n\n Al-Naimiy, H.M.K. Future View for colonization of the Solar System, Science & Future Journal, no 6, 1988.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. and Fleyeh, H. A: Photometric Observations and Light Curve Analysis of ST Aqu. Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 151 pp. 29–38, 1989.", "Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. The Supernova (Birth & Star Evaluation), Afaq Arabia Journal, Cultural & Media Ministry publication, year 13th, 1988.\n\n Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. Extraterrestrial Intelligent life in our Galaxy, Science and development Journal, Beirut / Lebanon, Special volume in Astronomy and Space Sciences Journal, September 1988.\n\n Al–Naimiy, H. M. K., Fleyeh, H. and Al-Razzaz, J. N: New Photoelectric Observation of W Uma System 44i Boo. IBVS, Vol. 2956, 1989.", "Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. Exploration and colonization of the Space. Afaq Arabia Journal, Cultural and Media Ministry publication, No 11, the year 13th, 1988.\n\n Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. Turning points in Astronomy in the Arabic Sciences Heritage. Proceeding of the first Regional Symposium for Arab's History of Sciences / The Arab Science Heritage / Baghdad, 1989, pp 16.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. and Fleyeh, H.: Photoelectric Observations of ST Aqr., IBVS, Vol. 3277, 1989.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, Fleyeh, H., and Al-Razzaz, J.: New Photoelectric Observations and Light Curve Analysis of the Eclipsing Variable 44I Boo Astrophysics and Space Sciences Journal, Vol. 151, pp. 135–147, 1989.\n\n Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. and Jarad Majid. The Crescent between the Astronomical Calculations and the actual visibility, The 5th Scientific Research Council Conference, Vol. 7, 1989, Baghdad.", "Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. Turning points in Physics in the Arabic Sciences Heritage. Proceeding of the third Regional Symposium for Arab's History of Sciences / The Arab Science Heritage / Baghdad, 1990, pp 161.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, Jabbar, S. R., Fleyeh, H. A. and Al-Razzaz, J. M.: Fourier Analysis of the Light Changes of Eclipsing Variables in the Frequency-Domain, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 159, pp. 279–293, 1989.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., the Role of the Arabic Astronomy Heritage on modern sciences. Proceeding of the Arab Heritage in Basic Sciences Conference, The Arab Region Scientific Research Committee, College of Science, Al-Fateh University, Libya, January 1990, pp 477.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. and Jarad, Majeed, Evaluation of the Islamic Occasions in the 15th Hejri century. Alresala Aleslamia Journal, the 6th year, 1990, No 255, pp193.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., the Crescents of the Islamic Hejri Months in Australia continent, the Iraqi Society for Physics and Mathematics Journal, No 12, pp 407,1991.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K and Al-Hindawy, A. M. A: A New Set of Geometrical and Physical Elements of the Eclipsing Variable PP Lac, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, Vol. 198, pp. 231–236, 1992.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., The relation between Astrology and Parapsychology, Proceeding of the Parapsychology & Heritage Symposium, Parapsychology Research Center, June 1992.\n\n Al-Dargazelli, S., Hussein, J. N., Al- Naimiy, H. M. and Fatoohi, L.: The Astronomical Methods of Finding the Julian Dates of the Islamic Events Before Hijra, the Journal of the Institute of the Middle East Studies Vol. XI, 1992.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., Effects of the Celestial Objects on Organisms (Humans), Proceeding of the Symposium of the Parapsychology on Science view, June 1993.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., Astronomical calculations for Mawaqeet Al-Salat, the Iraqi Society for Physics and Mathematics Journal, No 13, pp 179,1994.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., The periodical events of the New Moon and New condition for Crescent visibility after sunset, The Iraqi Journal for Sciences. Baghdad University publications, Vol. 35, 1994.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., Astronomical Techniques for the Beginning of the Lunar Month Determinations, Mathematical and Physics Journal, Vol. 1, 1994.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., The relation between Prediction and Astrology in Old Iraq, Parapsychology Research Journal, The Iraqi Parapsychology Research Center No 1, 1994\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K and Al-Abudi, B: Two Short RS CVn Type Binaries UV PSC and BH Vir, Iraqi Journal of Science (University of Baghdad), Vol. 35, 1994.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, and Al-Abudi, B. : Star Spots Analysis For Short Period Group of RS CVn-Type Binaries, Iraqi Journal of Science (University of Baghdad), Vol. 36, 1995.\n\n Al - Naimiy, H. M. K and Zaki, W. H. A.: Synthetic Light Curves of x-ray Binary Stars, Iraqi Journal of Science, Vol. 36, 1995.\n\n Al - Naimiy, H. M. K., and Jarad, M.: Determination of the angle of Qebla direction /direct applications to Iraqi Mosques, The Arab Science Heritage Journal, Vol.3, 1995.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K and Barghouthi, I, Babylonian Astronomical Calculations, (In Arabic), Journal of Al-Murekh Al-Arabi, 1997.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K and Barghouthi, I, the Ratio of the Arab Scientists Contributions in Natural and Cosmological Sciences to the other Sciences, Journal of Al-Murekh Al-Arabi, 1997.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K: Remote Sensing Techniques for Comparative Studies of Water-Sheds in Selected Basins in the ESCWA Region, Expert Group Meeting on the Implications of Agenda 21 for Integrated Water Management in the ESCWA Region, 1996.\n\n Wardat, M. A., Al-Naimiy, H. M., Barghouthi, I. A., and Sabat, H. A.: New Elements for Three Eclipsing X-Ray Binary Systems (Hz Her, Cent X-3 and Vela X-1). Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, 260, 335, 1999.", "Sabat, H. A, Al-Naimiy, H. M., Bargouthi, I. And Wardat, M. A.: Synthetic Light- Curves of Some Eclipsing X-Ray Binary Stars, Astrophysics and Space Science Journal, 260, 347, 1999.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K. and T. Al-Masharfa, Determination of the Physical & Geometrical elements of the two Contact Binary System (Sw Lac and OOAql,) Astrophysics & Space Science Journal, Vol. 273, 83-93, 2000.", "Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. and Konsul K.: Astronomy and Space Sciences in Jordan. Bulletin of Teaching of Astronomy in Asian – Pacific Region, No. 17 Japan, 2000, PP 27.\n\n Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. Cynthia, P. C., Chamcham, K., Padmasiri De Alwis, H. S.Pineda De Carias, M. C., H. T. and Boggino, H. T. Research and Education in Basic Space Science, The Approach Pursued in the UN/ESA Workshops. COSPAR Information Bulletin, No. 148, 2000.", "Al-Naimiy, H. M. K., Hajjar R., Querci, F., Querci, M and Konsul, The Network of Oriental Robotic Telescopes (NORT), An Arab Project, The 9th UN/ESA Workshop on Basic Space Science, Toulouse, France, 26–29 June 2000. UN / Seminars of the UN Programs on Space Applications, No. 12, 2000.\n\n Kandalyan, R. A, Al-Naimiy H. M. K. and Khassawneh, A. H.: Star Formation Properties of Spiral Galaxies. Astrophysics & Space Science Journal, Vol. 273, 103-115, 2000.", "Kandalyan R. A., Kalloghlian A. T., Al-Naimiy H. M. K., Khassawneh A. M., Investigation of Barred Galaxies. VI. A Comparative Statistics of SB and SA galaxies. The Cold Gas Properties, Astrophysics Journal, V.43, 411, 2000.\n\n Al-Naimiy, H. M. K., Star Spots Studies for Three Short Period RS CVn-Type Binaries. Astrophysics Journal, Vol. 44, No 2, pp 285–296, 2001.", "Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. The Importance and Needs of Astronomy & Space Sciences in Arab Countries. Bulletin of Teaching of Astronomy in Asian-Pacific Region, No. 17. PP13 Japan 2001.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., and Al-Masharfeh, T.H.SH., New Set of Geometric & Physical Elements of the two Variable Stars (SW Lacertae and OO Aquilae).AL-MANARAH Journal, Al al-Bayt University Publications, Vol. VII, No. I, pp 199 – 211, May 2001.", "Kalloghlian, A.T., Kandalyan, R.A. and Al-Naimiy H.M.K., Investigation of Barred Galaxies. VII. A comparative Statistics of SB and Sa Galaxies. Near IR Region, Vol.43, No 2, Astrophysics Journal, 2001.\n\n Kandalyan, R. A. and Al-Naimiy H.M.K., Board – Band Radio to X-Ray Properties of Seyfert galaxy, Astrophysics Journal, Vol. 45, NO.3, 2002.", "Al-Naimiy, H.M.K., Fixing the Beginning of Ramadan and Shawal, using the Islamic Sharea’a & Astrophysical Methods \"Application to Some Arabic Cities\", Italian Astronomical Journal \"Giornale di Astronomia\" – anno V. 2002. n3.\n\n AL-Naimiy, H.M.K., Arabs Space Research Agencies (ASRA), Proceeding of \"The 2nd Symposium for Scientific Research Vision in Arab World\", Al-Sharija, UAE, 24–27 March 2002.", "AL-Naimiy, H.M.K., Emirate Sat \"Emirate Micro Satellites\", \"Proceeding of the 2nd Symposium for Scientific Research Vision in Arab World\", Al-Sharjah, UAE, 24–27 March 2002.\n\n Al-Naimiy, H.M.K., Light Curves Changes of Eclipsing X-ray Binary Stars of Neutron Star Component.  Proceedings of the \"New Direction for Close Binary Studies\".  \"The Royal Road to the Stars\", Canakkale Onsekies Mart University, Astrophysics Research Center, Turkey, Vol. 3, pp 335, 2003.", "Al-Naimiy, H.M.K., \"Problems facing Islam regarding fixing the beginning of    the Hijra Months & The methodologies of calculating the Islamic Prying time\" The 3rd Islamic Astronomical Conference, Amman, Jordan 20-22 / 10 / 2003.", "Al- Naimiy, H. M. K. Cynthia, P. C., Chamcham, K., Padmasiri De Alwis, H. S.Pineda De Carias, M. C., H. T., Boggino, H. T and Haubold, H. Research and Education in Basic Space Science, Developing BSS World-Wide \"A Decade of UN/ESA workshop\", Ed: by W. Wamsteker, R. Albrech and H.Haubolb. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, May 2004.", "Al- Barghouthi, I., Abu-Samra, M.A., Issa, M.S., Al-Naimiy, H.M.K., The Astronomical Contributions of the Muslim Scholars (During the 8th – 14th century), Giornale di Astronomia – anno VII. 2004. N4.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K and Konsul, K., \"Basic Space Sciences in Jordan\" \"Developing BSS World-Wide\" \"A Decade of UN/ESA workshop\", Ed: by W. Wamsteker, R. Albrech and H.Haubold. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, May 2004.", "Al- Barghouthi, I., Abu-Samra, M.A., Afanah, H.M., Al-Naimiy, H.M.K., The Crescents between Astronomy and the Fiqh, the Islamic University Journal- Gaza, Vol.12, No. 2, 2004.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K, \"Astronomy & Space Sciences in Arab Countries. Proceeding of the 12th UA/ESA workshop for Basic Space Sciences. 24th – 28th, May, 2004.\" Beijing / China. To be published in Astrophysics & Space Science Journal, 2005.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., BSS in Arab Region (Past, Present & Future), SEMINARS of the United Nation Program on Space Applications. Selected papers from Activities held in 2004. No.14, pp 67, 2005.\n\n Al - Naimiy, H.M.K with ASTF’s Initiative Committee, Survey of Iraq’s S&T community, The International Conference to Engage Iraq’s Science & Technology Community in Developing its Country 18–20 September 2005.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., Light Variations of Eclipsing X-Ray Binaries with compact Components, IJST Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2006.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., The new moon and the crescent in Astronomical and Feqeh View, Publication of the College of Graduate Studies and Research, Sharjah University, 2006.\n\n H. Haubold, B.J. Thompson, H.M.K. Al-Naimiy, J.M. Davila, N.Gopalswamy, K.M. Groves, D. K. Scherer, the IHY/United Nations Distributed Observatory Development Program, COSPAR Publication (Unispace), 2006.", "M.Kitamura (Japan), D.Wentzel (USA), A.A.Henden and J.Bennett (USA), H.M.K.Al-Naimiy (UAE), A.M.Mathai (India), H.J.Haubold (UN), The United Nations Basic Space Sciences Initiative :The TRIPOD Concept, Astronomy for the developing world, IAU Special Session no. 5, 2007.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., the Babylonian Astronomy (their contributions into Solar Eclipses) \"1400 BC – 1400 AC\", SPSE, in press2008.", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K.: The Gulf Telescope project, 7th Colloquium for Astronomy in Gulf countries, Bahrain Astronomical Societies, 21-22 Feb 2007.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K.,: The Crescent visibility problems between the Sharea' and Astronomical calculations, Proceeding of the 1st conference on Al-Sharea' Judgeship (المؤتمر القضائي الشرعي الأول), Amman, Jordan, 3 – 5 September 2007 (http://www.csjd.gov.jo/Introduction.htm).", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K.: The International Heliophysical year and Basic Space Science in West Asia, Bull. Astro. Soc. India (2007), 727.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., Proposal for Arab Space Research Agency, Global     Space Technology Forum / Space Technology Commercialization for the Future ADNEC, Abu Dhabi, UAE, 16–18 November 2008, http://smg-conferences.com/index.php?module =conferencedetails&page=other&conference = 3", "Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., Astronomical Instrumentations invented by the Muslims Scholars and used in Gulf Maritime.\n\n Gulf Maritime Through Ages Conference, Dr. Sultan Al Qassimi Centre of Gulf Studies in Cooperation with the Department of History and Islamic Civilization in the College of Arts, Humanities and Sciences at University of Sharjah, 17-19/11/2008. https://www.sharjah.ac.ae/ARABIC/CONFERENCES/GMTA/Pages/default.aspx.", "H. M.K.Al-Naimiy, A. A.J.Al-Douri, A. A. Alnajjar, & U. Inan, Very Low Frequency Remote Sensing Measurement of the Lower Ionosphere at Site of the United Arab Emirate. Earth, Moon and Planets Journal, Vol.104, PP189–193, 2009.\n\n Al – Naimiy, H. M. K., IHY and ASS in Arab States\" Concentration on Iraq and UAE\", Accepted for publication in The International Journal of Sun and Geo-sphere, in press 2009.", "AL-Naimiy, H.M, K, The Role of Astronomy and Space Sciences in Arab Societies and Cultures, the International Astronomical Union Publications, 260, pp 429–441, 2010.\n\n AL-Naimiy, H.M, K, Rebuilding the Iraqi National Astronomical Observatory, UN/ESA/NASA/JAXA Publications, in press, 2009.", "AL-Naimiy, H.M.K., Status of Research on History of Astronomy in the Arab World, Institute of Science, Technology and Civilization Publication, 2010, https://muslimheritage.com/status-research-history-astronomy-arab-world.\n\n AL-Naimiy, H.M, K, Special criterions for the crescent visibilities for Muslim's scholars and the astronomical calculations. The Islamic Fiquh at Arabia Stadia, 2011, in press.", "AL-Naimiy, H.M, K, Isra and Mi'raj:The Miracle of Miracles(Readings from History, Physics and Astronomy).The International Journal of Quranic Research. Malaya University press. Vol 3, No.4, 2013.\n\n Suhail G. Masda, Mashhoor A. Al-Wardat, Ralph Neuhäuser, and Hamid M. Al-Naimiy; Physical and Geometrical Parameters of CVBS X: The Spectroscopic Binary Gliese 762.1, Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics (RAA), Vol. 16, issue 7, article id 12. Impact Factor (2015): 1.29 4527/16/7/112.", "Al Wardat, Al Naimiy, H. Taani, A. Khasawneh, A. Al Banawi, O. Widyan, H. S.S., Modifie d Physical and Geometrical Elements of the Eclipsing X Ray Binary System Centaurus X 3 Astrophysical Bulletin, 2014, Vol. 69, No. 3, pp. 325 329 Impact Factor (201 3 1.000)\n\n Fernini, I., Al-Naimiy, H. M., Al-Hameed, A. A., Noorani, A., Javed, A., AbuJami, I.\n\n Sharjah Five-meter Radio Telescope, accepted, Journal of Instrumentation 2019.\n\nReferences", "Sharjah Five-meter Radio Telescope, accepted, Journal of Instrumentation 2019.\n\nReferences \n\nEmirati scientists\nLiving people\nAcademic staff of the University of Sharjah\nUniversity of Baghdad alumni\nAlumni of the University of Manchester\nAcademic staff of United Arab Emirates University\nAcademic staff of Al al-Bayt University\nAcademic staff of the University of Baghdad\n1947 births" ]

[ "Ageing (or aging in American English) is the process of becoming older. The term refers mainly to humans, many other animals, and fungi, whereas for example, bacteria, perennial plants and some simple animals are potentially biologically immortal. In a broader sense, ageing can refer to single cells within an organism which have ceased dividing, or to the population of a species.", "In humans, ageing represents the accumulation of changes in a human being over time and can encompass physical, psychological, and social changes. Reaction time, for example, may slow with age, while memories and general knowledge typically increase. Ageing increases the risk of human diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, stroke and many more. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two-thirds die from age-related causes.", "Current ageing theories are assigned to the damage concept, whereby the accumulation of damage (such as DNA oxidation) may cause biological systems to fail, or to the programmed ageing concept, whereby the internal processes (epigenetic maintenance such as DNA methylation) inherently may cause ageing. Programmed ageing should not be confused with programmed cell death (apoptosis).", "Obesity has been proposed to accelerate ageing, whereas dietary calorie restriction in non-primate animals slows ageing while maintaining good health and body functions. In primates (including humans), such life-extending effects remain uncertain.\n\nAgeing versus immortality", "Ageing versus immortality \n\nHuman beings and members of other species, especially animals, age and die. Fungi, too, can age. In contrast, many species can be considered potentially immortal: for example, bacteria fission to produce daughter cells, strawberry plants grow runners to produce clones of themselves, and animals in the genus Hydra have a regenerative ability by which they avoid dying of old age.", "Early life forms on Earth, starting at least 3.7 billion years ago, were single-celled organisms. Such organisms (Prokaryotes, Protozoans, algae) multiply by fission into daughter cells, thus do not age and are potentially immortal under favorable conditions.", "Aging and mortality of the individual organism became possible with the evolution of sexual reproduction, which occurred with the emergence of the fungal/animal kingdoms approximately a billion years ago, and the evolution of seed-producing plants 320 million years ago. The sexual organism could henceforth pass on some of its genetic material to produce new individuals and could itself become disposable with respect to the survival of its species", ". This classic biological idea has however been perturbed recently by the discovery that the bacterium E. coli may split into distinguishable daughter cells, which opens the theoretical possibility of \"age classes\" among bacteria.", "Even within humans and other mortal species, there are cells with the potential for immortality: cancer cells which have lost the ability to die when maintained in a cell culture such as the HeLa cell line, and specific stem cells such as germ cells (producing ova and spermatozoa). In artificial cloning, adult cells can be rejuvenated to embryonic status and then used to grow a new tissue or animal without ageing", ". Normal human cells however die after about 50 cell divisions in laboratory culture (the Hayflick Limit, discovered by Leonard Hayflick in 1961).", "Symptoms", "A number of characteristic ageing symptoms are experienced by a majority or by a significant proportion of humans during their lifetimes.\n Teenagers lose the young child's ability to hear high-frequency sounds above 20 kHz.\n Wrinkles develop mainly due to photoageing, particularly affecting sun-exposed areas (face).\n After peaking from the late teens to the late 20s, female fertility declines.\n After age 30 the mass of human body is decreased until 70 years and then shows damping oscillations.", "People over 35 years of age are at increasing risk for losing strength in the ciliary muscle of the eyes which leads to difficulty focusing on close objects, or presbyopia. Most people experience presbyopia by age 45–50. The cause is lens hardening by decreasing levels of alpha-crystallin, a process which may be sped up by higher temperatures.\n Around age 50, hair turns grey. Pattern hair loss by the age of 50 affects about 30–50% of males and a quarter of females.", "Menopause typically occurs between 44 and 58 years of age.\n In the 60–64 age cohort, the incidence of osteoarthritis rises to 53%. Only 20% however report disabling osteoarthritis at this age.", "Almost half of people older than 75 have hearing loss (presbycusis) inhibiting spoken communication. Many vertebrates such as fish, birds and amphibians do not develop presbycusis in old age as they are able to regenerate their cochlear sensory cells, whereas mammals including humans have genetically lost this ability.\n By age 80, more than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery.", "By age 80, more than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery.\n Frailty, a syndrome of decreased strength, physical activity, physical performance and energy, affects 25% of those over 85. Muscles have a reduced capacity of responding to exercise or injury and loss of muscle mass and strength (sarcopenia) is common. Maximum oxygen use and maximum heart rate decline. Hand strength and mobility decrease.", "Atherosclerosis is classified as an ageing disease. It leads to cardiovascular disease (for example stroke and heart attack) which globally is the most common cause of death. Vessel ageing causes vascular remodeling and loss of arterial elasticity and as a result causes the stiffness of the vasculature.", "Recent evidence suggests that age-related risk of death plateaus after age 105. The maximum human lifespan is suggested to be 115 years. The oldest reliably recorded human was Jeanne Calment who died in 1997 at 122.", "Dementia becomes more common with age. About 3% of people between the ages of 65 and 74, 19% between 75 and 84, and nearly half of those over 85 years of age have dementia. The spectrum ranges from mild cognitive impairment to the neurodegenerative diseases of Alzheimer's disease, cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson's disease and Lou Gehrig's disease", ". Furthermore, many types of memory decline with ageing, but not semantic memory or general knowledge such as vocabulary definitions, which typically increases or remains steady until late adulthood (see Ageing brain). Intelligence declines with age, though the rate varies depending on the type and may in fact remain steady throughout most of the lifespan, dropping suddenly only as people near the end of their lives", ". Individual variations in the rate of cognitive decline may therefore be explained in terms of people having different lengths of life. There are changes to the brain: after 20 years of age there is a 10% reduction each decade in the total length of the brain's myelinated axons.", "Age can result in visual impairment, whereby non-verbal communication is reduced, which can lead to isolation and possible depression. Older adults, however, may not experience depression as much as younger adults, and were paradoxically found to have improved mood despite declining physical health. Macular degeneration causes vision loss and increases with age, affecting nearly 12% of those above the age of 80", ". This degeneration is caused by systemic changes in the circulation of waste products and by growth of abnormal vessels around the retina. Other visual diseases that often appear with age would be cataracts and glaucoma. A cataract occurs when the lens of the eye becomes cloudy making vision blurry and eventually causing blindness if untreated. They develop over time and are seen most often with those that are older. Cataracts can be treated through surgery", ". Cataracts can be treated through surgery. Glaucoma is another common visual disease that appears in older adults. Glaucoma is caused by damage to the optic nerve causing vision loss. Glaucoma usually develops over time but there are variations to glaucoma, and some have sudden onset. There are a few procedures for glaucoma but there is no cure or fix for the damage once it has happened. Prevention is the best measure in the case of glaucoma.", "A distinction can be made between \"proximal ageing\" (age-based effects that come about because of factors in the recent past) and \"distal ageing\" (age-based differences that can be traced to a cause in a person's early life, such as childhood poliomyelitis).", "Ageing is among the greatest known risk factors for most human diseases. Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two-thirds—100,000 per day—die from age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is higher, reaching 90%.\n\nBiological basis", "In the 21st century, researchers are only beginning to investigate the biological basis of ageing even in relatively simple and short-lived organisms, such as yeast. Little is known of mammalian ageing, in part due to the much longer lives of even small mammals, such as the mouse (around 3 years). A model organism for the study of ageing is the nematode C. elegans having a short lifespan of 2–3 weeks enabling genetic manipulations or suppression of gene activity with RNA interference, and other factors", ". Most known mutations and RNA interference targets that extend lifespan were first discovered in C. elegans.", "The factors proposed to influence biological ageing fall into two main categories, programmed and error-related. Programmed factors follow a biological timetable that might be a continuation of inherent mechanisms that regulate childhood growth and development. This regulation would depend on changes in gene expression that affect the systems responsible for maintenance, repair and defense responses.", "Factors causing errors or damage include internal and environmental events that induce cumulative deterioration in one or more organs.", "Molecular and cellular hallmarks of ageing", "One 2013 review assessed ageing through the lens of the damage theory, proposing nine metabolic \"hallmarks\" of ageing in various organisms but especially mammals:\n genomic instability (mutations accumulated in nuclear DNA, in mtDNA, and in the nuclear lamina)\n telomere attrition (the authors note that artificial telomerase confers non-cancerous immortality to otherwise mortal cells)", "epigenetic alterations (including DNA methylation patterns, post-translational modification of histones, and chromatin remodelling). Ageing and disease are related to a misregulation of gene expression through impaired methylation patterns, from hypomethylation to hypermethylation. \n loss of proteostasis (protein folding and proteolysis)", "loss of proteostasis (protein folding and proteolysis)\n deregulated nutrient sensing (relating to the Growth hormone/Insulin-like growth factor 1 signalling pathway, which is the most conserved ageing-controlling pathway in evolution and among its targets are the FOXO3/Sirtuin transcription factors and the mTOR complexes, probably responsive to caloric restriction)", "mitochondrial dysfunction (the authors point out however that a causal link between ageing and increased mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species is no longer supported by recent research)\n cellular senescence (accumulation of no longer dividing cells in certain tissues, a process induced especially by p16INK4a/Rb and p19ARF/p53 to stop cancerous cells from proliferating)\n stem cell exhaustion (in the authors' view caused by damage factors such as those listed above)", "stem cell exhaustion (in the authors' view caused by damage factors such as those listed above)\n altered intercellular communication (encompassing especially inflammation but possibly also other intercellular interactions\ninflammageing, a chronic inflammatory phenotype in the elderly in the absence of viral infection, due to over-activation and a decrease in the precision of the innate immune system", "dysbiosis of gut microbiome (e.g., loss of microbial diversity, expansion of enteropathogens, and altered vitamin B12 biosynthesis) is correlated with biological age rather than chronological age.", "Metabolic pathways involved in ageing \nThere are three main metabolic pathways which can influence the rate of ageing, discussed below:\n the FOXO3/Sirtuin pathway, probably responsive to caloric restriction\n the Growth hormone/Insulin-like growth factor 1 signalling pathway\n the activity levels of the electron transport chain in mitochondria and (in plants) in chloroplasts.", "It is likely that most of these pathways affect ageing separately, because targeting them simultaneously leads to additive increases in lifespan.", "Programmed factors", "The rate of ageing varies substantially across different species, and this, to a large extent, is genetically based. For example, numerous perennial plants ranging from strawberries and potatoes to willow trees typically produce clones of themselves by vegetative reproduction and are thus potentially immortal, while annual plants such as wheat and watermelons die each year and reproduce by sexual reproduction", ". In 2008 it was discovered that inactivation of only two genes in the annual plant Arabidopsis thaliana leads to its conversion into a potentially immortal perennial plant. The oldest animals known so far are 15,000-year-old Antarctic sponges, which can reproduce both sexually and clonally.", "Clonal immortality apart, there are certain species whose individual lifespans stand out among Earth's life-forms, including the bristlecone pine at 5062 years or 5067 years, invertebrates like the hard clam (known as quahog in New England) at 508 years, the Greenland shark at 400 years, various deep-sea tube worms at over 300 years, fish like the sturgeon and the rockfish, and the sea anemone and lobster. Such organisms are sometimes said to exhibit negligible senescence", ". Such organisms are sometimes said to exhibit negligible senescence. The genetic aspect has also been demonstrated in studies of human centenarians.", "Evolution of ageing", "Life span, like other phenotypes, is selected for in evolution. Traits that benefit early survival and reproduction will be selected for even if they contribute to an earlier death", ". Such a genetic effect is called the antagonistic pleiotropy effect when referring to a gene (pleiotropy signifying the gene has a double function – enabling reproduction at a young age but costing the organism life expectancy in old age) and is called the disposable soma effect when referring to an entire genetic programme (the organism diverting limited resources from maintenance to reproduction)", ". The biological mechanisms which regulate lifespan probably evolved with the first multicellular organisms more than a billion years ago. However, even single-celled organisms such as yeast have been used as models in ageing, hence ageing has its biological roots much earlier than multi-cellularity.", "Damage-related factors", "DNA damage theory of ageing: DNA damage is thought to be the common basis of both cancer and ageing, and it has been argued that intrinsic causes of DNA damage are the most important causes of ageing. Genetic damage (aberrant structural alterations of the DNA), mutations (changes in the DNA sequence), and epimutations (methylation of gene promoter regions or alterations of the DNA scaffolding which regulate gene expression), can cause abnormal gene expression", ". DNA damage causes the cells to stop dividing or induces apoptosis, often affecting stem cell pools and therefore hindering regeneration. However, lifelong studies of mice suggest that most mutations happen during embryonic and childhood development, when cells divide often, as each cell division is a chance for errors in DNA replication.", "Genetic instability: Dogs annually lose approximately 3.3% of the DNA in their heart muscle cells while humans lose approximately 0.6% of their heart muscle DNA each year. These numbers are close to the ratio of the maximum longevities of the two species (120 years vs. 20 years, a 6/1 ratio). The comparative percentage is also similar between the dog and human for yearly DNA loss in the brain and lymphocytes. As stated by lead author, Bernard L. Strehler, \"..", ". As stated by lead author, Bernard L. Strehler, \"... genetic damage (particularly gene loss) is almost certainly (or probably the) central cause of ageing.\"", "Accumulation of waste:\n A buildup of waste products in cells presumably interferes with metabolism. For example, a waste product called lipofuscin is formed by a complex reaction in cells that binds fat to proteins. Lipofuscin may accumulate in the cells as small granules during ageing.\n The hallmark of ageing yeast cells appears to be overproduction of certain proteins.", "The hallmark of ageing yeast cells appears to be overproduction of certain proteins.\n Autophagy induction can enhance clearance of toxic intracellular waste associated with neurodegenerative diseases and has been comprehensively demonstrated to improve lifespan in yeast, worms, flies, rodents and primates. The situation, however, has been complicated by the identification that autophagy up-regulation can also occur during ageing.", "Wear-and-tear theory: The general idea that changes associated with ageing are the result of chance damage that accumulates over time.\n Accumulation of errors: The idea that ageing results from chance events that escape proofreading mechanisms, which gradually damages the genetic code.\n Heterochromatin loss, model of ageing.\n Cross-linkage: The idea that ageing results from accumulation of cross-linked compounds that interfere with normal cell function.", "Studies of mtDNA mutator mice have shown that increased levels of somatic mtDNA mutations directly can cause a variety of ageing phenotypes. The authors propose that mtDNA mutations lead to respiratory-chain-deficient cells and thence to apoptosis and cell loss. They cast doubt experimentally however on the common assumption that mitochondrial mutations and dysfunction lead to increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).", "Free-radical theory: Damage by free radicals, or more generally reactive oxygen species or oxidative stress, create damage that may give rise to the symptoms we recognise as ageing. The effect of calorie restriction may be due to increased formation of free radicals within the mitochondria, causing a secondary induction of increased antioxidant defence capacity.\nMitochondrial theory of ageing: free radicals produced by mitochondrial activity damage cellular components, leading to ageing.", "DNA oxidation and caloric restriction: Caloric restriction reduces 8-OH-dG DNA damage in organs of ageing rats and mice. Thus, reduction of oxidative DNA damage is associated with a slower rate of ageing and increased lifespan. In a 2021 review article, Vijg stated that \"Based on an abundance of evidence, DNA damage is now considered as the single most important driver of the degenerative processes that collectively cause aging.\"", "Research\n\nDiet\nThe Mediterranean diet is credited with lowering the risk of heart disease and early death. The major contributors to mortality risk reduction appear to be a higher consumption of vegetables, fish, fruits, nuts and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as by consuming olive oil.\n\nAs of 2021, there is insufficient clinical evidence that calorie restriction or any dietary practice affects the process of aging.", "Exercise\nPeople who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who are not physically active. The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week. For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for 25 minutes on a daily basis would together achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week.", "Social factors\nA meta-analysis showed that loneliness carries a higher mortality risk than smoking.\n\nSociety and culture", "Different cultures express age in different ways. The age of an adult human is commonly measured in whole years since the day of birth. (The most notable exceptionEast Asian age reckoningis becoming less common, particularly in official contexts.) Arbitrary divisions set to mark periods of life may include juvenile (from infancy through childhood, preadolescence, and adolescence), early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood", ". Informal terms include \"tweens\", \"teenagers\", \"twentysomething\", \"thirtysomething\", etc. as well as \"denarian\", \"vicenarian\", \"tricenarian\", \"quadragenarian\", etc.", "Most legal systems define a specific age for when an individual is allowed or obliged to do particular activities. These age specifications include voting age, drinking age, age of consent, age of majority, age of criminal responsibility, marriageable age, age of candidacy, and mandatory retirement age. Admission to a movie, for instance, may depend on age according to a motion picture rating system. A bus fare might be discounted for the young or old", ". A bus fare might be discounted for the young or old. Each nation, government, and non-governmental organisation has different ways of classifying age. In other words, chronological ageing may be distinguished from \"social ageing\" (cultural age-expectations of how people should act as they grow older) and \"biological ageing\" (an organism's physical state as it ages).", "Ageism cost the United States $63 billion in one year according to a Yale School of Public Health study. In a UNFPA report about ageing in the 21st century, it highlighted the need to \"Develop a new rights-based culture of ageing and a change of mindset and societal attitudes towards ageing and older persons, from welfare recipients to active, contributing members of society\"", ". UNFPA said that this \"requires, among others, working towards the development of international human rights instruments and their translation into national laws and regulations and affirmative measures that challenge age discrimination and recognise older people as autonomous subjects\". Older people's music participation contributes to the maintenance of interpersonal relationships and promoting successful ageing", ". At the same time, older persons can make contributions to society including caregiving and volunteering. For example, \"A study of Bolivian migrants who [had] moved to Spain found that 69% left their children at home, usually with grandparents. In rural China, grandparents care for 38% of children aged under five whose parents have gone to work in cities.\"", "Economics", "Population ageing is the increase in the number and proportion of older people in society. Population ageing has three possible causes: migration, longer life expectancy (decreased death rate) and decreased birth rate. Ageing has a significant impact on society. Young people tend to have fewer legal privileges (if they are below the age of majority), they are more likely to push for political and social change, to develop and adopt new technologies, and to need education", ". Older people have different requirements from society and government, and frequently have differing values as well, such as for property and pension rights.", "In the 21st century, one of the most significant population trends is ageing. Currently, over 11% of the world's current population are people aged 60 and older and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimates that by 2050 that number will rise to approximately 22%. Ageing has occurred due to development which has enabled better nutrition, sanitation, health care, education and economic well-being. Consequently, fertility rates have continued to decline and life expectancy has risen", ". Consequently, fertility rates have continued to decline and life expectancy has risen. Life expectancy at birth is over 80 now in 33 countries. Ageing is a \"global phenomenon\", that is occurring fastest in developing countries, including those with large youth populations, and poses social and economic challenges to the work which can be overcome with \"the right set of policies to equip individuals, families and societies to address these challenges and to reap its benefits\".", "As life expectancy rises and birth rates decline in developed countries, the median age rises accordingly. According to the United Nations, this process is taking place in nearly every country in the world. A rising median age can have significant social and economic implications, as the workforce gets progressively older and the number of old workers and retirees grows relative to the number of young workers", ". Older people generally incur more health-related costs than do younger people in the workplace and can also cost more in worker's compensation and pension liabilities. In most developed countries an older workforce is somewhat inevitable. In the United States for instance, the Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that one in four American workers will be 55 or older by 2020.", "Among the most urgent concerns of older persons worldwide is income security. This poses challenges for governments with ageing populations to ensure investments in pension systems continues to provide economic independence and reduce poverty in old age. These challenges vary for developing and developed countries", ". These challenges vary for developing and developed countries. UNFPA stated that, \"Sustainability of these systems is of particular concern, particularly in developed countries, while social protection and old-age pension coverage remain a challenge for developing countries, where a large proportion of the labour force is found in the informal sector.\"", "The global economic crisis has increased financial pressure to ensure economic security and access to health care in old age. To elevate this pressure \"social protection floors must be implemented in order to guarantee income security and access to essential health and social services for all older persons and provide a safety net that contributes to the postponement of disability and prevention of impoverishment in old age\".", "It has been argued that population ageing has undermined economic development and can lead to lower inflation because elderly individuals care especially strongly about the value of their pensions and savings. Evidence suggests that pensions, while making a difference to the well-being of older persons, also benefit entire families especially in times of crisis when there may be a shortage or loss of employment within households", ". A study by the Australian Government in 2003 estimated that \"women between the ages of 65 and 74 years contribute A$16 billion per year in unpaid caregiving and voluntary work. Similarly, men in the same age group contributed A$10 billion per year.\"", "Due to increasing share of the elderly in the population, health care expenditures will continue to grow relative to the economy in coming decades. This has been considered as a negative phenomenon and effective strategies like labour productivity enhancement should be considered to deal with negative consequences of ageing.", "Sociology", "In the field of sociology and mental health, ageing is seen in five different views: ageing as maturity, ageing as decline, ageing as a life-cycle event, ageing as generation, and ageing as survival. Positive correlates with ageing often include economics, employment, marriage, children, education, and sense of control, as well as many others. The social science of ageing includes disengagement theory, activity theory, selectivity theory, and continuity theory", ". Retirement, a common transition faced by the elderly, may have both positive and negative consequences. As cyborgs currently are on the rise some theorists argue there is a need to develop new definitions of ageing and for instance a bio-techno-social definition of ageing has been suggested.", "There is a current debate as to whether or not the pursuit of longevity and the postponement of senescence are cost-effective health care goals given finite health care resources. Because of the accumulated infirmities of old age, bioethicist Ezekiel Emanuel, opines that the pursuit of longevity via the compression of morbidity hypothesis is a \"fantasy\" and that human life is not worth living after age 75; longevity then should not be a goal of health care policy", ". This opinion has been contested by neurosurgeon and medical ethicist Miguel Faria, who states that life can be worthwhile during old age, and that longevity should be pursued in association with the attainment of quality of life. Faria claims that postponement of senescence as well as happiness and wisdom can be attained in old age in a large proportion of those who lead healthy lifestyles and remain intellectually active.", "Health care demand \n\nWith age inevitable biological changes occur that increase the risk of illness and disability. UNFPA states that:\n\n\"A life-cycle approach to health care – one that starts early, continues through the reproductive years and lasts into old age – is essential for the physical and emotional well-being of older persons, and, indeed, all people. Public policies and programmes should additionally address the needs of older impoverished people who cannot afford health care.\"", "Many societies in Western Europe and Japan have ageing populations. While the effects on society are complex, there is a concern about the impact on health care demand. The large number of suggestions in the literature for specific interventions to cope with the expected increase in demand for long-term care in ageing societies can be organised under four headings: improve system performance; redesign service delivery; support informal caregivers; and shift demographic parameters.", "However, the annual growth in national health spending is not mainly due to increasing demand from ageing populations, but rather has been driven by rising incomes, costly new medical technology, a shortage of health care workers and informational asymmetries between providers and patients. A number of health problems become more prevalent as people get older. These include mental health problems as well as physical health problems, especially dementia.", "It has been estimated that population ageing only explains 0.2 percentage points of the annual growth rate in medical spending of 4.3% since 1970. In addition, certain reforms to the Medicare system in the United States decreased elderly spending on home health care by 12.5% per year between 1996 and 2000.", "Self-perception \nBeauty standards have evolved over time, and as scientific research in cosmeceuticals, cosmetic products seen to have medicinal benefits like anti-aging creams, has increased, the industry has also expanded; the kinds of products they produce (such as serums and creams) have gradually gained popularity and become a part of many people's personal care routine.", "The increase in demand for cosmeceuticals has led scientists to find ingredients for these products in unorthodox places. For example, the secretion of cryptomphalus aspersa (or brown garden snail) has been found to have antioxidant properties, increase skin cell proliferation, and increase extracellular proteins such as collagen and fibronectin (important proteins for cell proliferation)", ". Another substance used to prevent the physical manifestations of ageing is onobotulinumtoxinA, the toxin injected for Botox.", "In some cultures, old age is celebrated and honored. In Korea, for example, a special party called hwangap is held to celebrate and congratulate an individual for turning 60 years old. In China, respect for elderly is often the basis for how a community is organized and has been at the foundation of Chinese culture and morality for thousands of years. Older people are respected for their wisdom and most important decisions have traditionally not been made without consulting them", ". This is a similar case for most Asian countries such as the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Singapore, etc.", "Positive self-perceptions of ageing are associated with better mental and physical health and well-being. Positive self-perception of health has been correlated with higher well-being and reduced mortality among the elderly", ". Various reasons have been proposed for this association; people who are objectively healthy may naturally rate their health better as than that of their ill counterparts, though this link has been observed even in studies which have controlled for socioeconomic status, psychological functioning and health status. This finding is generally stronger for men than women, though this relationship is not universal across all studies and may only be true in some circumstances.", "As people age, subjective health remains relatively stable, even though objective health worsens. In fact, perceived health improves with age when objective health is controlled in the equation. This phenomenon is known as the \"paradox of ageing\". This may be a result of social comparison; for instance, the older people get, the more they may consider themselves in better health than their same-aged peers. Elderly people often associate their functional and physical decline with the normal ageing process.", "One way to help younger people experience what it feels like to be older is through an ageing suit. There are several different kinds of suits including the GERT (named as a reference to gerontology), the R70i exoskeleton, and the AGNES (Age Gain Now Empathy Suit) suits. These suits create the feelings of the effects of ageing by adding extra weight and increased pressure in certain points like the wrists, ankles and other joints", ". In addition, the various suits have different ways to impair vision and hearing to simulate the loss of these senses. To create the loss of feeling in hands that the elderly experience, special gloves are a part of the uniforms.", "Use of these suits may help to increase the amount of empathy felt for the elderly and could be considered particularly useful for those who are either learning about ageing, or those who work with the elderly, such as nurses or care center staff.", "Empathy is another field that could benefit from the empathy these suits may cause. When designers understand what it feels like to have the impairments of old age, they can better design buildings, packaging, or even tools to help with the simple day-to-day tasks that are more difficult with less dexterity. Designing with the elderly in mind may help to reduce the negative feelings that are associated with the loss of abilities that the elderly face.", "Healthy ageing \nThe healthy ageing framework, proposed by the World Health Organization operationalises health as functional ability, which results from the interactions of intrinsic capacity and the environments.\n\nIntrinsic capacity \nIntrinsic capacity is a construct encompassing people's physical and mental abilities which can be drawn upon during ageing. Intrinsic capacity comprises the domains of: cognition, locomotion, vitality/nutrition, psychological and sensory (visual and hearing).", "A recent study found four \"profiles\" or \"statuses\" of intrinsic capacity among older adults, namely high IC (43% at baseline), low deterioration with impaired locomotion (17%), high deterioration without cognitive impairment (22%) and high deterioration with cognitive impairment (18%). Over half of the study sample remained in the same status at baseline and follow-up (61%)", ". Over half of the study sample remained in the same status at baseline and follow-up (61%). Around one-fourth of participants transitioned from the high IC to the low deterioration status, and only 3% of the participants improved their status. Interestingly, the probability of improvement was observed in the status of high deterioration", ". Interestingly, the probability of improvement was observed in the status of high deterioration. Participants in the latent statuses of low and high levels of deterioration had a significantly higher risk of frailty, disability and dementia than their high IC counterparts.", "Successful ageing", "The concept of successful ageing can be traced back to the 1950s and was popularized in the 1980s. Traditional definitions of successful ageing have emphasized absence of physical and cognitive disabilities. In their 1987 article, Rowe and Kahn characterized successful ageing as involving three components: a) freedom from disease and disability, b) high cognitive and physical functioning, and c) social and productive engagement", ". The study cited previous was also done back in 1987 and therefore, these factors associated with successful aging have probably been changed. With the current knowledge, scientists started to focus on learning about the effect spirituality in successful aging. There are some differences in cultures which of these components are the most important. Most often across cultures social engagement was the most highly rated but depending on the culture the definition of successful ageing changes.", "Cultural references \nThe ancient Greek dramatist Euripides (5th century BC) describes the multiple-headed mythological monster Hydra as having a regenerative capacity which makes it immortal, which is the historical background to the name of the biological genus Hydra. The Book of Job (c. 6th century BC) describes human lifespan as inherently limited and makes a comparison with the innate immortality that a felled tree may have when undergoing vegetative regeneration.\n\nSee also", "Ageing brain\n Ageing movement control\n Ageing of Europe\n Ageing studies\n Anti-ageing movement\n Biodemography of human longevity\n Biogerontology\n Biological immortality\n Biomarkers of ageing\n Clinical geropsychology\n Death\n DNA damage theory of aging\n Epigenetic clock\n Evolution of ageing\n Genetics of ageing\n Gerontechnology\n Gerontology\n Gerascophobia\n List of life extension-related topics\n Longevity\n Mitochondrial theory of ageing\n Neuroscience of ageing\n Old age\n Particulates\n Pollutants", "Mitochondrial theory of ageing\n Neuroscience of ageing\n Old age\n Particulates\n Pollutants\n Population ageing\n Progeria\n Rejuvenation\n Stem cell theory of ageing\n Supercentenarian\n Thermoregulation in humans\n Transgenerational design", "References \n\n \nGerontology\nOld age" ]

[ "This is a list of the bird species recorded in Japan. The avifauna of Japan include a total of 728 species, of which 19 are endemic, and 30 have been introduced by humans.\n\nThis list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, 2022 edition.", "The following tags highlight several categories of occurrence other than regular migrants and non-endemic residents.\n\n(A) Accidental – a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in Japan (also called a vagrant)\n(E) Endemic – a species endemic to Japan\n(I) Introduced – a species introduced to Japan as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions\n\nDucks, geese, and waterfowl\nOrder: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae", "Ducks, geese, and waterfowl\nOrder: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae\n\nAnatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.", "Lesser whistling duck, Dendrocygna javanica\nBar-headed goose, Anser indicus (A)\nEmperor goose, Anser canagicus (A)\nSnow goose, Anser caerulescens (A)\nGreylag goose, Anser anser (A)\nSwan goose, Anser cygnoides (A)\nGreater white-fronted goose, Anser albifrons\nLesser white-fronted goose, Anser erythropus (A)\nTaiga bean-goose, Anser fabalis\nTundra bean-goose, Anser serrirostris\nBrant, Branta bernicla\nCackling goose, Branta hutchinsii\nCanada goose, Branta canadensis (A)", "Brant, Branta bernicla\nCackling goose, Branta hutchinsii\nCanada goose, Branta canadensis (A)\nRed-breasted goose, Branta ruficollis (A)\nMute swan, Cygnus olor (I)\nTrumpeter swan, Cygnus buccinator (A) \nTundra swan, Cygnus columbianus\nWhooper swan, Cygnus cygnus\nRuddy shelduck, Tadorna ferruginea (A)\nCommon shelduck, Tadorna tadorna\nCrested shelduck, Tadorna cristata\nCotton pygmy-goose, Nettapus coromandelianus (A)\nMandarin duck, Aix galericulata\nBaikal teal, Sibirionetta formosa", "Mandarin duck, Aix galericulata\nBaikal teal, Sibirionetta formosa\nGarganey, Spatula querquedula\nBlue-winged teal, Spatula discors (A)\nNorthern shoveler, Spatula clypeata\nGadwall, Mareca strepera\nFalcated duck, Mareca falcata\nEurasian wigeon, Marecca penelope\nAmerican wigeon, Mareca americana (A)\nPhilippine duck, Anas luzonica (A)\nEastern spot-billed duck, Anas zonorhyncha\nMallard, Anas platyrhynchos\nNorthern pintail, Anas acuta\nGreen-winged teal, Anas crecca\nRed-crested pochard, Netta rufina (A)", "Northern pintail, Anas acuta\nGreen-winged teal, Anas crecca\nRed-crested pochard, Netta rufina (A)\nCanvasback, Aythya valisineria (A)\nRedhead, Aythya americana (A)\nCommon pochard, Aythya ferina\nRing-necked duck, Aythya collaris (A)\nFerruginous duck, Aythya nyroca (A)\nBaer's pochard, Aythya baeri\nTufted duck, Aythya fuligula\nGreater scaup, Aythya marila\nLesser scaup, Aythya affinis (A)\nSteller's eider, Polysticta stelleri\nKing eider, Somateria spectabilis (A)\nCommon eider, Somateria mollissima (A)", "King eider, Somateria spectabilis (A)\nCommon eider, Somateria mollissima (A)\nHarlequin duck, Histrionicus histrionicus\nSurf scoter, Melanitta perspicillata (A)\nWhite-winged scoter, Melanitta deglandi (A)\nStejneger's scoter, Melanitta stejnegeri\nBlack scoter, Melanitta americana\nLong-tailed duck, Clangula hyemalis\nBufflehead, Bucephala albeola (A)\nCommon goldeneye, Bucephala clangula\nSmew, Mergellus albellus\nHooded merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus (A)\nCommon merganser, Mergus merganser", "Hooded merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus (A)\nCommon merganser, Mergus merganser\nRed-breasted merganser, Mergus serrator\nScaly-sided merganser, Mergus squamatus (A)", "Pheasants, grouse, and allies\nOrder: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae\n\nPhasianidae consists of the pheasants and their allies. These are terrestrial species, variable in size but generally plump with broad relatively short wings. Many species are gamebirds or have been domesticated as a food source for humans.", "Hazel grouse, Tetrastes bonasia\nRock ptarmigan, Lagopus muta\nCopper pheasant, Phasianus soemmerringi (E)\nGreen pheasant, Phasianus versicolor (E)\nIndian peafowl, Pavo cristatus (I)\nJapanese quail, Coturnix japonica\nChinese bamboo-partridge, Bambusicola thoracicus (I)\nTaiwan bamboo-partridge, Bambusicola sonorivox (I)\n\nGrebes\nOrder: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae", "Grebes\nOrder: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae\n\nGrebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.\n\nLittle grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis\nHorned grebe, Podiceps auritus\nRed-necked grebe, Podiceps grisegena\nGreat crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus\nEared grebe, Podiceps nigricollis\n\nPigeons and doves\nOrder: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae", "Pigeons and doves\nOrder: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae\n\nPigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.", "Rock pigeon, Columba livia (I)\nStock dove, Columba oenas (A)\nJapanese wood-pigeon, Columba janthina\nRyūkyū pigeon, Columba jouyi (E) (extinct)\nBonin pigeon, Columba versicolor (E) (extinct)\nOriental turtle-dove, Streptopelia orientalis\nEurasian collared-dove, Streptopelia decaocta\nRed collared-dove, Streptopelia tranquebarica (A)\nAsian emerald dove, Chalcophaps indica\nWhite-bellied green-pigeon, Treron sieboldii\nWhistling green-pigeon, Treron formosae\nBlack-chinned fruit-dove, Ptilinopus leclancheri (A)", "Sandgrouse\nOrder: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae\n\nSandgrouse have small, pigeon like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Flocks fly to watering holes at dawn and dusk. Their legs are feathered down to the toes.\n\nPallas's sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus (A)\n\nBustards\nOrder: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae", "Pallas's sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus (A)\n\nBustards\nOrder: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae\n\nBustards are large terrestrial birds mainly associated with dry open country and steppes in the Old World. They are omnivorous and nest on the ground. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. They have long broad wings with \"fingered\" wingtips and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays.\n\nGreat bustard, Otis tarda (A)\nLittle bustard, Tetrax tetrax (A)", "Great bustard, Otis tarda (A)\nLittle bustard, Tetrax tetrax (A)\n\nCuckoos\nOrder: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae\n\nThe family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs.", "Lesser coucal, Centropus bengalensis (A)\nChestnut-winged cuckoo, Clamator coromandus (A)\nAsian koel, Eudynamys scolopaceus (A)\nLong-tailed koel, Urodynamis taitensis (A)\nPlaintive cuckoo, Cacomantis merulinus (A)\nLarge hawk-cuckoo, Hierococcyx sparverioides (A)\nNorthern hawk-cuckoo, Hierococcyx hyperythrus\nLesser cuckoo, Cuculus poliocephalus\nIndian cuckoo, Cuculus micropterus (A)\nCommon cuckoo, Cuculus canorus\nOriental cuckoo, Cuculus optatus", "Nightjars and allies\nOrder: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae\n\nNightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.\n\nGray nightjar, Caprimulgus jotaka\n\nSwifts\nOrder: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae", "Gray nightjar, Caprimulgus jotaka\n\nSwifts\nOrder: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae\n\nSwifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.\n\nWhite-throated needletail, Hirundapus caudacutus\nHimalayan swiftlet, Aerodramus brevirostris (A)\nPacific swift, Apus pacificus\nHouse swift, Apus nipalensis", "Rails, gallinules, and coots\nOrder: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae\n\nRallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.", "Brown-cheeked rail, Rallus indicus\nCorn crake, Crex crex (A)\nSlaty-breasted rail, Lewinia striata (A)\nOkinawa rail, Gallirallus okinawae (E)\nSpotted crake, Porzana porzana\nEurasian moorhen, Gallinula chloropus\nEurasian coot, Fulica atra\nWhite-browed crake, Poliolimnas cinereus (Ex)\nWatercock, Gallicrex cinerea\nWhite-breasted waterhen, Amaurornis phoenicurus\nSlaty-legged crake, Rallina eurizonoides\nRuddy-breasted crake, Zapornia fusca\nBand-bellied crake, Zapornia paykullii (A)", "Ruddy-breasted crake, Zapornia fusca\nBand-bellied crake, Zapornia paykullii (A)\nBaillon's crake, Zapornia pusilla (A)\nSwinhoe's rail, Coturnicops exquisitus (A)", "Cranes\nOrder: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae\n\nCranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or \"dances\".\n\nDemoiselle crane, Anthropoides virgo (A)\nSiberian crane, Leucogeranus leucogeranus (A)\nSandhill crane, Antigone canadensis (A)\nWhite-naped crane, Antigone vipio\nCommon crane, Grus grus\nHooded crane, Grus monacha\nRed-crowned crane, Grus japonensis", "Stilts and avocets\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae\n\nRecurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.\n\nBlack-winged stilt, Himantopus himantopus\nPied stilt, Himantopus leucocephalus (A)\nPied avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta (A)\n\nOystercatchers\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae", "Oystercatchers\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae\n\nThe oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.\n\nEurasian oystercatcher, Haematopus ostralegus\n\nPlovers and lapwings\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae", "Plovers and lapwings\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae\n\nThe family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.", "Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola\nEuropean golden-plover, Pluvialis apricaria (A)\nAmerican golden-plover, Pluvialis dominica (A)\nPacific golden-plover, Pluvialis fulva\nNorthern lapwing, Vanellus vanellus\nGray-headed lapwing, Vanellus cinereus\nLesser sand-plover, Charadrius mongolus\nGreater sand-plover, Charadrius leschenaultti\nKentish plover, Charadrius alexandrinus\nCommon ringed plover, Charadrius hiaticula\nSemipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus (A)\nLong-billed plover, Charadrius placidus", "Semipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus (A)\nLong-billed plover, Charadrius placidus\nLittle ringed plover, Charadrius dubius\nOriental plover, Charadrius veredus (A)\nEurasian dotterel, Charadrius morinellus (A)", "Painted-snipes\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Rostratulidae\n\nPainted-snipe are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but more brightly colored.\n\nGreater painted-snipe, Rostratula benghalensis\n\nJacanas\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae", "Greater painted-snipe, Rostratula benghalensis\n\nJacanas\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae\n\nThe jacanas are a group of tropical waders in the family Jacanidae. They are found throughout the tropics. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat.\n\nPheasant-tailed jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus (A)\n\nSandpipers and allies\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae", "Sandpipers and allies\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae\n\nScolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.", "Bristle-thighed curlew Numenius tahitiensis (A)\nWhimbrel, Numenius phaeopus\nLittle curlew, Numenius minutus (A)\nFar Eastern curlew, Numenius madagascariensis\nSlender-billed curlew, Numenius tenuirostris (A)\nEurasian curlew, Numenius arquata\nBar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica\nBlack-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa\nHudsonian godwit, Limosa haemastica (A)\nRuddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres\nGreat knot, Calidris tenuirostris\nRed knot, Calidris canutus\nRuff, Calidris pugnax", "Great knot, Calidris tenuirostris\nRed knot, Calidris canutus\nRuff, Calidris pugnax\nBroad-billed sandpiper, Calidris falcinellus\nSharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata\nStilt sandpiper, Calidris himantopus (A)\nCurlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea\nTemminck's stint, Calidris temminckii\nLong-toed stint, Calidris subminuta\nSpoon-billed sandpiper, Calidris pygmea (A)\nRed-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis\nSanderling, Calidris alba\nDunlin, Calidris alpina\nRock sandpiper, Calidris ptilocnemis", "Sanderling, Calidris alba\nDunlin, Calidris alpina\nRock sandpiper, Calidris ptilocnemis\nBaird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii (A)\nLittle stint, Calidris minuta (A)\nLeast sandpiper, Calidris minutilla (A)\nWhite-rumped sandpiper, Calidris fuscicollis (A)\nBuff-breasted sandpiper, Calidris subruficollis (A)\nPectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos\nWestern sandpiper, Calidris mauri (A)\nAsian dowitcher, Limnodromus semipalmatus (A)\nShort-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus griseus (A)", "Asian dowitcher, Limnodromus semipalmatus (A)\nShort-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus griseus (A)\nLong-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus\nJack snipe, Lymnocryptes minimus (A)\nEurasian woodcock, Scolopax rusticola\nAmami woodcock, Scolopax mira (E)\nSolitary snipe, Gallinago solitaria\nLatham's snipe, Gallinago hardwickii\nCommon snipe, Gallinago gallinago\nPin-tailed snipe, Gallinago stenura\nSwinhoe's snipe, Gallinago megala\nTerek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus\nWilson's phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor (A)", "Terek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus\nWilson's phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor (A)\nRed-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus\nRed phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius\nCommon sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos\nSpotted sandpiper, Actitis macularius (A)\nGreen sandpiper, Tringa ochropus\nGray-tailed tattler, Tringa brevipes\nWandering tattler, Tringa incana (A)\nSpotted redshank, Tringa erythropus\nGreater yellowlegs, Tringa melanoleuca (A)\nCommon greenshank, Tringa nebularia\nNordmann's greenshank, Tringa guttifer (A)", "Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia\nNordmann's greenshank, Tringa guttifer (A)\nLesser yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes (A)\nMarsh sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis\nWood sandpiper, Tringa glareola\nCommon redshank, Tringa totanus", "Buttonquails\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Turnicidae\n\nThe buttonquails are small, drab, running birds which resemble the true quails. The female is the brighter of the sexes and initiates courtship. The male incubates the eggs and tends the young.\n\nBarred buttonquail, Turnix suscitator\n\nPratincoles and coursers\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae", "Pratincoles and coursers\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae\n\nGlareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards.\n\nOriental pratincole, Glareola maldivarum\n\nSkuas and jaegers\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae", "Skuas and jaegers\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae\n\nThe family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants.\n\nSouth polar skua, Stercorarius maccormicki\nPomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus\nParasitic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus\nLong-tailed jaeger, Stercorarius longicaudus", "Auks, murres, and puffins\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Alcidae\n\nAlcids are superficially similar to penguins due to their black-and-white colors, their upright posture and some of their habits, however they are not related to the penguins and differ in being able to fly. Auks live on the open sea, only deliberately coming ashore to nest.", "Dovekie, Alle alle (A)\nCommon murre, Uria aalge\nThick-billed murre, Uria lomvia\nRazorbill, Alca torda (A)\nPigeon guillemot, Cepphus columba\nSpectacled guillemot, Cepphus carbo\nLong-billed murrelet, Brachyramphus perdix\nAncient murrelet, Synthliboramphus antiquus\nJapanese murrelet, Synthliboramphus wumizusume\nParakeet auklet, Aethia psittacula\nLeast auklet, Aethia pusilla\nWhiskered auklet, Aethia pygmaea (A)\nCrested auklet, Aethia cristatella\nRhinoceros auklet, Cerorhinca monocerata", "Crested auklet, Aethia cristatella\nRhinoceros auklet, Cerorhinca monocerata\nHorned puffin, Fratercula corniculata (A)\nTufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata", "Gulls, terns, and skimmers\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae", "Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns and skimmers. Gulls are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with gray or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water", ". Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Skimmers are a small family of tropical tern-like birds. They have an elongated lower mandible which they use to feed by flying low over the water surface and skimming the water for small fish.", "Black-legged kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla\nRed-legged kittiwake, Rissa brevirostris (A)\nIvory gull, Pagophila eburnea (A)\nSabine's gull, Xema sabini (A)\nSaunders's gull, Saundersilarus saundersi\nSlender-billed gull, Chroicocephalus genei (A)\nBonaparte's gull, Chroicocephalus philadelphia (A)\nSilver gull, Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae (A)\nBlack-headed gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus\nBrown-headed gull, Chroicocephalus brunnicephalus (A)\nLittle gull, Hydrocoloeus minutus (A)", "Brown-headed gull, Chroicocephalus brunnicephalus (A)\nLittle gull, Hydrocoloeus minutus (A)\nRoss's gull, Rhodostethia rosea (A)\nLaughing gull, Leucophaeus atricilla (A)\nFranklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan (A)\nRelict gull, Ichthyaetus relictus (A)\nPallas's gull, Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus (A)\nBlack-tailed gull, Larus crassirostris\nCommon gull, Larus canus\nShort-billed gull, Larus brachyrhynchus (A)\nRing-billed gull, Larus delawarensis (A)\nHerring gull, Larus argentatus\nCaspian gull, Larus cachinnans (A)", "Herring gull, Larus argentatus\nCaspian gull, Larus cachinnans (A)\nIceland gull, Larus glaucoides (A)\nLesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus (A)\nSlaty-backed gull, Larus schistisagus\nGlaucous-winged gull, Larus glaucescens\nGlaucous gull, Larus hyperboreus\nBrown noddy, Anous stolidus\nBlack noddy, Anous minutus (A)\nBlue-gray noddy, Anous ceruleus (A)\nWhite tern, Gygis alba (A)\nSooty tern, Onychoprion fuscatus\nGray-backed tern, Onychoprion lunatus (A)\nBridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus", "Gray-backed tern, Onychoprion lunatus (A)\nBridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus\nAleutian tern, Onychoprion aleuticus (A)\nLittle tern, Sternula albifrons\nLeast tern, Sternula antillarum (A)\nGull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica (A)\nCaspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia (A)\nBlack tern, Chlidonias niger (A)\nWhite-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus\nWhiskered tern, Chlidonias hybrida\nRoseate tern, Sterna dougallii\nBlack-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana\nCommon tern, Sterna hirundo\nArctic tern, Sterna paradisaea (A)", "Black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana\nCommon tern, Sterna hirundo\nArctic tern, Sterna paradisaea (A)\nGreater crested tern, Thalasseus bergii\nLesser crested tern, Thalasseus bengalensis (A)\nChinese crested tern, Thalasseus bernsteini (A)", "Tropicbirds\nOrder: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae\n\nTropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their heads and long wings have black markings.\n\nWhite-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus (A)\nRed-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda\n\nLoons\nOrder: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae", "Loons\nOrder: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae\n\nLoons, known as divers in Europe, are a group of aquatic birds found in many parts of North America and northern Europe. They are the size of a large duck or small goose, which they somewhat resemble when swimming, but to which they are completely unrelated.\n\nRed-throated loon, Gavia stellata\nArctic loon, Gavia arctica\nPacific loon, Gavia pacifica\nCommon loon, Gavia immer (A)\nYellow-billed loon, Gavia adamsii", "Albatrosses\nOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae\n\nThe albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the great albatrosses from the genus Diomedea have the largest wingspans of any extant birds.\n\nLaysan albatross, Phoebastria immutabilis\nBlack-footed albatross, Phoebastria nigripes\nShort-tailed albatross, Phoebastria albatrus\n\nSouthern storm-petrels\nOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae", "Southern storm-petrels\nOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae\n\nThe southern storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Until 2018, this family's species were included with the other storm-petrels in family Hydrobatidae.\n\nWilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus (A)", "Wilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus (A)\n\nNorthern storm-petrels\nOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae\n\nThe northern storm-petrels are relatives of the petrels and are the smallest seabirds. They feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like.", "Fork-tailed storm-petrel, Hydrobates furcatus\nLeach's storm-petrel, Hydrobates leucorhous\nSwinhoe's storm-petrel, Hydrobates monorhis\nBand-rumped storm-petrel, Hydrobates castro\nMatsudaira's storm-petrel, Hydrobates matsudairae\nTristram's storm-petrel, Hydrobates tristrami\n\nShearwaters and petrels\nOrder: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae\n\nThe procellariids are the main group of medium-sized \"true petrels\", characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary.", "Northern fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis\nKermadec petrel, Pterodroma neglecta (A)\nMurphy's petrel, Pterodroma ultima (A)\nProvidence petrel, Pterodroma solandri (A)\nMottled petrel, Pterodroma inexpectata (A)\nJuan Fernández petrel, Pterodroma externa (A)\nHawaiian petrel, Pterodroma sandwichensis (A)\nWhite-necked petrel, Pterodroma cervicalis (A)\nBonin petrel, Pterodroma hypoleuca\nBlack-winged petrel, Pterodroma nigripennis (A)\nStejneger's petrel, Pterodroma longirostris (A)\nBulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii", "Stejneger's petrel, Pterodroma longirostris (A)\nBulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii\nTahiti petrel, Pseudobulweria rostrata (A)\nStreaked shearwater, Calonectris leucomelas\nPink-footed shearwater, Ardenna creatopus (A)\nFlesh-footed shearwater, Ardenna carneipes\nWedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacifica\nBuller's shearwater, Ardenna bulleri (A)\nSooty shearwater, Ardenna grisea\nShort-tailed shearwater, Ardenna tenuirostris\nChristmas shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis (A)\nManx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus (A)", "Christmas shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis (A)\nManx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus (A)\nBannerman's shearwater, Puffinus bannermani\nNewell's shearwater, Puffinus newelli (A)\nBryan's shearwater, Puffinus bryani\nTropical shearwater, Puffinus bailloni", "Storks\nOrder: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae\n\nStorks are large, long-legged, long-necked, wading birds with long, stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.\n\nBlack stork, Ciconia nigra (A)\nOriental stork, Ciconia boyciana\n\nFrigatebirds\nOrder: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae", "Frigatebirds\nOrder: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae\n\nFrigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black-and-white or completely black, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week.", "Lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel (A)\nGreat frigatebird, Fregata minor (A)\n\nBoobies and gannets\nOrder: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae\n\nThe sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish.\n\nMasked booby, Sula dactylatra\nNazca booby, Sula granti (A)\nBrown booby, Sula leucogaster\nRed-footed booby, Sula sula\n\nCormorants and shags\nOrder: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae", "Cormorants and shags\nOrder: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae\n\nPhalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage coloration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white and a few being colorful.\n\nRed-faced cormorant, Urile urile\nPelagic cormorant, Urile pelagicus\nGreat cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo\nJapanese cormorant, Phalacrocorax capillatus", "Pelicans\nOrder: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae\n\nPelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. As with other members of the order Pelecaniformes, they have webbed feet with four toes.\n\nGreat white pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus (A)\nSpot-billed pelican, Pelecanus philippensis (A)\nDalmatian pelican, Pelecanus crispus (A)\n\nHerons, egrets, and bitterns\nOrder: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae", "Herons, egrets, and bitterns\nOrder: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae\n\nThe family Ardeidae contains the herons, egrets, and bitterns. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills.", "Great bittern, Botaurus stellaris\nYellow bittern, Ixobrychus sinensis\nSchrenk's bittern, Ixobrychus eurythmus\nCinnamon bittern, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus\nBlack bittern, Ixobrychus flavicollis (A)\nGray heron, Ardea cinerea\nPurple heron, Ardea purpurea\nGreat egret, Ardea alba\nIntermediate egret, Ardea intermedia\nChinese egret, Egretta eulophotes\nLittle egret, Egretta garzetta\nPacific reef-heron, Egretta sacra\nCattle egret, Bubulcus ibis\nIndian pond-heron, Ardeola grayii (A)\nChinese pond-heron, Ardeola bacchus", "Indian pond-heron, Ardeola grayii (A)\nChinese pond-heron, Ardeola bacchus\nJavan pond-heron, Ardeola speciosa (A)\nStriated heron, Butorides striata\nBlack-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax\nNankeen night-heron, Nycticorax caledonicus (extirpated)\nJapanese night-heron, Gorsachius goisagi\nMalayan night heron, Gorsachius melanolophus", "Ibises and spoonbills\nOrder: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae\n\nThreskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers.", "Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus (A)\nBlack-headed ibis, Threskiornis melanocephalus (A)\nCrested ibis, Nipponia nippon (reintroduced)\nEurasian spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia\nBlack-faced spoonbill, Platalea minor\n\nOsprey\nOrder: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae\n\nThe family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution.\n\nOsprey, Pandion haliaetus", "Osprey, Pandion haliaetus\n\nHawks, eagles, and kites\nOrder: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae\n\nAccipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight.", "Black-winged kite, Elanus caeruleus (A)\nOriental honey-buzzard, Pernis ptilorhynchus\nCinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus (A)\nCrested serpent-eagle, Spilornis cheela\nMountain hawk-eagle, Nisaetus nipalensis\nGreater spotted eagle, Clanga clanga (A)\nImperial eagle, Aquila heliaca (A)\nGolden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos (A)\nGray-faced buzzard, Butastur indicus\nEurasian marsh-harrier, Circus aeruginosus (A)\nEastern marsh-harrier, Circus spilonotus\nHen harrier, Circus cyaneus\nNorthern harrier, Circus hudsonius (A)", "Hen harrier, Circus cyaneus\nNorthern harrier, Circus hudsonius (A)\nPallid harrier, Circus macrourus (A)\nPied harrier, Circus melanoleucos (A)\nChinese sparrowhawk, Accipiter soloensis\nJapanese sparrowhawk, Accipiter gularis\nEurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus\nNorthern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis\nBlack kite, Milvus migrans\nBrahminy kite, Haliastur indus (A)\nBald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus (A)\nWhite-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla\nSteller's sea-eagle, Haliaeetus pelagicus", "White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla\nSteller's sea-eagle, Haliaeetus pelagicus\nRough-legged hawk, Buteo lagopus\nEastern buzzard, Buteo japonicus\nUpland buzzard, Buteo hemilasius (A)", "Barn-owls\nOrder: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae\n\nBarn-owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.\n\nAustralasian grass-owl, Tyto longimembris (A)\n\nOwls\nOrder: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae\n\nThe owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.", "Collared scops-owl, Otus lettia (A)\nJapanese scops-owl, Otus semitorques\nRyūkyū scops-owl, Otus elegans\nOriental scops-owl, Otus sunia\nEurasian eagle-owl, Bubo bubo (A)\nSnowy owl, Bubo scandiacus (A)\nBlakiston's fish-owl, Ketupa blakistoni\nUral owl, Strix uralensis\nLong-eared owl, Asio otus\nShort-eared owl, Asio flammeus\nBoreal owl, Aegolius funereus\nNorthern boobook, Ninox japonica\n\nHoopoes\nOrder: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae", "Hoopoes\nOrder: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae\n\nHoopoes have black, white and orangey-pink coloring with a long crest on their head, the plumage of which sweeps backward at rest but can be flexed to an erect position.\n\nEurasian hoopoe, Upupa epops\n\nKingfishers\nOrder: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae\n\nKingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails.", "Common kingfisher, Alcedo atthis\nBlack-backed dwarf-kingfisher, Ceyx erithaca (A)\nRuddy kingfisher, Halcyon coromanda\nWhite-throated kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis (A)\nBlack-capped kingfisher, Halcyon pileata (A)\nGuam kingfisher, Todirhamphus cinnamominus (extirpated)\nRyukyu kingfisher, Todiramphus cinnamominus miyakoensis (extinct)\nCollared kingfisher, Todirhamphus chloris (A)\nCrested kingfisher, Megaceryle lugubris\n\nBee-eaters\nOrder: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae", "Bee-eaters\nOrder: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae\n\nThe bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. They are characterized by richly colored plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colorful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar.\n\n Blue-tailed bee-eater, Merops philippinus (A)\n Rainbow bee-eater, Merops ornatus (A)\n\nRollers\nOrder: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae", "Rollers\nOrder: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae\n\nRollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colorful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not.\n\nDollarbird, Eurystomus orientalis\n\nWoodpeckers\nOrder: PiciformesFamily: Picidae", "Dollarbird, Eurystomus orientalis\n\nWoodpeckers\nOrder: PiciformesFamily: Picidae\n\nWoodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.", "Eurasian wryneck, Jynx torquilla\nEurasian three-toed woodpecker, Picoides tridactylus (A)\nJapanese pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus kizuki\nRufous-bellied woodpecker, Dendrocopos hyperythrus (A)\nOkinawa woodpecker, Dendrocopos noguchii (E)\nWhite-backed woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucotos\nAmami woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucotos owstoni (E)\nGreat spotted woodpecker, Dendrocopos major\nLesser spotted woodpecker, Dryobates minor\nJapanese woodpecker, Picus awokera (E)\nGray-headed woodpecker, Picus canus", "Japanese woodpecker, Picus awokera (E)\nGray-headed woodpecker, Picus canus\nWhite-bellied woodpecker, Dryocopus javensis (A)\nBlack woodpecker, Dryocopus martius", "Falcons and caracaras\nOrder: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae\n\nFalconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.\n\nLesser kestrel, Falco naumanni (A)\nEurasian kestrel, Falco tinnunculus\nAmur falcon, Falco amurensis (A)\nMerlin, Falco columbarius\nEurasian hobby, Falco subbuteo\nSaker falcon, Falco cherrug (A)\nGyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus\nPeregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus", "Old World parrots\nOrder: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae\n\nCharacteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand.", "Alexandrine parakeet, Psittacula eupatria (I)\nRose-ringed parakeet, Psittacula krameri (I)\nRed-breasted Parakeet, Psittacula alexandri (I)\nBudgerigar, Melopsittacus undulatus (I)\n\nPittas\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Pittidae\n\nPittas are medium-sized by passerine standards and are stocky, with fairly long, strong legs, short tails and stout bills. Many, but not all, are brightly colored. They spend the majority of their time on wet forest floors, eating snails, insects and similar invertebrates.", "Fairy pitta, Pitta nympha\nHooded pitta, Pitta sordida (A)\n\nCuckooshrikes\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Campephagidae\n\nThe cuckooshrikes are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are predominantly grayish with white and black, although some species are brightly colored.\n\nRyūkyū minivet, Pericrocotus tegimae (E)\nAshy minivet, Pericrocotus divaricatus\nBlack-winged cuckooshrike, Lalage melaschistos (A)\n\nOld World orioles\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae", "Old World orioles\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae\n\nThe Old World orioles are colorful passerine birds. They are not related to the New World orioles.\n\nBlack-naped oriole, Oriolus chinensis\n\nWoodswallows\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Artamidae\n\nThe woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-colored passerine birds. They are smooth, agile flyers with moderately large, semi-triangular wings.\n\nWhite-breasted woodswallow, Artamus leucorhynchus (A)\n\nDrongos\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Dicruridae", "Drongos\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Dicruridae\n\nThe drongos are mostly black or dark gray in color, sometimes with metallic tints. They have long forked tails, and some Asian species have elaborate tail decorations. They have short legs and sit very upright when perched, like a shrike. They flycatch or take prey from the ground.\n\nBlack drongo, Dicrurus macrocercus (A)\nAshy drongo, Dicrurus leucophaeus (A)\nHair-crested drongo, Dicrurus hottentottus (A)", "Monarch flycatchers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Monarchidae\n\nThe monarch flycatchers are small to medium-sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by gleaning, hovering or flycatching.\n\nBlack-naped monarch, Hypothymis azurea (A)\nJapanese paradise-flycatcher, Terpsiphone atrocaudata\n\nShrikes\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae", "Shrikes\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae\n\nShrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A typical shrike's beak is hooked, like a bird of prey.", "Tiger shrike, Lanius tigrinus\nBull-headed shrike, Lanius bucephalus\nRed-backed shrike, Lanius collurio (A)\nIsabelline shrike, Lanius isabellinus (A)\nBrown shrike, Lanius cristatus\nLong-tailed shrike, Lanius schach (A)\nNorthern shrike, Lanius borealis\nChinese gray shrike, Lanius sphenocercus (A)\n\nCrows, jays, and magpies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae", "Crows, jays, and magpies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae\n\nThe family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.", "Eurasian jay, Garrulus glandarius\nLidth's jay, Garrulus lidthi (E)\nAzure-winged magpie, Cyanopica cyana\nOriental magpie, Pica serica\nEurasian nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes\nEurasian jackdaw, Corvus monedula (A)\nDaurian jackdaw, Corvus dauuricus\nRook, Corvus frugilegus\nCarrion crow, Corvus corone\nLarge-billed crow, Corvus macrorhynchos\nCommon raven, Corvus corax\n\nTits, chickadees, and titmice\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae", "Tits, chickadees, and titmice\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae\n\nThe Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.", "Coal tit, Periparus ater\nYellow-bellied tit, Periparus venustulus (A)\nIriomote tit, Sittiparus olivaceus (E)\nVaried tit, Sittiparus varius\nOwston's tit, Sittiparus owstoni (E)\nMarsh tit, Poecile palustris\nWillow tit, Poecile montanus\nAzure tit, Cyanistes cyanus (A)\nJapanese tit, Parus minor\n\nPenduline-tits\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Remizidae\n\nThe penduline-tits are a group of small passerine birds related to the true tits. They are insectivores.\n\nChinese penduline-tit, Remiz consobrinus", "Chinese penduline-tit, Remiz consobrinus\n\nLarks\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae\n\nLarks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.", "Horned lark, Eremophila alpestris (A)\nGreater short-toed lark, Calandrella brachydactyla (A)\nMongolian short-toed lark, Calandrella dukhunensis (A)\nBimaculated lark, Melanocorypha bimaculata (A)\nMongolian lark, Melanocorypha mongolica (A)\nAsian short-toed lark, Alaudala cheleensis (A)\nEurasian skylark, Alauda arvensis\nJapanese skylark, Alauda arvensis japonica (E)\n\nBearded reedling\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Panuridae\n\nA single species formerly placed in the Old World babbler family.", "A single species formerly placed in the Old World babbler family.\n\nBearded reedling, Panurus biarmicus (A)\n\nCisticolas and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae\n\nThe Cisticolidae are warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are generally very small birds of drab brown or gray appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub.\n\nPlain prinia, Prinia inornata (A)\nZitting cisticola, Cisticola juncidis", "Plain prinia, Prinia inornata (A)\nZitting cisticola, Cisticola juncidis\n\nReed warblers and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae\n\nThe members of this family are usually rather large for \"warblers\". Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but it also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa.", "Thick-billed warbler, Arundinax aedon (A)\nBooted warbler, Iduna caligata (A)\nIcterine warbler, Hippolais icterina (A)\nBlack-browed reed warbler, Acrocephalus bistrigiceps\nStreaked reed warbler, Acrocephalus sorghophilus (A)\nSedge warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus (A)\nPaddyfield warbler, Acrocephalus agricola (A)\nManchurian reed warbler, Acrocephalus tangorum (A)\nBlyth's reed warbler, Acrocephalus dumetorum (A)\nOriental reed warbler, Acrocephalus orientalis", "Grassbirds and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae\n\nLocustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over.", "Sakhalin grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes amnicola\nMarsh grassbird, Helopsaltes pryeri\nPallas's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes certhiola (A)\nMiddendorff's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes ochotensis\nPleske's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes pleskei\nLanceolated warbler, Locustella lanceolata\n\nSwallows\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae", "Swallows\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae\n\nThe family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.", "Tree swallow, Tachycineta bicolor (A)\nGray-throated martin, Riparia chinensis (A)\nBank swallow, Riparia riparia\nBarn swallow, Hirundo rustica\nPacific swallow, Hirundo tahitica\nRed-rumped swallow, Cecropis daurica\nCommon house-martin, Delichon urbicum (A)\nAsian house-martin, Delichon dasypus\n\nBulbuls\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae", "Bulbuls\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae\n\nBulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colorful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests.\n\nRed-whiskered bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus (I)\nLight-vented bulbul, Pycnonotus sinensis\nBrown-eared bulbul, Hypsipetes amaurotis\n\nLeaf warblers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae", "Leaf warblers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae\n\nLeaf warblers are a family of small insectivorous birds found mostly in Eurasia and ranging into Wallacea and Africa. The species are of various sizes, often green-plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with greyish-green to greyish-brown colours.", "Wood warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix (A)\nYellow-browed warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus\nChinese leaf warbler, Phylloscopus yunnanensis (A)\nPallas's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus proregulus (A)\nRadde's warbler, Phylloscopus schwarzi (A)\nTickell's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus affinis (A)\nDusky warbler, Phylloscopus fuscatus (A)\nWillow warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus (A)\nCommon chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collybita (A)\nEastern crowned warbler, Phylloscopus coronatus\nIjima's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus ijimae", "Eastern crowned warbler, Phylloscopus coronatus\nIjima's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus ijimae\nTwo-barred warbler, Phylloscopus plumbeitarsus (A)\nPale-legged leaf warbler, Phylloscopus tenellipes (A)\nSakhalin leaf warbler, Phylloscopus borealoides\nJapanese leaf warbler, Phylloscopus xanthodryas\nArctic warbler, Phylloscopus borealis\nKamchatka leaf warbler, Phylloscopus examinandus\nSulphur-breasted warbler, Phylloscopus ricketti (A)\nClaudia's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus claudiae (A)", "Bush warblers and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Scotocercidae\n\nThe members of this family are found throughout Africa, Asia, and Polynesia. Their taxonomy is in flux, and some authorities place some genera in other families.\n\nAsian stubtail, Urosphena squameiceps\nJapanese bush warbler, Horornis diphone\nManchurian bush warbler, Horornis borealis (A)\n\nLong-tailed tits\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae", "Long-tailed tits\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae\n\nLong-tailed tits are a group of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They make woven bag nests in trees. Most eat a mixed diet which includes insects.\n\nLong-tailed tit, Aegithalos caudatus\n\nSylviid warblers, parrotbills, and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae", "Sylviid warblers, parrotbills, and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae\n\nThe family Sylviidae is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as the common name implies, in Europe, Asia and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.\n\nLesser whitethroat, Curruca curruca (A)\nGreater whitethroat, Curruca communis (A)\n\nWhite-eyes, yuhinas, and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae", "White-eyes, yuhinas, and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae\n\nThe white-eyes are small and mostly undistinguished, their plumage above being generally some dull color like greenish-olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye.", "Bonin white-eye, Apalopteron familiare (E)\nChestnut-flanked white-eye, Zosterops erythropleurus (A)\nWarbling white-eye, Zosterops japonicus\n\nLaughingthrushes and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Leiothrichidae\n\nThe members of this family are diverse in size and colouration, though those of genus Turdoides tend to be brown or greyish. The family is found in Africa, India, and southeast Asia.", "Red-billed leiothrix, Leiothrix lutea (I)\nChinese hwamei, Garrulax canorus (I)\nMoustached laughingthrush, Ianthocincla cineracea (I)\n\nKinglets\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae\n\nThe kinglets, also called crests, are a small group of birds often included in the Old World warblers, but frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice.\n\nRuby-crowned kinglet, Corthylio calendula (A)\nGoldcrest, Regulus regulus\n\nNuthatches\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae", "Nuthatches\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae\n\nNuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails and powerful bills and feet.\n\nEurasian nuthatch, Sitta europaea\n\nTreecreepers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae", "Eurasian nuthatch, Sitta europaea\n\nTreecreepers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae\n\nTreecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.\n\nEurasian treecreeper, Certhia familiaris\n\nWrens\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae", "Eurasian treecreeper, Certhia familiaris\n\nWrens\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae\n\nThe wrens are mainly small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.\n\nEurasian wren, Troglodytes troglodytes\n\nDippers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Cinclidae\n\nDippers are a group of perching birds whose habitat includes aquatic environments in the Americas, Europe and Asia.", "Brown dipper, Cinclus pallasii\n\nStarlings\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae\n\nStarlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.", "Asian glossy starling, Aplonis panayensis (A)\nEuropean starling, Sturnus vulgaris\nRosy starling, Pastor roseus (A)\nDaurian starling, Agropsar sturninus (A)\nChestnut-cheeked starling, Agropsar philippensis\nSiamese pied starling, Gracupica floweri; (I)\nWhite-shouldered starling, Sturnia sinensis\nRed-billed starling, Spodiopsar sericeus (A)\nWhite-cheeked starling, Spodiopsar cineraceus\nCommon myna, Acridotheres tristis (I)\nBank myna, Acridotheres ginginianus (I)\nJavan myna, Acridotheres javanicus (A)", "Bank myna, Acridotheres ginginianus (I)\nJavan myna, Acridotheres javanicus (A)\nCrested myna, Acridotheres cristatellus (I)", "Thrushes and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae\n\nThe thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.", "White's thrush, Zoothera aurea\nScaly thrush, Zoothera dauma\nAmami thrush, Zoothera major (E)\nBonin thrush, Zoothera terrestris (E) extinct\nGray-cheeked thrush, Catharus minimus (A)\nSiberian thrush, Geokichla sibirica\nChinese thrush, Turdus mupinensis (A)\nMistle thrush, Turdus viscivorus (A)\nSong thrush, Turdus philomelos (A)\nRedwing, Turdus iliacus (A)\nChinese blackbird, Turdus mandarinus (A)\nAmerican robin, Turdus migratorius (A)\nJapanese thrush, Turdus cardis\nGray-backed thrush, Turdus hortulorum (A)", "Japanese thrush, Turdus cardis\nGray-backed thrush, Turdus hortulorum (A)\nEyebrowed thrush, Turdus obscurus\nBrown-headed thrush, Turdus chrysolaus\nIzu thrush, Turdus celaenops (E)\nPale thrush, Turdus pallidus\nFieldfare, Turdus pilaris (A)\nBlack-throated thrush, Turdus atrogularis (A)\nRed-throated thrush, Turdus ruficollis (A)\nDusky thrush, Turdus eunomus\nNaumann's thrush, Turdus naumanni (A)", "Old World flycatchers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae\n\nOld World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.", "Gray-streaked flycatcher, Muscicapa griseisticta\nDark-sided flycatcher, Muscicapa sibirica\nFerruginous flycatcher, Muscicapa ferruginea (A)\nAsian brown flycatcher, Muscicapa dauurica\nSpotted flycatcher, Muscicapa striata (A)\nFujian niltava, Niltava davidi (A)\nVivid niltava, Niltava vivida (A)\nBlue-and-white flycatcher, Cyanoptila cyanomelana\nZappey's flycatcher, Cyanoptila cumatilis (A)\nVerditer flycatcher, Eumyias thalassinus (A)\nEuropean robin, Erithacus rubecula (A)", "Verditer flycatcher, Eumyias thalassinus (A)\nEuropean robin, Erithacus rubecula (A)\nRufous-tailed robin, Larvivora sibilans\nJapanese robin, Larvivora akahige\nIzu robin, Larvivora tanensis (E)\nRyūkyū robin, Larvivora komadori (E)\nOkinawa robin, Larvivora namiyei (E)\nSiberian blue robin, Larvivora cyane\nBluethroat, Luscinia svecica (A)\nSiberian rubythroat, Calliope calliope\nHimalayan rubythroat, Calliope pectoralis (A)\nChinese rubythroat, Calliope tschebaiewi (A)\nWhite-tailed robin, Myiomela leucura (A)", "Chinese rubythroat, Calliope tschebaiewi (A)\nWhite-tailed robin, Myiomela leucura (A)\nRed-flanked bluetail, Tarsiger cyanurus\nYellow-rumped flycatcher, Ficedula zanthopygia\nGreen-backed flycatcher, Ficedula elisae (A)\nNarcissus flycatcher, Ficedula narcissina\nRyukyu flycatcher, Ficedula owstoni\nMugimaki flycatcher, Ficedula mugimaki\nTaiga flycatcher, Ficedula albicilla (A)\nRed-breasted flycatcher, Ficedula parva (A)\nEuropean pied flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca (A)", "Red-breasted flycatcher, Ficedula parva (A)\nEuropean pied flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca (A)\nBlue-fronted redstart, Phoenicurus frontalis (A)\nPlumbeous redstart, Phoenicurus fuliginosus (A)\nRufous-backed redstart, Phoenicurus erythronotus (A)\nCommon redstart, Phoenicurus phoenicurus (A)\nBlack redstart, Phoenicurus ochruros (A)\nDaurian redstart, Phoenicurus auroreus\nWhite-throated rock-thrush, Monticola gularis (A)\nBlue rock-thrush, Monticola solitarius\nWhinchat, Saxicola rubetra (A)", "Blue rock-thrush, Monticola solitarius\nWhinchat, Saxicola rubetra (A)\nAmur stonechat, Saxicola stejnegeri\nPied bushchat, Saxicola caprata (A)\nGray bushchat, Saxicola ferreus (A)\nNorthern wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe (A)\nIsabelline wheatear, Oenanthe isabellina (A)\nDesert wheatear, Oenanthe deserti (A)\nEastern black-eared wheatear, Oenanthe melanoleuca (A)\nPied wheatear, Oenanthe pleschanka (A)", "Waxwings\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae\n\nThe waxwings are a group of birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests.\n\nBohemian waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus\nJapanese waxwing, Bombycilla japonica\n\nWeavers and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae", "Weavers and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae\n\nWeavers are a group of small passerine birds related to the finches. These are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills, most of which breed in sub-Saharan Africa, with fewer species in tropical Asia. Weavers get their name from the large woven nests many species make. They are gregarious birds which often breed colonially.\n\nLesser masked-weaver, Ploceus intermedius (I)\nNorthern red bishop, Euplectes franciscanus (I)", "Lesser masked-weaver, Ploceus intermedius (I)\nNorthern red bishop, Euplectes franciscanus (I)\n\nWaxbills and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae\n\nThe estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have a wide variation in plumage colors and patterns.", "Java sparrow, Padda oryzivora (I)\nScaly-breasted munia, Lonchura punctulata (I)\nWhite-rumped munia, Lonchura striata (I)\nChestnut munia, Lonchura atricapilla (I)\nWhite-headed munia, Lonchura maja (I)\nOrange-cheeked waxbill, Estrilda melpoda (I)\nBlack-rumped waxbill, Estrilda troglodytes (I)\nRed avadavat, Amandava amandava (I)\n\nIndigobirds\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Viduidae", "Indigobirds\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Viduidae\n\nThe Viduidae is a family of small passerine birds native to Africa that includes indigobirds and whydahs. All species are brood parasites which lay their eggs in the nests of estrildid finches. Species usually have black or indigo predominating in their plumage.\n\nPin-tailed whydah, Vidua macroura (I)\nEastern paradise-whydah, Vidua paradisaea (I)\n\nAccentors\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae", "Accentors\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae\n\nThe accentors are in the only bird family, Prunellidae, which is completely endemic to the Palearctic. They are small, fairly drab species superficially similar to sparrows.\n\nAlpine accentor, Prunella collaris\nSiberian accentor, Prunella montanella (A)\nJapanese accentor, Prunella rubida\n\nOld World sparrows\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae", "Old World sparrows\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae\n\nOld World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or gray birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.\n\nHouse sparrow, Passer domesticus (A)\nRusset sparrow, Passer cinnamomeus\nEurasian tree sparrow, Passer montanus\n\nWagtails and pipits\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae", "Wagtails and pipits\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae\n\nMotacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. They are slender, ground feeding insectivores of open country.", "Forest wagtail, Dendronanthus indicus (A)\nGray wagtail, Motacilla cinerea\nWestern yellow wagtail, Motacilla flava (A)\nEastern yellow wagtail, Motacilla tschutschensis\nCitrine wagtail, Motacilla citreola (A)\nJapanese wagtail, Motacilla grandis\nWhite wagtail, Motacilla alba\nRichard's pipit, Anthus richardi\nBlyth's pipit, Anthus godlewskii (A)\nMeadow pipit, Anthus pratensis (A)\nRosy pipit, Anthus roseatus (A)\nTree pipit, Anthus trivialis (A)\nOlive-backed pipit, Anthus hodgsoni", "Tree pipit, Anthus trivialis (A)\nOlive-backed pipit, Anthus hodgsoni\nPechora pipit, Anthus gustavi (A)\nRed-throated pipit, Anthus cervinus\nWater pipit, Anthus spinoletta (A)\nAmerican pipit, Anthus spinoletta", "Finches, euphonias, and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae\n\nFinches are seed-eating passerine birds, that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.", "Common chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs (A)\nBrambling, Fringilla montifringilla\nHawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes\nYellow-billed grosbeak, Eophona migratoria\nJapanese grosbeak, Eophona personata\nCommon rosefinch, Carpodacus erythrinus (A)\nBonin grosbeak, Carpodacus ferreorostris (E) extinct\nLong-tailed rosefinch, Carpodacus sibiricus\nPallas's rosefinch, Carpodacus roseus\nPine grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator\nEurasian bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula\nAsian rosy-finch, Leucosticte arctoa", "Eurasian bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula\nAsian rosy-finch, Leucosticte arctoa\nOriental greenfinch, Chloris sinica\nCommon redpoll, Acanthis flammea\nHoary redpoll, Acanthis hornemanni (A)\nRed crossbill, Loxia curvirostra\nWhite-winged crossbill, Loxia leucoptera (A)\nEurasian siskin, Spinus spinus", "Longspurs and snow buntings\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Calcariidae\n\nThe Calcariidae are a group of passerine birds that had been traditionally grouped with the New World sparrows, but differ in a number of respects and are usually found in open grassy areas.\n\nLapland longspur, Calcarius lapponicus\nSnow bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis\n\nOld World buntings\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae", "Old World buntings\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae\n\nThe emberizids are a large family of seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns.", "Crested bunting, Emberiza lathami (A)\nBlack-headed bunting, Emberiza melanocephala (A)\nRed-headed bunting, Emberiza bruniceps (A)\nChestnut-eared bunting, Emberiza fucata\nMeadow bunting, Emberiza cioides\nYellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella (A)\nPine bunting, Emberiza leucocephalos\nGray-necked bunting, Emberiza buchanani (A)\nOrtolan bunting, Emberiza hortulana (A)\nYellow-throated bunting, Emberiza elegans\nOchre-rumped bunting, Emberiza yessoensis\nPallas's bunting, Emberiza pallasi (A)", "Ochre-rumped bunting, Emberiza yessoensis\nPallas's bunting, Emberiza pallasi (A)\nReed bunting, Emberiza schoeniclus\nYellow-breasted bunting, Emberiza aureola\nLittle bunting, Emberiza pusilla\nRustic bunting, Emberiza rustica\nYellow bunting, Emberiza sulphurata\nMasked bunting, Emberiza personata\nChestnut bunting, Emberiza rutila\nYellow-browed bunting, Emberiza chrysophrys\nTristram's bunting, Emberiza tristrami\nGray bunting, Emberiza variabilis", "New World sparrows\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae\n\nUntil 2017, these species were considered part of the family Emberizidae. Most of the species are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many of these have distinctive head patterns.", "Fox sparrow, Passerella iliaca (A)\nWhite-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys (A)\nGolden-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia atricapilla (A)\nSavannah sparrow, Passerculus sandwichensis (A)\nSong sparrow, Melospiza melodia (A)\n\nNew World warblers\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae\n\nThe New World warblers are a group of small often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal, but some are more terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores.", "Common yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas (A)\nYellow warbler, Setophaga petechia (A)\nYellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata (A)\nWilson's warbler, Cardellina pusilla (A)\n\nTanagers and allies\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Thraupidae\n\nThe tanagers are a large group of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World, mainly in the tropics. Many species are brightly colored. They are seed eaters, but their preference tends towards fruit and nectar.\n\nRed-crested cardinal, Paroaria coronata (I)", "Red-crested cardinal, Paroaria coronata (I)\n\nSee also \n Lists of birds by region\n List of animals in Japan\n\nReferences\n\nJapan\nJapan\nBirds\n'" ]

[ "The history of California Golden Bears football began in 1886, the team has won five NCAA recognized national titles - 1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, and 1937 and 14 conference championships, the last one in 2006.\n\nOverview", "Early history (1886–1981)", "Football was first played on Berkeley campus in 1882, albeit in a form that resembled rugby. It was not until 1886 under coach Oscar S. Howard that the University of California began to play American football. Aside from the first season's matches against Hastings Law College, Cal primarily played against local clubs in the San Francisco Bay Area. From 1886 until 1903 California home games were held at West Field, at the current campus location of the Valley Life Sciences Building", ". Eventually bleachers were added allowing seating up to 5,000 people. In 1892, the school played against rival Stanford University for the first time – an annual matchup now known as The Big Game. The first match was organized in San Francisco by Cal's student manager Herbert Lang, and Stanford's student manager and future president of the United States Herbert Hoover. Cal lost 14–10. Their coach was Lee McClung", ". Cal lost 14–10. Their coach was Lee McClung. Another Yale alum was their coach in 1893, Pudge Heffelfinger; and again in 1895, Frank Butterworth. Cal's first win against Stanford came in 1898, while coached by newly hired Garrett Cochran, a Princeton alumnus who was recruited immediately after his graduation. Cochran successfully implemented the tactics of his alma mater, finishing the season with eight wins, zero losses and two ties; all opponents were outscored 221–5", ". That season also included Cal's first out of state football game - when it traveled to Portland, Oregon to defeat Multnomah Athletic Club. In 1899, Cal added the University of Oregon and San Jose State to its schedule. No team was able to score against Cal during that season with Stanford being defeated 22–0. In 1899, Cochran made a bold claim that his undefeated Bears were as good as any team on the east coast", ". The future legendary coach Pop Warner decided to take on Cochran's challenge, and brought his Pennsylvania team - the Carlisle Indian Industrial School Indians to take on Cal. Even though it was Warner's first year at Carlisle, his team was considered to be an overwhelming favorite. It upset Penn and handed a crushing defeat to Columbia. The game took place on Christmas Day in San Francisco", ". The game took place on Christmas Day in San Francisco. It was Carlisle that emerged as the winner, however Warner's offense that scored 45 points against Columbia was unable to put up any against Cal. Cal lost 0–2, due to a safety given up in the second half. Despite the loss, the game signaled Cal's ability to compete with the eastern schools.", "Prior to the 1898 season, Berkeley alumnus and San Francisco Mayor James D. Phelan offered Douglas Tilden's sculpture The Football Players, as a prize to the school that could win the Big Game two years in a row. Because of Cal's 1898 and 1899 wins, in May 1900 the sculpture was installed on the Berkeley campus. It was placed atop a stone pedestal engraved with the names of the California players during those two years", ". From the moment of its installation, the Football Players has been considered to be one of the landmarks on campus.", "Following the 1899 season, Cochran left to coach at the Naval Academy and was replaced by another Princeton alumnus - Addison Kelly, who served for only one season in 1900, posting a 4-2-1 record. That year's Big Game was played on Thanksgiving Day at the Recreation Park stadium in the industrial section of San Francisco. The game was sold out with 19,000 spectators packing the seats. In addition somewhere between 500 and 1,000 men, were watching the match from the corrugated rooftop of the operating S.F", ".F. and Pacific Glass Works factory. During the game the rooftop collapsed, resulting in well over 100 fans falling on to the factory's floor with more than 60 directly on to the factory's massive, operational furnace. In total 22 men, mostly boys, were killed with more than 100 severely injured. This incident became known as the Thanksgiving Day Disaster and remains the deadliest accident to kill spectators at a U.S. sporting event. Stanford won the game 5–0", ".S. sporting event. Stanford won the game 5–0. In 1904, Cal began playing its home games at California Field. It held approximately 20,000 people and was located near the center of the campus, the current location of the Hearst Gymnasium.", "Beginning in the 1890s, American football was becoming increasingly violent - the ball carrier would often be pushed and pulled up the field by his own players in massive formations that often resulted in serious injuries. In 1905, 18 deaths and 159 injuries were reported in various football competitions. That year President Theodore Roosevelt lobbied the elite private schools to alter the game in order to eliminate or at least reduce its prevalent injuries", ". Soon after, numerous rule changes were agreed upon by the majority of American schools. One of the changes was allowing for a forward pass to open up the game and reduce the role of the dangerous mass formations. Cal, Stanford and other West Coast universities, took a different path - eliminating football completely and instead changing their sport to Rugby. A sport thought to be less barbaric. Amongst others, Nevada, St. Mary's, Santa Clara, and USC (in 1911) also made this alteration", ". Amongst others, Nevada, St. Mary's, Santa Clara, and USC (in 1911) also made this alteration. During the rugby years - from 1906 to 1914, California wielded dominant teams, however Bears were able to beat Stanford only three times. Due to various causes, including students frustration with those results, the Associated Students of the University of California voted to leave the agreement, and along with other universities, return to American football", ". Beginning in 1915 Cal returned to the original sport and has fielded a football team ever since. During the initial season Cal was coached by its former rugby coach Jimmy Schaeffer. In 1916, Andy Smith, then coach at Purdue, was recruited to become Cal's next football coach. That year was the first year of the Pacific Coast Conference. The original PCC consisted of Cal, Washington, Oregon and Oregon Agricultural (which would later become Oregon State)", ". The 1916 team had a winning season however it failed to win any games in the conference. The first truly successful season was in 1918, the team went 7–2, won the conference and defeated Stanford 67–0. The teams agreed not to count it as a Big Game match as it was Stanford's first season after switching back from Rugby. Smith came to be known for the \"kick and wait for the breaks\" strategy and utilizing the short punt formation", ". Under his system, the ball was mainly moved up field not through offensive plays, but through punting. Upon the other team receiving the ball, the defense was relied upon to push it back up the field and cause fumbles. At the end of 1918, lineman Walter Gordon, Cal's first African-American player, became the second black All-American in the country. The same year Smith hired former Cal rugby player and San Diego high school football coach Nibs Price", ". Price was essential to recruiting southern California's Brick Muller, Albert \"Pesky\" Sprott, Crip Toomey and Stanley Barnes, who became the key players of Smith's dominating squads that became known as Wonder Teams. With the emergence of the talented squads, Smith also became known for trick plays such as the classic lateral to the halfback, followed by a long forward pass", ". Brick Muller, both an offensive and defensive star, became known for completing 50-yard passes that were previously thought impossible - at the time the game was played with a plump, rugby-like ball.", "From 1920 to 1925, The Wonder Teams went 50 straight games without defeat, made three trips to the Rose Bowl, and won four national titles as determined by various selectors - 1920, 1921, 1922 and 1923. Prior to the start of the 1920 season Brick Muller and Albert Sprott competed as track and field athletes in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Belgium, where Muller won the Silver Medal in high jump", ". The 1920 team went 9–0, winning the PCC title (which now included Washington State and Stanford), out-scoring its opponents 510–14; at the Rose Bowl it shut out undefeated Big Ten champion Ohio State 28–0. During that game Muller threw a 53-yard touchdown pass, caught two passes, made several vital tackles, as well as recovered three fumbles. Even though the two would never meet, Smith's Wonder Teams are thought to rival Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne and his Four Horsemen", ". In 1960, when the Helms Athletic Foundation considered both the Wonder Teams and the Four Horsemen, it crowned the 1920 Cal Bears as the greatest football team in American history. The 1921 Golden Bears finished undefeated and were again invited to play in the Rose Bowl. The Big Ten declined to send its champion Iowa, and a little known team from Pennsylvania, named the Washington and Jefferson Presidents were invited", ". Smith was at first hesitant as Presidents had players older than the average college age, and at the same time had scholarship requirements well below California's. Eventually Smith agreed to the match. With California being the overwhelming favorite, the match went nothing like it was expected. Because of the heavy rain the night before, it was played in a virtual mud pit. The game finished in a 0–0 tie. The 1922 team was also undefeated and won the PCC", ". The game finished in a 0–0 tie. The 1922 team was also undefeated and won the PCC. At this time University of California began considering the Rose Bowl as being \"too commercialized\" and declined that year's invitation. Like the previous two years, the majority of national selectors determined Cal to be the national champion. During Big Games the California Field consistently exceeded its seating limits by several thousand fans", ". Because of Cal's continuous success it became evident that a larger stadium was needed. In 1919 Stanford Stadium opened, holding more than 60,000 fans, and during the next several years the Rose Bowl stadium was constructed as well as the Los Angeles Coliseum which became the host of USC. In 1922 work began on California Memorial Stadium, which was to be located the mouth of Strawberry Canyon immediately east of campus", ". Because it would be directly atop the Hayward Fault, it consisted of two halves, with the eastern side built into the canyon's hills, while the western side contained the main structure built in the neo-classical style of the Roman Coliseum. Expansion joints were placed where the two sides connected, allowing them to separately move during an earthquake. During the construction 2,500 pine trees were planted on the hill behind the stadium, which became known as the Tightwad Hill.", "The stadium opened for the November 24, 1923 Big Game, where undefeated 8-0 Golden Bears faced 7-1 Stanford. The 72,609 official capacity stadium was overcrowded with more than 73,000 fans with more than 7,000 perched atop Tightwad Hill. The game would be remembered as \"dull, dull, dull\". Cal won it 9–0, even though Cal's kicker Bill Blewett missed all five of his field goals. At the end of the season, Cal again declined the Rose Bowl invitation", ". At the end of the season, Cal again declined the Rose Bowl invitation. The team was recognized as the national champion in one of the polls, however the majority of polls were split between Illinois and Michigan. In 1924, Cal was again undefeated but tied two games in the conference, as opposed to Stanford who was also undefeated but had only one tie - against Cal. It was Stanford that was invited to Pasadena, while Cal scheduled an independent home game against University of Pennsylvania", ". Penn was also undefeated and considered by some to be the best team of that year. California won that game 14–0. Notre Dame beat Stanford, resulting in almost unanimous national championship going to Knute Rockne and his Four Horsemen. In 1925, the team went 6-3 losing at Stanford 14–26, this was Stanford's first Big Game win since returning to American football in 1919. This season will be remembered for being Cal's last year under coach Andy Smith", ". This season will be remembered for being Cal's last year under coach Andy Smith. On January 8, 1926, he died at 42 years old, passing away from pneumonia, his death was unexpected and traumatic for the team and the whole university. Smith left no family, all of his $30,000 estate going towards university and city of Berkeley communities, including a $10,000 football scholarship. In accordance with his wishes, his ashes were scattered over the Memorial Stadium field.", "Following Smith's death, his assistant coach Nibs Price became the new coach of the Golden Bears; that same year he also became the head coach of Cal's basketball team. His initial season was Cal's first losing season since 1897. Not only had most of the team's key players graduated, the team and the university were still recovering from the sudden loss of their inspirational coach", ". During the next three seasons, Price's successful adoption of Smith's strategy and his continuing recruitment skills became apparent. That period's players are considered to be the final batch of the Wonder Teams. In 1927 and 1928, the teams were undefeated, and the 1928 team was invited to the Rose Bowl to play against Georgia Tech. After recovering a Georgia Tech fumble, Cal's center Roy Riegels inadvertently spun around, and ran the ball towards Cal's enzone instead of Georgia Tech's", ". Cal's quarterback Benny Lom was able to catch up to and stop Riegels at the 3-yard line, where they were immediately tackled by Georgia Tech players. Price chose to punt rather than risk a play so close to his team's end zone. The punt was blocked in end zone resulting in a safety, giving Georgia Tech a 2–0 lead. These turned out to be the decisive points of Cal's 7–8 loss", ". These turned out to be the decisive points of Cal's 7–8 loss. Riegel's run has been considered to be one of the stand out moments in Rose Bowl history, with Roy \"the wrong way\" Riegels being inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame in 1991. In 1929, the team suffered only a single loss, which was an away game to Stanford; USC won the conference even though it lost its game against Cal. Earlier that season the team traveled to the east coast to defeat Penn 12–7", ". Earlier that season the team traveled to the east coast to defeat Penn 12–7. Prior to that game they were invited to the White House by President Herbert Hoover, who as a Stanford student managed the 1894 team, and along with his Cal counterpart, organized the inaugural Big Game. The fall of 1930 was Price's last season of coaching football. Cal was crushed by both USC and Stanford and could only win one conference game. Price continued to coach basketball, leading the Golden Bears to the 1946 Final Four.", "California football also achieved success in the 1930s. Nibs Price was replaced by Bill Ingram, then a successful coach at the Naval Academy. In 1931, his first season at Cal, Ingram led the Golden Bears to the 2nd place in the conference. However, the team could not finish higher than fifth during the next three years, leading to Ingram being replaced by his assistant coach Stub Ellison. Beginning in 1935, Ellison led Cal to two conference co-championships and one stand alone title in 1937", ". The 1937 team was led by the team captain and future member of the College Football Hall of Fame Vic Bottari. Bottari scored the two touchdowns in Cal's 13-0 Rose Bowl win against Alabama. Because of its staunch defense, the 1937 squad was coined \"The Thunder Team.\" In its 11 wins, Thunder Team scored 214 points while posting 7 shutouts. ESPN College Football Encyclopedia ranked them above the 1920 Wonder Team, naming them as the best team in school history", ". The 1938 Rose Bowl was the last one won by the Golden Bears. Next year the team finished second, which would be the highest for the rest of Ellison's career at Cal. During World War II, Cal was unable to field strong teams as players could be drafted at any time during the season. Some schools like Stanford paused their football programs, and out of the nine PCC conference teams only Cal, USC, UCLA and Washington participated in the 1942 and 1943 seasons", ". During these years Cal would often face teams from military bases, which were allowed to field players that had already completed their college careers. Ellison's last season was in 1946, that year the team could only win one game in the conference.", "The 1947 season saw a dramatic turnaround as Lynn \"Pappy\" Waldorf became the head coach. Upon Pappy's arrival they went to 9–1, with their only loss coming against USC. Known as \"Pappy's Boys\", the teams of 1947–1950 won 33 consecutive regular season games, earning three conference championships and three Rose Bowl berths. However California lost all three Rose Bowls: 20–14 to Northwestern in 1949, 17–14 to Ohio State in 1950, and 14–6 to Michigan in 1951", ". Because Cal's return to greatness and Pappy's exuberant character, Pappy became admired by both his players and his fans. He became known for addressing fans after every game from a balcony of the Memorial stadium. In 1953 the NCAA changed the game by canceling a rule that was in place since World War II, a team could no longer make multiple substitutions and have specific players for each position - only one substitution could be made per play", ". Up to this change Pappy's approach was to use highly specialized players for key positions. Waldorf did not have a winning season following the change. The 1953 season is also associated with a recruiting scandal involving star freshman quarterback Ronnie Knox", ". In order to have Knox enroll at the university, the California football booster club promised that Knox's step father would be hired as a scout, his high school coach would be hired as an assistant coach, and that Knox himself would be given a job writing for a local newspaper while being paid $500 per year by the booster club. Knox enrolled at Cal but California's administration found out prior to the benefits being provided", ". Following investigation by both administration and the conference, it was found that Waldorf was not directly involved. After one year Knox transferred to UCLA. Pappy retired at the end of 1956 season when the team went 3–7. His overall record at Cal was 67-32-4. During the late 1950s NCAA kept changing its rules and by 1964 it again allowed unlimited substitutions. One of the star players during Pappy's years was Jackie Jensen", ". One of the star players during Pappy's years was Jackie Jensen. He played from 1947 to 1948, was an All-American and the first Cal player to rush for 1,000 yards. He was also a pitcher and a center fielder for the baseball team, and twice an All-American, led Cal to win the inaugural 1947 College World Series. He left his junior year to play in the major leagues and was the 1958 American League Most Valuable Player as an outfielder.", "Pete Elliott became Cal's head coach in 1957. He only won one game that year and two games in 1959. However, in between those two years, California went 6–1 in the PCC, taking first place and earning a spot in the 1959 Rose Bowl. Unfortunately it lost that game to Iowa 38 to 12. One of the highlights of those years was Joe Kapp, who is considered to be one of the greatest players in Cal history. Aside from his skills as a quarterback, he is also remembered for his great character", ". Aside from his skills as a quarterback, he is also remembered for his great character. Completely dedicated to his team and his university, he was considered to be able to push his teammates to perform beyond their limits as well as to fiercely intimidate his opponents. During his NFL years with the Minnesota Vikings he led the team to appear in the 1969 season's Super Bowl. He declined the Viking's most valuable player of the year award because it was the team and not him that deserved it", ". It was for his ability to transfer his passion and determination that he was offered and accepted the California head coaching job in 1982.", "Marv Levy became the head coach in 1960, with Bill Walsh as one of his assistant coaches; they were at Cal until 1963. Although each would go on to become future Pro Football Hall of Famers - Levy for his coaching with the Buffalo Bills and four straight Super Bowl appearances and Walsh for his three Super Bowl titles with the San Francisco 49ers, they could not produce a single winning season at Cal. Ray Willsey took over the program in 1964", ". Ray Willsey took over the program in 1964. A Cal alumnus, he played under Pappy Waldorf, leading the team as a quarterback in the 1952 season's 26–0 win over Stanford. During his years as coach, Berkeley became a center of counterculture and political protest. This led to significant problems with recruiting – Willsey had to try and commit the recruits while the Berkeley protests and police crackdowns were a regular part of the nightly news", ". During this decade Cal won the Big Game only twice, in 1960 under Marv Levy and in 1967 under Ray Willsey. Wilsey's recruiting difficulties where finally overcome in 1968, that year's team would come to be known as The Bear Minimum. It was led by linebacker Ed White a consensus All-American and future member of College Hall of Fame, relying on its defense Cal went 7–3–1 and ranking as high as 8th in the AP poll. It won 21–7 at Michigan and beat No. 10 Syracuse 43–0", ". It won 21–7 at Michigan and beat No. 10 Syracuse 43–0. Earning three shutouts it held its opponents to 10.4 points a game. The Bear Minimum still holds Cal's records for opponents' average gains per play – 3.60, as well as the fewest rushing touchdowns per season – 5 (same as the Thunder Team). Its average yards per rush was 2.51 which is still second only to the 1937 Thunder Team with 2.50 yards per rush. Willsey left in 1972, his overall record was 40–42–1", ".50 yards per rush. Willsey left in 1972, his overall record was 40–42–1.A positive stand out during the 1960s was Craig Morton. As an All-American he set multiple Cal records, including for most career passing yards and touchdown passes. His touchdown record of 36 lasted for the next 24 years. He was picked 5th in the 1965 draft by the Dallas Cowboys, and was with them for the next ten years, leading them to two Super Bowls.", "Mike White was hired in 1972. He was a Cal alumnus and a Stanford assistant coach from 1964 to 1971. In 1972 both Stanford and Cal head coaching positions became open and he received invitations from both schools to lead their programs. He decided to leave Stanford and return to Cal. In 1974, the team went 4–2–1 in the conference. It was led by quarterback Steve Bartkowski, who was a consensus All-American and first in the nation with 2,580 yards", ". In 1975 he was the number one NFL draft pick for the Atlanta Falcons and was named the NFL Rookie of the Year. In 1975, behind an NCAA-leading offense anchored by All-Americans Joe Roth, Chuck Muncie, Wesley Walker, Steve Rivera, and Ted Albrecht, the Golden Bears were co-champions of the Pac-8. It was co-champion UCLA went to the Rose Bowl because of its season victory over Cal. The quarterback and leader of the 1975 team was Joe Roth, who was one of the Heisman Trophy candidates at the beginning of 1976", ". That season, Roth had a great start, however halfway through it his performance started to drop. Unknown to everyone but his best friends and coach White, Roth was diagnosed with melanoma the most dangerous form of skin cancer. Despite this, he continued to play, finishing the season as an All-American. Roth's last game was in January 1977 at an all-star game in Japan, he died several weeks later in Berkeley", ". In respect of his perseverance, and commitment to others, his former locker was dedicated in his honor and the annual home game against UCLA or USC was named the Joe Roth Memorial Game.", "Coach Mike White left after a 1977 season when the Bears finished 7-4 but with all of the losses coming in the conference. White was succeeded by Roger Theder, who was one of his assistant coaches during the previous six years. Theder led the Bears to three winning seasons, but each less successful than the previous one. In 1979, California played in the Garden State Bowl, losing to Temple 28-17 after a 6-5 regular season.", "Joe Kapp era (1982–1986)", "The 1980s saw a full return to mediocrity, with California posting only one winning season in the entire decade - 1982. Even though he had only one winning season, Joe Kapp was the most successful coach during this period. Kapp was a Cal quarterback during the 1950s and was considered to be one of the greatest players in Cal history. He was a gritty quarterback on the runner-up Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV", ". He was a gritty quarterback on the runner-up Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV. Even though he did not have any coaching experience, due to his famous determination and commitment to the team, Kapp was hired as the head coach in 1982. Kapp's success as a player did not translate into success as a coach. His first season could be considered his best, with the Bears winning four conference games and reaching the sixth place in the standings. The 1986 season was Kapp's last", ". The 1986 season was Kapp's last. It is remembered for his team's upset of Stanford in the 1986 Big Game. Stanford was 7-2 and ranked 16th in the nation. Despite this, Kapp's defense dominated the game - Stanford's quarterback John Paye was sacked seven times, while it's running game was held to 41 yards. Cal won the game 17–11. Ultimately, Joe Kapp is most known for the Play, which happened during the 1982 Big Game", ". Ultimately, Joe Kapp is most known for the Play, which happened during the 1982 Big Game. Led by quarterback John Elway, Stanford made a field goal with four seconds left in the game, leading Cal by one point. In the ensuing kickoff return, Cal used five lateral passes to score a touchdown and turn certain defeat into a 25–20 victory, running into Stanford's marching band's celebration", ". Due to the Big Game rivalry and the almost impossible way that it unfolded, The Play is considered to be one of the most memorable plays in college football history.", "Bruce Snyder era (1987–1991)", "Bruce Snyder, an assistant coach of the Los Angeles Rams, arrived as head coach at Berkeley in 1987. In 1990 Cal won seven games, Finishing Pac-10 in 4th place, which was its highest since 1977. California played in the Copper Bowl where it beat Wyoming 17–15. This was the first bowl win since the 1938 Rose Bowl. The 1991 team went 10–2, reaching the 2nd place in the Pac-12", ". The 1991 team went 10–2, reaching the 2nd place in the Pac-12. Part of Snyder's success was due to him being able to recruit a number of outstanding players, such as Russell White, Mike Pawlawski, Sean Dawkins, Troy Auzenne, David Ortega, away from football powers such as USC and UCLA. One of the unfortunate highlights of that season was against future national co-champion the undefeated Washington Huskies", ". The game was at home, where California was able to stand up to Huskies unlike any other team that season. The team stopped Washington from scoring within the Cal red zone on multiple occasions, but lost the game on an incomplete pass with 5 seconds left in the game. Cal lost that game 17 to 24. The teams other unfortunate loss was to Stanford - 21–38. The Bears finished the season ranked No. 8, defeating No. 11 Clemson Tigers in the Florida Citrus Bowl - 37–13.", "Keith Gilbertson era (1992–1995)", "Because of negotiation problems with Cal's new athletic director, Snyder left Cal for the Arizona State Sun Devils right after the Citrus Bowl. Upon leaving Snyder's salary increased from $250,000 a year at Cal to $600,000 at Arizona State. The Bears were able to replace Snyder by hiring away the Washington Huskies offensive coordinator Keith Gilbertson. During his four years Cal had only one winning season. In 1993 it went 4–4 in the Pac-10 and placed 5th in the conference", ". In 1993 it went 4–4 in the Pac-10 and placed 5th in the conference. Cal was invited to the Alamo Bowl where they defeated the 8th place Big Ten team, the Iowa Hawkeyes 37 to 3. 1994 was the first year of the future Cal and NFL legend Tony Gonzales, who played both as a tight end and forward for the Golden Bears basketball team.", "Steve Mariucci era (1996)\nIn 1996 Cal hired Green Bay Packers assistant coach Steve Mariucci. Under the new coach Cal won its first five games, with the fifth win being against 17th ranked USC in Los Angeles. However, it only won once during the rest of the season and Cal went 6–6 overall and 3–5 in the conference. Because of the 6 overall wins, Cal was invited to the Aloha Bowl, where it lost to Navy 42 to 38. On January 17 Mariucci left Cal to be the head coach at the San Francisco 49ers.", "Tom Holmoe era (1997–2001)", "Steve Mariucci's 1997 replacement was the previous season's defensive coordinator Tom Holmoe. During the next 5 years under Holmoe, Cal went 6–34 in the Pac-10. In 1999 Cal went a dismal 3–5 in the Pac-10, however in 2002 those 3 wins were forfeited as was found guilty of major NCAA violations. It emerged that two players were added to an already completed course in order to keep those players eligible for competition", ". Even though this was discovered in 2002 when Cal had a new head coach, the 2002 team was banned from participating in a post season bowl. 2001 was Holmoe's last year, the team went 1–10, with its only win coming from the last game of the year versus Rutgers, a team that went 0–7 in the Big East conference. That pre-season game was rescheduled to the end of the season due to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. During Holmoe's years California lost all of its four games to the archrival Stanford.", "Jeff Tedford era (2002–2012)", "During the last month of 2001 Holmoe was replaced by Jeff Tedford, previously a successful offensive coordinator for the Oregon Ducks. California began a renaissance under Tedford, who dramatically turned around the long-suffering program. Under him the Golden Bears posted eight consecutive winning seasons, a feat that had not been accomplished since the days of Pappy Waldorf", ". After being ruled ineligible for a bowl game in 2002 due to academic infractions under Holmoe, the Bears went on to appear in seven straight bowl games. Cal finished Tedford's first season going 7–5, their first winning season since 1993", ". Cal finished Tedford's first season going 7–5, their first winning season since 1993. The 2002 team defeated three nationally ranked opponents on the road for the first time in school history, including California's first win over conference foe Washington in 26 years, and won the annual Big Game against arch-rival Stanford for the first time in eight years. The 2003 team was led by a junior college transfer, and future NFL superstar Aaron Rodgers", ". The 2003 team was led by a junior college transfer, and future NFL superstar Aaron Rodgers. The Golden Bears posted an 8–6 record, highlighted by a dramatic 34–31 triple-overtime victory over No. 3 ranked and eventual national co-champion USC. Bears were invited to the 2003 Insight Bowl, where they edged Virginia Tech 52–49. During that season Rodgers tied Cal's season record with five 300-yard games and set a Cal record for the lowest percentage of passes intercepted at 1.43%.", "In 2004, the Bears posted a 10–1 regular season with their only loss coming against the eventual national champion - USC, and finished the regular season ranked No. 4 in the nation. Running back J.J. Arrington set a Cal record gaining 2,018 total rushing yards, becoming only the third Pac-10 running to gain over 2,000 yards. Based on Cal's record the team was expected to receive an at-large BCS bowl berth, and play in the Rose Bowl for the first time since 1958", ". However, Mac Brown the coach of then lower ranked University of Texas, intensively lobbied both Coaches Poll and the Associated Press voters to change their ranking in the final week of the season. Even though Texas did not play and Cal won its final game, it was Texas that received more votes in the final poll and was invited to play in the Rose Bowl. The Longhorns went on to beat Michigan, while California was upset by lower ranked Texas Tech in the Holiday Bowl", ". Partially due to the lobbying controversy with California's BCS ranking, the AP poll withdrew from the BCS after that season. After the season, Rodgers decided to forgo his senior season to enter the 2005 NFL Draft. He was drafted in the first round by the Green Bay Packers, while senior J.J. Arrington was drafted in the second round by Arizona Cardinals.", "The 2005 season saw inconsistent quarterback play and an overall inexperienced roster Cal finished the season in the middle of the conference. It went on to defeat BYU in the Las Vegas Bowl. In 2006, the team went on 10–3 overall and 7–2 in Pac-10, sharing the conference title with USC. This was Cal's first Pac-10 championship since 1975. The star of that year's team was running back Marshawn Lynch, who ran for 1,356 yards and 11 touchdowns, while catching for 328 yards with 4 touchdowns", ". The Golden Bears accepted an invitation to the 2006 Holiday Bowl, routing Texas A&M 45–10. Lynch left for the NFL as a junior, he was drafted in the first round by the Buffalo Bills. He went on to have an 11-year NFL career as a star running back. Next season Cal had a great start, ranking as high as No. 2 in the AP, but had a terrible second half of the season, finishing ending up in 7th place in the conference. Cal also lost its first Big Game in six seasons", ". Cal also lost its first Big Game in six seasons. Tedford declared there would be open competition for all positions on the team and a reevaluation of every aspect of California's football program. The team played better in the next two season, but could not get above 4th place in the conference. From 2010 to 2012, Cal had three consecutive losing seasons within the Pac-12. California played their 2011 home games in San Francisco Giant's AT&T Park due to the massive reconstruction of the Memorial Stadium", ". Even though it went 4–5 in the Pac-12, it had an overall winning record and were invited to the 2011 Holiday Bowl where they faced Mack Brown and his Texas Longhorns. Like in the 2004 Rose Bowl controversy, it was Brown that emerged as the winner - Texas beat Cal 21–10. Memorial Stadium reopened in 2012 after its $321 million renovation, but Cal had another losing season, winning only two games at home. In addition it lost to Stanford for the third straight time", ". In addition it lost to Stanford for the third straight time. A few days after the final game, Tedford was fired. Aside from his record, another great concern was that at only 48% of players graduated, with the team having the lowest graduation rate in the Pac-12. Tedford left the Bears with the most bowl wins - 5, conference wins - 50, and games coached - 139, in school's history. He also tied Pappy Waldorf for most Big Game wins - 7", ". He also tied Pappy Waldorf for most Big Game wins - 7. During his tenure, California produced 40 players drafted by the NFL, including eight first-round picks.", "Sonny Dykes era (2013–2016)", "At the end 2012, Sonny Dykes was announced as the new head coach. Previously, Dykes was the head coach at Louisiana Tech, where in his final year led the team to a conference championship for the first time in ten years. Dykes was expected to bring significant offensive improvements with his up-tempo, pass-oriented offense known as the Air Raid. However, his first year at Cal will be most remembered for the team's defensive failure", ". However, his first year at Cal will be most remembered for the team's defensive failure. He became the first head of coach in Golden Bear history that could not defeat a single Division I NCAA opponent. Similarly, Bears lost to Stanford by 50 points, the largest margin ever in the 119-year history of the Big Game.", "Along with the new coaching staff, the athletic department began implementing a new program to deal with the significant problems of academic performance of Cal's revenue sports athletes. By 2018, all sports programmes would be required to have at least 80 percent incoming athletes comply with University of California system's general admission standard - a high school GPA of at least 3.0. Excepting Stanford, this would be the strictest requirement in the Pac-12", ".0. Excepting Stanford, this would be the strictest requirement in the Pac-12. In regards to football, Cal's hopes never came to fruition - over his four years at Cal, Dykes had only one winning season - 2015, and was able to beat one of its traditional rivals – UCLA only once. Dykes was fired as Cal head coach on January 8, 2017. The college career of future NFL star - quarterback Jared Goff, can be considered as one of the few positive highlights of the Dykes era", ". In his three years under Dykes' Air Raid, he set 26 team records that included, season and career: touchdowns, yardage gained and lowest percentage of interceptions.", "Justin Wilcox era (2017–present)", "On January 14, 2017, less than one week after Sonny Dykes' firing, Justin Wilcox was named as his replacement. Wilcox had a successful season as a defensive coordinator for the University of Wisconsin, with the Badgers winning the Cotton Bowl. He had also previous Cal experience as an assistant coach under Jeff Tedford. That season's highlight was the Bears' 37–3 defeat of No. 8 ranked Washington State, the first time Cal beat a top ten opponent since its defeat of No. 3 USC in 2003", ". 3 USC in 2003. In 2018, the Bears went 7–6, with Bears losing 10–7 in overtime to TCU in the 2018 Cheez-It Bowl. That game's loss, along with an earlier upset 12–10 upset against #15 Washington, illustrated both Wilcox's primary reliance on defense and a significant problems with his team's offensive performance. Wilcox's defense was ranked No. 15 in the nation in total yards allowed, while the team's offensive efficiency was the second worst among all Power Five teams", ". Two standouts of that year's team were junior Evan Weaver who had 155 tackles and two interceptions, and first team All Pac-12 senior Jordan Kunaszyk who had 143 tackles with six forced fumbles. The Bears improved in 2019 to an 8–5 record that included a win at the 2019 Redbox Bowl. They achieved their highest ranking since 2009 when they were ranked No. 15 after a 4–0 start to the season and notably defeated Stanford in the Big Game for the first time since 2009", ". Senior linebacker Evan Weaver was the standout player of the season after leading the nation with a school-record and Pac-12 record 182 tackles, earning him the Pac-12 Defensive Player of the Year and becoming the first consensus All-American from Cal since 2006.", "Championships\n\nNational championships\nCalifornia has won five (1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1937) national championships from NCAA-designated major selectors. California claims all five of these national championships.\n\nConference championships\nCalifornia has won a total of 14 conference championships since 1916.\n\n† Co-champions\n\nHead coaches", "† Co-champions\n\nHead coaches\n\n* From 1906 to 1914, rugby was played instead of football. Cal's 13th coach was Oscar Taylor from 1906 to 1908. Cal's 14th coach, James Schaeffer, coached rugby from 1909 to 1914 and football in 1915.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCalifornia\nHistory" ]

[ "The United States experienced the beginnings of a pandemic of a novel strain of the influenza A/H1N1 virus, commonly referred to as \"swine flu\", in the spring of 2009. The earliest reported cases in the US began appearing in late March 2009 in California, then spreading to infect people in Texas, New York, and other states by mid-April. Early cases were associated with recent travel to Mexico; many were students who had traveled to Mexico for Spring Break", ". This spread continued across the country's population and by the end of May there were approximately 0 confirmed cases throughout all 50 states.", "On April 28, 2009, the director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) confirmed the first official US death of swine flu, a 23-month-old toddler from Mexico who died on April 27 while visiting Texas.\nBy June 24, 132 deaths had been attributed to the virus.", "By June 24, 132 deaths had been attributed to the virus.\nAs of January 11, 2010, at least 554,000 deaths were attributed to the virus worldwide, and at least 12,469 deaths in the US were confirmed to be due to the virus. The CDC suspects, however, that the total number of deaths in the US is much higher than the official total, as some deaths probably went unconfirmed.", "Alabama", "On May 2, 2009, the Alabama Department of Public Health confirmed the first case of H1N1 (swine flu) in Madison, Alabama, one of two probable cases previously identified at an elementary school in Madison. As a result, all public schools and most private schools and daycare centers in Madison County, Alabama, including the cities of Huntsville and Madison, closed for two days", ". After meeting with the state public health officer on May 3, 2009, all Madison city elementary schools were to be closed through May 13, 2009, but were reopened after the CDC updated its guidance to schools.", "As of December 5, 2009, the Alabama Department of Public Health reports 2453 confirmed and 36 deaths from swine flu. As of January 9, 2010, Alabama was the only US state reporting widespread A/H1N1 flu activity.", "Alaska\nOn May 10, 2009, the Alaska state Division of Public Health reported the state's first probable case of swine flu in a crew member of a Royal Caribbean cruise ship traveling in Alaska waters. On May 12, they confirmed that the woman had been infected with swine flu but they do not consider it to be Alaska's first case because she became ill before entering state waters.", "As of December 5, 460 cases of swine flu and 11 deaths were confirmed in Alaska.\nOn July 27, Alaska health officials confirmed the first H1N1-related death.", "Arizona", "As of October 31, the Arizona Department of Health Services had reported a total of 6,302 confirmed cases of H1N1 infection since April 2009, with at least one case reported in each of the state's 15 counties. 786 of the cases had resulted in hospitalization of the patient, and 81 deaths were associated with H1N1 infection in that period of time", ". Of the H1N1 associated deaths reported in the state, 72% suffered an underlying medical condition (asthma, lung or heart conditions, cancer, metabolic disorders, pregnancy, immunosuppressive disorders, neurologic diseases or other chronic diseases) at the time of death.", "On April 28, the first cases of H1N1 influenza infection in Arizona were confirmed in four school-aged patients in the Phoenix metropolitan area. The schools attended by the patients were immediately closed following recommendations from the CDC; after only 3 days, however, local authorities reopened the schools, stating that the H1N1 flu appeared to be no more deadly than the seasonal flu", ". School closures in the area have since been eliminated in favor of simply sending the infected children home, resulting in slightly elevated absence rates statewide. The first death in the state due to H1N1 swine flu complications was reported by the Maricopa County Department of Public Health on May 14.", "As of January 15, Arizona has reported 142 deaths due to confirmed A/H1N1 influenza, including at least 2 in 2010 alone.", "Arkansas\n\nDuring the 2009-2010 flu season, the Arkansas Department of Health reported 53 confirmed cases of swine flu. Four of the cases were from Camp Robinson, a US Army National Guard base in North Little Rock, Pulaski County.\n\nCalifornia\nDeaths by county:", "Alameda – 33\nBerkeley City – 1\nButte – 3\nCalaveras – 5\nContra Costa – 15\nEl Dorado – 1\nFresno – 22\nHumboldt – 4\nImperial – 2\nKern – 22\nKings – 3\nLake – 1\nLong Beach City – 7\nLos Angeles – 149\nMadera – 4\nMarin – 5\nMendocino – 4\nMerced – 5\nMonterey – 4\nNapa – 1\nNevada – 1\nOrange – 56\nPlacer – 5\nRiverside – 40\nSacramento – 22\nSan Benito – 1\nSan Bernardino – 43\nSan Diego – 63\nSan Francisco – 8\nSan Joaquin – 13\nSan Luis Obispo – 3\nSan Mateo – 11\nSanta Barbara – 9\nSanta Clara – 21\nSanta Cruz – 3\nShasta – 2", "San Luis Obispo – 3\nSan Mateo – 11\nSanta Barbara – 9\nSanta Clara – 21\nSanta Cruz – 3\nShasta – 2\nSolano – 8\nSonoma – 11\nStanislaus – 13\nTehama – 2\nTrinity – 1\nTulare – 6\nTuolumne – 1\nVentura – 14\nYolo – 6\nYuba – 3\nTotal – 657", "The first two cases detected in the US were two children living in San Diego County and Imperial County who became ill on March 28 and 30 respectively. A CDC alert concerning these two isolated cases was reported in the media on April 21. As of April 24 eight human cases were known in the US, including six in Southern California. The patients have recovered", ". The patients have recovered. The acting director of the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) said that preliminary tests on seven out of fourteen samples from patients in Mexico had matched the virus found in the US, which experts say is a new strain of swine flu. None of the US patients had any contact with pigs, leading CDC officials to believe that human-to-human transmission has been occurring.", "Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger and the state of California activated the Joint Emergency Operations Center of the Department of Public Health, and are coordinating with the California Emergency Management Agency, the CDC, and the Mexican government. They have additionally stepped up other preparations to lessen the flu's threat. On April 28, Gov", ". They have additionally stepped up other preparations to lessen the flu's threat. On April 28, Gov. Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency which allows the state to deploy additional resources to the Department of Public Health and more quickly and easily purchase equipment and materials.", "St. Mels Catholic School in Fair Oaks was closed after Sacramento County Health Department notified the school that a 7th grade student who reportedly recently returned from a family vacation in Mexico tested positive for an unidentified strain of influenza virus A. On April 27, CDC officials confirmed that the student tested positive for swine flu. In Marin County, a grandmother and her 20-month-old granddaughter have been confirmed to have the flu", ". By April 28, the CDC had confirmed 10 cases of swine flu in California.", "California State University, Long Beach reported on April 29 that a student had returned a \"probable positive\" test result for swine influenza. The student showed symptoms on Sunday April 26 and went to the campus health services office the following day. The test results were received by the school on April 28 and distributed to all students and faculty. The affected student had not attended any classes since falling ill and has an apparently mild case of the disease that does not appear life-threatening", ". Three high schools in Riverside County were closed April 29 after two teenage girls, from Corona and Indio respectively, were confirmed to have contracted the virus. Branham High School in San Jose was closed that day for a week after one teenage girl was confirmed to be a probable case. Rucker Elementary School in Gilroy is set to be closed on Friday, May 1 after at least one student was being tested after exhibiting flu-like symptoms", ". Three students at the Grizzly Youth Academy in San Luis Obispo are confirmed cases of swine influenza. As many as 73 students are exhibiting flu-like symptoms at The academy and are assumed to have the virus. All are being isolated. The academy is set to stay open. On May 3, 2009, parent of students attending King Middle School in Berkeley were notified that their school would be closed down due to a swine flu outbreak involving students at the school", ". Days later, other schools were closed down because of students or staff exhibiting flu-like symptoms; for example, Sunnyside Elementary School and Woodville Elementary School, both in Tulare County.", "On June 1, 2009, the first two deaths were confirmed, one by a middle-aged man in San Bernardino County, and another one by a middle-aged woman in Los Angeles County. A third death was confirmed on June 4, when a nine-year-old girl from Contra Costa County died. They were followed by an Orange County man's death on June 8 and a middle-aged man's death in Alameda County on June 9. As of June 9, there were 973 confirmed cases, 266 probable cases, and five deaths caused by the H1N1 flu", ". On June 10, another middle-aged man died in Alameda County, thus making it the third death in the San Francisco Bay Area.", "On July 1, a woman who had been hospitalized in Marin County died of swine flu.\n\nAs of July 23, 2009, 2,655 cases and 61 deaths in California had been confirmed.\n\nA list of hospitalizations and deaths can be viewed at the California Department of Health Website.\n\nAs of mid-September 2009, California had 2,655 cases and 152 deaths.\nAs of January 15, at least 479 California residents had died from confirmed H1N1 infection.", "Colorado", "On April 30 two cases of the flu virus were confirmed in the state of Colorado. The confirmed cases were a woman from Arapahoe County who recently returned from a cruise to Mexico and a Denver International Airport baggage handler. Two more H1N1 influenza cases were confirmed on May 2, both in Jefferson County, Colorado. One case is a middle school student, which has caused the school he attends to close for a week", ". One case is a middle school student, which has caused the school he attends to close for a week. The tally increased to seven on May 4 when The University of Colorado at Boulder (CU) confirmed three of its students contracted the virus.", "There were 171 cases reported in Colorado as of July 18.\nOn July 29, 2009, Colorado reported its first A(H1N1) swine flu death in El Paso County of a woman in her forties.", "Connecticut", "On April 28, it was announced that there were suspected cases of swine flu in three Connecticut towns. Schools were closed due to suspected cases in East Haddam and Wethersfield, though tests on these patients later came back negative. On April 30, two students at Fairfield University were announced as having \"probable\" swine flu, in addition to another person in Glastonbury, bringing the total number of likely cases to 6", ". On May 1, the first confirmed case of swine flu was reported in Connecticut in Stratford. On May 2, the second confirmed case was reported in a child from Middlefield that had recently returned from a family trip to Mexico. On May 5, Fairfield University announced that two \"probable\" cases had tested positive for the H1N1 flu, with five other \"probable\" cases awaiting test results", ". One May 8, Fairfield announced that those five students had also tested positive, although the students by that time were nearly recovered, and there remained one \"probable\" case remained to be confirmed.", "On Wednesday, June 3, The first death confirmed to be linked to the H1N1 virus happened in New Haven County. As of Wednesday, June 17 there are 7 confirmed cases of the H1N1 virus at Joseph A. Foran High School of Milford. The school is following a half day schedule until the end of the year, which was reported as being successful for preventing the virus.", "By July 22, 2009, there were 1,713 confirmed cases of swine flu in Connecticut. New Haven has the most of any town with 175 cases.\nIn January 2010, the Connecticut CDC stated that there were 1,996 confirmed cases of A/H1N1 influenza in the first wave of the A/H1N1 influenza pandemic, and 3,386 confirmed cases of A/H1N1 influenza in the second wave of the A/H1N1 pandemic. 31 deaths from A/H1N1 were confirmed over the course of the pandemic.", "Delaware", "The first probable cases of swine flu in Delaware were reported on Monday, April 27. Four probable cases of swine flu were reported on the University of Delaware campus after the students were experiencing flu like symptoms. Tests were sent to the CDC to see if the students had the swine flu. All four cases were confirmed by the CDC on April 28. The students were reported to be recovering, and the campus set up a temporary Public Health clinic", ". The Delaware Division of Public Health reported on May 1 a further 17 probable cases, all from the university.", "As of July 24, the CDC had reported 381 cases for Delaware.\n\nOctober 22, a Kent County woman was Delaware's first H1N1-related death. As of January 2010, six deaths in Delaware had been confirmed to be due to H1N1 influenza.\n\nDistrict of Columbia\nAs of June 19, 2009, the DC Department of Health reported 43 confirmed and 2 probable cases of swine flu. The department website has since not updated its case counts.\n\nFlorida", "Florida\n\nAlachua – 6\nBaker – 1\nBrevard – 5\nBroward – 12\nCalhoun – 1\nCharlotte – 2\nCitrus – 2\nClay – 1\nDade – 38\nDeSoto – 1\nDuval – 13\nEscambia – 1\nHernando – 2\nHighlands – 2\nHillsborough – 17\nIndian River – 1\nLake – 1\nLee – 5\nLevy – 2\nManatee – 3\nMarion – 1\nMonroe – 2\nNassau – 1\nOkaloosa – 2\nOkeechobee – 2\nOrange – 14\nOsceola 1\nPalm Beach – 12\nPasco – 3\nPinellas – 13\nPolk – 9\nPutnam – 1\nSanta Rosa – 2\nSarasota – 5\nSeminole – 4\nSt. Johns – 2\nSt. Lucie – 9\nSumter – 1\nTaylor 1\nVolusia 6\nWalton 1\nTotal 208", "On April 28, it was reported that an individual in Florida had tested positive for influenza type A, of which swine flu is a subtype. A culture from that person has been sent to Jacksonville to be tested for swine flu, with results expected within 48 hours. Governor Crist announced the first two confirmed cases in Florida on May 1. The cases are both children and in Lee and Broward counties.", "On May 3, the Hillsborough County Health Department announced 5 possible cases of H1N1, 4 of the persons are students, and the other is a relative who has recently traveled to Mexico. Three public schools (Wilson Middle School, Freedom High School, and Liberty Middle School) where the students attended have been closed till May 11.", "On May 7, Alachua County announced its first case of H1N1 (Swine Flu). The person is a University of Florida student and has since recovered. On May 8, a 7-year-old boy tested positive of swine influenza in Rockledge, Brevard County, Florida . Two other children tested positive for influenza. It caused Golfview Elementary School in Rockledge to close on May 11.\n\nOn June 9, a 9-year-old boy died of Swine Flu in Miami Dade On July 10, a woman died of H1n1 in Palm Beach County.", "As of July 30, Florida has reported 3,221 cases of swine flu and there is at least one in each of Florida's 67 counties.", "Georgia\nThe first case of laboratory confirmed swine flu was reported on April 30. A Kentucky woman was hospitalized in LaGrange while visiting family in Georgia; she had recently returned from a trip to Mexico. While Georgia health officials reported this as a confirmed case for the state, the CDC and the Kentucky health department reported it as a case in Kentucky. In relation to this case, state officials said they had no plans to close schools or other public institutions.", "On May 4, the Georgia Department of Human Resources announced that all classes have been temporarily suspended at Eagle's Landing Christian Academy in Henry County until the CDC confirms the status of a student who became ill. The Georgia Public Health Laboratory sent three probable cases to the CDC over the weekend for confirmation. On May 5, the Georgia Division of Public Health confirmed three cases of H1N1 located in Cobb, DeKalb and Henry Counties.", "Swine flu has been confirmed on the Georgia Tech and Agnes Scott College campuses.", "The CDC has reported 222 cases of swine flu for Georgia as of July 24.\n\nHawaii", "On May 4, 2009, the Hawaii Department of Health announced that there were three suspected cases of swine flu in the state. Governor Linda Lingle announced that the cases were mild and that the patients were recovering at home. On May 5, 2009, all three cases were confirmed on the island of Oahu by the CDC. All three cases involve recent travel to the mainland United States. One case is a school-age child, who recently traveled to California. The two other cases are a military member, and his or her spouse", ". The two other cases are a military member, and his or her spouse. The military member traveled to Texas, and has exposed their spouse.", "Two more cases were confirmed on May 6. Another four were confirmed on May 13, with two identified at Anuenue School, a Hawaiian language immersion school. In response to the outbreak, the University of Hawaii at Manoa announced that it will not be shaking graduates' hands at its commencement.\n\nOn June 19, 2009, Hawaii confirmed its first swine flu-related death, a 60-year-old woman who had complications from the swine flu who later died at Tripler Army Medical Center.", "As of July 24, the CDC has reported 1,424 cases for Hawaii.\nAs of January 20, 2010, Hawaii has reported 13 confirmed deaths due to A/H1N1 influenza.\n\nIdaho\n\nOn May 3, 2009, the CDC confirmed the state's first H1N1 infection, that of a Kootenai County woman in her 60s.\n\nOn September 29, 2009, The Idaho Department of Health and Welfare confirmed that a Canyon County man in his 50s, with an already existing medical condition, died from the H1N1 virus, by which time 488 cases had been confirmed.", "By late October the H1N1 vaccine was available for high-risk groups for whom H&W set up clinics and distribution centers in, among other places, defunct big box stores.\n\nBy December 10, 2009, there had been 812 laboratory-confirmed cases, 381 influenza-related hospitalizations (most of them of children under ten), and 18 deaths. Furthermore, the vaccine became readily available to the general public under 65.", "By December 30, 2009, the state had 824 laboratory-confirmed cases since September 1, and the virus had contributed to the deaths of 20 people.\n\nBy January 23, 2010, despite at least 23 Idaho deaths and 385 hospitalizations and the widespread availability\nof the H1N1 vaccine, only 10% to 15% of the populace of Ada County had been inoculated, prompting concern amongst public health officials.\n\nIllinois", "The state's first probable case of swine flu was reported on Wednesday, April 29. An elementary school in Chicago's Rogers Park neighborhood, on the city's Far North Side, was closed because a 12-year-old student was presumed to have the disease. The student reportedly was recovering at home. By April 30, over 40 probable cases had been identified by state and local health officials", ". By April 30, over 40 probable cases had been identified by state and local health officials. In addition to 16 cases in the city of Chicago, and 11 in surrounding Cook County, cases were reported in Kane, Lake, DuPage, McHenry, and Will counties. Several schools in the affected areas were temporarily closed. Many other flu cases happened during or even before the launch of the alert were then confirmed, principally in the urban area of Chicago", ". By May 20, the following 17 counties had confirmed cases: Boone, Cook, DeKalb, DuPage, Franklin, Kane, Kankakee, Kendall, Knox, Lake, McDonough, McHenry, Ogle, Sangamon, Will, Williamson, and Winnebago. Total confirmed cases in Illinois were 794, up from 707 the previous day.", "Cases in Illinois throughout May 2009 continued to climb and by May 31, 2009, the published CDC numbers had reached 1002 confirmed cases with 2 deaths. A third confirmed death – the first outside of the Chicago metropolitan area – was reported by state health authorities on May 28, 2009, but this was not reflected in the CDC official numbers by the end of the month.", "A total of 3,366 cases and 17 deaths have been confirmed in Illinois as of July 24.\nAs of January 2010, a total of 2931 hospitalizations due to confirmed A/H1N1 infection and a total of 97 confirmed deaths due to H1N1 have been reported in Illinois.", "Indiana", "On April 28, an unidentified Notre Dame student was confirmed as the first case of swine flu in this state. The patient had not recently traveled to Mexico or been in contact with anyone who has traveled to Mexico. The student was in voluntarily quarantine, and was doing well, according to Judy Monroe, Indiana's state health commissioner. Two other cases in the state which occurred in two Indianapolis elementary schools were confirmed by the CDC shortly thereafter", ". Additional cases later surfaced in the counties of Hendricks, Lake, Marion, Putnam, St. Joseph, and Tippecanoe. On July 10, 2009, a young teenager died of Swine Flu, this was the first death in Indiana because of this disease.", "As of July 24, the CDC has reported 291 cases of swine flu.\nAs of February 2010, there have been at least 38 confirmed deaths due to A/H1N1 infection. Also, since September 1, there have been at least 468 confirmed cases of H1N1 in Indiana.", "Kansas\nHealth officials in Kansas announced April 25 that two new cases of swine flu had been confirmed in Dickinson County, after both were isolated. The week prior, one patient had traveled to Mexico by plane to attend a professional conference; both he and his wife experienced minor influenza symptoms.", "As of July 24, 2009 there were 213 confirmed cases of swine flu in Kansas, 101 in adults and 112 in children. However, in Wyandotte and Johnson counties the state had instructed that only hospitalized patients needed to be tested so the numbers were quite possibly higher. By June 30, 2009, there were 129 confirmed swine flu cases in Kansas.", "As of January 9,26 people have died of infection with H1N1, including a healthy 52-year-old man with no underlying health problems that would place him at higher risk for A/H1N1 infection.also, a 6-year-old Kansas boy and 27-year-old Kansas woman, have also died from infection with H1N1, reinforcing the fact that young, healthy people can die from infection with A/H1N1, and that vaccination is recommended even for those without preexisting medical problems.", "Kentucky\nA Warren County woman who had recently visited Mexico tested positive for the virus April 30. After returning to Kentucky from Mexico, she traveled to Georgia where she was hospitalized. Health officials from both states announced this as the first confirmed case in their states, however the CDC listed the case in Kentucky.\n\nIn Jefferson County, Meyzeek Middle school has three cases of H1N1 influenza. This initially started from a staff member, but spread to students.", "Louisiana\nAs of July 21, there are a total of 232 swine flu cases confirmed by The Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals. Up from 114 reported on May 28. As of January 2010, 1,973 confirmed cases of H1N1 have been reported, and 43 H1N1 deaths have been confirmed, in Louisiana.", "Maine\nOn April 29, three cases of H1N1 (swine flu) were confirmed in Maine, according to the Maine Center for Disease Control. The three adults, two from Kennebec County and one from York County, were reported to be recovering at home. Dr. Dora Anne Mills, former director of Maine CDC, said on April 28 that at least 12 suspected cases were being tested.", "Late on April 29, Maine Governor John Baldacci declared a \"civil emergency\" and ordered a school and daycare facility in York County to close for seven days.", "As of July 22, there have been 282 cases confirmed throughout Maine. As of November 26, 1562 confirmed cases, 97 hospitalized cases, and 9 deaths have been reported in Maine. Also, 172 schools have reported outbreaks of H1N1 since May, according to Dr. Dora Anne Mills and the Maine CDC. On December 2, 2009, it was announced that H1N1 has killed 2 more Mainers, bringing the death toll to 11", ". As of December 17, 2009, the Maine CDC states that although 203 Mainers have now been hospitalized and the death toll has risen to 17 in Maine, H1N1 flu activity is decreasing in Maine, and vaccine availability is increasing rapidly, so all Mainers can now get the vaccine. Dr. Dora Anne Mills reminded Mainers that 150 Mainers die every year from regular influenza", ". Dr. Dora Anne Mills reminded Mainers that 150 Mainers die every year from regular influenza. As of December 24, 2009, Maine was one of the only 7 states reporting widespread influenza activity, though Maine's influenza activity was declining as well. As of January 7, 2010, H1N1 activity has decreased from widespread to regional for the first time since October 17, 2009. Although H1N1 activity in Maine has declined for the time being, H1N1 continues to circulate in Maine", ". H1N1 could return later this year, so it is still very important to get vaccinated against A/H1N1 influenza, Dr. Dora Anne Mills says. So far, 18 deaths, 225 hospitalizations, and 2220 cases have been confirmed.", "As of January 14, the CDC states just 3 more patients required hospital care due to H1N1 disease, no new deaths occurred, and only 6 new cases were confirmed. However, one outbreak in a long-term care facility was confirmed. As of January 28, H1N1 activity has decreased significantly, with the CDC classifying current influenza activity as sporadic. No new cases of A/H1N1 influenza were confirmed between January 21 and January 28.", "However, as of February 4, the Maine CDC reports that influenza activity has increased enough for the state to be again classified as having regional influenza activity, and that one person had died of confirmed A/H1N1 infection over the previous week, bringing the number of confirmed deaths from A/H1N1 to 19 in the state.", "Maryland", "By May 1, 2009, eleven probable cases had been identified in Maryland, in Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Charles, Prince George's, and Montgomery Counties. One of these cases, that of a high school student in Rockville, resulted in the closing of Rockville High School, the first Maryland school closing due to the outbreak. On May 1, three other schools in the state were closed. As of May 5, Rockville High School has reopened. Takoma Park Middle School also began to take action due to a student catching swine flu", ". Takoma Park Middle School also began to take action due to a student catching swine flu. Four of Maryland's probable cases were confirmed on May 4, including two adults and one child in Baltimore County as well as one young child in Anne Arundel county. There were 4 cases of swine flu in Worcester County Public Schools in Maryland. In Washington County in Northeast Maryland there were many cases of the Swine Flu almost causing the closing of four Schools.", "As of Fall 2009, there have been 954 confirmed cases in Maryland.\n\nIn late September 2009 a 13-year-old Baltimore resident became the first minor to die from swine flu in Maryland. As of December 2, oseltamivir-resistant H1N1 was confirmed in Maryland. As of January 12, 2010, 43 confirmed deaths from H1N1 have been reported, and at least 969 patients have been hospitalized with A/H1N1 virus infection in Maryland.\n\nMassachusetts", "Massachusetts\n\nThere are 1,398 confirmed cases in Massachusetts, 172 of which have led to hospitalizations. The first death from swine flu in Massachusetts occurred on June 14, 2009, when a 30-year-old Boston woman died. Eleven deaths have been confirmed as being caused by the H1N1 virus in total.", "By county\nBarnstable County\nA member of the US Coast Guard stationed on Cape Cod, acquired the virus while training in California, but reportedly recovered.\nBristol County\nThe Health Agent for the town of Easton stated that there are \"a couple of suspected cases in town.\"\nThe Mass. Dept. of Public Health announced that they had 1 confirmed case of the virus in the city of Fall River in southeastern Massachusetts.\nDukes County", "Dukes County\nMartha's Vineyard Hospital treated five confirmed cases of H1N1, two of which required hospitalization.\nFranklin County\nThere is at least 1 confirmed case reported in the county.\nHampshire County", "Franklin County\nThere is at least 1 confirmed case reported in the county.\nHampshire County\nTwo students at Amherst College in Amherst had confirmed cases of the virus and 13 other students are 'suspected' cases. All 15 students are being isolated on campus. A third student at the school contracted the H1N1 virus. Also, there has been 1 'suspected' case each at Mount Holyoke College (in South Hadley) and Smith College (in Northampton).\nMiddlesex County", "Middlesex County\nThe Massachusetts Department of Public Health informed the Ashland school superintendent that two Ashland High School students have \"probable\" cases of H1N1 flu.\nThe CDC confirmed that an elementary school student in Chelmsford tested positive for acquiring the virus.\nIn Cambridge, there are 2 students (at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology) that are \"probable\" cases of having acquired the virus.\nEight residents of Framingham are being tested for being \"probable\" cases.", "Eight residents of Framingham are being tested for being \"probable\" cases.\nThe Lincoln Public Schools Superintendent had confirmed a Lincoln middle school student been diagnosed with the H1N1 virus.", "Two middle school students in Lowell have tested positive for swine flu as of April 29, 2009. The two had gone on a family trip to Mexico, and became mildly sick on returning home. The local health department said that the boys had not returned to school since coming back from Mexico, and there were no concerns that the illness had been spread.\nIn Tyngsboro, there had been 1 probable case reported at the Academy of Notre Dame.\nThere is 1 suspected case of the virus in the city of Waltham.", "There is 1 suspected case of the virus in the city of Waltham.\nWinchester Hospital in Winchester reported having received a possible case (of the virus) within the town.\nThere had been two additional confirmed cases, 1 of each located in the municipalities of Bedford and Weston.\nIn Wayland there has been one confirmed case at the elementary school level and one possible case at the high school level.\nNorfolk County", "Norfolk County\nThe health inspector of Quincy confirmed that a New York resident who checked into Quincy Medical Center on May 1, 2009, and tested positive for the H1N1 flu.\nThe CDC confirmed that a resident of the Wellesley College campus tested positive for the virus.\nThe Dana Hall School in Wellesley was closed after nearly 100 students called in sick.\nPlymouth County", "Plymouth County\nThe CDC had announced 4 additional confirmed cases, from 2 adults and 2 school-age residents (of the state), from the following counties: (3) Middlesex County and (1) Plymouth County.\nSuffolk County", "Suffolk County\nMassachusetts' Secretary of Health and Human Services announced that 'some' of the 34 confirmed cases in the state are from the Harvard School of Dental Medicine campus (at the Longwood Medical Area in Boston), which is temporarily closed. Later, it was reported that 3 of the 9 reported cases of influenza at the school, resulted positive for the H1N1 virus.", "On May 1, 2009, a United Airlines Flight 903 from Munich to Washington D.C., was diverted to Logan International Airport in Boston. A 53-year-old passenger complained of flu-like symptoms, that led him to be admitted to Massachusetts General Hospital.", "A male passenger in his 40s complained of flu-like symptoms upon landing at Logan International Airport in Boston May 2, 2009. He was flying aboard American Airlines Flight 155, from London to Boston, that had originated from Malaysia. He, too, was admitted to Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.", "The Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine reported a single resident that has a confirmed case of the virus. They claim that he has had no contact with anybody on the school's main campus, and those he has been in contact with have been notified.\nBoth Boston Latin, where 250 called in sick, and the Winsor School, where 34 called in sick, and were closed.\nWorcester County\nThere is at least 1 confirmed case reported in the county.\n Other", "Worcester County\nThere is at least 1 confirmed case reported in the county.\n Other \nIn Spencer, two students who also had recently returned from Mexico were tested for possible swine flu infection. The results of those tests were both negative.", "Michigan\n\nOn April 29, a 34-year-old woman from Livingston County was Michigan's first reported case of swine flu. On April 30, another 34-year-old woman from Ottawa County was confirmed as Michigan's second case. As of June 13, Michigan reports 655 confirmed flu cases, and as of July 23, nine deaths. The health department has since stopped reporting cases but continues to update deaths.", "The first death in Michigan was of a 53-year-old woman who lived in Warren and had other under-lying health problems. The second Michigan death occurred in Roscommon County.\n\nAs of August 10, 2009, ten deaths have been reported in Michigan due to the H1N1 virus. Michigan has stopped keeping a running tally of confirmed cases.\n\nOn October 28, 2009, 157 schools in Michigan were closed due to the swine flu.", "On October 28, 2009, 157 schools in Michigan were closed due to the swine flu.\n\nMinnesota\nOn April 30, 2009, the Minnesota Department of Health announced that the first case of \"H1N1 novel influenza virus\" in the state was confirmed by the CDC. The infected individual is an unidentified resident of Cold Spring, Minnesota. Two schools in the affected city remained closed until May 6, 2009.", "On May 4, 2009, the second case of H1N1 was confirmed in Minnesota by the Minnesota Department of Health. The case was reported in a teen boy attending a Minneapolis Public School.\n\nA Minneapolis five-year-old girl had succumbed to the flu during the week of June 8.", "A Minneapolis five-year-old girl had succumbed to the flu during the week of June 8.\n\nAs of July 23, 684 cases and three deaths have been reported.\nAs of January 13, 2 more people died of confirmed A/H1N1 influenza, increasing the number of confirmed deaths from H1N1 to 55 in the state. However, H1N1 influenza activity is currently low in Minnesota, with only one school outbreak reported in the first week of 2010.\n\nMissouri", "Missouri\n\nIn Missouri, Gov. Jay Nixon announced in a written statement that a probable case had been discovered in a Platte County man, and that a sample had been sent to the CDC for confirmation.\n\nAs of May 8, 2009, the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services (DHSS) reported 10 confirmed and 4 probable cases of swine flu.\n\nOn May 19, 2009, a St. Louis County man became the first death in Missouri due to the Swine Flu.", "On May 19, 2009, a St. Louis County man became the first death in Missouri due to the Swine Flu.\n\nOn May 21, 2009, St. Louis Public School District announced one of its students had the Swine Flu but has not been in class since May 15.\n\nIn St. Charles Missouri it was also found that a student from St. Charles High School who traveled to Mexico City was found infected with swine flu. The student who just came back from Mexico City was in school for a week than kicked out and brought back.", "On June 11, 2009, a teenager from New Bloomfield (11 miles north of the Jefferson City) in Callaway County became the 50th confirmed case of H1N1 in Missouri.\n\nOn June 20, 2009, about 20 to 30 campers at a Lake of the Ozarks summer camp in Morgan County reported having mild flu-like symptoms, of which two cases were confirmed to be H1N1. The camp was closed down for a week.", "Another summer camp in Stone County near Branson reported at least 15 campers who have tested positive for the flu in preliminary tests on June 24. The preliminary results were possibly sent to a lab in neighboring Taney County as local reporters attempted to dispute or deny that any flu cases were reported in Taney County by going as far as to cite that the Taney County Health Department found zero cases of the flu", ". Official results from the DHSS confirm the camp had five campers with H1N1, but that all the campers were from out of state.", "Reports from Adair, Buchanan, and Jefferson County were added on June 25 to DHSS's list of confirmed cases, bringing the count to 58 cases. These reports may be based on where people with H1N1 are from rather than where it was located in relation to the H1N1 cases reported at summer camps.\n\nThe youngest case of H1N1 was confirmed by DHSS in Cole County on June 25, 2009. An infant was reported with having Flu-like symptoms which was confirmed by DHSS.", "As of July 23, there have been 80 cases in Missouri. Adding to the latest cases are two children from Springfield.\n\nAs of July 31, there have been 86 cases. Clay and Moniteau Counties were added to the list of counties with confirmed cases.\n\nAs of August 8, there have been 158 confirmed cases in Missouri.\n\nOn August 15, a 5-year-old boy from St. Francis County checked into the hospital with H1N1\n\nAs of September 5, there have been 37 suspected cases of H1N1 at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, MO.", "Mississippi", "The Mississippi State Department of Health continues to monitor and investigate human cases of a new type of influenza, H1N1 swine influenza (also known as \"novel H1N1 influenza\") now present in Mississippi. Symptoms of swine flu in humans are similar to those of seasonal flu, causing fever, respiratory symptoms and body aches. H1N1 swine flu has contributed to a number of deaths nationwide, principally in those with pre-existing health conditions", ". 898 Mississippi cases of H1N1 swine flu have been identified and 7 deaths since May 15. Mississippians are advised to continue to exercise protective hygiene to avoid illness. As of January 25, 14 Mississippians have died of the H1N1 flu, and more than 635 cases have been confirmed.", "Montana\nOn May 11, 2009, the Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services (DPHHH) reported the state's first confirmed case of swine flu. As of July 26, there have been 122 reported cases.\nAs of January 21, there have been 801 confirmed cases of A/H1N1, and 18 confirmed deaths due to H1N1 flu.", "Nebraska\nAs of July 26, 2009, there are 313 confirmed cases of swine flu in Nebraska. Nebraska has recorded sixteen hospitalizations and three deaths.\nas of December 11,13 deaths from A/H1N1 influenza have been reported.\n\nNevada", "Nevada\n\nThe first confirmed case of the virus was reported in Nevada on April 29. A two-year-old girl from Reno contracted the virus, but it is unclear how as the case did not appear to be linked to any previously affected areas. As of recent the virus has spread to Clark County, where the city of Las Vegas lies. It has also resulted in the closing of Mendive Middle School in Sparks, Reno's neighboring city, where ten students were confirmed to have contracted the virus.", "Through October 14, 2009 there had been 229 confirmed cases and 12 deaths in Clark County, Nevada, 964 confirmed cases and 2 deaths in Washoe County, Nevada, 265 confirmed cases and 0 deaths in Carson City, Nevada, and 431 confirmed cases and 1 death in the state's remaining 14 counties, totaling in 1871 cases and 15 deaths.\n\nNew Hampshire", "New Hampshire\n\nThe New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services announced the state's first confirmed case of the H1N1 flu May 2, 2009. The confirmed case involved an employee of Concord Hospital in Concord, New Hampshire.\n\nAs of July 6, there had been 232 confirmed cases. As of December 12, at least 9 people had died of H1N1 influenza in New Hampshire.", "New Jersey", "As of July 22, 2009, the New Jersey Government has confirmed 936 cases of swine flu and 480 probable cases, most of them within a range of 30 minutes of New York or Philadelphia. More swine flu cases are being reported daily, which has caused a widespread in the state", ". More swine flu cases are being reported daily, which has caused a widespread in the state. Counties currently confirmed with swine flu: Atlantic (20), Bergen (63), Burlington (64), Camden (35), Cape May (3), Cumberland (17), Essex (105), Gloucester (12), Hudson (85), Hunterdon(17), Mercer (47), Middlesex (115), Monmouth (60), Morris (45), Ocean (48), Passaic (63), Salem (3), Somerset (37), Sussex (13), Union (62), Warren (22), which indicates that currently 21 counties have confirmed cases of swine flu.", "The first swine flu death in New Jersey occurred on June 13, 2009. The man who died was a 49-year-old resident of Essex County.\nAs of January 13, 2010,14 confirmed deaths from H1N1 have been reported, since September 1 in New Jersey.\n\nNew Mexico", "New Mexico\n\nOn April 29, 2009, Gov. Bill Richardson announced that there are two very probable cases in New Mexico. The suspected cases were a 1-year-old boy from Santa Fe County and an 18-year-old man from Valencia County. The 1-year-old tested negative for H1N1, but the 18-year-old man tested positive. More cases were raised in the intervening days, and by May 1 the probable case number was increased to nine.", "As of May 30, 2009, the New Mexico Department of Health has confirmed 156 total cases of the H1N1 virus in various counties with the CDC reporting 232 cases. New Mexico has since stopped reporting cases.\n\nNew York\n New York City – 105\n New York State – 101\n Total – 206", "New York\n New York City – 105\n New York State – 101\n Total – 206\n\nIntroduction\nOn April 24, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene dispatched a team of investigators to the private St. Francis Preparatory School in Queens after 150 students complained of symptoms consistent with the disease. Several of the students had recently traveled to Mexico City. New York City Health Commissioner Thomas Frieden reported on April 25 that eight of the New York school cases were \"probable\" swine flu.", "On April 26 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) confirmed that the Queens cases are indeed associated with the H1N1 virus. The students suffered only mild symptoms, and some have since recovered.\n\nOn April 27 federal officials confirmed 20 new US cases at the same school in New York in which eight cases were confirmed earlier.", "As of April 29, one undergraduate commuter student on the Queens Campus of St. John's University had contracted the Swine Flu (A/H1N1) virus. The student was treated and recovered.\n\nOn May 14, three New York City public schools were closed due to the flu symptoms of hundreds of students.\n\nOn May 17, Mitchell Wiener, the assistant principal at a Queens school was confirmed as New York State's first death due to the disease.", "On May 24, a woman in her 50s died because of the disease and had other health problems. She is New York State's second death and the 11th in the country. On June 1 a child from the Bronx became the first minor in New York City to die of swine flu. On Wednesday, June 4, a man died in Onondaga County, which marked the first fatality from swine flu in New York outside of New York City.", "A city health department poll suggested that more than half a million citizens of New York may be infected as of June 11.\n\nBy June 17, 2009, there had been 30 Swine flu deaths in New York.\n\nAs of July 24, the CDC has reported 2,738 confirmed cases of the H1N1 flu.", "North Carolina", "The state health director, Jeffrey Engel, announced that there had been two probable cases of swine flu in the state. The first case was a man traveling through Wake County, where the capital is located, on business. The other case was an Onslow County resident who had recently traveled to Texas. On a related note, North Carolina is one of 29 states that have deemed to have not stockpiled enough flu medicines by federal guidelines", ". However, Engel dismissed these concerns, saying, \"I think the commercial supply will keep up at the present time.\"", "North Carolina has 483 confirmed cases as of July 22. There have been six deaths confirmed in the state. The most famous victim of swine flu was Elliott Wilson, a student at North Carolina State University. He contracted the virus on September 10, 2009, and was responsible for infecting 13% of the student population.\n\nNorth Dakota\n\nAs of July 23, North Dakota has 63 confirmed cases of swine flu.", "Ohio", "On April 26, the Ohio Department of Health reported that a nine-year-old boy attending Elyria City Schools in Elyria, Lorain County, had been diagnosed with a mild case of the new strain of swine influenza and that his immediate family was undergoing testing. After the confirmed case in Ohio and eight in New York occurred Federal officials declared a public health emergency", ". The Cleveland health department received numerous calls from concerned residents the first week of the outbreak, although it has been difficult to tell whether or not the cases are swine flu, since it is regular flu season. On April 29, a probable case was reported in Columbus, and two new cases were confirmed in Columbus on May 2, one of them being an employee of Ohio State University Medical Center.", "As of July 24, 2009 there were 186 confirmed cases of swine flu in Ohio.\n\nIn September 2009, a 20-year-old Columbus woman died from H1N1 a week after having a c-section to give birth to her child at 32 weeks gestation.\n\nAs of October 9, 2009 a 14-year-old boy was reported as Ohio's first pediatric death.", "Oklahoma", "In Muskogee, Oklahoma a man who recently visited Mexico had been admitted into a hospital after having H1N1 flu symptoms, but test results on May 1 returned negative. On May 5, a woman from Pontotoc County was confirmed to have H1N1 flu, On May 7, Oklahoma State Department of Health confirmed three new cases of the H1N1 virus: a child from Oklahoma County, and one adult and a teenage female in Cleveland County. All have recovered but, there has been one death in the state so far", ". All have recovered but, there has been one death in the state so far. On July 20 it was confirmed that a teenager in Tulsa had the swine flu.", "As of July 22, there have been 203 cases reported.\n\nOregon\n\nThe first probable case of H1N1 flu in Oregon was announced on April 30 by the Oregon Department of Human Services (ODHS). By May 3, three people had been tested positive for swine flu. On May 22, the ODHS announced that 46% of patients who tested positive for flu since March 4 were indeed infected with H1N1 flu, with the rest having just a seasonal flu.", "H1N1 has been detected in 530 residents of Oregon as of July 24, 2009. Confirmed cases have been found in 21 out of 36 counties, including Benton County, Clackamas County, Clatsop County, Columbia County, Crook County, Deschutes County, Douglas County, Hood River County, Jackson County, Klamath County, Lane County, Lincoln County, Linn County, Marion County, Multnomah County, Polk County, Tillamook County, Umatilla County, Wasco County, Washington County, and Yamhill County.", "On June 8, 2009, Oregon's first H1N1-related death in Marion County was reported by the ODHS. Since then, five other deaths have been reported; another two in Marion County (June 15, 2009 and July 24, 2009) and three in Multnomah County (June 26, 2009, July 3, 2009, and July 17, 2009).\n\nPennsylvania", "Pennsylvania\n\nOn May 3, The Pennsylvania Department of Health said that a 31-year-old male in Montgomery County had the H1N1 flu. By May 5 probable cases were under investigation in Philadelphia (10), Bucks (2), Chester (2), Dauphin (3) confirmed cases, Allegheny (1), Cambria (1), Franklin (1), Lehigh (1), Luzerne (1), Lycoming (1), Montgomery (1), and York (1) counties.", "On June 4, a 55-year-old woman in Berks County was confirmed as the first death in Pennsylvania due to swine flu. This was followed by the deaths of a 26-year-old Philadelphia woman with no known underlying conditions on June 7, and a 48-year-old woman in Pike County on June 13.", "Confirmed and probable case counts and deaths are updated daily at the Pennsylvania Department of Health.\nAs January 19, 2010,2997 people have either had confirmed or probable cases of A/H1N1 influenza in Pennsylvania, and at least 14 have died.\n\nRhode Island\n\nOn May 2, 2009, Rhode Island confirmed its first case of H1N1 Flu in a Westerly woman. Rhode Island reported its first death from swine flu on June 18.", "As of August 26, 2009, the Rhode Island Department of Health has reported 203 confirmed cases of H1N1 flu and two deaths. Three swines from a farm just north of Barrington contracted the flu which gave farmer Jimmy Bo-Brown many headaches. Sick swine have stunted growth and require increased attention from the farmer often leading to headaches. Two of the swines Elliott and Wilson died from dehydration and the last one recovered after about a week and was promptly slaughtered for bacon.", "South Carolina\nOn August 28, 2009, the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC) announced it will begin the first full week of reporting all laboratory confirmed influenza hospitalizations and deaths to the CDC on September 8, 2009.\n\nThe South Carolina Department of Health has reported 313 cases as of July 24 throughout the state.", "The South Carolina Department of Health has reported 313 cases as of July 24 throughout the state.\n\nThirteen cases of the flu virus were confirmed in South Carolina on April 30. All 13 were students and/or parents from the private Newberry Academy in Newberry, South Carolina; many had traveled to Mexico earlier in the month. All nearby public schools were closed for May 1.", "On August 31, South Carolina recorded its first death from influenza A H1N1.\nThe Byrnes Schools High School in Florence, SC closed because of the H1N1 flu from September 23 to September 25.\n\nSouth Dakota\nAs of July 24, South Dakota has confirmed 48 cases of swine flu and hospitalized two patients.\n\nTennessee\nAs of July 22, there have been 282 confirmed cases of swine flu. On July 15, the state reported its first death. On September 7, the second death was reported in Memphis, TN.", "Texas\nCochran – 1\nFloyd – 1\nLamb – 1\nLubbock – 5\n\nRegion 1 Total – 8\n\nBaylor – 1\nColeman – 1\nCollin – 1\nDallas – 24\nDenton – 1\nEllis – 2\nFisher – 1\nJack – 1\nKaufman – 1\nParker – 1\nRockwall – 1\nTarrant – 13\n\nRegion 2/3 Total – 48\n\nAngelina – 2\nBowie – 1\nLamar – 1\nMorris – 2\nSmith – 2\nUpshur – 1\nVan Zandt – 1\n\nRegion 4/5N Total = 10\n\nBrazoria – 2\nFort Bend – 3\nGalveston – 2\nHarris – 26\nJefferson – 1\nMontgomery – 1\nOrange – 1\nWalker – 1\n\nRegion 6/5S Total = 37", "Region 6/5S Total = 37\n\nBastrop – 1\nBell – 2\nBrazos – 1\nCaldwell – 2\nFalls – 1\nHays – 2\nMcLennan – 1\nTravis – 6\nWilliamson – 1\n\nRegion 7 Total = 17\n\nBexar – 12\nGonzales – 1\nGuadalupe – 1\nKarnes – 1\nMaverick – 2\nVal Verde – 1\nVictoria – 2\nWilson – 1\n\nRegion 8 Total = 21\n\nAndrews – 1\nEl Paso – 17\nMartin – 1\n\nRegion 9/10 Total = 19\n\nBee – 1\nCameron – 4\nHidalgo – 25\nJim Wells – 1\nNueces – 10\nSan Patrico – 4\nStarr – 3\nWebb – 1\n\nRegion 11 Total = 49\n\nTotal- 209", "Region 11 Total = 49\n\nTotal- 209\n\nTexas has reported 4,998 cases and 27 deaths as of July 24. Of the first 13 deaths confirmed in Texas, one was a Mexican citizen.", "Two students attending Byron P. Steele II High School in Cibolo were confirmed to have the A/H1N1 swine flu; the patients recovered. A third possible case in a student who attends the same high school as the two other cases in Texas has been identified and the school is closed temporarily. On April 25, the Texas Department of State Health Services (DSHS) decided to close Byron P. Steele II High School for the following week", ". Steele II High School for the following week. Following the discovery of more possible swine flu illnesses, the DSHS ordered that all schools and district facilities in the Schertz-Cibolo-Universal City Independent School District be closed for the week.", "On April 27, a 7-year-old, a 24-year-old, and a 3-month-old in Dallas County were confirmed to have swine flu. All recovering and were not hospitalized. That same day, the Richardson Independent School District in the northern Dallas suburb of Richardson shut down Canyon Creek Elementary School due to a confirmed and two suspected cases of swine flu", ". All schools in New Braunfels—private schools and all campuses of the Comal and New Braunfels Independent School Districts—announced closures through May 10 on the recommendation of the Medical Authority of Comal County. On May 6, the New Braunfels Herald-Zeitung reported that all schools in Guadalupe and Comal counties would reopen on Thursday, May 7, four days earlier than had previously been announced.", "Due to the swine flu, the University Interscholastic League (UIL) suspended all athletic, musical, and academic competitions and games for primary and secondary public education in the state of Texas until May 11.\n\nOn April 28, the City of Houston Health Department and Texas Children's Hospital sent samples in to the CDC. There are also possible cases at the Baylor College of Medicine outpatient clinic, Memorial Hermann Hospital, and St. Luke's Hospital.", "A 23-month-old Mexican toddler who had been brought to Houston from Brownsville died on April 27, making the child the first US death due to the outbreak. The child had traveled with his family from Mexico to Brownsville to visit relatives. The infant was admitted to a Brownsville hospital after becoming ill, then transferred to Texas Children's Hospital the next day.\n\nTexas Governor Rick Perry issued a disaster declaration.", "On April 29, it was confirmed by Harris County that a 17-year-old girl from Fort Bend County attending Episcopal High School in Bellaire had contracted and recovered from the A/H1N1 swine flu. In compliance with the directives of the Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services Department, the school has been closed until further notice. Also in Fort Worth, a rising number of possible and confirmed cases in the district made school officials close all schools starting the next day, April 30", ". Schools in FWISD remained closed until May 8. The district was the biggest in the nation to close resulting in 80,000 students out of school and 11,000 staff members out of their jobs for that time. During the next week 6 school districts in Dallas-Fort Worth shut down. Including Cleburne, Lewisville, Decatur, Denton, Fort Worth, and Ponder. Other schools in Plano, Dallas, and Richardson were also closed, but did not result in a district wide shut down. Other smaller districts also shut down", ". Other smaller districts also shut down. Also that day, a probable case caused the closure of Lucy Read Pre-Kindergarten Demonstration School in north Austin.", "Denton County reported its first confirmed swine flu case April 30, in a child in Plano; the student attended Wilson Middle School in the Plano Independent School District, and the district decided to close the Collin County school until May 11. Navo Middle School and Lee Elementary School, of Denton Independent School District were also closed after three students at both schools respectively were diagnosed with type A influenza", ". As of May 2, the rest of Denton ISD officially closed for the following week, but as of May 5, all schools are officially reopening on May 7.", "The Superintendent of Keller Independent School District in Keller reported 3 possible cases, one in each of three schools.", "On April 30, 8 suspected cases were recognized in El Paso County. Lab samples have been sent to CDC. No further information has been provided at this time until cases are confirmed. At this time, international borders will remain open.", "The El Paso Dept. of Public Health identified 11 more suspect cases of H1N1 flu in El Paso County on Friday, May 1, to bring the total number of suspect cases to 19. Lamar Consolidated ISD closed Lamar Junior High School due to a suspected (probable) case. Weslaco ISD closed all campuses for 7 days after a student was confirmed to have contracted type A influenza.", "On May 5, Judy Trunnell, a woman in her 30s suffering from \"chronic underlying health conditions\" died of swine flu in Cameron County, near the US-Mexico border. She was the first US citizen to die from the disease. The woman, a special education teacher, had recently given birth to an eight-month-term healthy baby, delivered by caesarian section. She had been in a coma after being admitted to the hospital with breathing problems on April 19.", "On August 28, a 52-year-old woman with underlying health conditions became the first death in Dallas County. Meanwhile, at TCU in Fort Worth there is an outbreak of swine flu on the campus. On Monday August 24, 10 students had possible cases of swine flu, by Wednesday the number had jumped to 88. Students that are sick are being asked to isolate themselves in their dorm rooms. SMU and UT at Arlington are also each reporting less than 5 cases of swine flu each", ". SMU and UT at Arlington are also each reporting less than 5 cases of swine flu each. This is all occurring as schools in the state of Texas return to school.", "On October 14, it was confirmed, that Reality TV star Melissa Rycroft who lived in Newark, New Jersey over the summer and came back to Dallas has swine flu. As of January 2, 2010, 203 Texans have died of H1N1 influenza, 474 Texans were admitted to the intensive care unit due to A/H1N1, and 2,052 Texans have been hospitalized due to A/H1N1 influenza.\n\nUtah", "On April 28, 2009, one student in Park City, Utah was suspected to have swine flu. Two more students", "in the school district began showing similar symptoms making three probable cases. All 8 schools in the Park City School District closed the following day. On May 1 the number of probable cases was increased to 9; 6 in Summit County (Park City), 2 in Salt Lake County and 1 in the Morgan-Weber Health District and about 80 suspected cases. On May 2 at around 11 o'clock the first confirmation came back for the original case, and 7 more were confirmed by the May 6. On May 6 the probable case count was at 30", ". On May 6 the probable case count was at 30. As of June 11, Utah has reported 684 cases of swine flu and has not updated since; however, the CDC has reported 988 cases as of July 24.", "The first confirmed death from swine flu in Utah, of a 21-year-old man, was reported on May 20, 2009. On June 16, 2009, the number of reported deaths from Swine flu in Utah reached six. All six deaths had occurred in Salt Lake County. The state announced on June 17 two more deaths from swine flu, one of which occurred at an unspecified location outside of Salt Lake County, the other in Salt Lake County. Utah has reported 21 deaths as of October 15, 2009.", "New reports available from Utah's health department as of October 28, 2009 indicated there had been 30 deaths from H1N1 in Utah, 18 through August 31, 2009 and a further 12 since that time.\n\nOn November 18, 2009, the Utah State Health department reported five more deaths from swine flu.", "On November 18, 2009, the Utah State Health department reported five more deaths from swine flu.\n\nVermont\nThe Vermont Department of Health announced a probable case of the H1N1 virus in rural Orleans County. Also, some cases found in Rutland County, 3 adults, 1 minor. Another case of the flu was confirmed involving an adult in Windsor County.\n\nAs of July 22, there have been 62 laboratory confirmed cases.", "Virginia", "The Virginia Department of Health had confirmed 14 cases in the state by May 7, and a total of 23 by May 21. The VDH reports cases by Health district, often without narrowing down a specific county, citing HIPAA privacy laws, as well as a desire to avoid creating a \"false sense of security\". 12 of the cases have been reported for the district containing Lexington, Virginia, following an early outbreak on the campus of Washington and Lee University", ". Additionally, there have been three cases in Fairfax, two each in the Chesterfield, Arlington and Peninsula Health districts, and one each in the Norfolk and Three Rivers Health districts.", "Currently, at least 35 deaths resulting from confirmed A/H1N1 influenza have been reported in Virginia.\n\nWashington", "Washington\n\nAs of October 16, 2009, the Washington State Department of Health (WSDOH) reported 174 hospitalizations and 16 deaths between April 26, 2009, and September 19, 2009, and further reported 7 additional deaths and 163 additional hospitalizations from September 19, 2009, to October 16, 2009. All the recent fatal cases and the cases resulting in hospitalizations were spread fairly equally across Western and Eastern Washington.", "As of September 9, 2009, the WSDOH reported 164 hospitalized persons confirmed with 2009 H1N1, and 16 total deaths.", "In its August 28, 2009 report, the WSDOH reported that it would no longer issue updates of the numbers of probable or confirmed cases, but would instead issue reports of state lab-confirmed H1N1 (swine flu) total hospitalizations and deaths. Accordingly, the WSDOH reports that from April 26, 2009, to August 28, 2009, the total number of hospitalizations was 154, and as of August 28, 2009 the total number of deaths stood at 14.", "Deaths\nOn June 18, 2009, A King County swine flu-related death was reported, making it the third death from swine flu in Washington State.\n\nOn June 5, A Pierce County woman in her twenties became Washington's second swine flu-related death.", "On May 9, it was announced that a man from Snohomish County, in his thirties with a pre-existing heart condition and active viral pneumonia, became the third confirmed US death from swine flu-involved complications. As of January 23, there have been 1383 confirmed cases of H1N1N that required hospital care in the second wave of H1N1 (since September 19, 2009), and 76 deaths.", "Cases\nOn July 1, 2009, it was reported that the Tri-Cities had its first case of swine flu.\nOn June 18, 2009, Grant County Health Department reported six cases of swine flu in Quincy.", "As of the evening of May 22, 2009, Washington state has reported 574 confirmed cases and one death due to swine flu. The health department has since no longer reported anymore cases; however, it has reported seven deaths as of July 24.", "So far, confirmed cases have been identified in seventeen Washington state counties, with public facilities closed as a precaution in those counties and several others. On May 3, Seattle-King County officials announced that, due to the virus' widespread presence in the community and low rates of severity, schools would no longer be closing due to suspect or probable cases.", "A majority of confirmed cases (584) have occurred in King County. 115 confirmed cases, one probable case, and one death have been reported in Snohomish County. Thirty-one confirmed cases have also been identified in Pierce County, while seven cases of swine flu have been confirmed in Clark County, bordering the city of Portland, Oregon.", "Thurston County and Yakima County have reported five cases each. Spokane County and Whatcom County have reported four cases each. Kitsap County and Mason County have each reported three cases. Two cases have been reported in Island County and Skagit County. One case each has been reported in Douglas County, Grays Harbor County, Jefferson County, Kittitas County and Lewis County. An additional case, that of a cruise ship worker, is counted at the state level only", ". An additional case, that of a cruise ship worker, is counted at the state level only. September 19, 2009, the Washington department of health stopped counting individual cases of A/H1N1 influenza, and only counting hospitalizations and deaths from A/H1N1.", "West Virginia\nAs of July 22, there have been 276 reported cases.\nIn November 2009, it was confirmed a West Virginia pediatrician had confirmed A/H1N1 influenza twice, once in July, and again in October. This is very rare, but does occur sporadically, according to the CDC. By November, the only state to have only Double cases (2 times the daily cases) right after South Korea.", "Wisconsin", "As of July 22, 2009, Wisconsin has 5,147 confirmed cases, including 3,278 in Milwaukee. most of which are in the southern and south-eastern region of the state. So far, cases have been confirmed in 24 counties, however Milwaukee, Dane, Waukesha, and Columbia have the majority of the cases, with 706, 90, 54, and 52 respectively. As of May 24, 2009, Wisconsin currently has the most confirmed cases of swine flu in the United States", ". On June 1, 2009, it was confirmed that a Milwaukee resident with underlying health issues died from the virus. Two Wisconsin residents have died from the virus.", "As of Friday June 12, 2009 there were 3,008 confirmed and probable cases and one death in Wisconsin reported by the CDC.\nAs of Friday June 19, 2009 the CDC reported no change of these numbers.\n\nMilwaukee\nAs of Friday, June 12, 2009, the largest city in Wisconsin, Milwaukee, reported the second death and 1,883 confirmed cases of swine flu.\nAs of Tuesday, June 16, 2009, the city of Milwaukee reported the third death related to the novel flu and more than 2,000 confirmed cases in Milwaukee.", "As of Thursday, June 18, 2009, Milwaukee reported 2,618 confirmed cases. The CDC update seems not to reflect the rising of case toll from 1,883 (June 12) to 2,618 (June 18) in the city of Milwaukee.\n\nDane County\nDane County reported 300 confirmed cases as of Thursday June 18, 2009.\n\nColumbia County\nColumbia County reported 68 confirmed cases as of June 5, 2009.\n\nWyoming\n\nAs of August 27, 2009, the Wyoming Department of Health reported 171 lab-confirmed cases of H1N1.", "As of August 27, 2009, the Wyoming Department of Health reported 171 lab-confirmed cases of H1N1.\n\nOn August 19, 2009, the Wyoming Department of Health confirmed Wyoming's first death from H1N1 of a state resident infected with the swine flu (novel H1N1) virus as a victim who was a young adult female resident of Fremont County with an underlying health condition associated with higher risk of complications from influenza.\n\nAs of July 21, there have been 106 confirmed cases of swine flu in Wyoming.", "As of July 21, there have been 106 confirmed cases of swine flu in Wyoming.\n\nSee also\n2009 flu pandemic in the United States\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nState governments", "Alabama Department of Public Health homepage on Novel A/09(H1N1)\nArizona Department of Health Services daily updates\nCalifornia Department of Public Health provides updates on Swine Flu\nGeorgia Department of Human Services – Division of Public Health\nKentucky Cabinet for Health and Family Services\nLouisiana Department of Health and Hospitals – A/H1N1 (2009 Swine Flu) updates and links\nMichigan Dept of Community Health updates with county breakdowns posted daily at 4:30 pm EDT", "Michigan Dept of Community Health updates with county breakdowns posted daily at 4:30 pm EDT\nMississippi State Department of Health\nMissouri Department of Health and Senior Services Swine Flu Updates\nNebraska Department of Health and Human Services\nNew York State Department of Public Health provides updates on Swine Flu\nNorth Carolina Department of Health and Human Services\nOhio Department of Health\nSouth Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\nSouth Dakota Department of Health", "South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control\nSouth Dakota Department of Health\nTennessee Department of Health\nTexas Department of State Health Services provides updates on Swine Flu and a county breakdown of confirmed cases\nUtah Bureau of Epidemiology Swine Flu\nVermont Department of Health Swine Flu Outbreak\nVirginia Dept of Health – Provides updates on influenza A (H1N1)\nWashington, DC Department of Health\nWashington State Department of Health Swine Flu Information", "Washington, DC Department of Health\nWashington State Department of Health Swine Flu Information\nWest Virginia Bureau for Public Health Swine Influenza\nWisconsin Pandemic Flu Resource", "Flu Pandemic In The United States By State, 2009\nFlu pandemic\nHealth in the United States by state\n\nes:Pandemia de gripe A (H1N1) de 2009-2010 en Estados Unidos#Estados infectados" ]

[ "The following article is a list of government defeats in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom since 1945; that is, where the government whips have instructed their MPs to vote (or, in rare circumstances, abstain from voting) a certain way on a division of the House and have subsequently been defeated", ". Whilst most defeats have been on motions or bills scheduled in \"government time\", on occasion motions proposed by opposition parties or backbench MPs that are critical of government policy or practice, such as opposition day motions, are passed despite the government's efforts.", "Most government defeats since World War II have occurred in periods of minority government or where the government has a small majority. Government defeats have been caused by backbench rebellions and by opposition parties voting against a government when they had more MPs present in the House of Commons", ". Earlier (1918–1945) large (of a margin of more than 100) defeats of governments were for the first MacDonald government, which suffered defeats by a margin of 166 on 8 October 1924 on the Campbell case, and by a margin of 140 in June 1924.", "Attlee (1945–1951) \nAttlee led two ministries: the first Attlee ministry (1945–1950) and the second Attlee ministry (1950–1951).\n\nThese defeats were under the second Attlee ministry.\n29 March 1950 – A motion to adjourn a debate on fuel was won by the Opposition 283–257.\n9 April 1951 – An order to reduce cheese rations was annulled.\n5 July 1951 – The Plasterboard (Prices) (No. 1) Order was annulled.\n16 July 1951 – An amendment to the Forestry Bill [Lords] was passed 232-229\n\nChurchill (2nd term, 1951–1955)", "Churchill (2nd term, 1951–1955)\n\n11 November 1953 – Churchill's Government lost a prayer to annul on the Miscellaneous Controls (Revocation) Order 1953.\n\nEden (1955–1957) \n\nAnthony Eden's Government suffered no defeats in the House of Commons.\n\nMacmillan (1957–1963) \n\nHarold Macmillan's Government suffered no defeats in the House of Commons.\n\nDouglas-Home (1963–1964) \n\nAlec Douglas-Home's short-lived Government suffered no defeats in the House of Commons.\n\nWilson (1st term, 1964–1970)", "5 March 1965 – A motion, moved by Conservative MP Forbes Hendry, to put the question on a procedural motion relating to the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Bill was passed by 128–117.\n5 March 1965 – The aforementioned Conservative motion, namely to discharge the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Bill Standing Committee and replace it with a Committee of the Whole House, was passed by 128–120.", "6 July 1965 – The second reading of a new clause, tabled by the Conservatives, to the Finance (No. 2) Bill, which sought to ensure that the amount of capital gains tax payable by a unit trust or investment trust did not exceed that payable by an individual, was passed by 180–166.\n6 July 1965 – A motion to add the aforementioned new clause to the bill was passed by 180–167.\n6 July 1965 – A motion to adjourn the debate on the Finance (No. 2) Bill, which was opposed by the government, was passed by 180–167.", "4 May 1970 – A Conservative amendment to the Administration of Justice Bill [Lords] was passed by 105–104.", "Heath (1970–1974)", "Edward Heath's government suffered six defeats in the House of Commons during its four years in office.\n24 April 1972 – A new clause, tabled by the Conservative backbencher Geoffrey Finsberg, to the Housing Finance Bill, which related to service charges for unfurnished lettings, was passed with support of opposition parties by 251–247. However, the motion to add the new clause to the bill was later voted down by 245–242.", "19 July 1972 – An amendment, moved by Conservative backbencher Arthur Jones, to the Local Government Bill, which sought to give new district councils the power to control refuse disposal, was passed with the support of opposition parties by 190–186.\n20 October 1972 – A Labour amendment to a Lords Amendment on the Criminal Justice Bill, which sought to reduce the minimum age for jury service from 21 to 18, was passed by 53–47.", "22 November 1972 – A Labour motion to disapprove of the government's Statement of Immigration Rules for Control on Entry was passed by 275–240.\n13 June 1973 – The second reading of a new clause to the Maplin Development Bill, which orders the Civil Aviation Authority to consult on aerospace development, was approved, despite opposition from the government, by 267–250.\n12 July 1973 – A government amendment to an opposition motion regarding export licences for sheep was rejected by 285–264.", "Wilson (2nd term, 1974–1976)", "Harold Wilson's second government suffered 25 defeats in the House of Commons between 1974 and 1976. The majority of these defeats, 18 in total, occurred in June and July 1974, when Wilson did not have a majority in the House of Commons after the February 1974 general election produced a hung parliament. Wilson called a further general election in October 1974 in an attempt to gain a majority. He did, but this majority was just three seats.", "19 June 1974 – The second reading of a government new clause to the Finance Bill, which sought to continue to exempt trade unions from certain taxes under section 338 of the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1970, was defeated by 308–299.\n20 June 1974 – A government amendment to an opposition motion that regretted \"the government's damaging industrial policy\" was defeated by 311–290.", "20 June 1974 – The aforementioned opposition motion that regretted \"the government's damaging industrial policy\" was passed, again by 311–290.\n27 June 1974 – A government amendment to an opposition motion, endorsing the government's policy on local government finance, was rejected by 298–289.\n27 June 1974 – An opposition motion, calling for a fundamental reform to the government's local government rates system, was passed by 298–289.", "11 July 1974 – A Conservative amendment to the Trade Union and Labour Relations Bill, which proposed to make the dismissal of an employee for not being a member of a trade union unfair, was passed by 291–290. The original division resulted in a tied vote of 291–291, but it emerged the next day that one too many 'no' votes had been counted.", "11 July 1974 – A further amendment to the Trade Union and Labour Relations Bill, which attempted to make the dismissal of an employee on the grounds on refusal to join a trade union unfair was passed by 283–282. Again, the government's defeat was only realised the following day when it became clear that a tied vote had been caused by the overcounting of the 'no' votes.", "16 July 1974 – The second reading of a Conservative new clause to the Finance Bill, which proposed raising the two limits of corporation tax liability, was passed by 292–267.\n16 July 1974 – An amendment to the Finance Bill to restrict the rate of pool betting duty was passed by 291–274.\n16 July 1974 – A government amendment to the Finance Bill, designed to make VAT charges on the hiring of goods retrospective to April 1973, was defeated by 298–280.", "16 July 1974 – A Liberal amendment to the Finance Bill, proposing to set the additional rate of income tax on investment incomes at 15% on incomes over £2,000, was passed by 296–280.\n18 July 1974 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords Amendment to the Health and Safety at Work etc. Bill, which proposed to keep responsibility for health and safety in agriculture with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, was defeated by 159–153.", "18 July 1974 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Health and Safety at Work etc. Bill, which proposed to give power to non-unionised employees to appoint health and safety representatives, was defeated by 147–143.\n30 July 1974 – A government motion to disagree with a new clause added by the Lords to the Trade Union and Labour Relations Bill, which proposed to outlaw arbitrary exclusion of a person from a trade union, was defeated by 276–270.", "30 July 1974 – A government motion to disagree with a new clause added by the Lords to the Trade Union and Labour Relations Bill, which required trade unions to have specified rules for conducting ballots for their governing bodies, was defeated by 280–269.\n30 July 1974 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Trade Union and Labour Relations Bill, which would allow trade unions who failed to follow the bill's rules to be deregistered, was defeated by 281–271.", "30 July 1974 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Trade Union and Labour Relations Bill, which would give protection to civil employees taking part in trade disputes, was defeated by 282–272.", "30 July 1974 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Trade Union and Labour Relations Bill, which would restrict immunities to disputes in Britain and change the rules regarding strikes in Britain in support of foreign workers from the same multi-national company, was defeated by 280–272.\n29 January 1975 – A government amendment to the Social Security Benefits Bill, which sought to the restore the earnings rule limit for retired people at £13, was defeated by 280–265.", "2 July 1975 – A government amendment to the Industry Bill, which proposed to remove obligations on government to disclose forecasts of economic parameters to certain companies, was defeated by 220–149.\n2 July 1975 – A government amendment to the Industry Bill, which sought to remove Schedule 3 from the bill which would make all planning agreements conditional on the government disclosing economic forecasts, was rejected by 230–147.", "17 July 1975 – A Conservative amendment to the Finance Bill, which proposed to exclude certain television sets from the higher 25% level of VAT, was passed by 108–106.\n4 August 1975 – A government amendment to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Housing Finance (Special Provisions) Bill, which sought to remove a clause that would disqualify any councillors who failed to implement the Housing Finance Act 1972, was defeated by 268–261.", "11 February 1976 – An opposition motion to reduce the salary of the Secretary of State for Industry by £1,000, in essence a motion of no confidence, was passed by 214–209. However, the government Chief Whip, Robert Mellish, immediately raised questions as to the outcome of the vote in regards of alleged miscoutings, which in turn led to the government tabling a motion to counter the no confidence motion, which it won by 296–280.", "10 March 1976 – A motion to approve the government's public expenditure policy was defeated by 284–256. It is unclear whether this motion had any impact on Harold Wilson's resignation, which followed 6 days later.", "Callaghan (1976–1979)", "Jim Callaghan's government suffered 34 defeats in the House of Commons during its three years in office. Callaghan's government was a minority one for virtually all of its existence, after the former cabinet minister John Stonehouse resigned from the Labour Party just two days after Callaghan became Prime Minister, leaving Labour one seat short of an overall majority in the House of Commons.", "28 June 1976 – A motion for the House to adjourn following an opposition debate regarding the Child Benefit Scheme was passed by 259–0. The government abstained from the vote after it became clear that many Labour MPs were willing to break the whip to vote for the adjournment.\n10 November 1976 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Dock Work Regulation Bill, which required the whole area designated a dock labour scheme to be inside a definable dock area, was defeated by 310–308.", "10 November 1976 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Dock Work Regulation Bill, which sought to limit a definable dock area to within half a mile of a harbour, was defeated by 311–308.\n7 February 1977 – The second reading of the Reduction of Redundancy Rebates Bill was rejected by 130–129.\n22 February 1977 – A government motion to allocate time for the debating of the Scotland and Wales Bill was rejected by 312–283.", "5 April 1977 – A motion for the House to adjourn following a debate on teacher training colleges in Scotland was passed by 203–185.\n12 July 1977 – The third reading of the Local Authority Works (Scotland) Bill was rejected by 105–99.\n13 July 1977 – A new clause to the Criminal Law Bill tabled by a Labour backbencher, which proposed to give people arrested the right to have a person informed of their arrest, was passed by 89–86.", "22 November 1977 – A motion that Clause 1 of the Scotland Bill, which would have declared that the bill had no effect on the unity of the United Kingdom, should stand part of the bill was defeated by 199–184.\n5 December 1977 – A motion for the House to adjourn following a debate on the Crown Agents scandal was passed by 158–126.", "7 December 1977 – A motion that Clause 40 of the Scotland Bill, which required the Secretary of State to have regard for national pay policy, should stand part of the bill was defeated by 161–160.\n23 January 1978 – A Conservative amendment to set the rate of devaluation of the green pound at 7.5% rather than the proposed 5% was passed by 291–280.\n23 January 1978 – A motion to devalue the green pound by 7.5% following the previous Conservative amendment was passed by 291–281.", "25 January 1978 – A backbench Labour amendment to an amendment to the Scotland Bill, which would change the threshold for accepting a 'yes' vote in the devolution referendum from 33% to 40%, was passed by 166–151.\n25 January 1978 – A motion to accept the previously mentioned amendment, and to require the Secretary of State to repeal the Act if fewer than 40% of the Scottish electorate voted 'yes', was passed by 168–142.", "25 January 1978 – An amendment to the Scotland Bill, which sought to exclude Orkney and/or Shetland from the provisions of the bill if they were to vote 'no' in a referendum, was passed by 204–118.\n14 February 1978 – The second reading of a new clause to the Scotland Bill, which stated that no referendum could be held until three months after a general election, was passed by 242–223.", "15 February 1978 – A government amendment to the Scotland Bill, which would remove the requirement that the Secretary of State repeal the Act if less than 40% of the electorate voted in favour in a referendum, was rejected by 298–243.\n15 February 1978 – A government amendment to the Scotland Bill, which would reduce the threshold for accepting a 'yes' vote back to 33%, was rejected by 285–240.", "19 April 1978 – A motion for Clause 82 of the Wales Bill, which set down the conditions surrounding the commencement of the Act, to stand part of the bill was defeated by 259–232.\n19 April 1978 – An amendment to the Wales Bill, which would require the Secretary of State to lay orders for the repeal of the Act should less than 40% of the electorate vote 'yes' in a devolution referendum, was passed by 280–208.", "8 May 1978 – A Conservative amendment to the Finance Bill, which would reduce the basic rate on income tax from 34% to 33%, was passed by 312–304.\n10 May 1978 – A Conservative amendment to the Finance Bill, which raised the level at which the higher rate of income tax became payable from £7,000 to £8,000, was passed by 288–286.\n10 May 1978 – A motion to return consideration of the Finance Bill to Committee was rejected by 280–273.", "19 July 1978 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment, which would disqualify Westminster MPs from being members of the Welsh Assembly, was rejected by 293–260.\n20 July 1978 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment, which would remove forestry from the competence of the Welsh assembly, was defeated by 280–247.\n24 July 1978 – A motion to approve the draft Dock Labour Scheme 1978 was defeated by 301–291.", "24 July 1978 – A motion to approve the draft Dock Labour Scheme 1978 was defeated by 301–291.\n26 July 1978 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment, which required Scottish MPs to approve the second reading of any Scottish Assembly bill, was rejected by 276–275.\n26 July 1978 – A government motion to disagree with a Lords amendment, which sought to remove forestry from the transfer of property to the Scottish Assembly, was rejected by 286–266.", "13 December 1978 – A Conservative amendment, declining to support the government's use of economic sanctions against firms and workers who had negotiated wage increases beyond a Parliamentary-approved limit, was passed by 285–279.\n13 December 1978 – A motion, as amended by the previous Conservative amendment, opposing the government's use of sanctions on companies awarding pay rises in excess of 5%, was agreed to by 285–283.", "7 February 1979 – A Conservative amendment to the Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors Bill, which required at least two members of the general public to serve on the Central Midwifery Committee, was passed by 149–121.\n22 March 1979 – A Conservative motion to annul the Firearms (Variation of Fees) Order 1979 was passed by 115–26.", "28 March 1979 – The government lost a motion of no confidence by 311–310, prompting a general election in which Callaghan's Labour party was defeated by Margaret Thatcher's Conservative party.", "Thatcher (1979–1990)", "During her 11 years in office, Margaret Thatcher's government suffered four House of Commons defeats.\n15 December 1982 – A motion disapproving of a change in immigration rules was passed 290–272.\n19 July 1983 – Defeat on amendment motion on setting MPs' salaries.\n14 April 1986 – The second reading of the Shops Bill 1986 was defeated 282–296.", "14 April 1986 – The second reading of the Shops Bill 1986 was defeated 282–296.\n13 March 1990 – A clause of the National Health Service and Community Care Bill allowing the Secretary of State to adjust individual recipients' Income Support amounts was defeated 219–246.Major (1990–1997)", "John Major's government suffered six defeats in the House of Commons during its seven-year tenure.8 March 1993 – An amendment to the European Communities (Amendment) Bill to require all members of the European Union Committee of the Regions to be elected local government representatives was passed 314–292.22 July 1993 – A motion on the adoption of the Protocol on Social Policy to comply with the European Communities (Amendment) Act 1993 was defeated 324–316", ".6 December 1994 – A plan to increase VAT on domestic fuel was defeated 319–311.19 December 1995 – A motion supporting the government's negotiating of fishery quotas in an EU meeting was defeated 299–297.10 July 1996 – The Government were defeated on a motion to limit MPs' pay increases by 317–168.27 January 1997 – A vote to allow grant-maintained schools to enlarge their pupil capacity was defeated by 272–273.", "Blair (1997–2007)", "Tony Blair's government suffered four House of Commons defeats during its 10 years in office, all within a period of one year.9 November 2005 – An amendment to the Terrorism Bill to allow terrorist suspects to be held without charge for 90 days was defeated 291–322.31 January 2006 – A motion to disagree with a Lords amendment to the Racial and Religious Hatred Bill was lost 288–278.31 January 2006 – Another motion on a Lords amendment to the Racial and Religious Hatred Bill was lost by one vote", ".12 July 2006 – A motion by Nick Clegg to adjourn the Commons early in protest at the UK–US extradition treaty was passed 246–4. The Government whipped its MPs to abstain when it became apparent that many of them were likely to break the whip.", "Brown (2007–2010)", "Gordon Brown's government suffered three defeats in the House of Commons during its three years in office.29 April 2009 – A motion to retain wording of a Liberal Democrat motion calling for the withdrawal of eligibility guidelines which allowed some Gurkhas to live in the United Kingdom passed by 276–246.25 June 2009 – A motion to authorise the East Midlands regional grand committee to meet in Nottingham during September 2009 was defeated by 104–98", ".1 July 2009 – The House of Commons, during a Committee of the Whole House, voted down Clause 10 of the Parliamentary Standards Bill, which had been introduced following the parliamentary expenses scandal. The clause, which was defeated by 250–247, would have provided that parliamentary privilege could not be used to prevent the Parliamentary Standards Authority from carrying out investigations against Members of Parliament.", "Cameron (coalition, 2010–2015)", "David Cameron's coalition government was defeated seven times in the House of Commons.6 December 2011 – A motion 'That this House has considered the matter of the economy' was defeated by 79–213. Such a motion is normally agreed without a division, but the Opposition forced a vote, for which the Government whips were unprepared.31 October 2012 – A rebel amendment calling for a real terms cut in the European Union budget was passed by 307–294", ".29 August 2013 – A motion provisionally authorising military intervention in the Syrian civil war was defeated 285–272.16 July 2014 – A Ten Minute Rule motion on a bill authorising the Office for Budget Responsibility to scrutinise Opposition manifestos was passed 203–16, after the Opposition forced a division aimed to catch the new Chief Whip, Michael Gove, off-guard in his first full day in office", ".5 September 2014 – The second reading of a private member's bill by Liberal Democrat MP Andrew George to restrict the cases in which the under-occupancy penalty (colloquially called the \"bedroom tax\") could be levied was passed 306–231, with the coalition partners imposing three-line whips on opposite sides of the debate.18 November 2014 – A Liberal Democrat rebel amendment giving more freedom to pub landlords to negotiate rents and beer prices with their parent pub chain was passed 284–269", ".26 March 2015 – A government motion that would change the process in the House for re-electing the Speaker after a general election from an open division to a secret ballot was defeated 228–202.", "Cameron (majority, 2015–2016)", "David Cameron's majority government was defeated three times in the House of Commons.7 July 2015 – An emergency motion laid down by Lib Dem MP and former Secretary of State for Scotland Alistair Carmichael \"That this House has considered the means by which the Government seeks to deliver the objectives outlined by the Leader of the House in his Statement on English Votes on English Laws\" was defeated 2–291", ".7 September 2015 – A Conservative amendment to the European Union Referendum Bill, which sought to amend purdah rules which limit government activity during the campaign period, was rejected by 312–285.9 March 2016 – A rebel amendment to the Enterprise Bill, removing clauses that would have allowed councils in England and Wales to extend Sunday opening hours, passed by 317–286.", "May (majority, 2016–2017) \n\nTheresa May's brief majority government from 2016 to 2017 was not defeated in the House of Commons.\n\nMay (minority, 2017–2019)", "Theresa May's government from 2017 to 2019 was defeated on 33 divisions in the House of Commons. Furthermore, to prevent recorded defeats, May's government typically whipped to abstain on non-binding Opposition Day motions it did not envisage winning on division.18 October 2017: An Opposition Day motion from Labour calling for the rollout of Universal Credit to be paused was passed 299–0. This was the first Opposition Day debate on which Labour forced a division", ". This was the first Opposition Day debate on which Labour forced a division.29 November 2017: An Opposition Day motion from the Scottish National Party calling for the Government to improve transitional arrangements for women affected by increases to the state pension age was passed 288–0.13 December 2017: An amendment to the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill to give Parliament a \"meaningful vote\" on the final Brexit deal was passed 309–305", ".28 March 2018: Two Opposition Day motions from Labour were passed after division: the first, on local government funding, was passed 238–0; the second, on police funding, was passed 203–0.17 July 2018: A new clause submitted to the post-Brexit Trade Bill aiming to protect the links between the UK and the European Medicines Agency was passed 305–301.4 December 2018: An Opposition motion finding Ministers in contempt of Parliament for not complying with the 13 November 2018 humble address was passed 311–293", ". This is the first time an entire Government, as opposed to an individual Minister, had been held in contempt of Parliament. A government amendment to refer the case to the Privileges Committee instead failed 307–311.4 December 2018: An amendment to the programme motion on the withdrawal agreement debate, to allow for the amendment of a mandatory government motion in the case the withdrawal agreement is defeated, was passed 321–293", ".11 December 2018: An emergency motion that \"the House has considered\" the decision by May to postpone the \"meaningful vote\", which was scheduled to be voted on that day, was rejected 0–299.8 January 2019: An amendment to the Finance Bill limiting the Government's powers in the event of a no-deal scenario was passed 303–296. This was the first recorded Government defeat on a Finance Bill since 1978", ". This was the first recorded Government defeat on a Finance Bill since 1978.9 January 2019: A rebel amendment by Dominic Grieve to the programme motion for the debate on the EU withdrawal agreement, compelling the PM to respond within three days with an alternative plan if the Commons does not accept the Withdrawal Agreement, was passed 308–297", ".15 January 2019: The motion under section 13(1)(b) of the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 to approve the Brexit withdrawal agreement—otherwise known as the \"meaningful vote\"—was rejected 202–432. With an opposition majority of 230 votes, it was the largest defeat on a government motion in the era of universal suffrage, 64 votes more than the previous largest defeat when Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald lost a confidence vote by 166 on 8 October 1924", ".29 January 2019: An amendment tabled by Caroline Spelman to May's statement on the defeat of her withdrawal agreement stating that the UK will not leave the EU without a withdrawal agreement was passed 318–310; this amendment is advisory in nature.14 February 2019: The Government \"next steps\" motion, seeking continued support for its approach to leaving the European Union, was defeated 258–303", ".12 March 2019: A second \"meaningful vote\" rejected the Withdrawal Agreement again, with a reduced majority of 242–391.13 March 2019: A non-binding amendment to the Government's motion in response to the second meaningful vote, categorically rejecting a no-deal Brexit under any circumstances, was passed 312–308. The motion as amended, and as a result opposed by the Government, was passed 321–278", ". The motion as amended, and as a result opposed by the Government, was passed 321–278.26 March 2019: An amendment passed 329–302 to allow MPs to take control of parliamentary business on a Wednesday and therefore stage a series of \"indicative votes\" on which Brexit option MP's prefer. The motion itself as amended, and thus opposed by the government, passed 327–300", ". The motion itself as amended, and thus opposed by the government, passed 327–300.27 March 2019: A Business of the House motion to enable MPs to take control of the day's business and hold \"indicative votes\" on preferred Brexit options passed 331–287.29 March 2019: A hitherto unprecedented third \"meaningful vote\" rejected the Withdrawal Agreement once more, with a reduced majority of 286–344. The bill did not include the Political Declaration", ". The bill did not include the Political Declaration.1 April 2019: A Business of the House Motion, again enabling MPs to control the day's business for the purpose of a second round of indicative votes was passed 322–277.3 April 2019: The Government were defeated multiple times on the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 5) Bill, also known as the \"Cooper–Letwin Bill\".", "A Business of the House Motion to enable Parliament to debate the bill was passed 312–311. In addition, there was one tied division—the first since 1993—in which the Government defeated an amendment on the business motion that would have scheduled a third round of \"indicative votes\" for 8 April; with the Speaker's casting vote, the Government won the vote 311–310.\nThe second reading of the bill passed 315–310.", "The second reading of the bill passed 315–310.\nAn amendment that would allow the Government to consent to an extension proposed by the European Council without the agreement upon by the House was defeated 304–313.\nAn amendment that would allow the Government to seek a withdrawal date without the agreement of the House was defeated 220–400.\nThe third reading of the bill passed 313–312.19 June 2019: The Government were defeated twice on the Parliamentary Buildings (Restoration and Renewal) Bill.", "An amendment to prevent the practice of blacklisting employees or potential employees from employment was passed 211–132.", "An amendment to make sure that economic benefits from the Parliamentary building works are delivered across all nations and regions of the UK passed 203–117.9 July 2019: An amendment to the Northern Ireland (Executive Formation) Bill tabled by former Attorney General Dominic Grieve requiring the government to make fortnightly statements on its efforts to restore devolved government in Northern Ireland – and thus make prorogation of Parliament more difficult – was passed 294–293", ".18 July 2019: The Government was again defeated twice on the Northern Ireland (Executive Formation) Bill.", "An amendment tabled by Hilary Benn and Alistair Burt requiring the House of Commons to sit for five days following any fortnightly statement, even during a prorogation, was passed 315–274.\nThe House of Commons accepted a House of Lords amendment to Dominic Grieve's amendment, further strengthening Parliament's power to sit despite prorogation, 315–273.", "In addition, three humble addresses were passed without division. Unlike Opposition Day motions, these are binding.1 November 2017: A humble address for a return from Labour intended to force the Government to furnish hitherto unpublished sectoral impact assessments to the Exiting the European Union Select Committee was passed without division", ". It later transpired that the impact assessments did not exist, despite assurances from Brexit Secretary David Davis that they had been created in excruciating detail.5 December 2017: A humble address for a return from Labour to force the Government to publish five project assessment reviews linked to Universal Credit was passed without division", ".13 November 2018: A humble address for a return from Labour to force the Government to publish the \"full and final\" legal advice regarding the Brexit withdrawal agreement was passed without division.", "Johnson (minority, 2019)", "Boris Johnson's government from July 2019 until the general election in December was defeated on 12 divisions in the House of Commons. It lost its working majority on its first sitting day of Parliament and was defeated on its very first division. Johnson became the first Prime Minister this happened to since Lord Rosebery in 1894. The government did not win a single division until 15 October, six weeks after Parliament's first sitting", ".3 September 2019: The Government was defeated 328–301 on an emergency debate motion on the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 6) Bill that would force the government to request an extension to Brexit negotiations.4 September 2019:", "The second reading of the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 6) Bill, mandating Johnson to seek an extension to the Brexit negotiations, passed 329–300.\nThe third reading of the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 6) Bill passed 327–299.", "The third reading of the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 6) Bill passed 327–299.\nA motion under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 calling for an early election failed 298–56, well short of the 434 required for such a motion to pass. Labour whipped its MPs to abstain, as the party wanted an election, but not before a no-deal Brexit had been prevented.9 September 2019:", "A humble address to force the government to publish documents regarding no-deal preparations under Operation Yellowhammer and correspondence regarding prorogation was passed 311–302.", "Another motion under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 calling for an early election failed 293–47, well short of the 434 required for such a motion to pass. Labour MPs again abstained.26 September 2019: A motion to recess Parliament during the Conservative Party Conference, after the prorogation of Parliament was declared void, was defeated 289–306. This was the first time that a major UK-wide party had failed to win a recess for party conference season", ".17 October 2019: An amendment to a government motion, extending the proposed Saturday sitting to debate the Brexit withdrawal agreement and allowing multiple amendments to be put to a vote, passed 287–275.19 October 2019: An amendment by Oliver Letwin withholding Parliament's approval for the Brexit withdrawal agreement until the necessary law has been passed to enact it, thereby requiring Boris Johnson to request an Article 50 extension until 31 January 2020 under the European Union (Withdrawal) (No", ".6) Bill, passed 322–306.22 October 2019: The government's programme motion, which would have provided only three days for the House of Commons to debate the Withdrawal Agreement Bill, was defeated 322–308.28 October 2019: A third motion under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 calling for an early election failed 299–70, well short of the 434 required for such a motion to pass", ".29 October 2019: An amendment by Stella Creasy to a Business of the House motion for an Early Parliamentary General Election bill to ensure that amendments to the bill could be submitted by MPs not acting on behalf of the Government passed 312–295. Furthermore, an opposition amendment to the European Union (Withdrawal) (No", ". Furthermore, an opposition amendment to the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 6) Bill on 4 September 2019, requiring that Parliament vote again on the withdrawal agreement negotiated by May, passed by default after the government failed to provide any tellers for the No lobby. Although this was officially a defeat for the government, political commentators speculated it was a deliberate attempt either to insert a wrecking amendment or to obscure the potential support for May's deal.", "Johnson (majority, 2019–2022)\n\nSince the 2019 general election, after which the Conservatives held 365 seats, Boris Johnson's second government has been defeated four times in the House of Commons.", "24 June 2020: A humble address to force the publication of documents relating to the approval of planning permission for the Westferry Printworks Development passed without division.", "18 January 2021: Two Opposition Day motions from Labour were passed after a forced division. The first, on universal credit and working tax credit, passed 278–0; the second, on access to remote education and the quality of free school meals, passed 272–0, with most Conservative MPs not voting.15 September 2021''': An Opposition Day motion from Labour, calling on the government to cancel a planned £20-per-week cut in Universal Credit, was passed 253–0.", "Truss (2022) \n\nLiz Truss's short-lived Government suffered no defeats in the House of Commons.\n\nSunak (2022–)\n\nSee also \n List of British governments\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nGovernment defeats in the House of Lords\n\nHouse of Commons of the United Kingdom\nGovernment defeats in the House of Commons (1945-present)\nDefeats" ]

[ "339001–339100", "|-bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339001 || || — || April 12, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || EUP || align=right | 3.8 km || \n|-id=002 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339002 || || — || April 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=003 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339003 || || — || April 12, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=004 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=004 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339004 || || — || April 12, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=005 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339005 || || — || April 12, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=006 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339006 || || — || April 13, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=007 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339007 || || — || April 13, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.4 km ||", "| 339007 || || — || April 13, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=008 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339008 || || — || April 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=009 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339009 || || — || April 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=010 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339010 || || — || April 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ERI || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=011 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=011 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339011 || || — || April 13, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=012 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339012 || || — || April 15, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || TIR || align=right | 3.5 km || \n|-id=013 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339013 || || — || April 15, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || \n|-id=014 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339014 || || — || April 15, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || PHO || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=015 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=015 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339015 || || — || April 9, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=016 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339016 || || — || April 12, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=017 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339017 || || — || April 13, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=018 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339018 || || — || April 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km ||", "| 339018 || || — || April 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km || \n|-id=019 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339019 || || — || April 16, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.65\" | 650 m || \n|-id=020 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339020 || || — || April 16, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=021 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339021 || || — || April 17, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||", "| 339021 || || — || April 17, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=022 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339022 || || — || April 17, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || \n|-id=023 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339023 || || — || April 19, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=024 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339024 || || — || April 19, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=025 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=025 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339025 || || — || April 20, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=026 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339026 || || — || April 20, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=027 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339027 || || — || April 21, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=028 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339028 || || — || March 23, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m ||", "|-id=029 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339029 || || — || April 17, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || JLI || align=right | 5.6 km || \n|-id=030 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339030 || || — || April 21, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=031 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339031 || || — || April 23, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km || \n|-id=032 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339032 || || — || April 17, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.9 km || \n|-id=033 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=033 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339033 || || — || April 22, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=034 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339034 || || — || April 25, 2004 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.7 km || \n|-id=035 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339035 || || — || April 30, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.6 km || \n|-id=036 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339036 || || — || April 21, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=037 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=037 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339037 || || — || May 11, 2004 || Desert Eagle || W. K. Y. Yeung || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=038 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339038 || || — || May 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=039 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339039 || || — || May 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=040 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=040 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339040 || || — || May 15, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=041 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339041 || || — || May 13, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=042 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339042 || || — || May 15, 2004 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=043 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=043 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339043 || || — || May 15, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || ERI || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=044 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339044 || || — || May 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || URS || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=045 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339045 || || — || May 16, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=046 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339046 || || — || May 19, 2004 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || ERI || align=right | 1.7 km ||", "| 339046 || || — || May 19, 2004 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || ERI || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=047 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339047 || || — || June 10, 2004 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=048 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339048 || || — || June 13, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=049 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339049 || || — || June 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || SUL || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=050 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=050 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339050 || || — || June 20, 2004 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=051 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339051 || || — || June 21, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.93\" | 930 m || \n|-id=052 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339052 || || — || July 8, 2004 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=053 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339053 || || — || July 9, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||", "| 339053 || || — || July 9, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=054 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339054 || || — || July 9, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=055 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339055 || || — || July 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=056 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339056 || || — || July 16, 2004 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=057 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=057 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339057 || || — || July 16, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=058 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339058 || || — || August 6, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.00 km || \n|-id=059 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339059 || || — || August 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=060 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339060 || || — || August 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYScritical || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m ||", "|-id=061 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339061 || || — || August 7, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=062 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339062 || || — || August 9, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=063 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339063 || || — || August 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=064 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=064 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339064 || || — || August 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=065 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339065 || || — || August 8, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=066 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339066 || || — || August 7, 2004 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || LCI || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=067 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339067 || || — || August 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||", "| 339067 || || — || August 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=068 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339068 || || — || August 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=069 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339069 || || — || August 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=070 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339070 || || — || August 10, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=071 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=071 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339071 || || — || August 15, 2004 || Cerro Tololo || M. W. Buie || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=072 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339072 || || — || August 20, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=073 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339073 || || — || August 20, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=074 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339074 || || — || August 23, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||", "| 339074 || || — || August 23, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=075 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339075 || || — || September 6, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=076 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339076 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=077 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339077 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||", "| 339077 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=078 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339078 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=079 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339079 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=080 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=080 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339080 || || — || September 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=081 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339081 || || — || September 6, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=082 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339082 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=083 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=083 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339083 || || — || September 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=084 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339084 || || — || September 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=085 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339085 || || — || September 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=086 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339086 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||", "| 339086 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=087 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339087 || || — || September 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=088 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339088 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Needville || Needville Obs. || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=089 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=089 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339089 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=090 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339090 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=091 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339091 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=092 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=092 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339092 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=093 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339093 || || — || September 9, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=094 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339094 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=095 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=095 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339095 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || critical || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=096 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339096 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=097 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339097 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=098 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=098 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339098 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=099 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339099 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=100 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339100 || || — || September 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|}", "339101–339200", "|-bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339101 || || — || September 9, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || ADE || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=102 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339102 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=103 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339103 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=104 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339104 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=105 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=105 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339105 || || — || September 12, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=106 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339106 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || ALA || align=right | 5.5 km || \n|-id=107 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339107 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=108 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339108 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||", "| 339108 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=109 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339109 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=110 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339110 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=111 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339111 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=112 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=112 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339112 || || — || September 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=113 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339113 || || — || September 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=114 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339114 || || — || September 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=115 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=115 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339115 || || — || September 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.64\" | 640 m || \n|-id=116 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339116 || || — || September 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=117 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339117 || || — || September 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || \n|-id=118 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=118 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339118 || || — || September 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=119 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339119 || || — || September 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=120 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339120 || || — || September 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=121 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=121 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339121 || || — || September 15, 2004 || Mauna Kea || J. Pittichová, J. Bedient || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=122 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339122 || || — || September 6, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=123 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339123 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=124 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=124 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339124 || || — || September 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=125 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339125 || || — || September 12, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=126 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339126 || || — || September 13, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=127 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=127 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339127 || || — || September 13, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=128 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339128 || || — || September 13, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=129 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339129 || || — || September 15, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=130 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=130 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339130 || || — || September 15, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || critical || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.57\" | 570 m || \n|-id=131 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339131 || || — || September 15, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=132 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339132 || || — || September 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=133 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=133 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339133 || || — || September 16, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=134 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339134 || || — || September 16, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || LCI || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=135 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339135 || || — || September 17, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=136 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339136 || || — || September 18, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || Tj (2.96) || align=right | 5.6 km ||", "|-id=137 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339137 || || — || September 18, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=138 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339138 || || — || September 21, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=139 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339139 || || — || September 21, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.67\" | 670 m || \n|-id=140 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=140 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339140 || || — || September 23, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=141 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339141 || 2004 TJ || — || October 3, 2004 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=142 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339142 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.97\" | 970 m || \n|-id=143 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=143 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339143 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=144 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339144 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=145 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339145 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=146 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339146 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=147 bgcolor=#FA8072", "|-id=147 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339147 || || — || October 6, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.52\" | 520 m || \n|-id=148 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339148 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=149 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339149 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.51\" | 510 m || \n|-id=150 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=150 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339150 || || — || September 12, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=151 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339151 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=152 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339152 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=153 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=153 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339153 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HIL3:2 || align=right | 7.2 km || \n|-id=154 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339154 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=155 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339155 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.97\" | 970 m || \n|-id=156 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=156 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339156 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=157 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339157 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.00 km || \n|-id=158 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339158 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=159 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339159 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUN || align=right | 1.2 km ||", "| 339159 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUN || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=160 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339160 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=161 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339161 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=162 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339162 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||", "| 339162 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=163 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339163 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=164 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339164 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=165 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339165 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||", "| 339165 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=166 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339166 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=167 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339167 || || — || July 29, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || HIL3:2 || align=right | 7.6 km || \n|-id=168 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339168 || || — || October 15, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.54\" | 540 m || \n|-id=169 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=169 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339169 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=170 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339170 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=171 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339171 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.59\" | 590 m || \n|-id=172 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=172 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339172 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=173 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339173 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=174 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339174 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=175 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=175 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339175 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=176 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339176 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=177 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339177 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=178 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339178 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=179 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=179 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339179 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.63\" | 630 m || \n|-id=180 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339180 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=181 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339181 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=182 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=182 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339182 || || — || October 6, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=183 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339183 || || — || October 6, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || SHU3:2 || align=right | 6.0 km || \n|-id=184 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339184 || || — || October 6, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || SHU3:2 || align=right | 5.5 km || \n|-id=185 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=185 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339185 || || — || October 6, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KON || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=186 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339186 || || — || October 6, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAR || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=187 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339187 || || — || October 6, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=188 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=188 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339188 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=189 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339189 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=190 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339190 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=191 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=191 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339191 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HIL3:2 || align=right | 7.1 km || \n|-id=192 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339192 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=193 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339193 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=194 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=194 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339194 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=195 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339195 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=196 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339196 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=197 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=197 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339197 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=198 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339198 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=199 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339199 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=200 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339200 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || SHU3:2 || align=right | 6.0 km || \n|}", "339201–339300", "|-bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339201 || || — || February 12, 2002 || Palomar || NEAT || EUN || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=202 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339202 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || 3:2 || align=right | 4.8 km || \n|-id=203 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339203 || || — || April 5, 2003 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ADE || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=204 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339204 || || — || October 7, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m ||", "|-id=205 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339205 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=206 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339206 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=207 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339207 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=208 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=208 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339208 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=209 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339209 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=210 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339210 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=211 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339211 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||", "| 339211 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=212 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339212 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=213 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339213 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=214 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339214 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=215 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=215 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339215 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=216 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339216 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=217 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339217 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=218 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=218 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339218 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || critical || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=219 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339219 || || — || October 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=220 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339220 || || — || October 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=221 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339221 || || — || October 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||", "| 339221 || || — || October 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=222 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339222 || || — || October 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=223 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339223 Stongemorin || || || October 13, 2004 || Jarnac || Jarnac Obs. || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=224 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339224 || || — || October 14, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||", "| 339224 || || — || October 14, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=225 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339225 || || — || October 14, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || EUN || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=226 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339226 || || — || October 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=227 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339227 || || — || October 13, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || EUN || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=228 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=228 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339228 || || — || October 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || RAF || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=229 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339229 || || — || October 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=230 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339230 || || — || October 5, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=231 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=231 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339231 || || — || October 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=232 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339232 || || — || October 16, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=233 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339233 || || — || October 16, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.5 km || \n|-id=234 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339234 || || — || October 20, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||", "| 339234 || || — || October 20, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=235 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339235 || || — || October 23, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=236 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339236 || || — || October 23, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=237 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339237 || || — || October 25, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=238 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=238 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339238 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=239 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339239 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KRM || align=right | 3.3 km || \n|-id=240 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339240 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=241 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339241 || || — || November 5, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m ||", "|-id=242 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339242 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=243 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339243 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=244 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339244 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=245 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339245 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||", "| 339245 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=246 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339246 || || — || November 5, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=247 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339247 || || — || November 6, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=248 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339248 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=249 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=249 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339249 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=250 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339250 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || GER || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=251 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339251 || || — || November 5, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=252 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339252 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||", "| 339252 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=253 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339253 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=254 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339254 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.6 km || \n|-id=255 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339255 || || — || November 5, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=256 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=256 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339256 || || — || November 9, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || ADE || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=257 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339257 || || — || November 9, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=258 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339258 || || — || November 9, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || IAN || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=259 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339259 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m ||", "|-id=260 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339260 || || — || November 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=261 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339261 || || — || November 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || M. W. Buie || GER || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=262 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339262 || || — || November 4, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || H || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=263 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339263 || || — || November 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||", "| 339263 || || — || November 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=264 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339264 || || — || November 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=265 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339265 || || — || November 2, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=266 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339266 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.4 km ||", "| 339266 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=267 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339267 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km || \n|-id=268 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339268 || || — || November 3, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=269 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339269 || || — || November 17, 2004 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=270 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=270 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339270 || || — || November 19, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=271 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339271 || || — || November 30, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || EUN || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=272 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339272 || || — || November 20, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=273 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339273 || || — || December 2, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=274 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=274 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339274 || || — || December 2, 2004 || Antares || ARO || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=275 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339275 || || — || December 2, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=276 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339276 || || — || December 2, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=277 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339277 || || — || December 2, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=278 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=278 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339278 || || — || December 3, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=279 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339279 || || — || December 3, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AER || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=280 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339280 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=281 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339281 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.6 km || \n|-id=282 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=282 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339282 || || — || December 3, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=283 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339283 || || — || December 7, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=284 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339284 || || — || December 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=285 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339285 || || — || December 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=286 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=286 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339286 || || — || December 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=287 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339287 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=288 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339288 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || EUN || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=289 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339289 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=290 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=290 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339290 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=291 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339291 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=292 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339292 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=293 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339293 || || — || December 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=294 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=294 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339294 || || — || December 2, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=295 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339295 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || BRG || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=296 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339296 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=297 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339297 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || BRU || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=298 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=298 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339298 || || — || December 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=299 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339299 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=300 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339300 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || RAF || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|}", "339301–339400", "|-bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339301 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=302 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339302 || || — || December 8, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=303 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339303 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=304 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339304 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=305 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=305 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339305 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=306 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339306 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=307 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339307 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || RAF || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=308 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339308 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km ||", "| 339308 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=309 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339309 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=310 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339310 || || — || December 12, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=311 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339311 || || — || December 14, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=312 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=312 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339312 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=313 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339313 || || — || December 14, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.6 km || \n|-id=314 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339314 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || RAF || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=315 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339315 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=316 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=316 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339316 || || — || December 12, 2004 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=317 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339317 || || — || December 14, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=318 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339318 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUN || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=319 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339319 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUN || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=320 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=320 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339320 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=321 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339321 || || — || December 12, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=322 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339322 || || — || December 15, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=323 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339323 || || — || December 14, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km ||", "| 339323 || || — || December 14, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=324 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339324 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=325 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339325 || || — || December 15, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=326 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339326 || || — || November 20, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=327 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=327 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339327 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=328 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339328 || || — || December 1, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=329 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339329 || || — || December 2, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=330 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339330 || || — || December 10, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || AER || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=331 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=331 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339331 || || — || December 11, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=332 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339332 || || — || December 14, 2004 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=333 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339333 || || — || December 15, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=334 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339334 || || — || December 9, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m ||", "|-id=335 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339335 || || — || December 17, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=336 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339336 || || — || December 19, 2004 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=337 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339337 || || — || December 18, 2004 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || WIT || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=338 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339338 || || — || December 18, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||", "| 339338 || || — || December 18, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=339 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339339 || || — || December 18, 2004 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=340 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339340 || || — || December 19, 2004 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || MAR || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=341 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339341 || || — || December 21, 2004 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=342 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=342 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339342 || || — || January 1, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || GER || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=343 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339343 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=344 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339344 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.1 km || \n|-id=345 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339345 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=346 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=346 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339346 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=347 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339347 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=348 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339348 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.1 km || \n|-id=349 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339349 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || JUN || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=350 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=350 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339350 || || — || January 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=351 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339351 || || — || January 8, 2005 || Pla D'Arguines || R. Ferrando || NEM || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=352 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339352 || || — || January 7, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=353 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339353 || || — || January 7, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=354 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=354 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339354 || || — || January 7, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=355 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339355 || || — || January 11, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=356 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339356 || || — || January 9, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=357 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339357 || || — || January 9, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=358 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=358 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339358 || || — || January 11, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=359 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339359 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=360 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339360 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=361 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339361 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || ADE || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=362 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=362 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339362 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=363 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339363 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=364 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339364 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=365 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339365 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km ||", "| 339365 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=366 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339366 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=367 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339367 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || JUN || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=368 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339368 || || — || January 11, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=369 bgcolor=#C2FFFF", "|-id=369 bgcolor=#C2FFFF\n| 339369 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || L5 || align=right | 12 km || \n|-id=370 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339370 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=371 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339371 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=372 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339372 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=373 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=373 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339373 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=374 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339374 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=375 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339375 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=376 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339376 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km ||", "| 339376 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=377 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339377 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=378 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339378 || || — || January 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=379 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339379 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=380 bgcolor=#C2FFFF", "|-id=380 bgcolor=#C2FFFF\n| 339380 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || L5 || align=right | 8.1 km || \n|-id=381 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339381 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.58\" | 580 m || \n|-id=382 bgcolor=#C2FFFF\n| 339382 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || L5 || align=right | 9.8 km || \n|-id=383 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=383 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339383 || || — || January 15, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=384 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339384 || || — || January 18, 2005 || Wrightwood || J. W. Young || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=385 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339385 || || — || January 19, 2005 || Wrightwood || J. W. Young || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=386 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339386 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km ||", "| 339386 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=387 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339387 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=388 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339388 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=389 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339389 || || — || January 17, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || MIS || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=390 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=390 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339390 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=391 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339391 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=392 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339392 || || — || January 17, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=393 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339393 || || — || January 31, 2005 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || — || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=394 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=394 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339394 || || — || January 31, 2005 || Mayhill || A. Lowe || NEM || align=right | 2.6 km || \n|-id=395 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339395 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Mauna Kea || P. A. Wiegert || — || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=396 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339396 || || — || January 17, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=397 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339397 || || — || January 16, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=398 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=398 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339398 || || — || February 1, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || JUN || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=399 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339399 || || — || February 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NEM || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=400 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339400 || || — || February 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km || \n|}", "339401–339500", "|-bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339401 || || — || February 1, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=402 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339402 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=403 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339403 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=404 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339404 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=405 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=405 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339405 || || — || February 3, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=406 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339406 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KAR || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=407 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339407 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.1 km || \n|-id=408 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339408 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=409 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=409 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339409 || || — || February 3, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || INO || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=410 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339410 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || HNS || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=411 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339411 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=412 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339412 || || — || February 2, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=413 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=413 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339413 || || — || February 9, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || CLO || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=414 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339414 || || — || February 9, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=415 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339415 || || — || February 9, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=416 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=416 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339416 || || — || February 8, 2005 || Mauna Kea || C. Veillet || WIT || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=417 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339417 || || — || March 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km || \n|-id=418 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339418 || || — || March 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=419 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339419 || || — || March 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||", "| 339419 || || — || March 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km || \n|-id=420 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339420 || || — || March 3, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.7 km || \n|-id=421 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339421 || || — || March 2, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=422 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339422 || || — || March 3, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=423 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=423 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339423 || || — || March 3, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.3 km || \n|-id=424 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339424 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || CLO || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=425 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339425 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=426 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339426 || || — || March 3, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=427 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=427 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339427 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=428 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339428 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=429 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339429 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=430 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339430 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.1 km || \n|-id=431 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=431 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339431 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=432 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339432 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || DOR || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=433 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339433 || || — || March 7, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.3 km || \n|-id=434 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339434 || || — || March 8, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=435 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=435 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339435 || || — || March 8, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=436 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339436 || || — || March 3, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.1 km || \n|-id=437 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339437 || || — || March 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HNA || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=438 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339438 || || — || March 9, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.3 km || \n|-id=439 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=439 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339439 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=440 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339440 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=441 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339441 || || — || March 8, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=442 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339442 || || — || March 8, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.6 km ||", "|-id=443 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339443 || || — || March 9, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=444 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339444 || || — || March 9, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=445 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339445 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=446 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=446 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339446 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=447 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339447 || || — || March 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KAR || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=448 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339448 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=449 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339449 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||", "| 339449 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=450 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339450 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || AGN || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=451 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339451 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=452 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339452 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.5 km ||", "|-id=453 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339453 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=454 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339454 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=455 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339455 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || CHA || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=456 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=456 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339456 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NAE || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=457 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339457 || || — || March 8, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=458 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339458 || || — || March 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.9 km || \n|-id=459 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339459 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km ||", "| 339459 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=460 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339460 || || — || March 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=461 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339461 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=462 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339462 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || EUP || align=right | 4.6 km || \n|-id=463 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=463 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339463 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=464 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339464 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=465 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339465 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || K-2 || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=466 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339466 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||", "| 339466 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.1 km || \n|-id=467 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339467 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=468 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339468 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || JUN || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=469 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339469 || || — || March 3, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=470 bgcolor=#E9E9E9", "|-id=470 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339470 || || — || March 14, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=471 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339471 || || — || March 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=472 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339472 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.5 km || \n|-id=473 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339473 || || — || March 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km ||", "| 339473 || || — || March 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=474 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339474 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KAR || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=475 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339475 || || — || March 7, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || JUN || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=476 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339476 || || — || March 12, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || KAR || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=477 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=477 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339477 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || M. W. Buie || EOS || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=478 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339478 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=479 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339479 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || M. W. Buie || KOR || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=480 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339480 || || — || March 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.7 km ||", "|-id=481 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339481 || || — || March 9, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=482 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339482 || || — || March 21, 2005 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || Tj (2.99) || align=right | 4.5 km || \n|-id=483 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339483 || || — || March 16, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=484 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339484 || || — || March 31, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.4 km ||", "| 339484 || || — || March 31, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=485 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339485 || || — || April 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=486 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339486 Raimeux || || || April 3, 2005 || Vicques || M. Ory || — || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=487 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339487 || || — || April 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.6 km || \n|-id=488 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=488 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339488 || || — || April 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=489 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339489 || || — || April 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 5.7 km || \n|-id=490 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339490 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.9 km || \n|-id=491 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339491 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||", "|-id=492 bgcolor=#FFC2E0\n| 339492 || || — || April 4, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || AMO +1km || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=493 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339493 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || XIZ || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=494 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339494 || || — || April 1, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=495 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=495 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339495 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || H || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=496 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339496 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=497 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339497 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KOR || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=498 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=498 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339498 || || — || April 4, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=499 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339499 || || — || April 5, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=500 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339500 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|}", "339501–339600", "|-bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339501 || || — || April 6, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || JUN || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=502 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339502 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || TIR || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=503 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339503 || || — || April 5, 2005 || Vail-Jarnac || Jarnac Obs. || — || align=right | 5.0 km || \n|-id=504 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339504 || || — || April 2, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.1 km || \n|-id=505 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=505 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339505 || || — || April 3, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.6 km || \n|-id=506 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339506 || || — || April 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=507 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339507 || || — || April 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=508 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339508 || || — || April 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=509 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=509 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339509 || || — || April 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.5 km || \n|-id=510 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339510 || || — || April 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || VER || align=right | 4.8 km || \n|-id=511 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339511 || || — || April 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=512 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339512 || || — || April 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || KAR || align=right | 1.3 km ||", "|-id=513 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339513 || || — || April 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || EUP || align=right | 3.9 km || \n|-id=514 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339514 || || — || April 9, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || Tj (2.95) || align=right | 5.0 km || \n|-id=515 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339515 || || — || September 11, 2001 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=516 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339516 || || — || April 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=517 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=517 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339517 || || — || April 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ARM || align=right | 4.3 km || \n|-id=518 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339518 || || — || April 12, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=519 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339519 || || — || April 9, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || \n|-id=520 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339520 || || — || April 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.1 km ||", "|-id=521 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339521 || || — || April 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.1 km || \n|-id=522 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339522 || || — || April 12, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 3.3 km || \n|-id=523 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339523 || || — || April 14, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || 628 || align=right | 2.5 km || \n|-id=524 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339524 || || — || April 14, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km ||", "| 339524 || || — || April 14, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=525 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339525 || || — || December 18, 2003 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=526 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339526 || || — || March 8, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 4.8 km || \n|-id=527 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339527 || || — || October 16, 2003 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=528 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=528 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339528 || || — || April 14, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=529 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339529 || || — || April 6, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=530 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339530 || || — || April 16, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.9 km || \n|-id=531 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339531 || || — || April 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.57\" | 570 m ||", "|-id=532 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339532 || || — || May 1, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 3.8 km || \n|-id=533 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339533 || || — || May 3, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.0 km || \n|-id=534 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339534 || || — || May 1, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || EUP || align=right | 3.8 km || \n|-id=535 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339535 || || — || May 2, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=536 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=536 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339536 || || — || May 3, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HYG || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=537 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339537 || || — || May 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=538 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339538 || || — || May 3, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=539 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339539 || || — || May 3, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=540 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=540 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339540 || || — || May 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=541 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339541 || || — || May 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=542 bgcolor=#E9E9E9\n| 339542 || || — || May 8, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=543 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339543 || || — || May 8, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.2 km ||", "|-id=544 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339544 || || — || May 9, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=545 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339545 || || — || April 16, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || URS || align=right | 3.2 km || \n|-id=546 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339546 || || — || May 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=547 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339547 || || — || May 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km || \n|-id=548 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=548 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339548 || || — || May 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.59\" | 590 m || \n|-id=549 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339549 || || — || May 11, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=550 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339550 || || — || May 7, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=551 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=551 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339551 || || — || May 10, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || THM || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=552 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339552 || || — || May 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 2.7 km || \n|-id=553 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339553 || || — || May 11, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EOS || align=right | 2.4 km || \n|-id=554 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=554 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339554 || || — || April 17, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.7 km || \n|-id=555 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339555 || || — || May 9, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.0 km || \n|-id=556 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339556 || || — || May 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.8 km || \n|-id=557 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339557 || || — || May 12, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.6 km || \n|-id=558 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=558 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339558 || || — || May 11, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.0 km || \n|-id=559 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339559 || || — || May 13, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || TIR || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=560 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339560 || || — || May 15, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.61\" | 610 m || \n|-id=561 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=561 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339561 || || — || May 3, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.59\" | 590 m || \n|-id=562 bgcolor=#C2FFFF\n| 339562 || || — || May 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || L4 || align=right | 10 km || \n|-id=563 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339563 || || — || May 9, 2005 || Cerro Tololo || M. W. Buie || KOR || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=564 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339564 || || — || May 16, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.4 km ||", "|-id=565 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339565 || || — || May 17, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.7 km || \n|-id=566 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339566 || || — || May 20, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 3.0 km || \n|-id=567 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339567 || || — || June 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 6.1 km || \n|-id=568 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339568 || || — || June 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km ||", "| 339568 || || — || June 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=569 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339569 || || — || June 4, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUP || align=right | 3.9 km || \n|-id=570 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339570 || || — || June 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || TIR || align=right | 4.4 km || \n|-id=571 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339571 || || — || June 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.5 km || \n|-id=572 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=572 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339572 || || — || June 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=573 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339573 || || — || June 6, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km || \n|-id=574 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339574 || || — || June 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.9 km || \n|-id=575 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339575 || || — || June 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.3 km || \n|-id=576 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=576 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339576 || || — || June 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=577 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339577 || || — || June 11, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.0 km || \n|-id=578 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339578 || || — || June 13, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.65\" | 650 m || \n|-id=579 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=579 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339579 || || — || June 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || TIR || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=580 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339580 || || — || June 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=581 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339581 || || — || June 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=582 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339582 || || — || June 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km || \n|-id=583 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=583 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339583 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=584 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339584 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || PHO || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=585 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339585 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || VER || align=right | 3.5 km || \n|-id=586 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339586 || || — || June 28, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=587 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=587 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339587 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=588 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339588 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=589 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339589 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=590 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=590 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339590 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 4.8 km || \n|-id=591 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339591 || || — || June 28, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=592 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339592 || || — || June 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=593 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=593 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339593 || || — || June 17, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=594 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339594 || || — || July 2, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=595 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339595 || || — || July 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=596 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=596 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339596 || || — || July 5, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=597 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339597 || || — || July 6, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=598 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339598 || || — || July 3, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=599 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=599 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339599 || || — || July 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=600 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339600 || || — || July 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.63\" | 630 m || \n|}", "339601–339700", "|-bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339601 || || — || July 3, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=602 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339602 || || — || July 4, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=603 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339603 || || — || July 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=604 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=604 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339604 || || — || July 4, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=605 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339605 || || — || July 16, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=606 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339606 || || — || July 10, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=607 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=607 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339607 || || — || July 28, 2005 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.66\" | 660 m || \n|-id=608 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339608 || || — || July 28, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=609 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339609 || || — || July 28, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=610 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=610 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339610 || || — || July 30, 2005 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.57\" | 570 m || \n|-id=611 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339611 || || — || July 4, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=612 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339612 || || — || July 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=613 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=613 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339613 || || — || July 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.65\" | 650 m || \n|-id=614 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339614 || || — || July 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=615 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339615 || || — || July 31, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=616 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=616 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339616 || || — || July 31, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=617 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339617 || || — || July 28, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=618 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339618 || || — || July 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=619 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339619 || || — || July 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km ||", "| 339619 || || — || July 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=620 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339620 || || — || August 7, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=621 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339621 || || — || August 9, 2005 || Ottmarsheim || Ottmarsheim Obs. || PHO || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=622 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339622 || || — || August 4, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=623 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=623 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339623 || || — || August 12, 2005 || Pla D'Arguines || R. Ferrando, M. Ferrando || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=624 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339624 || || — || August 6, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=625 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339625 || || — || August 22, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=626 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=626 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339626 || || — || July 27, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=627 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339627 || || — || August 24, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=628 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339628 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=629 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339629 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||", "| 339629 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=630 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339630 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=631 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339631 || || — || August 24, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=632 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339632 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m ||", "|-id=633 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339633 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=634 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339634 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=635 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339635 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Vicques || M. Ory || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=636 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=636 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339636 || || — || August 24, 2005 || Needville || Needville Obs. || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=637 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339637 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=638 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339638 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=639 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339639 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km ||", "| 339639 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=640 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339640 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.64\" | 640 m || \n|-id=641 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339641 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.95\" | 950 m || \n|-id=642 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339642 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.9 km ||", "| 339642 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=643 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339643 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=644 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339644 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=645 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339645 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=646 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=646 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339646 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=647 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339647 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=648 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339648 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=649 bgcolor=#FA8072", "|-id=649 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339649 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=650 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339650 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Vail-Jarnac || Jarnac Obs. || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=651 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339651 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=652 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=652 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339652 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=653 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339653 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=654 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339654 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=655 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=655 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339655 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=656 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339656 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=657 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339657 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || PHO || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=658 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=658 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339658 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=659 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339659 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=660 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339660 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=661 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=661 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339661 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=662 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339662 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=663 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339663 || || — || August 30, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=664 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=664 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339664 || || — || August 31, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=665 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339665 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || SYL7:4 || align=right | 5.3 km || \n|-id=666 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339666 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.97\" | 970 m || \n|-id=667 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339667 || || — || July 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m ||", "|-id=668 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339668 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=669 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339669 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=670 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339670 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=671 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=671 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339671 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=672 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339672 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=673 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339673 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.58\" | 580 m || \n|-id=674 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=674 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339674 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=675 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339675 || || — || August 31, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=676 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339676 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=677 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=677 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339677 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=678 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339678 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=679 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339679 || || — || August 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=680 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=680 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339680 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=681 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339681 || || — || August 31, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=682 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339682 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Campo Imperatore || CINEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=683 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=683 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339683 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=684 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339684 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=685 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339685 || || — || August 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=686 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=686 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339686 || || — || August 31, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=687 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339687 || || — || August 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=688 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339688 || || — || August 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=689 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=689 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339689 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=690 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339690 || || — || August 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=691 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339691 || || — || August 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=692 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=692 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339692 || || — || August 31, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=693 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339693 || || — || August 31, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=694 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339694 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=695 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=695 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339695 || || — || August 28, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=696 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339696 || || — || August 31, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=697 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339697 || 2005 RH || — || September 1, 2005 || Cordell-Lorenz || D. T. Durig || 7:4 || align=right | 4.5 km || \n|-id=698 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=698 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339698 || || — || September 2, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || PHO || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=699 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339699 || || — || September 1, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=700 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339700 || || — || September 6, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|}", "339701–339800", "|-bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339701 || || — || September 7, 2005 || Altschwendt || Altschwendt Obs. || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=702 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339702 || || — || September 3, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || PHO || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=703 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339703 || || — || September 8, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=704 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=704 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339704 || || — || September 10, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=705 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339705 || || — || September 6, 2005 || Siding Spring || SSS || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=706 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339706 || || — || September 10, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.93\" | 930 m || \n|-id=707 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=707 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339707 || || — || September 10, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || PHO || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=708 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339708 || || — || September 11, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=709 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339709 || || — || September 8, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=710 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=710 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339710 || || — || September 13, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=711 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339711 || || — || September 14, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=712 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339712 || 2005 SE || — || September 16, 2005 || Mayhill || R. Hutsebaut || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=713 bgcolor=#FA8072", "|-id=713 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339713 || || — || September 22, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.00 km || \n|-id=714 bgcolor=#FFC2E0\n| 339714 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || APO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.30\" | 300 m || \n|-id=715 bgcolor=#FFC2E0\n| 339715 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || APO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.57\" | 570 m || \n|-id=716 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=716 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339716 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=717 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339717 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.67\" | 670 m || \n|-id=718 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339718 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=719 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=719 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339719 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || — || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=720 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339720 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.93\" | 930 m || \n|-id=721 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339721 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=722 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=722 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339722 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=723 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339723 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=724 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339724 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=725 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=725 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339725 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=726 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339726 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=727 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339727 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || SYL7:4 || align=right | 5.1 km || \n|-id=728 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=728 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339728 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=729 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339729 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=730 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339730 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.61\" | 610 m || \n|-id=731 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=731 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339731 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=732 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339732 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=733 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339733 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=734 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=734 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339734 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=735 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339735 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=736 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339736 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=737 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=737 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339737 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.00 km || \n|-id=738 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339738 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=739 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339739 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.65\" | 650 m || \n|-id=740 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=740 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339740 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=741 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339741 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right | 1.00 km || \n|-id=742 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339742 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=743 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=743 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339743 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=744 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339744 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=745 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339745 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=746 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=746 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339746 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=747 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339747 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.62\" | 620 m || \n|-id=748 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339748 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=749 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=749 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339749 || || — || July 2, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=750 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339750 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=751 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339751 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.64\" | 640 m || \n|-id=752 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=752 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339752 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.66\" | 660 m || \n|-id=753 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339753 || || — || September 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=754 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339754 || || — || September 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=755 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=755 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339755 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.67\" | 670 m || \n|-id=756 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339756 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=757 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339757 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.66\" | 660 m || \n|-id=758 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=758 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339758 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=759 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339759 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=760 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339760 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=761 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=761 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339761 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.59\" | 590 m || \n|-id=762 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339762 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=763 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339763 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || SYL7:4 || align=right | 4.4 km || \n|-id=764 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=764 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339764 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=765 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339765 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=766 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339766 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=767 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=767 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339767 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=768 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339768 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=769 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339769 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=770 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=770 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339770 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=771 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339771 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=772 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339772 || || — || September 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=773 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=773 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339773 || || — || September 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=774 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339774 || || — || September 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=775 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339775 || || — || September 28, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=776 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=776 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339776 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=777 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339777 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=778 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339778 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=779 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=779 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339779 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=780 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339780 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=781 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339781 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || PHO || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=782 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=782 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339782 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right | 2.1 km || \n|-id=783 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339783 || || — || September 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=784 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339784 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=785 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=785 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339785 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || PHO || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=786 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339786 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=787 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339787 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=788 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=788 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339788 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.63\" | 630 m || \n|-id=789 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339789 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=790 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339790 || || — || September 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=791 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=791 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339791 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=792 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339792 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=793 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339793 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=794 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=794 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339794 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=795 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339795 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=796 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339796 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=797 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=797 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339797 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=798 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339798 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=799 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339799 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.97\" | 970 m || \n|-id=800 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=800 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339800 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.62\" | 620 m || \n|}", "339801–339900", "|-bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339801 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=802 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339802 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.58\" | 580 m || \n|-id=803 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339803 || || — || August 25, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=804 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=804 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339804 || || — || September 9, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=805 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339805 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=806 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339806 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.96\" | 960 m || \n|-id=807 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=807 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339807 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=808 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339808 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ERI || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=809 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339809 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.93\" | 930 m || \n|-id=810 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=810 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339810 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=811 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339811 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=812 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339812 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=813 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=813 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339813 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || ERI || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=814 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339814 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=815 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339815 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.61\" | 610 m || \n|-id=816 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=816 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339816 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.65\" | 650 m || \n|-id=817 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339817 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.66\" | 660 m || \n|-id=818 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339818 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=819 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=819 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339819 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=820 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339820 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=821 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339821 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=822 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=822 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339822 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.62\" | 620 m || \n|-id=823 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339823 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=824 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339824 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=825 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=825 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339825 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=826 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339826 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=827 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339827 || || — || June 18, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.59\" | 590 m || \n|-id=828 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=828 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339828 || || — || September 22, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=829 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339829 || || — || September 22, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=830 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339830 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=831 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=831 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339831 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=832 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339832 || || — || September 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=833 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339833 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=834 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=834 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339834 || || — || September 21, 2005 || Apache Point || A. C. Becker || SYL7:4 || align=right | 4.2 km || \n|-id=835 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339835 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=836 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339836 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=837 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=837 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339837 || || — || September 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || \n|-id=838 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339838 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=839 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339839 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=840 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=840 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339840 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=841 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339841 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=842 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339842 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=843 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=843 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339843 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=844 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339844 || || — || September 13, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=845 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339845 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.66\" | 660 m || \n|-id=846 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=846 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339846 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=847 bgcolor=#FA8072\n| 339847 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=848 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339848 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=849 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=849 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339849 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=850 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339850 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=851 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339851 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=852 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=852 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339852 || || — || October 3, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=853 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339853 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.93\" | 930 m || \n|-id=854 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339854 || || — || October 3, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.97\" | 970 m || \n|-id=855 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=855 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339855 Kedainiai || || || October 7, 2005 || Moletai || K. Černis, J. Zdanavičius || — || align=right | 1.5 km || \n|-id=856 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339856 || || — || October 6, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=857 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339857 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=858 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=858 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339858 || || — || October 4, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=859 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339859 || || — || October 4, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.4 km || \n|-id=860 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339860 || || — || October 2, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=861 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=861 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339861 || || — || October 5, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=862 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339862 || || — || October 6, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=863 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339863 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=864 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=864 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339864 || || — || October 3, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=865 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339865 || || — || October 6, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=866 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339866 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=867 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=867 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339867 || || — || October 6, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=868 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339868 || || — || October 6, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || PHO || align=right | 3.4 km || \n|-id=869 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339869 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=870 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=870 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339870 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.94\" | 940 m || \n|-id=871 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339871 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.67\" | 670 m || \n|-id=872 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339872 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=873 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=873 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339873 || || — || September 30, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=874 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339874 || || — || October 4, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || EUT || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=875 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339875 || || — || October 4, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || ERI || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=876 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=876 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339876 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || \n|-id=877 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339877 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=878 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339878 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=879 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=879 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339879 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.58\" | 580 m || \n|-id=880 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339880 || || — || October 16, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.48\" | 480 m || \n|-id=881 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339881 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=882 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=882 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339882 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUT || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.65\" | 650 m || \n|-id=883 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339883 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=884 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339884 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=885 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=885 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339885 || || — || October 7, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || SHU3:2 || align=right | 7.6 km || \n|-id=886 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339886 || || — || September 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.67\" | 670 m || \n|-id=887 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339887 || || — || October 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=888 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=888 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339888 || || — || October 6, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=889 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339889 || || — || October 6, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=890 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339890 || || — || October 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=891 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=891 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339891 || || — || October 8, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.62\" | 620 m || \n|-id=892 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339892 || || — || October 10, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.72\" | 720 m || \n|-id=893 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339893 || || — || October 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=894 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=894 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339894 || || — || October 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=895 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339895 || || — || October 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=896 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339896 || || — || October 9, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=897 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=897 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339897 || || — || October 13, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=898 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339898 || || — || September 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ERI || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=899 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339899 || || — || October 1, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=900 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=900 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339900 || || — || October 9, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|}", "339901–340000", "|-bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339901 || || — || October 5, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.66\" | 660 m || \n|-id=902 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339902 || || — || September 29, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=903 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339903 || || — || October 27, 2005 || Mount Graham || W. H. Ryan || — || align=right | 1.7 km || \n|-id=904 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=904 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339904 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.79\" | 790 m || \n|-id=905 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339905 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=906 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339906 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=907 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=907 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339907 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=908 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339908 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=909 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339909 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.95\" | 950 m || \n|-id=910 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=910 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339910 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=911 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339911 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=912 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339912 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=913 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=913 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339913 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=914 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339914 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.66\" | 660 m || \n|-id=915 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339915 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=916 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=916 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339916 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=917 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339917 || || — || October 21, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=918 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339918 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=919 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=919 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339919 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=920 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339920 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=921 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339921 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=922 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=922 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339922 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.58\" | 580 m || \n|-id=923 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339923 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.88\" | 880 m || \n|-id=924 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339924 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=925 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=925 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339925 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=926 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339926 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=927 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339927 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=928 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339928 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km ||", "| 339928 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || \n|-id=929 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339929 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=930 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339930 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.80\" | 800 m || \n|-id=931 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339931 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m ||", "|-id=932 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339932 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=933 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339933 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=934 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339934 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.93\" | 930 m || \n|-id=935 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=935 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339935 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=936 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339936 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=937 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339937 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.58\" | 580 m || \n|-id=938 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=938 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339938 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=939 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339939 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.3 km || \n|-id=940 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339940 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.78\" | 780 m || \n|-id=941 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=941 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339941 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.68\" | 680 m || \n|-id=942 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339942 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=943 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339943 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ERI || align=right | 2.2 km || \n|-id=944 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339944 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km ||", "| 339944 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=945 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339945 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.73\" | 730 m || \n|-id=946 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339946 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUT || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|-id=947 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=947 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339947 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.67\" | 670 m || \n|-id=948 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339948 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=949 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339949 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=950 bgcolor=#d6d6d6", "|-id=950 bgcolor=#d6d6d6\n| 339950 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || 3:2 || align=right | 5.5 km || \n|-id=951 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339951 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=952 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339952 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=953 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=953 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339953 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=954 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339954 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=955 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339955 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.92\" | 920 m || \n|-id=956 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=956 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339956 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=957 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339957 || || — || October 27, 2005 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.91\" | 910 m || \n|-id=958 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339958 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=959 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=959 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339959 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=960 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339960 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=961 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339961 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=962 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=962 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339962 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.71\" | 710 m || \n|-id=963 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339963 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=964 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339964 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.83\" | 830 m || \n|-id=965 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=965 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339965 || || — || August 30, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=966 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339966 || || — || October 27, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.75\" | 750 m || \n|-id=967 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339967 || || — || October 22, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.89\" | 890 m || \n|-id=968 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=968 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339968 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=969 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339969 || || — || October 27, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.56\" | 560 m || \n|-id=970 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339970 || || — || October 27, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=971 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=971 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339971 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=972 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339972 || || — || October 27, 2005 || Palomar || NEAT || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=973 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339973 || || — || October 27, 2005 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.2 km || \n|-id=974 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=974 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339974 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=975 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339975 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=976 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339976 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=977 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=977 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339977 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.99\" | 990 m || \n|-id=978 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339978 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=979 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339979 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.77\" | 770 m || \n|-id=980 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=980 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339980 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=981 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339981 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.90\" | 900 m || \n|-id=982 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339982 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.00 km || \n|-id=983 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=983 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339983 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.70\" | 700 m || \n|-id=984 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339984 || || — || October 28, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right | 1.8 km || \n|-id=985 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339985 || || — || October 28, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || MAS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.81\" | 810 m || \n|-id=986 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=986 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339986 || || — || October 23, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.98\" | 980 m || \n|-id=987 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339987 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Mount Lemmon || Mount Lemmon Survey || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.86\" | 860 m || \n|-id=988 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339988 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.62\" | 620 m || \n|-id=989 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=989 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339989 || || — || October 25, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.0 km || \n|-id=990 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339990 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.76\" | 760 m || \n|-id=991 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339991 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.85\" | 850 m || \n|-id=992 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=992 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339992 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.62\" | 620 m || \n|-id=993 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339993 || || — || October 29, 2005 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 1.1 km || \n|-id=994 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339994 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.82\" | 820 m || \n|-id=995 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=995 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339995 || || — || October 24, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.84\" | 840 m || \n|-id=996 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339996 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.74\" | 740 m || \n|-id=997 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339997 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || V || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.63\" | 630 m || \n|-id=998 bgcolor=#fefefe", "|-id=998 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339998 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.60\" | 600 m || \n|-id=999 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 339999 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.87\" | 870 m || \n|-id=000 bgcolor=#fefefe\n| 340000 || || — || October 26, 2005 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right data-sort-value=\"0.69\" | 690 m || \n|}", "References\n\nExternal links \n Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (335001)–(340000) (IAU Minor Planet Center)\n\n0339" ]

[ "Kashmiri cuisine is the cuisine of the Kashmir Valley in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. Kashmiris have developed the art of cooking to a very high degree of sophistication and evolved a cuisine quite distinct from that of any part of the world. Mughal emperor Jehangir, when asked his dying wish, responded, “Only Kashmir”, which referred not only to Kashmir's ecology but also to its comforting cuisine — crisp lotus fritters, floral kahwa tea and harissa, a fatty sheep dish", ". Located at the cross roads of subcontinent, central and middle Asia with borders stretching from Russia to Afghanistan, Kashmir has been called a melting pot of cultures, a crucible of practices, ideas and influences. It’s a cuisine that beautifully combines the subtlety of Persian cuisine with the rich spiciness of Indian flavors.", "Rice is the staple food and has been so since ancient times. The equivalent for the phrase \"bread and butter\" in Kashmiri is haakh-batta (greens and rice). Meat along with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared on special occasions like Eid. Gravies are thin, very flavourful with no floating oil or masalas", ". Gravies are thin, very flavourful with no floating oil or masalas. A typical everyday Kashmiri meal — lunch and dinner — consists of a generous serving of rice (about 250 gms), mutton (100 gms) and vegetables (about 100gms, mostly greens) cooked in oil, and yoghurt (50 to 250 gms).", "Kashmiris consume meat voraciously. They share a love for lamb; the love a Kashmiri has for meat is unparalleled. A good Kashmiri would not touch frozen meat, they feel it is not suited for the local cuisine. They are, per capita, the highest mutton consumers in the subcontinent. According to official data, around 2.2 million sheep are slaughtered in Kashmir every year on an average adding up to 21,000 tonnes annual meat consumption in the region", ". Kashmiri Pandits are all Saraswat Brahmins, and hence avid meat-eaters. The amount of mutton that is generally required to be bought for a Kashmiri Pandit wedding feast is 650 gm per head (not considering chicken). Kashmiri Muslims prefer goat, especially young, while Kashmiri Pandits choose lamb. Meat is called Neni by Pandits and Maaz by Muslims in Kashmir. Asafoetida is mixed with yoghurt by Pandits and shallot mixed with garlic by Muslims", ". Asafoetida is mixed with yoghurt by Pandits and shallot mixed with garlic by Muslims. In a majority of Kashmiri Pandit and Muslim cooking, bread is not part of the meal; it's always rice at lunch or dinner. Bread is only eaten with tea in the morning or evening. They may be bought from neighbourhood bakeries (qandurwan).", "The main daily staple food of the Muslims of Kashmir is plain cooked rice. They are typically not vegetarian, with very few exceptions. Meat stock is a salient ingredient even for so-called 'vegetarian' dishes. A joke shared is: Find me a Kashmiri vegetarian and I will give you a pot of gold. However they often eat vegetable curries, with meat being an expensive indulgence", ". However they often eat vegetable curries, with meat being an expensive indulgence. The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese (paneer), and legumes are somewhat similar to those of Kashmiri Pandits, except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of asafoetida.", "In Muslim cuisine, spices are less used as compared to that in Pandit dishes. Cockscomb flower, called \"mawal\" in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes. Pandits use the mildly pungent Kashmiri red chili powder as a spice, as well as Ratanjot i.e., Alkanet root to impart colour to certain dishes like Roghan Josh. Muslims use chilies in moderate quantity, and avoid hot dishes at large meals.", "There is also a notable difference in the mode of service and eating between Pandits and Muslims, especially in the case of feasts. Amongst Muslims usually four persons eat together, in one big tinned copper platter, called a \"traem\" in Kashmiri; this is a round vessel of around diameter, typically beautifully embossed.", "History of Kashmiri cuisine \nThere is a legend that aeons ago Kashmir valley was a vast mountain lake. The soil contains remains of fresh-water fish and fossil-oysters and the black shells of water chestnut may be found in layers embedded in the earth at a height of 457 metres above the level of the valley.", "From the mythical Mahabharata to the Iranian invasion of Kashmir (which was a part of Gandhara) by Darius in 516 BC, to the Mauryans who established Srinagara to the Kushan Empire to the invasion of Kashmir by Timur in 1398, the culture and cuisine of Kashmiris are linked to the greater Indian, Persian and Central Asian cuisines mixed with local innovations and availabilities of ingredients", ". The term kabab is Arabic in origin, korma has Turkish roots, and rogan josh, yakhaen, ab gosht, rista and goshtaba stem from Persian sources.", "Early history\nThe process of Kashmir's amalgamation with outer world commenced with the importation of primitive forms of snake and fire worship from Iran. Since Paleolithic times, serpents were worshipped and buried with a supply of insects in their graves as a provision for their future life. In addition, they splashed grains at shrines and graves to express regard unto snakes and other animals.", "The range of tools recovered at the Neolithic site of Burzahom, in the district of Srinagar shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits. The Period II (Ceramic Neolithic) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. Presence of harpoons indicates fishing", ". Presence of harpoons indicates fishing. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram.", "Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation. Mortar and pestle characterised by a rectangular cross-section are made of the same volcanic rock as used by the current Kashmiris. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia.", "At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41 km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear. Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits", ". Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (sus scrofa) and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (lepus), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.", "On the basis of the presence of the Emmer wheat (Triticumdicoccum) crop at Kanispur, seven kilometres east of Baramulla, contacts of Harappans with the Neolithic Kashmir has been suggested. With the Aryan migration to Kashmir around the 8th century BC, the fire worship cult got embedded into the innate religio-cultural texture of Kashmir through practices such as a phallic emblem of cooked rice. The local ceremony of vayuk is again near to the Iranian style of Farvadin", ". The local ceremony of vayuk is again near to the Iranian style of Farvadin. On a special day of the month, Kashmiri Muslims remember their dead, visit their graves and distribute loaves of rice.", "Indo-Greek & Kushana period", "Earthen thalis (pans) have been found at Semthan, north of Bijbehara from the Indo-Greek period (200 BC – 1st century AD). Handis (metal pots), flat plates, pedestalled cups and edged bowls have been reported in large numbers from the excavated sites of Harwan, Kanispur and Semthan. At Kanispur, cooking pots have been found. Kushan coins have been recovered in large numbers from the Kashmir valley with those of Kanishka continuing to emulate Vima's motif of king sacrificing at an altar.", "The Kushan period is characterized by a double-cropping pattern, suggesting a change in agricultural practices associated with a population recovery following a post-Neolithic decline. Finds of Vitis vinifera (Common Grape Vine), Emblica officinalis (Indian Gooseberry), Ziziphus nummularia (Wild Jujube), Juglans regia (English Walnut) and Prunus amygdalus (Almond) suggest that horticulture and foraging played an important role in the diet of the occupants", ". The Kushan remains from Kanispur are dominated by barley, in contrast to Semthan where wheat is more common.", "The Kushana history tells us that right from the days of the Kushana rulers (1st century AD – 450 AD) there were contacts between Romans and Kashmir. Kashmir was connected to the southern silk route via Gilgit and Yasin valley at Tashkurghan. The main items of export to Rome were saffron and dolomiaea costus (kutha). Dolomiaea costus was used in Rome for various purposes, among which for scenting of food and seasoning of wine.", "Hindu dynasties\nThere were military contacts between the Karkota kingdom in Kashmir and the Tang (618 AD – 907 AD) court in China. When the Chinese Tang Dynasty successfully defeated the Tibetan forces and entered little Palur in October 722 AD, Kashmir was credited for providing agricultural supplies essential to sustaining the Chinese troops stationed in Gilgit valley.\n\nKashmir Sultanate (1346 – 1580s)", "Since Islam did not directly arrive from Arabia to Kashmir, it naturally carried with it mixed Iranian and Central Asian influences. Similarly, the Kashmiri Hindus were doing things which would have frightened orthodox Hindus from India. They drank water brought by a Muslim, ate food that was cooked in a Muslim boat and even Muslim foster-mothers were allowed to feed their children", ". Hence, the rishi cult identified with Hinduism in subscribing to vegetarianism, non-injury to animals and abstaining from the use of garlic and onion in food. Nund Rishi, according to a legend, subsisted on a diet of dried dandelion leaves and Lal Ded preached and practiced strict vegetarianism.", "Moreover, when Yusuf Shah Chak, the last independent ruler of Kashmir signed a treaty with emperor Akbar recognising his symbolic sovereignty in 1586 one of the terms was that the mint, the saffron and game would remain under imperial control.\n\nMughals (1580s – 1750s)", "Mughals (1580s – 1750s)\n\nIn Srinagar, poor people's meals were made of ghee, milk, beef, onions, wine, pickles, and vinegar. Rice, fish, and numerous vegetables were staple foods during the Mughal era. Butter and fats were not widely used in cooking since they were believed to be dangerous owing to the cold environment. The river water was not drunk by the people of South Kashmir. They drank Dal Lake water, which was warm, pleasant, and easily digestible.", "In 1635–36, during Shahjahan's reign, a violent conflict flared up between the Shias and Sunnis when a group of both the sections were eating mulberries at Maisuma and some were accused of using indecent words against Muhammad. In 1641, unprecedented floods followed by a famine rendered the villages desolate", ". In 1641, unprecedented floods followed by a famine rendered the villages desolate. Shahjahan sent 30,000 rupees to the subedar Tarbiyat Khan to be distributed among the destitute in Srinagar and also ordered that five centres should be opened in the valley to provide free food to the needy.", "Sikh Rule (1819–1846) \nCow slaughter was declared a crime punishable by death and many people accused of killing cows were publicly hanged. Owing to the shortsighted policy of the rulers Kashmír witnessed an acute agrarian crisis. Sikh rulers imposed one half of the paddy production as a share of the government. The population of Kashmir decreased from 800,000 in 1822–1823 to 120,000 in 1835.", "Dogra Rule (1846–1947) \nCoarse rice and haakh constituted the main food. Where paddy cultivation was restricted due to uneven terrain and lack of irrigation facilities, maize constituted the main item of food. In certain parts of Kashmir they lived on aquatic products such as singhara (water nuts).", "The famine of 1878–79 was deadly. Also, catching and eating of fish by men driven by hunger was made unlawful by an edict during the reign of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. People did not possess any right to waste land and the only right which the villager had was that he could plant trees on such lands, and was the owner of the trees and not of land.\n\nFoods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri texts\n\nFoods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri scriptures/chronicles/travellers' accounts include:", "Rice, which could be imported from other countries in times of famine. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin diverted the waters of the Dal Lake into the Mar canal which he extended up to Shadipur where it emptied itself at the confluence of Jhelum and Indus. Owing to these irrigation works, and reclamation of large areas for cultivation, Kashmir became self-sufficient in rice production", ". The natives considered the hot water at Dewsur sacred, and said that when one wished to know if any undertaking will prosper, they must take an earthen vessel, fill it with rice, and having secured the mouth, so that water may be excluded, throw it into the holy font. If on coming up the rice was boiled, it was deemed a fortunate omen, but unpropitious if otherwise.", "Pilau, yellow pilau, black pilau, shola pilau etc.\n Bikabatta. A dish consisting of rice, goat's fat and water.\n Rice mixed with sugar and sugarcane.\n Bread, it was not custom to eat naan until early 17th century.\n Milk, of cows and probably of buffaloes was consumed.\n Butter.\n Diverse Fruits, (Apple, Crabapple, Pear, Peach, Apricot, Cherry, Mulberry, Walnut, Melon, Water Melon, Greengage, Gooseberry, Currants, Raspberry, Strawberry, Sour Cherry).", "Musk-Melons, by the permission of Akbar, the crop was imported from Kashmir in the later season.\n Guavas, considered to be 'middling' by Jahangir.\n Diverse Vegetables, (Red Beet, Water Parsnips, Radishes)\n Utpalaska, Kashmiri wopal haakh.\n Rhubarb (pambahak), grew on the mountains surrounding Kashmir. Both Hindus and Muslims were fond of the stalks.\n Turnips, The turnips (gogjee) of Haripur were said to be the best in the valley.\n Kacchaguccha, modern kachdan.\n Sanda, Kashmiri haand.", "Kacchaguccha, modern kachdan.\n Sanda, Kashmiri haand.\n Carrots. The carrots (gazar) were eaten by the Muslim inhabitants but not by the Hindus.\n Leeks. Leeks (gaudapraan) were not eaten by the Hindus of the valley.\n Dimb. A vegetable found only in the Dal and Anchar lakes in Kashmir.\n Raw Flesh.\n Ram. Meat (mesa) was generally fried and sometimes highly spiced. The mutton of Nandipur was said to be the finest of Kashmir.\n Meat juice (mamsa rasa), said to cure bodily pain.\n Meat cooked in yoghurt.", "Meat juice (mamsa rasa), said to cure bodily pain.\n Meat cooked in yoghurt.\n Ducks\n Pigeons.\n Beef, Kashmiri mystic Nund Reshi or Sheikh Noor ud-Din Wali expressed his disdain for a preacher who ate beef (moshi) and then complained it was the ogre's greed in one of his shruks. Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Zain-ul-Abidin had banned cow slaughter in the state in deference to the religious sentiment of his Hindu subjects.\n Horse meat, was taken with relish in Kashmir.", "Horse meat, was taken with relish in Kashmir.\n Pork, domestic pigs (gramya sukara) were eaten in Kashmir without any adverse notice in the 11th century AD. The fragmentary jaw of a pig was found at the trial excavations at Burzahom.\n Poultry, the valley of Lolab was famous for the best quality of poultry. The practice of capon was known to the Kashmiris.", "Chicken Soup (shurba literally meaning saltish water, ba is the reverse of aab meaning water). Prostitutes consumed meat soup for removing the body ache caused by sexual intercourse with men.\n Other edible birds.\n Dog's flesh, cooked by people of Dom origin.\n Handu sheep, delicate and sweet in flavour and wholesome.\n Stags, chased down the Wular lake.", "Handu sheep, delicate and sweet in flavour and wholesome.\n Stags, chased down the Wular lake.\n Fish Soup, eaten to keep up aphrodisiacal vigour by men addicted to women. Ksemendra also stated that a prostitute regained youth by consuming fish soup.\n Trout\n Danube Salmon.\n Fowls (kukkuta). A favourite dish of the Kashmiris was to cook fowl and aubergines together.\n Honey.\n Boiled Eggs, the eggs were brought from Gilgit and Little Tibet (Ladakh) where they were procured in greater abundance.", "Pircham, an omelette-like preparation.\n Masura, a sort of lentil.\n Samudga, moong dal. Feeding only on rice and samudga was known to be miserly. Invariably, beggars and ordinary travellers received different sorts of rice and pulses as alms from different houses and had to eat them mixed up together.\n Kulattha, dolichos uniflorus.\n Chanah, horse gram.\n Other Pulses (including Peas and Broad Beans).\n Parpata or papara, modern papad. Another kind of food made from pulses.", "Parpata or papara, modern papad. Another kind of food made from pulses.\n Ksira (kheer), rice boiled in milk.\n Ksirprakara, Ksirvata, Ksirayastika etc., sweet dishes prepared from milk.\n Machhama, a dish eaten by the Kashmiris consisting of rice, vegetables, raisins, colouring matter and sugar.\n Walnuts, which were eaten during famine as shali rice became dear.\n Pistachios.\n Sugar-cane., the country around Martand was planted with the crop.", "Pistachios.\n Sugar-cane., the country around Martand was planted with the crop.\n Grapes, grown only in Kashmir in India, according to Hiuen Tsang and which were rare even in Heaven, according to Kalhana. Of husaini and fakhri varieties from Khorasan.\n Unripe grapes (kur), the Kashmiris made excellent vinegar of it.\n Onions, it was supposed to be an expression of honour if onions were presented to teachers or elders. A soup prepared with fish and onions was a favourite in Kashmir.", "Garlic, several Brahmanas who used to eat it were expelled, according to Kalhana.\n Pomegranates.\n Holy Basil.\n Salt, a precious article and according to Ksemendra, consumed by the rich alone. Two varieties were found in the bazaars of Kashmir: rock salt from the Punjab, and powder salt, called bota nun from Ladakh.", "Saffron, historians suggest Persian saffron corms were transplanted to Kashmiri soil after Persia conquered Kashmir. The first harvest occurred sometime prior to 500 BC. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller in his Travels in India (631 AD) says that saffron flowers were long used to adorn the neck of oxen at the autumn festival in the country of Kashmir. Reference has been made of Kashmiri saffron in the Ratnavali of Harsha", ". Reference has been made of Kashmiri saffron in the Ratnavali of Harsha. Kashmiri poet Bilhana in his Vikramanka Charitam says that the cultivation of saffron flowers in Kashmir originated from Takshaka Naga, a holy spring. A popular myth talks about how when a naga chieftain (a water god) fell sick with an eye complaint, he was cured by the vaidya of Padmapur (Pampore). In gratitude, the naga gave him a bulb of saffron and thus the locals began the cultivation", ". In gratitude, the naga gave him a bulb of saffron and thus the locals began the cultivation. Ksemendra mentioned that traders used to earn a lot through trade in saffron, in his 11th century satire Samayamatrka. In the Kaula tradition, a ceremony was performed with saffron for warriors. The Persian historian Firishta (1612) mentions that the saffron of Kashmir was particularly good. At the time of Jehangir (1605–27), the annual crop was 18.5 tonnes, more than anywhere in the world.", "Clarified Butter, lamps were prepared with ghee.\n Oil.\n Gold Dust.\n Curd.\n Half ripe Barley.\n Bread (apupa) and cake (pistaka) made from barley. A particular day of the year was observed as a festival, when barely became ripe in the fields.\n Spring Water, of Kokar Nag was said to appease hunger and renew appetite. A fountain in the neighbourhood of Achh Bal was scarcely equalled for its coldness, limpidity and refreshing qualities. Malakhnag in Anantnag was cherished for its mineral-rich waters.", "Tea, came to Kashmir by caravans across Chinese Tartary and Tibet.", "Beer. For Kashmiri polymath Abhinavagupta, alcohol was the external essence of Shiva. Without alcohol, there was neither enjoyment nor liberation. The use of drink is admitted during the sautramani sacrifice of the brahmans, during a great battle in case of warriors, during farming in case of peasants, at great family celebrations, at the birth of a son, on the occasion of marriage or gathering of friends, and at the conclusion of the cremation ritual in case of slaves", ". For his commentator Jayaratha, the practitioner should drink because of a sort of bhairavic greatness, but not like a bonded animal, because of greed. The finest drink is on every occasion, the drink of average value is at the junctures, the worst is only once a month, and beyond a month he becomes a bonded animal.", "Wheat Beer. Mead.\n Rum, from treacle.", "Wine, called mas in Kashmiri language. Kashmir was the only part of India where wine was made from the juice of the grape, a fact to be attributed rather to its acescent quality, than to any scarcity of fruit. For Abhinavagupta, alcohol which came from grape was splendour to a supreme degree. He praised the wine of his native Kashmir as mahabhairava (the mercurial essence). Jayaratha cautions against mixing it with any other ingredient, for the reason that its effectiveness would be quite limited", ". The popularity of wine in Kashmir is evident from the fact that on certain religious festivals like the new snowfall day, the second Mahimana and the Iramanjari-pujana the drinking of wine is recommended in the Nilamata Purana. It was enjoyed equally by members of both the sexes. At the beaded ring of a statue of goddess Lakshmi in a distinctively Gandharan style discovered by Frenchman Albert Foucher near the village of Brar in Bandipora in 1896, one can see clusters and foliage of vines", ". Lalitaditya was so intoxicated with wine he told his ministers that if they wished to increase the beauty of his city, they should burn Pravarapura, the city built by king Sri Pravarasena of the Alchon Huns and his orders could not be disobeyed. Sikandar Butshikan, or the destroyer of idols (c.1416) prohibited vending wine in Kashmir.", "Maireya Wine, a spicy wine perfumed by camphor, and made out of fruits and flowers with a natural sugar base.\n Asava Wine, decocted extracts or cold infusion extracts of different herbs fermented with flowers of dhataki (woodfordia fruticosa).\n New Wine. The Hindus pressed the juice of the grape, strained it, placed it in the sun for four or five days and then drank it.\n Sweet wine, like Madeira. It would be found to improve greatly in quality with age.", "Sweet wine, like Madeira. It would be found to improve greatly in quality with age.\n Fruit wine (madapan), made out of pears, apples or mulberry.\n Brandy, distilled from wine.\n Vinegar, Kashmiris made various pickles with it, the best of which was garlic, according to Jehangir.\n Flour cakes, fine flour could become expensive.\n Spirit from Grapes, liquor (mrdvika) was drunk with incantation and blessing.\n Spirit from Sugarcane.\n Sesame.", "Spirit from Sugarcane.\n Sesame.\n Ginger., Jonaraja compares his words (as meagre) to water in dried ginger.\n Coarse sugar.\n Meat cakes.\n Fish.\n Dried food.\n Ira-flowers(drink).\n Green vegetables Betel leaves, taken along with the customary ingredients of lime, catechu and areca-nuts. Kalhana refers to a betel-leaf dealer who became an intimate of a king of Kashmir because of his supplying these to his court from far-off regions.", "Ingredients and seasoning \n\nMeat\nApart from chicken, fish and game, Kashmiris use only mutton (meat of mature sheep) or goat's meat. More than 75% of sheep population are cross breeds and are generally called Kashmir Merino that provides the dual purpose of meat and wool. The Bakkarwal (nomadic herders) goats belong to the rare Kaghani breed, prized as one of the world's best in terms of meat.", "Beef is consumed in towns and villages of Kashmir more so for its affordability. In some villages, beef-eaters are huddled separately from those supposed to be served mutton during wazwan feasts. There is a class divide between people who eat kat maaz (mutton) considered elite and more sophisticated, and those who eat bad maaz (beef), considered lower-class. The biggest rabbit breeding farm in North India sprawls on six hectares of land in Wussan village of Baramulla district of Kashmir", ". The consumption of rabbit meat as a substitute for sheep and goat meat among the general masses is becoming popular. People with cardiac problems eat rabbits as the meat is considered lean and white with high nutritious value.", "The local geese of Kashmir (Kashmir Aenz) is the first and only recognized domestic geese breed in India. Geese rearing in the Valley dates back to ancient time as has been mentioned by Sir Walter R. Lawrence in his book 'The Valley of Kashmir'. In Srinagar, geese are mainly sold in Batmaloo and Lal Chowk, by vendors, who purchase geese from rearers in villages and sell them live or slaughtered in the city.\n\nFish", "Duke of Bedford helped to send 10,000 trout eggs from the UK in 1899 but unfortunately these perished on the way. A second consignment arrived from Scotland the next year. The rainbow and brown trout adapted well to the Kashmir valley, while the indigenous snow trout continues to flourish. Locally known as alegaad, it can be found in both standing and flowing water bodies throughout the valley", ". Trout from Kashmir's glacial streams, though smaller than elsewhere, are considered to be among the most delicious in the world. There were 137 private fish farms in just Anantnag district, which was declared as the 'Trout District of India'.", "Eggs", "Poultry farms are set on European standards, as Kashmir has similar geo-climatic conditions. Using permaculture and no-dig gardening technique, free-range eggs are being sold every day. People collect chick varieties like Kalinga brown, Vanraja, Kashmir Commercial Layer, etc. to dish out a regular supply of organic brown eggs. The Kashmir Duck (batook) is reared for its eggs in all districts of the valley with highest population in Bandipora district, followed by Kupwara, Barmulla, Srinagar and others", ". Eggs of Kashmir duck are either white or green-shelled and weigh 66.20 g on average.", "Kalij pheasant (wan kokur) lays between 6 and 10 eggs per clutch, and are perfect served soft-boiled in their olive-green shells with a mere sprinkle of celery salt and buttered soldiers.", "Cereals\nPeople in Kashmir eat different varieties of rice including the nutty and fragrant Mushk Budji, grown in the higher reaches of the Kashmir valley. Sagam belt of Anantnag is known for the aromatic landrace Kamad. Kashmiri red rice, locally called Zaag Batt, is grown in a small village called Tangdhar on the border with Pakistan. The small unpolished grains are sought for their superior texture and taste. In 2009, farmers in the region harvested the legendary Basmati rice for the first time.", "Vegetables", "The most important and frequently used Kashmiri eatables are: haakh (collard greens or kale), monj Haak ( kohlrabi), tsochael(mallow), bamchoont (quince), kral mound (shepherds purse), saze posh (holly hock), nadur (lotus stem), praan (shallots), aubuj (sorrel), mawal (cockscomb), wushkofur (camphor), tila gogul (mustard) and gor (water-chestnut). The floating vegetable garden on the Dal Lake is the second largest wholesale market in the world", ". The floating vegetable garden on the Dal Lake is the second largest wholesale market in the world. Men, young and old, on their wooden boats, argue about the price of plump pumpkins and gourds as they share cigarettes or hookahs. The water of Kashmir is sweeter, and that affects the taste and flavour of vegetables. The items for sale include tomatoes, carrots, cucumbers, turnips, water chestnuts, leafy vegetables, and the famous nadur", ". A porous and fibrous lake vegetable, nadur has grown to become an irreplaceable ingredient in a traditional Kashmiri kitchen. Local accounts date its discovery to the 15th-century sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, who was introduced to the chewy delicacy while on a shikara ride on the Gil Sar lake located in the exteriors of Srinagar", ". Also, according to a popular legend, the yarn threads that Lalla Ded (1320–1392), the Kashmiri mystic saint wove were thrown into the Dal Lake when her tyrant mother-in-law ridiculed and taunted her for yarning it too thin. These got changed into the fibres of nadur for eternity.", "Sun-dried vegetables, locally known as hokh syun are consumed as fresh produce dwindles. During summer, vegetables are peeled, chopped, salted and sun-dried to preserve them for winter. The various varieties of hokh syun include dried tomatoes (ruwangun haech), dried bottle gourd (al haech), dried turnip slices (gogji haech), dried quince (bamchount haech) and dried spinach (hoech palak). In the Charar Sharief area of central Kashmir, dried pears, locally known as tang haech are considered a delicacy.", "Snow Mountain garlic, also known as Kashmiri garlic, is a rare single-clove variety of Allium sativum. The clove beneath is bright white to creamy-white color and offers a strong, pungent garlic flavour without the acidity present in other varieties.", "In the forests, foragers gather wild morel mushrooms (kanaguchhi) and asparagus (paarglaas), which are both highly prized by cooks. Kashmir valley is the only place in India, where asparagus grows. Up to sixties, it was grown widely in Kashmir at Pulwama, Budgam, Rajbagh, Tangmarg and Gulmarg. As of now the area of asparagus cultivation is restricted to Tangmarg and Gulmarg.\n\nSugar & sweeteners\nDelicate nectar of the acacia flowers makes for honey in Tral, Verinag and other locations.", "Fruits", "Kashmiri apple is famous for its juiciness and distinct flavour as well. In 2019 alone, Kashmir produced over 1.9 million metric tonnes of apples, the highest among Indian states. Further, Kashmir accounts for 90% of India's walnut production. Kashmiri walnuts are a great source of nutrients and widely in demand across the globe. Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir", ". Giant walnut trees can scale 75 feet in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. Many years ago, walnut oil used to be a medium of cooking and imparted a sweeter and nuttier flavour to dishes.", "Muhammad Quli Afshar brought cherries from Kabul and planted them during Akbar's time. Mishri variety of cherry is famous in Kashmir and sweeter than other varieties. They are loaded with minerals, vitamins and plant compounds. The exotic berries from Kashmir are sweet and sour mulberry (tuell and shah-tuell), raspberry (chhanchh), barberry (kaawducchh) and red berry (haapat maewaa). Gassu area on the Srinagar outskirts is known for strawberry (istaber) harvesting.", "Orange cultivation for commercial purposes was introduced a few decades before in the Urossa village in Uri. The climate and soil is relatively warmer than the rest of Kashmir and conducive for the crop. In this mountainous region, the micro-climate is good for Mediterranean crops like lemons and olives. The lemons are better and juicier than Punjab lemons", ". The lemons are better and juicier than Punjab lemons. A sub-species of wild olives that doesn't bear much fruit but grows even in hardy, rough conditions is used for grafting with fruit varieties, producing about 1,000 litres of extra virgin olive oil each year.", "In harud, the harvesting season of Kashmir people give away a share of grapes to neighbours, relatives and friends. Throughout Kashmir's history, soil and climate have been suitable for viticulture. The vines were allowed to grow on the poplars and mulberry trees. In Kashmir as per the official estimates, the grapes are cultivated on almost 500 to 600 hectares of land and production goes up to 1100 to 1500 MT every year.", "Fats\nThe main cooking fat in the region is mustard oil, which is pressed from the seeds of the plants whose yellow flowers carpet the hills in the spring. The golden oil is similar in flavor to extra virgin olive oil. Cold-pressed Kashmiri walnut oil is sweet and earthy tasting, and known for its nutty flavour and numerous health benefits.", "Dairy Products\nHolstein Friesian (HF) and Jersey cows were introduced in Kashmir several decades ago, producing 4 million litres of milk per day. Organic Kashmiri butter wrapped in Chinar leaves was common in the yesteryears, but is now sold only by a few. A traditionally ripened Himalayan cheese is called the milk chapati or maish krej in Kashmiri.\n\nSpices", "Kashmiri saffron is known for its aroma, colour, and medicinal value. The saffron of Pampore town is considered to be of superior quality with 8.72% crocin content as compared to the Iranian variety which contains 6.82%. In May 2020, Kashmiri saffron was given a geographical indication tag. The spice shahi zeera or imperial cumin or black cumin belongs to Apiaceae (parsley) family and was initially available in the jungles of Gurez Valley", ". These darker seeds unlike the regular brown zeera are of superior quality because of their smell, relative rarity and shape.", "Among the spices used:", "Kashmiri chilli pepper (martswangun) — chilies are grown locally in Kashmir. When they turn red, they are dried and ground into powder form. Powdered red chilies are moderately hot coloring agents that are used for most meat and some vegetarian dishes.\n asafoetida (yangu) — used in much of Kashmiri Pandit cuisine, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian.", "asafoetida (yangu) — used in much of Kashmiri Pandit cuisine, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian.\n cardamom (nich auleh) — the seeds, derived after crushing the pods, can be used in curries such as yakhean, qaliya, and also in teas such as kahwah and sheer/noon chai.\n bay leaf (tej pata) — most commonly used for rice polav and biryani dishes in Kashmir.\n black pepper (marts) — both fruit and seed are used.", "black pepper (marts) — both fruit and seed are used.\n cinnamon (dalcyn) — typically used in most of the dishes in Kashmir and is also an important ingredient in kahwah chai.\n cloves (rong) — an essential ingredient in many dishes such as rogan josh, dum olav and is also used in making pickles.\n fennel (bodiyana) — often used in making breads such as kulcha and is served by itself after food. Ground aniseed is used in almost all Kashmiri stews.", "ginger (shaunth) — in its dried, powdered form, it is used in almost all Kashmiri cuisine.\n tamarind (tambar)\n turmeric powder (lader) — among the most widely used spice in Indian cooking and in Kashmiri cuisine in particular. It imparts a yellow color to curries but should never be substituted for saffron for this purpose because the two have little in common.\n saffron (kong posh) — a pinch of the crumpled stigmas is enough to give the color and bittersweet taste to a dish.", "cumin seeds (safed ziur) — an important spice for almost all dishes, vegetarian or non-vegetarian, except bhat haakh.\n caraway seeds (krihun ziur/zureh)\n coriander seeds (danival) — in Kashmir, it is used in dried form as well as whole seed. It is essential for making pickles and vari (Kashmiri Garam Masala).\n nigella seeds (siyah dana)\n fenugreek seeds (bresta) — used for fish dishes, making vari, and for making pickles.\n dry fenugreek leaves (hoechh mith)\n nutmeg (zafal)\n mace (jalvatier)", "dry fenugreek leaves (hoechh mith)\n nutmeg (zafal)\n mace (jalvatier)\n soda bi-carb (phul)\n shelled seeds of cucumber, musk melon, water melon and pumpkin (char magz)\n dry crushed mint leaves (hoekh pudana)\n dry garlic (rohan)\n dry shallots (pran)\n vari masala cakes — a quick flavouring agent for many dishes such as haakh, gogjee nadur, spinach, kohlrabi, razmah gogjee, fish and shikaar (game).\n silver leaf (varak) — tissue-thin edible silver sheets used for garnishing pulao and meat dishes.", "Rock salt consumption is quite old in Kashmir. It was and is still being imported from Khewrah area of Pakistani Punjab, where it was first discovered by the troops of Alexander the Great in 326 B.C. Pre-independence, rock salt was imported via Mughal Road, which, before the advent of Mughals, was called Namak Route. After partition, its supply was barred. Because of its benefits, it is now being consumed by almost one-fourth of the population.\n\nSpecialties by season", "Spring is often considered a season of rejuvenation after a long and harsh winter. Picnics, of which the Kashmiris are very fond, are planned around the theme of food. The countryside is awash with white and pink flowers of almond (badaam), peach (tsunun) and cherry (gilaas) blossoms. The mustard fields join the show with their bright-yellow blooms. The pear (tang) blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers", ". The pear (tang) blossoms can be identified by their thick cluster of flowers. Apricot (Tser) blossoms are white in colour, often tinged with a pink or reddish hue. They grow from late spring through early summer. Beans are a spring vegetable. Cherries are a fruit of late spring and summer. Coriander (Danival) is a cool herb whose season predominates between spring and summer in cooler areas. Garlic (Rohan) is found mainly in spring and through fall season", ". Garlic (Rohan) is found mainly in spring and through fall season. Melons (Kharbooz) are a fruit grown in spring and summer. Tender spring-time haakh (collard greens) are called kaanul.", "The season of harvesting lotus stem (nadur) starts in September. With the onset of autumn the markets are filled with the dried vegetables (hokh syun). The samovar bubbles in a corner, spreading the sweet fragrance of saffron and cardamom in the air. Cookie-shaped kandi kulchas made of flour, butter, sugar and sprinkled with poppy seeds are passed around to be dipped into the tea and relished. Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area", ". Men fish under the shade of the chinar tree in Dalgate area. Rice harvest begins setting off the harud (autumn) spirit. Dandelion leaves, also known as haand in Kashmir, are foraged on foot. Going to the countryside, one can see paddy being cut with sickles and then stacked in huge piles to dry. Chestnuts are roasted in the dying embers. Bulbous garlic and red potatoes jostle for space. Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district", ". Saffron fields in full bloom greet you in Pampore, a part of Pulwama district. Going towards the hilly areas one can see the maize and walnut trees with their fruit getting ready to be harvested. Going towards the apple producing areas of Sopore in North Kashmir or Shopian in South Kashmir, one can see cartons of apple being transported to various parts of the country.", "During the long winters the days are short, sunlight and electricity in short supply, so there is not much that can liven up existence except interesting food, so it constitutes a major interest of the Kashmiris' lives. On window sills and terraces, one can spot small piles of aubergines, cherry tomatoes, gourds and turnips being sun-dried", ". When all village roads remained blocked due to heavy snowfall and villagers have to use oil lamps or kerosene lanterns, the entire family is called to the kitchen where flavour of the overnight shab deg fills the entire space. Winter food of Kashmir includes all sorts of pulses: razmah, mong, masoor, channa and warimuth. Kohlrabi (monje) is cold tolerant, and continues to grow on the fields in winter, so much that a little frost even helps it.", "List of Dishes\nSome noted Kashmiri dishes include:\n\nBarbecue\nthumb|Kashmiri kababs can be eaten as a snack or a meal with rice.\n\nOne version of the origin of kababs is the one in which Turkish soldiers were first known to grill chunks of meat on open fires. Kashmir's kababs are cooked with local spices and accompanied with dips:", "Kabab, condimented minced meat, roasted or fried, on skewers. According to chef Ghulam Nabi Dar (aka Bitte Waaze), the meat for the kabab is first minced with a very sharp knife (haché au couteau), then it requires an egg, cumin, cardamom and garlic, then it needs to be minced some more until it becomes a paste, then it is mounted on 1 m long skewers to be reheated the day after.\n Kokur Kabab, chicken kebab.", "Kokur Kabab, chicken kebab.\n Lahradar Kabab, also known as Lahabi/Moachi kabab. Minced mutton classically shaped like a boat with a depression in the centre, cooked in curd based mild spicy gravy. Once softened, the meat is soaked overnight in egg and at least nine different seasonings and spices, including onions, red chili powder, nutmeg, garam masala, ginger, garlic and coriander. It is typically served with yoghurt.\n Kokur Lahabdar Kabab Ruwangan, chicken kebabs in rich tomato gravy.", "Kokur Lahabdar Kabab Ruwangan, chicken kebabs in rich tomato gravy.\n Shammi Kabab, wazwan style mutton patties with ground chickpeas, egg and mild Kashmiri spices.\n Champ, lamb chops.\n Nadur Maund, Kashmir's answer to hash browns, lotus root ginger and mint patties with a dash of eclectic Kashmiri spices.\n Buzith Tschaman, grilled paneer marinated in yoghurt, cream and aniseed. It is said a poet wandering in the lovely forests of Kashmir, cooked this dish out in the open.", "Buzith Hedar, nicely marinated grilled mushrooms.\n Buzith Gaad, charcoal grilled fish marinated with Kashmiri spices.\n Buzith Olav, Thool, Maaz etc., the round oven-baked clay-pot kangir works as an oven for baking food-items such as eggs, potatoes, pea beans, chunks of meat etc.\n Talith Gaad, fish marinated in black pepper, cumin and Kashmiri chilli and then shallow-fried.\n Gaad Talith Ta Badaam, fried fish with almonds.\n Talith Kokur, Fried chicken.", "Gaad Talith Ta Badaam, fried fish with almonds.\n Talith Kokur, Fried chicken.\n Chicken/Mutton/Beef Tujji, meat marinated in Kashmiri red chillies and aniseed powder, barbequed to perfection. The steel rods called seekh are held over an iron grill and roasted over red-hot embers called baath-e-czini. Served with chutney, over special Kashmiri bread called lavas.\n Gaad Tujji, fish kababs.", "Gaad Tujji, fish kababs.\n Tschaman Tujji, Kashmiri style marinated cottage cheese chunks barbecued on a skewer and served with a side of chutney.\n Tchaap Maaz, sausages.\n Kaleeng, thick membrane that covers sheep's head,skull and all, chopped coarsely and set to cook with spices and minimal liquid over a low fire for hours.", "Breakfast", "For the average Kashmiri, breakfast normally means fresh bread from the local bakery and a cup of noon chai (salt tea). Some affordable luxuries include:", "Harisa is a popular meat preparation made for breakfast, it is slow cooked with spices in a special underground oven for a 24-hour period and hand stirred. A good harisa entails a meticulous mincing of deboned mutton, mixed with local rice, fennel seeds, cinnamon, cardamom and salt. The dish is so tasty that one 18th century Afghan governor, who came here during the Afghan Rule, is believed to have over-eaten himself to death.", "Harisa Zafrani, sprinkled with Kashmiri saffron. A maker in Aali Kadal was known for this peculiar dish.\n Luchi & Halwa, by luchi makers outside Kheer Bhawani shrine.\n Makai Vath, cooked granular maize meal. Used to be a staple food in the unirrigated highland villages, where rice could not be grown.", "Gaer Vugra, water chestnut flour porridge. These water chestnuts or buffalo nuts are called gaer in Kashmiri. They grow in shallow waters at many places, especially near the shore of the famous Wular lake. In India, these water chestnuts also grow but are generally bigger in size and have more water content. Generally eaten with churned yoghurt diluted with water (gurus).", "Vushki Vath, barley meal porridge. Cooked as a staple food in some hilly villages of Kashmir, where rice or maize is not easily available or grown.", "Wazwan Dishes\n\nBulbul shah was the first Sufi Islamic preacher from Suhrawardi order, who converted the then king Rinchan of Kashmir to Islam. Thereafter many people from the kingdom were also converted. The King commissioned a shrine for subjects where they used to run large scale lankars (communal kitchens) to feed the poor, with cooks from Persia. This was the beginning of the wazwaan.", "Unlike most dishes of the Indian subcontinent where the flavour is added to the food while cooking on the flames, the wazwan flavours are added while the dish is still uncooked by adding flavoured water to the preparation or soaking in flavoured water (osmosis):", "Tabakhmaaz, rib racks in ghee with sweet fat lodged between lacquered slips of meat Kashmiri Hindus commonly refer to this dish as Qabargah. It seems to have travelled from Kazakhstan where it is known by its Pandit name, Qabargah. While Qabargah is simmered on a low heat for a longer duration and then fried very quickly, Tabakhmaaz is boiled with salt and garlic and characterised by a slightly elastic texture.", "Tang ta Lahabi Kabab, whole Kashmiri pears & mutton kababs that often go with a tomato-yoghurt gravy.\n Waaza Kokur, whole chicken cooked in saffron gravy with mild Kashmiri spices.\n Safed Kokur, chicken with white sauce.\n Dani Phoul, mutton shank.\n Aab Gosh, also known as Dodhe Maaz. A famous milk-based curry cooked in spices and ghee over a low flame. Ten litres of pure cow milk is reduced to one and then mixed with the mutton.", "Methi Maaz, mutton intestines flavoured with a spice mixture containing dried fenugreek (methi) leaves.\n Waazeh Hedar, Kashmiri wazwan-style mushrooms.\n Marchwangan Kormeh, meat cooked with spices and yogurt and mostly using Kashmiri red chillies and hot in taste.\n Kokur Marchawangan Kormeh, Chicken cooked in red hot chilly gravy.\n Aloobukhar Kormeh, mince cooked with dried plums.\n Badam Kormeh, tender mutton pieces cooked in creamy almond gravy.", "Badam Kormeh, tender mutton pieces cooked in creamy almond gravy.\n Danival Kormeh lamb cooked with coriander or parsley.\n Kokur Danival Kormeh, chicken cooked in curd based gravy, flavoured with saffron and fresh coriander.\n Monje Kael, knol-khol prepared in onion gravy.", "Soups\n\nSoups are often given to new mothers:\n\n Tsatt/Maaz Rass, mutton stock with mutton pieces flavoured with aromatic spices and salt.\n Kokur Poot Rass, Kashmiri chicken soup with garlic and pepper.\n Channa Rass, easily made chickpea soup.\n\nDomestic Meat Stews", "thumb|Shab Deg with Meatballs.thumb|Yakhein.Qaliya, a mutton delicacy in which all flavours are included, excluding red chilly powder. It is prepared in Kashmir, especially on shishur, a ceremony held in honor of a new bride or newborn baby at the onset of winter in December.\n Kokur Qaliya, chicken qaliya.\n Shab Deg: dish cooked with turnip and meat/duck/chicken/beef and balls of ground meat, left to simmer overnight.\n Dani, marrow-bone in gravy.", "Dani, marrow-bone in gravy.\n Matschgand, lamb meatballs in a gravy tempered with red chillies.\n Methi Matsch, muttonballs with fenugreek leaves that have been boiled, crushed or liquidized into a paste.\n Matsch Ta Tser, lamb fingers with apricot. The dish looks beautiful when laid on the table as the apricots remain yellow and the minced meat red making it very colourful.\n Olav Bokhara Barith Matsch, minced meat balls stuffed with plums.\n Mith Ta Golemach, minced meat balls with fenugreek.", "Mith Ta Golemach, minced meat balls with fenugreek.\n Matsch Ta Phul Gupi, minced lamb fingers with cauliflower.\n Matsch Ta Olav, lamb fingers cooked with potatoes.\n Tser Kofta, minced mutton balls with an apricot inside.\n Nadir Ta Maaz, lotus stems and mutton.\n Nadir, Oluv Ta Maaz, lotus stems, potatoes and mutton cooked on low heat and gravy thickened with garam masala and caraway seeds.\n Maaz Vangun, aubergine with meat.", "Maaz Vangun, aubergine with meat.\n Syun Oluv, mutton preparation made with potato and cooked with hing and spices.\n Kokur Aloobukhar Korma, chicken cooked with dried plums with Kashmiri ingredients.\n Palak Ta Kokur, spinach with country chicken.\n Gand Ta Kokur, chicken & onion curry.\n Kokur Ta Torreil, chicken with snake gourd.\n Bam Chunth Ta Maaz, quince with lamb.\n Gogjee-aare Ta Maaz, sundried Turnips with Lamb.\n Gaazar Ta Maaz, carrots and mutton.\n Bote-Tser Maaz, lamb and dried apricots.", "Gaazar Ta Maaz, carrots and mutton.\n Bote-Tser Maaz, lamb and dried apricots.\n Haand Ta Kokur, dandelion greens & chicken.\n Haand Ta Maaz, dry dandelion and meat curry. Old age Kashmiri recipe for lactating mothers.\n Ruwangun Shimla Mirch Kokur, tomato capsicum and chicken curry.\n Haakh Maaz, Kashmiri saag cooked with mutton.\n Woste Haakh Ta Maaz, green/red leaves with lamb.\n Monje Ta Maaz, Kashmiri style knol khol and mutton. Kashmiris don't only eat knol khol, its leaves are mandatory.", "Gole Al Syun, pumpkin cooked with lamb.\n Torreil Ta Maaz, ridged gourd with mutton.\n Monje Qaliya, kohlrabi with mutton.", "Rogan Josh, a lamb based dish, cooked in a gravy seasoned with liberal amounts of Kashmiri chillies (in the form of a dry powder), ginger (also powdered), garlic, onions or asafoetida , gravy is mainly Kashmiri spices and mustard oil based. The Persian and central Asian influence is evident in the large quantities of saffron, and asafoetida, favourite Persian flavourings, and the Mughals cultivated these plants in the subcontinent to provide their cooks with a ready supply", ". Kashmiri Muslims use praan (a type of shallot), plus garlic and cockscomb flower for colouring. Columnist Vir Sanghvi has nominated it as world's most famous Indian curry.", "Kokur Roghan Josh, fried chicken cooked in cock's comb flower gravy with Kashmiri condiments.\n Hindi Roghan Josh, Roghan Josh with tamarind.\n Vunth Roghan Josh, for the past two decades, camel meat is sold on the occasion of Eid-ul-Azha in keeping with the tradition of Muhammad who mostly used to sacrifice camels on holy occasions.", "Pachi Roghan Josh, trotter in red gravy.Yakhean, a yoghurt-based mutton gravy without turmeric or chilli powder. The dish is primarily flavoured with bay leaves, cloves and cardamom seeds. This is a mild, subtle dish eaten with rice often accompanied with a more spicy side dish. Yakhean came to be known in Kashmir during Akbar's rule. Yoghurt-based meat curries were part of Persian cuisine, and the emperor introduced this style of cooking to his new state when he annexed it in 1586.", "Kokur Yakhean, succulent pieces of chicken cooked in curd flavoured in Kashmiri herbs.\n Chuste, spicy dry curry of goat's intestines.\n Naihkala Ta Phendeir Yakhean, certain parts of innards of sheep or goat, cooked with curd.\n Chhagael Yakhean, testes of sheep or goat cooked in curd etc.\n Damin Yakhean, tripe yakhni (curd curry).\n Shyaem, minced mutton cutlets cooked with curd.\n Kokur Shyaem, chicken cutlets in yoghurt.\n Bokavachi Chhagael, kidneys and testes of goat or sheep.", "Bokavachi Chhagael, kidneys and testes of goat or sheep.\n Charvan, cooked diced liver of sheep or goat.\n Choek Charvan, sour diced liver of goat or sheep.\n Charvan Oluv, curried liver and potatoes.\n Kalle Maaz, goat's head meat.\n Pachi Ta Heri Ras, cooked legs with hoofs, and head of sheep or goat.", "Meatballs\nThe wazas are trained for years to learn the art of making the right cuts and grounding the meat to perfection. Traditionally, the lamb is mashed with walnut wood:", "Goshtabeh minced mutton balls with spices in yogurt gravy. Also known as The Dish of Kings in Kashmir region and the last dish of the banquet. Legendary Bollywood actor Yusuf Khan aka Dilip Kumar was said to love goshtabeh the most. In December 1955, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the then Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir and Nikita S. Khurschev, the first secretary of the Soviet Communist party were captured in an iconic photograph feeding each other goshtabeh.", "Riste, meatballs in curry. The meat is derived from either sheep or goat and then pounded very carefully on a wooden block. The perfect meatballs are achieved through maintaining the right temperature throughout the pounding process and laced with kidney fat.\n Beef Riste.", "Beef Riste.\n Beef Goshtabeh. Pulverised beef with 25 percent fat is pounded into a pulpy mass and seasoned before being shaped into meatballs. It is then immersed in a seasoned hot water bath, before being placed in a bubbling-hot broth of well-churned yoghurt, laced with milk and some beef stock and cooked to a semi-thick consistency.The original recipe calls for very fatty buffalo meat, which can pose quite a challenge for the unprepared palate.", "Palak Rista, usually four small 'rista' pieces, along with some spinach Leaves, are ladled on a 'Traem' for four guests.\n Safed Rista, Goshtabeh meatballs are the biggest, next rista and palak rista meatballs are the tiniest.", "Vegetarian Sides\nKashmir produces tons of vegetables and forest produce. The traditional dishes are:\n Dum Olav/Dum Aloo, potato cooked with ginger powder, fennel and other hot spices. The most skillful part is to prick potatoes after frying them so that the gravy or the sauce gets absorbed in the potato, making them spongy and enhancing the flavour profile of the multiple potato-folds.\n Wazel Aelwa, forgotten aloo recipe mostly cooked in the villages.", "Wazel Aelwa, forgotten aloo recipe mostly cooked in the villages.\n Matar Olav, potatoes peas curry. A classic side dish that is regularly paired with white rice (batta).\n Olav Dude Legit, potatoes in yoghurt.\n Gande te Matar, onions and peas.\n Gande te Hemb, green beans and onions gravy.\n Boda Razmaah Ta Olav, green beans and potatoes.\n Razmah Hemb Ta Nadir, spicy French beans with lotus stems.\n Razmah Hemb Ta Vangan, French beans with aubergine.\n Tamatar Vangan, Kashmiri eggplant in Tomatoes.", "Tamatar Vangan, Kashmiri eggplant in Tomatoes.\n Band Gupi Ta Tamatar, cabbage cooked with tomatoes.\n Nadir Palak, lotus roots and spinach. This is a side dish served in big feasts and dinners.", "Nadir Palak, lotus roots and spinach. This is a side dish served in big feasts and dinners.\n Ranith Bam Chunth Khanji, cooked quince. Quince is a very popular fruit with Kashmiri people. It is generally not eaten raw because it has a dry, tangy taste, but on cooking, it becomes sweet and very flavorful. In olden days, it was baked in daans (clay ovens). The simmering heat of the leftover embers would turn them yummy.\n Bam Chunth Vangun, quince & eggplants.\n Bam Chunth Nadir, quince with lotus stem.", "Bam Chunth Vangun, quince & eggplants.\n Bam Chunth Nadir, quince with lotus stem.\n Dued Vangan, eggplants with yoghurt.\n Karel Ta Vangun, Kashmiri Karela Baingan (Bitter Gourd & Eggplants).\n Al Kanej Ta Vangan, pumpkin greens with aubergine.", "Al Kanej Ta Vangan, pumpkin greens with aubergine.\n Tsounth Vangan, green apple curry. Apples and aubergines, both are sliced long and fried. The oil is tempered with asafoetida (yangu) and the usual spices. If apples are on the sweeter side, a few drops of lemon juice are added. This sweet and tangy creation made from sour apple and aubergines is a popular one once autumn arrives in the valley.\n Tsoek Vangan, a popular dish of eggplant fried and cooked with tamarind.", "Tsoek Vangan, a popular dish of eggplant fried and cooked with tamarind.\n Choek Vangan-Hachi, sundried eggplant instead of the fresh vegetable.\n Gole Al Doon Gooje, pumpkin with walnuts.\n Gande Dued, fried onions mixed with milk. \n Hoch Haand, dried dandelion greens, boiled and ground to a pasty texture.\n Ruwangun Hachi, Dried tomatoes.\n Barith Marchawangan, Kashmiri stuffed chillies.", "Ruwangun Hachi, Dried tomatoes.\n Barith Marchawangan, Kashmiri stuffed chillies.\n Phak'e Olav, mid-day snack of potatoes fried in mustard oil, on few monthly Pandit fasts such as poornima and ashtami.\n Monje Haakh, kholrabi being a delicacy.\n Dum Monje, knol khol (karam/gaanth gobhi/kohlrabi/ German turnip) in Yoghurt.\n Dum Phul Gupi, cauliflowers cooked in their own moisture.\n Phul Gupi Olav, cauliflower with potatoes.", "Phul Gupi Olav, cauliflower with potatoes.\n Haakh, Wosteh Haakh (red orach), Heanz Haakh, Sotchal (mallow), Kretch (knapweed), Handh (dandelion), Obuj (sorrel), Lissa (amaranth), Nuner (purslane), among others; collard greens is enjoyed by Kashmiri people and they have their own versions of cooking the same with cottage cheese, mutton or chicken.\n Bhat Haakh, also known as Sabz Haakh. Bhat is Kashmiri for Pandit. Haakh is eaten by everyone in Kashmir, but is a Kashmiri Pandit specialty.", "Dagith Haakh, mashed collard greens.\n Gogjee Haakh, turnip greens with a pinch of asafoetida.\n Wapal Haakh, teasel leaves (Dipsacus Inermis).\n Wosteh Haakh Ta Zombre Thool, orach paired with hard-boiled eggs.\n Haakh Nadir, collards or kales cooked with lotus roots.\n Haakh Ta Olav, potatoes and greens.\n Haakh Vangan, collard greens with brinjal.", "Haakh Ta Olav, potatoes and greens.\n Haakh Vangan, collard greens with brinjal.\n Sotchal Nadur, mallow (Malva Parviflora) is a wild vegetable found anywhere on the roadsides, parks, playgrounds, grazing lands, etc. The earliest account of this plant appears to have been written by a Greek author named Pedamus Dioscorides in the first century AD. The dish is liked by all, young and old particularly because of its limited availability in foreign markets.", "Sotchal Vangan, mallow leaves & baigan. The dish is made from sotchal and thool-vangan. Thool-Vangan is a small eggplant that has not grown into its full size. It is soft and fleshy with a minimal amount of seeds.\n Mujji Mulivian, mashed radish leaves curry.\n Mujje Patar Ta Vangan, radish leaves with aubergine.\n Gordoul ta Olav, green sour plum plucked from trees with potatoes.\n Gordoul ta Lissa, green sour plum with tender foliage of amaranth.", "Gordoul ta Lissa, green sour plum with tender foliage of amaranth.\n Zamutdodh Cuar, yoghurt curry stirred continuously on low heat.\n Olav Bum, a delicious dry dish prepared with potatoes and water lily plant commonly found in ponds and lakes of Kashmir.\n Al Roghan Josh, pumpkin Roghan Josh.\n Bandh Roghan Josh, cabbage simmered in a fusion of authentic spices, and yoghurt to create the signature vegetarian 'sibling' of Roghan Josh.", "Nadir Roghan Josh, lotus root cooked on low heat until the nadur is tender.\n Gogjee Nadur, Lotus stem with Turnips.\n Cshte Gogjee, turnips.\n Cshte Mujji, boiled and mildly spiced radishes.\n Cshte Band Gupi, boiled and mildly spiced cabbage (with asafoetida).\n Choek Nadur, lotus-root with tartaric acid (tatri).\n Choek Mujji/Mujji Kalaa, long radishes with tamarind paste.\n Choek Al, gourd with tamarind.\n Al-Yakhean, bottle-gourd cooked in yoghurt based gravy and flavoured with Kashmiri condiments.", "Al-Yakhean, bottle-gourd cooked in yoghurt based gravy and flavoured with Kashmiri condiments.\n Phool Yakhean, cauliflower in yogurt sauce.\n Hedar Yakhean, mushrooms yakhni.\n Nadir Yakhean, lotus root cooked with yoghurt.\n Nutree Yakhean, soya chunks yakhni.\n Karel Yakhean, prepared bitter gourds cooked until gravy thickens with yogurt.\n Vangan Yakhean, fried aubergine in yoghurt.\n Pudna Al, pumpkin with mint.", "Vangan Yakhean, fried aubergine in yoghurt.\n Pudna Al, pumpkin with mint.\n Torreil Ta Vangan, ridged gourd with eggplant. This vegetable is available in the summer and is sweet in taste and very easy to cook.\n Torreil Ta Tamatar, ridged gourd with tomatoes.\n Variphali Olav, potato curry with hot lentil dumplings. This dish is a Punjabi preparation but very much enjoyed by Kashmiris.", "Mushrooms\n \nGrown in the foothills of the Himalayas, Gucchi mushrooms (kanaguchhi) are the costliest among fungi in the world. They grow in clusters on logs of decaying wood in Kashmir:", "Kanaguchhi Yakhean, morels cooked in rich yoghurt gravy.\n Kanaguchhi Matar Masala, an absolute flavour bomb of delicious morels picked by locals.\n Guchhi Ver, kanaguchhi (Morchella esculenta) mushroom with traditional Kashmiri spice mix, an uncommon dish cooked by Suman Kaul, a self-trained masterchef.\n Shajkaan, aka Kanpapar (Geopora Arenicola) mushroom, fried with onions and tomatoes, or even prepared with milk.", "Tschaman (Cottage Cheese)\nPaneer is called tschaman in Kashmiri. The spicing falls into the sweet-savoury spectrum which means using a lot of cinnamon, mace and clove alongside earthier spices like cumin seed and ground coriander. The scarcity of fresh ginger in mountain geography also means that ground ginger is a spice staple. Paneer recipes are:", "Tschaman Kanti, cubes of cottage cheese that are fried, tossed in select spices and stir fried with onions and tomatoes.", "Lyader Tschaman. lyadur means yellow which is due to the presence of turmeric, and tschaman is cottage cheese. The term 'yellow gravy' might not do justice to the complexity of flavor you get from layering nine spices, some of them whole, with green chilies and simmering them in water before thickening the sauce with milk. British Indian chef Romy Gill called it 'a bowl of golden yellow deliciousness'.\n Veth Tschaman, also known as Vozij Tschaman. This is the rogan josh equivalent.", "Veth Tschaman, also known as Vozij Tschaman. This is the rogan josh equivalent.\n Ruwangan Tschaman, cottage cheese in tomato gravy.\n Palak/Haakh Tschaman, cottage cheese prepared in spinach based gravy peppered with Kashmiri ingredients.\n Mith Tschaman, panir with fenugreek.\n Mith Tschaman Ta Niul Kara, panir and fenugreek with green peas.\n Matar Tschaman, turmeric matar paneer. Traditionally, the paneer is meant to be deep fried.\n Torreil Ta Tschaman, ridged gourd with paneer.", "Torreil Ta Tschaman, ridged gourd with paneer.\n Tschaman Monje Qaliya, kohlrabi with paneer. Used to be made in big degchis on mehendiraat.\n Kanaguchhi Tschaman, Kashmiri morels with paneer in a tangy gravy.\n Gogjee-aare Ta Tschaman, dried turnips with cottage cheese.\n Tschaman Vangan, panir and brinjals.", "Chutneys/Raitas\n\nCalled the shadowy underbelly of the Kashmiri wazwan, they add real colour to the dishes. They are expected to be served free, when Kashmiris go out to eat or pack food. The varieties of spicy spreads are:", "Zamut Dodh, plain homemade yoghurt.\n Muj Chetein, translates to radish in yoghurt. A unique blend of grated radish and yoghurt, seasoned with a pinch of roasted cumin. The Kashmiri version of the quintessential raita.\n Doon Chetein, walnut chutney. Made with walnuts, yoghurt, dried mint, green chillies, red chilli powder and fresh coriander.\n Doon Muj Chetein, Walnut-Radish Raita.\n Zeresht Chetein, Barberry.", "Doon Muj Chetein, Walnut-Radish Raita.\n Zeresht Chetein, Barberry.\n Anardan Chetein, prepared with dried pomegranate seeds (called anardana) along with coriander and mint leaves.\n Gand Chetein, Kashmiri onion chutney. Made with sliced onions which are soaked in vinegar and flavoured with dried mint leaves and red chilli powder.\n Zirish Chetein. Blackcurrants.\n Aelchi Chetein, sour cherries with a bit of salt.\n Gordoul Chetein, sour plum chutney.", "Aelchi Chetein, sour cherries with a bit of salt.\n Gordoul Chetein, sour plum chutney.\n Pudna Chetein/Buran, a light chutney made out of green chillies and fresh mint.\n Ruwangun Chetein, tomatoes sautéed with green chillies and oil, until most of their juices evaporate.\n Ruwangun Haech Chetein, sun-dried tomato chutney.\n Martswangun Chetein, green chilli chutney ground in a mortar.\n Rohani Chetin, garlic chutney with red chilies.\n Kishmish Chetein, condimented sauce of raisins.", "Rohani Chetin, garlic chutney with red chilies.\n Kishmish Chetein, condimented sauce of raisins.\n Chounth Ta Danival Chetein, apple & coriander chutney.\n Aloo Bukhar Chetein, made with fresh plums, onions, sugar, lime juice and spices.\n Muj Chetein (variation), sautéed grated radish in mustard oil.\n Buzith Nadir Chetein, roasted lotus stem chutney.\n Buza/Foata Vangan, roasted/boiled and mashed brinjals mixed with curd.\n Dodh Al/Al Raita, bottle Gourd in yoghurt.", "Meat Stir-Fries", "Mutton/Chicken Kanti, small boneless mutton/chicken pieces, marinated, shallow fried in fresh onions, tomatoes and green chillies.\n Kabab Kanti, kababs cooked with green chillies, tomatoes and onions.\n Matsch Barith Karel, bitter gourd stuffed with minced lamb.\n Matar Machh, green Peas and Minced Mutton.\n Sotchal Charvan, mallow leaves & liver.\n Hedar, Chhagael, Bokavachi, Ta Krehnamaz, mushrooms with testes, kidneys and liver of sheep or goat.\n Talith Kaed, fried brains of goat or sheep.", "Talith Kaed, fried brains of goat or sheep.\n Kaed Pakora, brain fritters.", "Fish\n\nKashmir is full of fresh water lakes and rivers:", "Nader ti Gaad, fish (Bilose, Zob, Indian Major Carp, Catla, Rohu, Margarita, Mahseer, Snow Trout, Niger, Chush, Khront, Churu etc.) cooked with lotus stem, a delicacy cooked on festival days like Eid, Navroze and Gaadi Batti (Festival of Kashmiri Pandits).\n Mujh Gaad, a dish of radishes with a choice of fish.\n Haak Gaad, Fish curry cooked with kashmiri spinach.\n Gada Ta Gogjee/Monjje/Band Gupi, Fish cooked with Turnips, or Knol Khol, or Cabbage.\n Gaad Ta Chounth, fish cooked with green apples.", "Gaad Ta Chounth, fish cooked with green apples.\n Gaad Qaliya, fish in yellow gravy.\n Ruwangan/Tamatar Gaad, white river fish cooked delicately in a tomato gravy.\n Kong Gaad, fish with saffron flowers.\n Gaad Leij, trout fish cooked in traditional Kashmiri style and served with vegetables such as nadur, etc.\n Gaad Ta Obuj, wild obuj(rumex obtusifolius) with fish.\n Hogada Ta Haakh/Bum, dried fish (bolinao and others) with 'karam' saag or dried water-lily stems.", "Hogada Ta Haakh/Bum, dried fish (bolinao and others) with 'karam' saag or dried water-lily stems.\n Hogada Tscchuar, roasted dried small fish.", "Hogada Tscchuar, roasted dried small fish.\n Kanz Ta Gaad/Guran, fish or small fish or very small dried fish, cooked with slightly fermented but non-alcoholic drink sadre kaenz. In the old days, when one family in a neighbourhood would make kaenz it was understood it belonged equally to the rest to be used whenever required. The heat of the generously used spices like chili and ginger powder in this popular dish is supposed to be tempered by the cooling effect of this rice beer-like brew.", "Fari/Phari, smoked fish. A winter delicacy prepared in a particular method by only a few remaining households in Srinagar's Tiploo Mohalla. The fish used is a variety of trout belonging to the genus Schizothorax.", "Phari Ta Haakh, smoked fish with collard greens. The skin of the smoked fish is removed and it is fried until it turns reddish-brown. The fish is added to collard greens and cooked until all the water is absorbed and oil floats on top. Best had with steamed rice, and best not to reheat the dish.", "Salads\n\n Salaad, a plate of sliced vegetables precisely cucumber, tomatoes and carrots, decorated in concentric circles on a plate. A side with lemon squeezed on top.\n Razmah Salaad/Chat, kidney beans salad.\n\nRice\n\nKashmiris eat a lot more rice than the people of the Jammu region:", "Batta, steamed white rice.\n Buzz Batta, fried rice.\n Wazul Batta, a high-nutrition red rice snack for pregnant ladies.\n Taayi Batta, Kashmiri-style pan-fried rice.\n Waazeh Polav, a mildly sweet royal pulao flavoured with saffron and aromatic spices.Fragrant, flavorful, and visually appealing, this dish is a favorite at many gatherings. It typically includes basmati rice, saffron, dry fruits like almonds and raisins, and a blend of aromatic spices.\n Gucchi Polav, Kashmiri pulao with black morels.", "Gucchi Polav, Kashmiri pulao with black morels.\n Matar Polav, a variation of plain rice with peas, fresh or frozen added.\n Tahaer, yellow rice. Prepared by Pandits on auspicious occasions, Muslims also prepare it on certain occasions.\n Khetchar, made with rice and chilke wali moong dal, it is best enjoyed with monje aanchar.\n Neni Moonge Khetchar, mutton and whole green lentils cooked in mustard oil and finished on dum with Basmati rice.", "Vaer, Salted Rice Pudding with kernels of walnuts or intestines of sheep or goat. Always cooked by Kashmiri Pandits at the beginning of Weddings or 'Yagneopavit' ceremony.\n Mayir, saltish pudding of rice cooked with diluted curd from which generally butter has been separated. Mostly prepared in rural areas particularly after a week or so on the happy occasion of the delivery of a cow. In Srinagar and the adjoining districts, the dish is called dodh wugre.", "Yaji, boiled and steam-cooked salty rice-flour cakes.\n Batta Laaye/Mur-murei/Chewrei, rice munchies.", "Breads", "Kinke Tschut, a whole wheat unleavened flatbread cooked on a griddle.\n Parott, a buttery flatbread. A one-kilo paratha is served outside a Sufi shrine in Kashmir. Celebrity chef Sanjeev Kapoor has stated he used to make rumali roti but not such a big paratha.\n Puer, small round of deep fried and puffed wheaten cake. Served hot, these are relished with vegetable preparations or sweet dishes.\n Tschur Tschut, Spicy rice crêpes typically eaten with breakfast chai.", "Tschur Tschut, Spicy rice crêpes typically eaten with breakfast chai.\n Zyur Tschut, this savoury pancake is prepared from rice flour, cumin and green chillies.\n Tomul Tschut, rotis made with rice flour.\n Dranna, rice bread crumbs.\n Makai Tschut, corn flour chapatti.\n Gyav Tschut, as the name suggests, made with generous amounts of ghee, served with rogan josh.\n Makai Woer, afternoon bread prepared with corn flour that is relished with tea.\n Gari Tschut, bread made from water chestnut flour.", "Gari Tschut, bread made from water chestnut flour.\n Gari Puer, deep fried small rounds of water chestnut flour.\n Vushki Tschut, baked rounds of barley flour.", "Eggs\n\nIn certain rural areas, the tradition of putting an egg or two in kanger (fire pot) is known to each individual. The fragrance of an egg cooking in the kanger would trigger the enzymes signaling the egg is ready:", "Thool Mond, omelette.\n Haak Ta Thool, collard greens and Eggs together.\n Prezdar Ta Thool, Foxtail lilies with eggs, eaten locally in Kupwara.\n Puch Gand Ta Thool, fresh spring onions and eggs, eaten with warm parathas or roti.\n Wosteh Haakh Ta Thool, red spinach with eggs.\n Zombre Thool Ta Dal, a Kashmiri traditional dish of red lentils (masoor) and hard-boiled eggs.\n Thool Zambur, Kashmiri egg curry.\n Gogjee-aare Ta Zombre Thool, dried turnip and boiled egg.", "Thool Zambur, Kashmiri egg curry.\n Gogjee-aare Ta Zombre Thool, dried turnip and boiled egg.\n Zombre Thool Ta Ruwangan Hachi, fried eggs in a tomato reduction with ginger, garlic and green chillies.\n Thool Ta Obuj, kashmiri obuj, a wild growing plant with a sour taste, with eggs.\n Ver Thool, Kashmiri spicy scrambled eggs.", "Game/Hunted Animals (Shikaar)\n\nGoing by estimates, on an average 50-60 birds are killed every day in wetlands across Kashmir: Hunted game (shikaar) is not generally cooked immediately. It has to be hung for some days (faisander) before dressing it for cooking. Hanging makes the meat suppler and less fibrous, making it tastier to eat.", "In British India, markhor (screw horn goat) was considered to be among the most challenging game species. It is the largest wild goat in the world. It is locally regarded as the tastiest wild meat.\n\nIndian wild boar was introduced in the Himalayan region by Maharaja Gulab Singh, a Dogra military general. Its meat was a great delicacy for the Dogras and Sikhs, but after 1947 its population started dwindling in the Muslim-majority region.\n\nGame dishes are:", "Pacchin Dumpokhta, pintail. It is a delicacy enjoyed by Kashmiri Hindus who would not normally eat chicken. The migratory bird looks like a duck but can fly with great speed. It comes to wetlands of Kashmir during winter.\n Batook Palak, duck with spinach.\n Batook Ta Zamut Dodh, duck in a curd curry.\n Gogji Ta Batook, duck with turnip. Autumn (harud) duck has a lot of flavor in it.", "Gogji Ta Batook, duck with turnip. Autumn (harud) duck has a lot of flavor in it.\n Shikar Rogan Josh, Roghan Josh of hunted game birds and animals such as mallard, geese, plover, snipe, rail, teal, quail, pintail, Wigeon, grouse, partridge, pheasant, spotted deer, hangal, antelope, wild goat etc.\n Shikar Ta Nadeir, meat of game birds cooked with lotus roots.\n Shikar Ta Haand, ducks and mallards prepared with dried dandelion.", "Dals\n\nKashmiri Pandits who were vegetarian and did not even eat onions and tomatoes were known as Dal Battas (Dal Pandits):", "Dal Nadur, Lotus stem boiled with green beans to make a dal.\n Vaari Muth Dal, Black Turtle Beans (Kashmiri Vaari Muth).\n Vaari Muth Gogjee, black turtle beans cooked with turnips.\n Razmah Dal, a red kidney bean stew with classic Kashmiri spice flavours of powdered ginger and fennel.\n Razmah Gogjee, Kidney beans cooked with turnips.\n Gogji aare ta Razmah, turnip circles are slow simmered with creamy rajma dal flavoured with ground ginger and fennel seeds over a gentle flame.", "Razmah Hemb, Various green beans cooked with tender pods.\n Dal Dabbi, Traditional lentil preparation cooked in milk with spices.\n Channe Baegle,Native to the valley of Kashmir, the dried dal is loved more in winters.\n Razmah Nadur Thool Razmah Ta Oluv, fresh cranberry beans with potatoes.\n Thool Razmah Yakhean, green kidney beans in yoghurt.\n Vangun Hachi Ta Moonge Dal, Dried brinjals with moong.", "Fermented foods\n\nKashmiri is one of the tangiest cuisines of the world. Pickling has an important role in the food history of Kashmir that used to remain cut off because of harsh winters:\n\n Aanchar, Pickles (chicken, mutton, fish, greylag goose, mango, cherry, bitter gourd, amla, apple, apricot, plum, garlic, turnip, chillies, knol-khols, radishes, carrots, onions, cauliflowers, brinjals, lotus roots, green almonds, hard pears, grapes peppers etc.)\n\nStreet food", "thumb|Giant puer (Kashmiri fried bread).Pumm-Buchh, lotus seeds, soft watery white and sweet to taste.\n Makai Waet, roasted corn.\n Buzith Gaer, roasted water chestnuts. Excursionists sit around a hot roasted small heap of nuts and with the help of two stones, one big and the other small, pound these one by one and extract the kernels.\n Monje Guel, fritters of water chestnut kernels. Also called mesa or gaer guel in Kashmiri.\n Nadur Maunj, sliced lotus stems marinated in spicy paste and deep fried.", "Nadur Maunj, sliced lotus stems marinated in spicy paste and deep fried.\n Gaad Maunj, deboned Jhelum fish deep fried in spiced flour containing rice powder.\n Tandoori Chicken, Afghani Chicken, Chicken Lemon, varieties of street food at Khayam, Srinagar.\n Deep-fried Kababs.\n Mutton Keema Samosas, Chicken Keema Samosas etc.\n Alla Posh Mond, pumpkin flower fritters.\n Olav Mond/Monjivor, potato patty with ginger.", "Alla Posh Mond, pumpkin flower fritters.\n Olav Mond/Monjivor, potato patty with ginger.\n Doel Chetin, chutney in an earthen pot with different vegetables cabbage, onion, mint, etc.\n Tillae Karrae, chickpeas or dried green peas, coated in a batter of flour and deep fried.\n Mongh Masale, steamed black gram or kala moongh is mixed with salt and red chilli powder and served hot.\n Matar, Kashmiri street food.\n Chunth Pakori, crisp slices of batter-coated and fried green apple.", "Chunth Pakori, crisp slices of batter-coated and fried green apple.\n Vangan Pakori, fried aubergine coated with gram flour.\n Nadur Churma, lotus stem fries.\n Olav Churma, fries.\n Kruhun Masale/Dub Maha, a poor man's shawarma, a thin roti is made of refined flour in which boiled chana is rolled and then dipped in tomato chutney.\n Razmah Masale, rajma with corn.", "Razmah Masale, rajma with corn.\n Masala Tschut, chickpea masala spread over a lavasa (kashmiri naan). The preparation for making masaal begins during the night or early hours of the morning. Then different kinds of chutneys or sauces are prepared. Radish chutney mixed with fresh curd, green chilli, coriander, pepper and salt is served with it and lastly the soft bread is used for wrapping.\n Egg Roll Dastar Katlama, famous halwai food.\n Paratha Halwa, soft fried rotis with sweet suji ka halwa paste.", "Paratha Halwa, soft fried rotis with sweet suji ka halwa paste.\n Tobruk Halwa Paratha, deep fried poori with halwa.\n Gaer Gojje, water chestnuts.\n Mong V'or, moong Bean Patty.\n Chilgozay, peanuts.", "Cheese\nThe nomadic shepherds of the Kashmir valley, Gujjars and Bakerwals move their herd of dairy cattle and their own settlements up and down the mountains based on changing seasons:", "Maesh Crari., described as the mozzarella of Kashmir. The discs are first coated with chilli, turmeric and salt, and then fried in mustard oil until they form a crisp, golden outer layer and the inside stays soft and creamy.", "Kudan, a rare Gujjar goat cheese that looks like paneer but is more crumbly and akin to feta. Kudan is prepared in Bakerwal tents by heating some mustard oil in a pot on fire and then mixing some salt, turmeric and chilli along with the kudan cheese curds. Everything melts together into a golden liquid flecked with red chilli and small nuggets of kudan.", "Desserts", "Chounth Halwa.\n Barfi, a milk-based sweet dish.\n Khatai, a Kashmiri sweet biscuit that crumbles on each bite.\n Khandde Gazir, crunchy bites of sugared sweet treats.\n Modur Polav, milk, saffron, ghee and cinnamon are used to make this pulao with a plethora of dry fruits such as almonds, cashews and raisins.\n Khir, rice pudding.\n Kong Phirin, saffron flavoured rice pudding garnished with nuts.\n Seemni, vermicelli kheer.", "Kong Phirin, saffron flavoured rice pudding garnished with nuts.\n Seemni, vermicelli kheer.\n Shufta, a traditional dessert made with chopped dry fruits, spices like pepper powder, cardamom and more, in sugar syrup, garnished with rose petals.\n Shufta Kanagucchi, cottage cheese, dry fruits, saffron, milk, desi ghee and morels from Srinagar.\n Mitha Kanagucchi, morels in syrup.\n Kofta Khumani, mince apricots.", "Mitha Kanagucchi, morels in syrup.\n Kofta Khumani, mince apricots.\n Roth, something between a cake and a bread, these sweet rotis made with flour, ghee, yoghurt, poppy seeds, eggs (on special occasions) and sugar are a domestic favourite. The art of baking a perfect roth is as much an acquired skill as it is a relearned discipline passed down from generations.\n Basrakh, A sweet delicacy made from flour with a touch of ghee.\n Tosha, an age-old Kashmiri dessert.\n Shangram, dried halwa balls.", "Tosha, an age-old Kashmiri dessert.\n Shangram, dried halwa balls.\n Lyde, kashmiri dessert made with whole wheat flour.\n Nabad, crystallized sugar.\n Gulkand, indigenous rose preserved in a sugar base.\n Matka Kulfi, kulfi topped with cold noodles.\n Kesar Kulfi.\n Dry Fruit Kulfi.", "English pastry", "Before 1918, Abdul Ahad Bhat, of Ahdoos, was under the tutelage of English bakers at Nedou's, a hotel in Srinagar owned by Austro-Swiss Michael Nedou. He quickly picked up the art of baking, and started a small bakery, the first by a Kashmiri at that time. Ahdoos's forte was English goodies, and as India inched towards freedom from British Rule he added Kashmiri items to the menu", ". Mughal Darbar was established on Residency Road in 1984 and on the road parallel is Jee Enn, founded by Ghulam Nabi Sofi in 1972. Many of the owners and staff of these new bakeries have trained in Ahdoos. The variety of pastries include:", "Chicken or Mutton Patty, meat seasoned with salt, pepper and garlic, encased in layered puff pastry.\n Puffs.\n Cream Rolls.\n Cream Buns.\n Coconut Macaroons.\n Walnut Macaroons.\n Walnut Tart, made possible by the easy availability of walnut kernels in Kashmir.\n Walnut Fudge, an exclusivity of Kashmir's Moonlight Bakery, the recipe contains 'snow-white walnuts' from Uri and honey and dates from local market.", "Other Baked foods", "The Kashmir Valley is noted for its bakery tradition, that of the Qandarwan. Nowhere else in the Indian subcontinent can be found such a huge variety of leavened breads, another pointer to the Central Asian influence on Kashmiris' food habits. This qandarwan culture is contrary to North & Central India where breads (roti) are always made at home. On the Dal Lake in Kashmir or in downtown Srinagar, bakery shops are elaborately laid out", ". On the Dal Lake in Kashmir or in downtown Srinagar, bakery shops are elaborately laid out. Bakers sell various kinds of breads with golden brown crusts topped with sesame and poppy seeds. Tsot and tsochvor are small round breads topped with poppy and sesame seeds, which are crisp and flaky, sheermal, baqerkhayn (puff pastry), lavas (unleavened bread) and kulcha are also popular. Girdas and lavas are served with butter.", "Kashmiri bakerkhani has a special place in Kashmiri cuisine. It is similar to a round naan in appearance, but crisp and layered, and sprinkled with sesame seeds. It is typically consumed hot during breakfast.\n\nWazwan\n\nBeverages", "Noon Chai or Sheer Chai", "Kashmiris are heavy tea drinkers. Kashmiris don't use the word \"Kashmiri Chai\". The word \"Noon\" in Kashmiri means salt. The most popular drink is a pinkish colored salted tea called \"noon chai.\" It is made with black tea, milk, salt and bicarbonate of soda. The particular color of the tea is a result of its unique method of preparation and the addition of soda. The Kashmiri Hindus more commonly refer to this chai as \"Sheer Chai", ". The Kashmiri Hindus more commonly refer to this chai as \"Sheer Chai.\" The Kashmiri Muslims refer to it as \"Noon Chai\" or \"Namkeen Chai\", both meaning salty tea.", "Noon Chai or Sheer Chai is a common breakfast tea in Kashmiri households and is taken with breads like baqerkhani brought fresh from Qandur (Kashmiri : کاندر ) or bakers. It is one of the most basic and essential food items in a Kashmiri household. Tea was as served in large samavars. Now, the use of Samavars is limited to special occasions and normally kettles are used.", "Nuts like almonds and pistachios and edible rose petals can also be added before serving and sometimes malai or fresh cream is added to give the tea viscosity and richness.\n\nLipton chai\n\nIn Kashmir, chai is essentially salty pink tea. Anything else is called Lipton chai because Lipton was the first brand of tea that came along selling chai.", "Kahwah\nAt marriage feasts, festivals, and religious places, it is customary to serve kahwah – a green tea made with saffron, spices, and almonds or walnuts. Over 20 varieties of Kahwah are prepared in different households. Some people also put milk in kahwah (half milk and half kahwah). This chai is also known as \"Maugal Chai\" by some Kashmiri Hindus from the smaller villages of Kashmir. Kashmiri Muslims and Kashmiri Hindus from the cities of Kashmir refer to it as Kahwah or Qahwah.\n\nNatural Mineral Water", "Natural Mineral Water\n\nFrom one of the oldest and purest spring waters of Kashmir, the Kokernag Spring, Bringi Spring Water has high alkalinity and is well balanced with minerals.\n\nBabribyol\n\nThe Babribyol sharbat is a concoction of sweetened milk, rose water or Rooh Afza syrup, and soaked sweet basil seeds that are grown locally.\n\nLyaess", "Lyaess\n\nMade from yoghurt or kefir, Kashmiri lassi (lyaess) is a liquid, salty way to drink up yoghurt. The process of churning the buttermilk with a wooden choomph or churner is rhythmic and there is an art involved. The yoghurt has to be churned the right way, the buttery fats have to float to the top in a nice froth, the spices and dried mint leaves have to be just right.\n\nSadr-e-kaenz\n\nThis fermented rice water drink is supposed to be very good for a sluggish liver.\n\nShahi Sheera", "This fermented rice water drink is supposed to be very good for a sluggish liver.\n\nShahi Sheera\n\nMade by extracting the juice of different berries, it is prepared at home during Ramadan. It features in 1977 Kashmiri film Arnimaal where guests are sipping on the beverage during wedding festivities.\n\nFood and beverage pairings", "Food and beverage pairings\n\nThe traditional Kashmiri wazwan, which comprises slow-cooked meat dishes is a wonderful pairing that enhances the spicy notes of whisky. The Loire Valley wine Sancerre goes well with Kashmiri goshtabeh. A ripe fruity red works well with the full bodied roghan josh. A recommended wine to try with is Montepulciano.\n\nSpecial Occasions & Festivals\n\nEid-ul-Fitr", "While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes khajur ka laddoo (date balls), babribyol (basil seeds), kulfi, phirin, seemni, fruit chaat, fruit custard, kateer (a drink loaded with health benefits) and noon chai", ". The smell of slow-cooked mutton hovers, fragrant and sultry in the air, and despite the familiar air of unpredictability in Srinagar, spirits are high and streets are filled with happy greetings of Eid Mubarak.", "Eid-ul-Adha\n\nThe day begins with the Fajr (dawn) prayer and a breakfast of bakery goods with dodh kehwa (milky green tea). As the festival draws to a close, most well-to-do families start placing orders with the wazas for the feast, which is cooked by chefs at their own places and then sold to the customers for serving at their homes. Sacrificial animals include Delhi Walla, Merino Cross, Bakerwal and Kashmiri varieties of sheep.\n\nUrs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood", "Urs of Hazrat Sheikh Dawood\n\nOnly vegetarian food is supplied to devotees. Majority of people in Batmaloo and adjoining areas turn vegetarian and do not eat meat or chicken. They widely consume dried turnips (gogji aare) because it is believed, during Dawood's time, sundried turnips helped Kashmir survive a famine.\n\nUrs of Khwaja Masood Wali", "Urs of Khwaja Masood Wali\n\nThe people of Pampore cook dried vegetables, eggs, cheese and other food stuff except meat and invite their relatives, friends on lunch or dinner to keep the tradition of the saint alive.\n\nUrs of Dastageer Sahab", "Urs of Dastageer Sahab\n\nIn Khanyar and Sarai Bala areas of Srinagar, the devotees are seen outside the shrines where local and non-local business establishments install their carts and are seen selling the Kashmiri traditional food stuff. Pious men sing hearty hymns over offerings of dates and sweets.\n\nUrs of Raeshmol Saheb", "Urs of Raeshmol Saheb\n\nPeople in Anantnag district in southern Kashmir quit eating meat as a mark of respect for the 16th century mystic. Rarely is a butcher shop open during these seven days. For three-and-a-half days each before and after the saint's Urs, people eat radish braised in tamarind.\n\nMuharram", "Muharram\n\nThe first ten days of Muharram, that mark the tragedy of Karbala, the milk-based rice pudding mayir is prepared. Throughout the 10th day, Ashoora, kahwa is served to guests and mayir and sharbat distributed to mourners on the street.\n\nHerath\n\nFor Kashmiri Pandits, the prasad offering at Shivratri puja is a charger piled high with rice, cooked lamb and fish, and a luscious raw fish in its entirety atop the pile.\n\nKhets Mavas", "Khets Mavas\n\nCelebrated on the amavasya or the last day of the dark fortnight of Pausha(December–January), Khets Mavas or Yakshamavasya is an important festival of Kashmiri Pandits. A mutton khichdi with fresh mutton marinated in a bit of curd is offered as sacrificial food.\n\nHar Navum\n\nOn the 9th day of the month of ashad, Pandits in Kashmir offer the deity Sharika yellow rice cooked with turmeric, a little oil and salt along with tsarvan (goat's liver).", "Navreh \nThe festival of Navreh (Nowruz) is incomplete without nadur. A celebration unknown to most of India, Navreh is the welcoming of spring in the Northern hemisphere, and the valley celebrates this on the 21st day of March.\n\nDiaspora & fusion cuisines", "Diaspora & fusion cuisines\n\nTibetan exiles in Kashmir, including members of Tibet's small Muslim population live in Srinagar, mainly in a small area near the 18th-century Hari Parbat fort. Popular momo (beef dumplings) shops and Tibetan restaurants are run by their children. Tibetan options include Cantonese chicken and kumloo wonton, fried pasta stuffed with minced mushrooms.", "Kashmiri Sikh cuisine has a bit of influence from Punjab with onions and tomatoes, but the flavouring goes the Kashmiri way with elements such as badyaan(saunf). A large number of Indian tourists depend entirely on Vaishno Dhabas, the Valley's generic non-A/C restaurants that serve all-vegetarian North Indian fare.\n\n Cooking Methods", "Cooking Methods \n\nKashmiri recipes are meant to be passed down through teaching, from mother to daughter in cramped kitchens, standing together over pots of sputtering oil. Some Kashmiri cooking techniques are:\n\n Blanching \nThe stalks of dandelion (haand) with their spiky-edged leaves have to blanched four times so that they bear no bitterness.\n\n Convection \nThe traditional Kashmir food receives heat on two sides, top and bottom and the best results are obtained by slow heat using charcoal.", "Braising \nThe leaves of Kashmiri haakh are braised in lots of water. It is very important to ensure that the haakh stays submerged underwater during the initial cooking process using a wooden spatula or large spoon to continuously push the greens down. Mustard oil, which is used extensively in Kashmiri cuisine, imparts an extra flavour to the dish.\n\nCourt-bouillon", "Court-bouillon\n\nThe main skill of a wazwan lies in the preparation of a stock made of onions and shallots. Freshly shaped meatballs (rista and goshtabeh) are poached in this lamb stock flavoured with cinnamon and black cardamom, and simmered.", "Tempering\nWhole spices must be fried in oil – clove, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves. Fried too little, and the dish will be lifeless, without fragrance. A second too much, and one will be left with nothing but bitterness. Hot ghee or mustard oil is poured on top and garnished with fried praan (shallots) paste & saffron extract.\n\nCaramelisation\nSliced onions are fried until golden brown and pureed with minimal water.", "Caramelisation\nSliced onions are fried until golden brown and pureed with minimal water.\n\nEmulsification\nThe yoghurt must be fatty, thick. Dried mint, just a pinch, is added right at the end to freshen the dish.\n\nFood Colouring\nRelevant dishes are further enhanced in colour by saffron extract (Rogan Josh, Rista) or Mawal (dried cockscomb flower).", "Simmering\nThe food gets its flavours and textures from the spices being slow cooked with ingredients until they let out their inherent juices and fats and melt together.\n\nSmoke Point\nSmoking mustard oil is a treatment known as durust, and gets it ready to use after cooling off.\n\nDum cooking\nThe cooking vessel in the shab deg is sealed with dough before being cooked over a simmering fire through the long winter night. Dum cooking was made popular by the Mughal courts around the 16th century.", "TenderisingGoshtabeh and rista, the two meatball dishes are rarely found outside the valley because their unique texture is enormously challenging. The sheep has to be freshly slaughtered and the meat pounded before rigor mortis sets.To incorporate air to make them light and fluffy, the meat undergoes a process of being folded whilst beaten.", "Cooking material\nThe quality of pots is important, according to wosta (ustad) or chef Nazir Ahmed Aram. He says they must have the right content of copper. Using wood (walnut and apple are the best) is important too. Cooking on gas is not the same.\n\nSpecial Equipment\n\nThe special equipment used to cook Kashmiri food are:\n\n Dan \nOn normal days the cooking in both Hindu and Muslim homes is mostly done on a dan, which is an oblong clay oven about 3 ft by 2 ft in length and a foot and a half in height.", "Traem \n\nThese are large brass plates used for serving food.\n\n Leij/Deigul/Deigcha \n\nAmong Kashmiri Pandits, most dishes are cooked in pots of baked clay. Pots used in Kashmir are round-bottomed.\n\n Tasht-naar \n\nThese are a portable washbasin and a pitcher that are passed around to wash hands during big banquets.\n\n Goshpar-Kaen \n\nThese are a flat coarse stone and a wooden mallet made of walnut wood used for pounding meat to a fine texture.\n\n Krech", "Krech \n\nThese are different kinds of wooden spoons and ladles used for turning the food in clay pots so that the base does not get scraped.\n\n Khalur-Dula \n\nThis is a stone mortar with a wooden pestle used for grinding chutneys and pastes.\n\n Samovar \n\nThis jug-shaped metallic pitcher has a long tube inside that is filled with charcoal, which keeps the tea in the pot brewing.\n\nSimilarities with other national cuisines", "Similarities with other national cuisines\n\nMuch like Kashmir, its people, and its narrative traditions, Kashmiri cuisine too is an amalgam of influences from Central Asia, Persia, China, and the Indian subcontinent. Food recipes passed down from one culture to another are:", "Aab Gosh (Kashmiri). Abgoosht or Abgusht is more so a one-pot Persian comfort food that is a rustic dish with wholesome ingredients. It has been enjoyed by Persians for centuries. There is a similar dish in Armenia, called Abgoosht stew, using beef instead of lamb.\n Baqerkhayn (Kashmiri). Bakharkhani is made in parts of Kolkata. Some believe it originated in present-day Bangladesh.\n Batta (Kashmiri). Short-grain, sticky rice is called bata in Afghanistan.", "Batta (Kashmiri). Short-grain, sticky rice is called bata in Afghanistan.\n Dam Olav (Kashmiri). Bengali alur dom is lightly spiced and slightly sweet potato curry made with onions, tomatoes and spices.", "Harisa (Kashmiri). Al Harees is a traditional Emirati dish consisting of wheat, meat(chicken) and salt. A simple, traditional Saudi dish using crushed wheat is called jareesh. Harissa, also known as herisseh, harisa or keshkeg in Armenia is a wheat berry and meat porridge. The wheat, usually known as korkot, is shelled making them quicker to cook. In Oman, it is made with beaten rice instead of wheat. Boko Boko Harees in Burundian cuisine is a delicacy prepared with chicken, turmeric and bulgur wheat", ". In the cities of South of Iran, the dish is called Hareese and the meat might be lamb, beef, mutton, turkey or chicken. Amritsari Hareesa is a famous dish of the winter season in Lahore, Pakistan and made with wheat and meat. It is seasoned with desi ghee and served with hot naan.", "Kabab (Kashmiri). The Turkish word kebap derives from Arabic kabaab meaning roasted meat. A likely East Semitic root means to burn, to char or to roast. The Babylonian Talmud even teaches that offerings in the temple should not be kabbaba (burnt). Kysaa-ı Yusuf was the first to refer to meat on skewers as a kebab in 1377. Ibn Battuta, the famous Moroccan traveller mentioned that kebab was an integral part of the daily diet of Indian royalty as early as 1200 AD", ". Some of the world's best and most flavorful kebabs such as Adana Kebab, Urfa kebab, Iskender kebab come from Turkey's southeastern provinces. The Döner kebab was invented by İskender Efendi, who lived in Bursa and hung meats vertically to grill. One of the most popular kabobs you can find on the streets of Iran is kabob koobideh, ground lamb or beef or a combination of the two. The traditional method of cooking Afghan chapli kebab is frying.", "Kahwah (Kashmiri). A staple Afghan tea, kahwah is mild and fragrant, and recipes tend to differ from family to family.", "Katlam (Kashmiri) Qatlama in traditional Turkish means folded which comes from the verb qatlamaq (to fold). Plain katmer is eaten with Turkish white cheese and Turkish tea. In Turkmenistan, a type of bread in baked from flour which is mixed with milk and egg. This is called katlama. It is also cooked in Azerbaijan, and various herbs are added to it. The fried Kazakh bread Kattama is very popular in Central Asia. Katama is an onion-filled swirled flatbread from Kyrgyzstan", ". Katama is an onion-filled swirled flatbread from Kyrgyzstan. In Uzbekistan, katlama is a traditional bread of Sunday mornings served with homemade butter. Qatlama is an Afghan fried sweet pastry topped with sugar or sugar syrups. Qator Gambir or Gambir are Mongolian pancakes which may often be a byproduct, when there is leftover dough from making some other dish. Kutluma is a layered Pakistani flatbread with a crispy, buttery texture", ". Kutluma is a layered Pakistani flatbread with a crispy, buttery texture. Katlamas feature regularly on the menus of Bangladeshi restaurants in the UK where they nearly always consist of a layer of spiced lamb encased in a fried pastry.", "Kulcha (Kashmiri). In Afghanistan and Northeast Iran, these dried bread biscuits are called kulcha-e-khataye. Koloocheh in Iranian cuisine is a cookie stuffed with cinnamon, sugar and crushed walnuts.", "Lavasa (Kashmiri). The word lavash is repeatedly found in early Turkic written sources. Lavash is a Turkish bread made with flour, water and salt. It can be eaten hot or cold. This paper-thin, blanket-sized bread is one of Armenia's most ancient breads and is still being made today. In Azerbaijan, lavash is baked not only in traditional ovens (tandir) but also in saj, a large convex pan under which fire is made", ". In Azerbaijan and Iran, it is put on the bride's shoulders or crumbled over her head to wish the couple prosperity.", "Luchi (Kashmiri). Very similar, Bengali luchai is a deep fried puffed bread.\n Nabad (Kashmiri). Nabat in Persian is a type of confectionary mineral composed of relatively large sugar crystals, with bits of saffron in it.\n Nadur (Kashmiri). In Afghan cuisine, Qormah e Nadroo is an onion-and-tomato-based stew using lamb meat or veal, yogurt, lotus roots and coriander.", "Polav (Kashmiri). It looks as if pilaf was invented in Iran some time after the 10th century. The Turks call plain rice sade pilav. Turkey sees pilav primarily as a side dish rather than a main course. Iran is famous for its polos made with aromatic domsiyah rice. The most characteristic ones are based on fruits such as cherries, quinces, or apricots. In Central Asia, the simplest recipe uses onions, meat and carrots", ". In Central Asia, the simplest recipe uses onions, meat and carrots. The extravagant court traditions of the Moghul school of cookery makes India home to some very elaborate pulaos. Laborers from western India brought pilaf to the Caribbean, where it is garnished with butter, almonds and pimiento-stuffed green olives.", "Roth(Kashmiri). The Afghan version of the universal West Asian and European sweet egg bread is called rot. In Afghanistan, it is traditionally served when a newborn child is forty days old.\n Sheer Chai (Kashmiri). Qaimak or Sheer chai is often served at celebrations in Afghanistan to toast good health.\n Sheermal (Kashmiri). This bread originated in Persia (shir means milk in Farsi) and made its way through the Silk Route to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.", "Yakhein (Kashmiri). Patates Yahni or Greek potato stew is a traditional Greek recipe which falls under the category of ladera, meaning dishes prepared only with olive oil with no addition of other fat. Turkish Yahni is a beef stew that is great in cold weather. A 19th century cookbook by Mehmet Kamil listed a total of 14 classic yakhnis. Yakhni nokhod is a traditional Shirazi dish that uses meat, peas, potatoes, onions, salt and turmeric.", "Etiquette of Kashmiri dining", "Kashmiris are gregarious and like to share. Language and Food are the two vital parts of the region's identity. 'One who eats properly shall rule the country' it is said. An interesting wedding tradition from Kashmir involves newlyweds making roti together. While the bride flattens the dough and puts it on the griddle, the groom is responsible for flipping it and making sure it is cooked. Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes", ". Kashmiris are very particular about the taste of dishes. Food connoisseurs can easily taste a single morsel and name the waza (chef) who cooked it. They can smell an aubergine from four other kinds, and tell you which one is from Kashmir. When filmmaker Vivek Agnihotri wrote a presumptuous tweet proposing the idea of vegetarian wazwan, social media erupted in spontaneous protest", ". Also, Gordon Ramsay, multi-Michelin-starred chef and television personality, found himself at the receiving end of criticism for his Rogan Josh by Kashmiris who commented that the cut of the meat and the gravy were wrong.", "In Kashmir, it is said that food should both taste and look good. Its aroma must be appetizing. Success of a meal lies in its appeal to the eyes, nose and then the tongue. Any event, from a minor one such as receiving a guest in one's home, to a major one such as a circumcision or a wedding, becomes a celebration of preparing, laying out, serving and consuming together the most delicious victuals", ". Delicacies are passed on to neighbours to be relished and there is no shame in asking for something when the nostrils are tickled and tempted by the mouth-watering smells from a neighbour's kitchen.", "Giant dastarkhaans (white sheets) are spread on the floor on which the meal is served. However humble or lofty the fare on it, the dastarkhaan has always been the center of warm hospitality and conviviality. In big Kashmiri dinners, a hundred to five hundred people are usually invited. Since insurgency and the resultant violence and bloodshed, food has come to hold even greater meaning as each meal signifies a celebration of life itself", ". It is worth mentioning that wazas (the descendents of Samarkandi cooks), whose shops are located in particular areas of the city of Srinagar, form a significant political group in Kashmir.", "All dishes are eaten by hand as Kashmiris believe in an intimate relationship with food. Even spiritual and religious old biddies feel no qualms in chomping on ear cartilage or marrow bones long after the meal is done, pulverising everything into a heap on the thali. No one bats an eyelid. Kashmiris consider it disrespectful if one refuses food varieties or an extra helping. They can go great lengths to persuade, swearing to die if you refuse an extra serving!", "Food-related proverbs\nKashmiri language is abundantly rich in proverbs, witty sayings and idiomatic word-combinations. The proverbs on food themes and situations are:", "Adyav kheyiv chinih adyav kheyiv taki — half the people ate from large dishes, and half from small dishes. A badly arranged dinner.\n Akh chhiwyov masah byak hakah rasah — one man is intoxicated with the juice of the grape, another with juice of vegetables. Pride dwells in everyone, whether he be rich or poor.", "Akh duda biyi maji kyut toak — an uninvited guest wants a (toak) plateful for his mother, in addition to himself. Toak was an earthen plate, in general use in Kashmir in the past. Beggars and some uninvited people pushed themselves in among the guests because of their poverty, or their desire for tasting the delicacies. It is applied where a person is not content with what is willingly offered to him, and demands more.", "Apih hund gyav — a foolish woman's ghee. A foppish person. Kashmiri people, both wealthy and others, rubbed their hair with fresh ghee.\n Batah gajih ruhun — as garlic upon the hearth of a Pandit, so your presence is to me. The ancestors of the Hindus would not eat garlic because of their aphrodisiac effects, having devoted themselves to religion.\n Batook Poth — to have eaten batook poth (duck's backside) is an expression in Kashmiri for someone who talks a lot.", "Chaanis haakhas chha paakuk haajat — does your haakh require hard cooking? A sort of ironic flattery with the sense that your haakh is so delicate, it takes hardly any time to cook.\n Chaantis animu mathun — to grease one's mouth with gruel. To cover up starvation for mere shame.\n Chayi tani ya gani magar tech gachi cheyn — tea, whether weak or strong, should be taken hot.\n Dali Baate ti Khoji thool — dal for a Pandit and an egg for a Khoja, the kind of food they like.", "Dali Baate ti Khoji thool — dal for a Pandit and an egg for a Khoja, the kind of food they like.\n Doori doori marts meethan, nishi nishi naabad tyathaan — pepper tastes sweet from afar, sugar tastes bitter when too near.\n Hardas gurus metras, sontah gurus shetras — autumn butter-milk for the friend, and spring butter-milk for the enemy. Consequently, the milk is better in the autumn.", "Hari tang tah zulahnai, muhuri tsont tah zulit — if the pear cost only a cowrie it should not be peeled, but if the apple cost a sovereign it should be peeled. Natives of Kashmir seldom skin a pear, but always skin an apple. Apple-skin, they say, is not easily digested.", "Haruch gugaj tah Laruch gunas chhih barabar — a June turnip and a Lar serpent are equal. A native would not eat June turnip on any account, while Gunas is a round-headed serpent met with principally in Lar parganah, whose bite is generally fatal.\n Majji bhatee — food served by mother is the best food.\n Phata Wangun — a burst eggplant, literally, a sly young man often too clever for his own good.", "Phata Wangun — a burst eggplant, literally, a sly young man often too clever for his own good.\n Rogan o zafaran az Pampur, sag az Latapur brinj az Nupur; barrah az Nandapur. Puttu o mahi az Sopur; mong az Kralapur. Arad az Khampur. Shir az Shadipur. Angur az Repur — Pampore (the place) for ghee and saffron, Letapur for vegetables. Nipur for rice. Nandapur for lamb. Sopore for pattu and fish. Kralapur for dal. Khampur for flour. Shadipur for milk. And grapes from Repur.", "Talwe peyi na tangah — wishing a pear falls from ceiling is a vain hope.\n Chaki pechni ras, yath poshi tas — When someone keeps bragging about this which they usually don't have..\n Khar kya zani zaffran kya gow — a donkey wont understand the taste of saffron.\n badhshah saab khar ne khewan zab, yeli poras teli kheyi zab — usually said for unthankful people who don't accept food.", "Famous chefs on Kashmir's food", "In India", "For celebrity chef Sanjeev Kapoor, Kashmir's food counts as one of the top three exotic foods of India. Chef Ranveer Brar loves Kashmiri tea, in which rose petals were added to give the regular milk tea a pinkish tint. Chef Thomas Zacharias went on a mission to discover unknown culinary gems in Kashmir. At dawn on his first day, he rode out in a shikara to Dal Lake's bustling 150-year-old floating market and came away with boxes of saffron", ". Thomas sampled local cheeses and foraged greens in the village of Langanbal, an hour's drive from Srinagar. Indian Accent's Manish Mehrotra could follow the main course with Kashmiri haakh saag broth. He understands the rootedness of Kashmiri chilli and the way it is used in everyday cooking. The pioneering food writer Jiggs Kalra at his Delhi restaurant made a dehydrated version of the Kashmiri nadur churma topped with red chilli and served with tangy radish and walnut chutney", ". Celebrity chef, Nalini Moti Sadhu, through the award winning Matamaal Restaurant, offers Kashmiri fare in a casual fine dining experience, celebrating both Kashmiri pandit and Wazwan cuisines.", "In the UK", "Madhur Jaffrey's recipe of deep, rust-coloured Kashmiri roghan josh saved the British from terrible versions of curry cooked at home involving onions, cooking apple, chuck beef and astringent curry powder. English celebrity chef Rick Stein couldn't film the cooking of roghan josh in Kashmir where the dish comes from because of security reasons but in homage to the classic recipe packs it with flavour", ". 50 Great Curries of India by Camellia Panjabi, the world's best-selling curry book, has the unusual recipe of turnips (gogjee ta maaz) from Kashmir. British celebrity cook and restaurateur, Keith Floyd cooked Kashmiri lamb in milk (aab gosh) which makes for a nice, subtle, pale curry", ". When twice Michelin-starred chef Vineet Bhatia made a proper rogan josh in London in the early years, customers complained bitterly calling for British curry house capsicum garnish, so he decided to call it slow-cooked Kashmiri shank of lamb and that's when the press started to take notice. British-based chef and television personality Atul Kochhar tends not to use ghee in roghan josh and marinates the meat in spice and yoghurt for a while", ". Michelin star chef Rohit Ghai's recipe of dum aloo has baby potatoes and Greek yoghurt. Chef Romy Gill is particularly enthralled by the area of Kashmir, and says she was fascinated by the wazwan likening it to the nose to tail movement. She was inspired by the lamb and vegetarian dishes and when she returned to the U.K., made a whole roast chicken using the Kashmiri spices. Chef Cyrus Todiwala OBE loves cumin and Kashmiri chillies.", "In the USA", "Michelin star chef Vikas Khanna is a huge fan of Kashmiri cuisine. Chef Chintan Pandya of Adda Indian Canteen in Long Island City combines cumin, chili and musky lamb to cook his Kashmiri lamb ribs. Pandya says the inspiration for the dish is a Kashmiri classic called tabak maaz, where the lamb is first cooked in milk and then browned in butter. Guy Fieri featured Kashmiri lamb roghan josh on his TV show Diners, Dive-Ins, and Drives", ". Guy Fieri featured Kashmiri lamb roghan josh on his TV show Diners, Dive-Ins, and Drives. Anthony Bourdain was hoping to shoot in Kashmir and was excited about visiting but the security situation there was problematic. Food and wine expert Antoni Porowski was shocked by the amount of garlic in traditional Kashmiri dishes, but loves the really thick dhals", ". Mike Bagale, who, until recently, was the executive chef at Alinea in Chicago, one of America's most sought after dining experience, stopped in Srinagar at a spice shop and could smell the cinnamon as he approached it. At his work station, instead of charcoal, his brazier is filled with cinnamon sticks and the aroma of cinnamon envelops the kitchen.", "In Australia\nMelbourne-based chef Gary Mehigan, popularly known for his 12-year long stint as a judge on MasterChef Australia found the creatively plated Kashmiri morels with goat's testicles at the Indian restaurant Bombay Canteen interesting.\n\nContemporary Kashmiri cuisine", "Prateek Sadhu, formerly at Masque (Mumbai) is mining his Kashmiri roots to win international fame. His food is characterised by dishes such as lobster roghan josh, roghan josh sausages and raisin-glazed quail served with a yakhni broth. He sourced quince from Kashmir and made an ice-cream with it. Entrepreneur Tariq Ahmad, the 'Pizza Man' of Kashmir, set chicken on roti and sold it to customers in wazwan loving Kashmir", ". A family of chefs in Srinagar's Safakadal area makes unique pickles from traditional wazwan dishes like rista and kebab. US-based Kashmiri entrepreneur Uffaq Mattu ships chicken patties, harissa bites, shaami kabaab burgers, crumbled tschaman and tamatar pizzas to almost all the 50 states in the US. At her Uffi's Kitchen, French fries were replaced with Nadir Monje, and chicken wings by waaze kokur wings", ". At Rooh, San Francisco, they make the signature dish of tabakh maaz with Californian Superior Lamb, and French braising techniques. Helly Raichura, chef-founder of EnterViaLaundry in Melbourne has 10-course degustations serving Gujarati khandvi with Kashmiri chilli oil. Noon in Mumbai has kimchi fermented with Kashmiri red chillies. 2019 Masterchef Australia contestant Sandeep Pandit was born in Kashmir, and cooks tamatar gaad (tomato fish) using Australian barramundi.", "Sustainable consumption", "Kashmiri women would previously take extra mutton dishes by packing them in old newspapers or plastic bags that they would carry. With time, this tradition became popular, and men soon began travelling with the remaining mutton on their traem (wazwan'' copper dish). In Kashmir, taking leftover food into carrying bags evolved into a movement, and people also granted it social legitimacy. Even the elites have joined the cause and begun providing specially made carry bags of leftover food", ". Even the leftover rice is not wasted in marriage functions and is served to animals (dogs, cattle etc.).", "In Kashmir, a now-abandoned practice would use green Chinar leaves in packaging delicate things like mulberry, butter, mutton and cheese. This would help these easily contaminable items to stay nontoxic till consumption.\n\nSee also \n Kanger\n List of topics on the land and the people of Jammu and Kashmir\n Wazwan\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n \nIndian cuisine by state or union territory\nCulture of Azad Kashmir\nCulture of Jammu and Kashmir" ]

[ "The Veiled Prophet Parade and Ball was a yearly civic celebration in St. Louis, Missouri, over which a mythical figure called the Veiled Prophet presided. The first events were in 1878.", "The parade and ball were organized and funded by the Veiled Prophet Organization, an all-male but racially mixed, secret society founded in 1878 by prominent St. Louisans, a highly select group culled from the area's business, civic and governmental leaders. The organization chooses a member to be a Veiled Prophet who conducts meetings and oversees activities.", "Historian Thomas Spencer considered that the VP parade was created in part to displace the parades regularly held by the trade unions, and believes that the event generally revealed rather than soothed class conflicts. \n\nOccasionally, unions would stage events intended to mock the pretensions of the VP Ball. The leading socialist and working-class newspaper, St. Louis Labor, \"wrote negatively\" about the VP event and its organizers between the early 1900s and 1930.", "In 1995, the name of the riverfront celebration was changed to Fair Saint Louis, though the street procession was still called Veiled Prophet Parade. The date was fixed for Independence Day. It continued to be funded by the Veiled Prophet Organization. \n\nIn 2003, the organization created a Community Service Initiative, through which members participate in a wide variety of projects in and around the city of St. Louis. In 2016, it secured a trademark for the name America's Birthday Parade.", "More recently, the event protested by Black Lives Matter supporters, as well as the St. Louis-based group Missourians Organized for Reform and Empowerment, which linked St. Louis's wealthiest one percent to the VP organization.\n\nIn 2021, the \"Veiled Prophet Parade\" was replaced by the \"American Birthday Parade\" as to assuage concerns that the pageant was \"a symbol of wealth, power, and to some racism.\"\n\nIntegration timeline\n\n1930s–1940s", "Integration timeline\n\n1930s–1940s \n\nBefore World War II, the African-American community in St. Louis crowned its own \"Veiled Prophet Queen,\" who included Ernestine Steele in 1939 and Blanche Vashon (later Sinkler), Georgia Williams, and Evelyn Hilliard. A 1940 newspaper column said that for years the official VP Parade had drawn", "many persons, white and colored, to the city . . . [and that] Years ago there was a dance for the colored citizenry on that night, but that affair was long discontinued. Five years ago, Mrs. Zenobia Shoulders Johnson, one of the city's most active church and civic workers, conceived the idea of a style show which would culminate in the crowning of the \"Veiled Prophet's Queen,\" someone representative of real St. Louis culture and society, much in the same manner of the original event", ". Louis culture and society, much in the same manner of the original event. The idea caught fire, and from the first night, overflow crowds have witnessed the event at St. James [ A.M.E. ] Church. And, in addition, the idea became so popular that this year there are fully half a dozen similar projects as conceived by Mrs. Johnson being held this week by various other racial groups.", "Postwar opposition \nWalter W. Witte, rector of St. Stephen's Episcopal Church, set forth the first widely circulated postwar opposition to the VP ball in a letter printed in the Post-Dispatch on September 30, 1966. He wrote:", ". . . I recall my fascination some 10 years ago when I was told that St. Louis had a Veiled Prophet Parade. I was new to the city then and I presumed that this gala event must be some climactic community celebration, perhaps historical in nature. Then to discover that this was the yearly feast of the rich, culminating in a \"coming out\" ball at the municipal auditorium . . . was indeed a disappointment. Since then disappointment has given place to disgust", ". . . was indeed a disappointment. Since then disappointment has given place to disgust. The spectacle of the wealthy daring to parade through the neighborhoods or near neighborhoods of the poor is outrageous.", "And the ritual. Is it merely \"cute,\" or are we witnessing the honest to God cult of the affluent with its prophets, queens, attending angels, heavenly courts taken seriously and paid for dearly by the educated business and professional men of the community? . . . .", "Could it be turned into a genuine community event? I have an idea. If the powers would contact me, I have several outstandingly beautiful candidates in my parish for the Queen of Love and Beauty. Mind you, these candidates are not Mary Institute graduates nor are they currently attending Wellesley, Smith, or Vassar, nor are they likely to be. But they would, indeed, add beauty. Then again they would probably be disqualified. They suffer from one serious limitation. They are black.\n\nProtests mount", "Protests mount \n\nProtests against the VP Parade began in 1966 after police shot a black robbery suspect and Percy Green, head of the Action Council to Improve Opportunities for Negroes (ACTION) passed out leaflets urging that the annual VP parade be \"stopped\" in response to the killing, calling it \"the personification of St. Louis racism and white supremacy.\"", "The next year, ACTION scheduled a \"City Dwellers Week\" to coincide with Veiled Prophet activities. It was code named Target 84, a reference to the Prophet's 84th visit. The aim was to force an end to the VP, which William L. Matheus said was \"a symbol of racial and economic oppression.\"", "On September 30, 1967, ACTION sponsored a \"Black Veiled Prophet Ball\" in parody of the VP Ball, the latter which was said to be fostering \"racial discrimination and segregation.\" The group planned the selection of a Queen of Human Justice, who would be chosen according to the number of tickets sold on her behalf.", "On October 1, 1967, a \"small group of marchers,\" led by Patrick Dougherty, a St. Louis University professor, contended in the suburb of Clayton, Missouri, that the VP Ball and Parade were \"offensive to the Negro community\" and should be transformed into a children's event.", "The next weekend, some fifty demonstrators were in a sidewalk protest across the street from the VP Ball in Kiel Auditorium. Leaders, who had no tickets, demanded entry to the hall, and on October 6 three of them were arrested on charges of disturbing the peace and failure to obey the commands of a police officer; they were released on bond. They were Precious Barnes, in regalia as the \"Black Veiled Prophet,\" Esther Davis, who was the Queen of Human Justice, and Witte.", "Journalists said the newspeople were shoved and jostled by police and that some officers held hats and hands in front of cameras to prevent photos. Ron Gould, an 18-year-old seminary student, said he took a photo of a policeman beating a black woman, and another officer smashed his camera with a baton, then stepped on the exposed film. He later filed a complaint against the police department, which ruled he had no case", ". He later filed a complaint against the police department, which ruled he had no case. (Charges against Barnes, Davis, and Witte were dropped on January 23, 1968, because of insufficient evidence.)", "The next day, Barbara Torrence, Ruth Poland, and Mary Ann Kerstetter were arrested for lying in the street in front of the Veiled Prophet Parade in protest of alleged racial discrimination. They were sentenced to thirty days in jail for resisting arrest but were placed on probation for a year.", "In October 1967 Bishop George L. Cadigan asked Witte and William Matheus, St. Stephens Church curator, to resign their positions because of \"misunderstandings about procedural matters and the seeming inability of Mr. Witte to relate to the program of the diocese.\" The activities of the two in demonstrations, particularly against the Veiled Prophet Ball, had \"incurred the wrath of many Episcopal laymen,\" a newspaper report said.", "Witte said he and Matheus regarded the annual VP ceremonies as symbols of social bigotry and economic discrimination. Cadigan responded that he \"holds no brief for the Veiled Prophet Ball and Parade, and it may well be a serious affront to the nonaffluent members of the St. Louis community,\" but, he said, the two clergymen \"vastly overrated\" the VP's significance, devoting \"great energy, but little skill, in attacking it.\"\n\nCount Basie cancellation", "Count Basie cancellation \n\nIn 1968, ACTION threatened to stage protests against musician Count Basie unless he canceled an agreement to play in the VP Parade, whose theme that year was \"Music for Everyone.\" Basie agreed on September 25 to withdraw, \"for personal reasons.\"\n\nChanging parade route", "Changing parade route \n\nIn 1968, United Press International reported that \"ACTION has staged demonstrations at the ball and parade in recent years to protest that the ball was for whites only and that the parade flaunted white wealth down a route that skirted Negro neighborhoods. The route of this year's parade has been shifted to avoid some of the poorer neighborhoods.\"\n\nMore arrests", "More arrests \n\nPercy Green, William Brown, and William Mitchell were arrested on September 27, 1968, when they were denied entry to the ball. They ignored orders to stop marching directly in front of Kiel Auditorium. Sarah Jones and Barbara Jean Saper were arrested and fined after they chained themselves to one of the floats.", "In 1969 Carl Jackson (that year's Black Veiled Prophet), Madame Carol (the Black VP queen), Lois Greer (Queen of Human Justice) and George Johnson were arrested after Jackson and Carol presented a slip of blue paper at the Kiel Auditorium door which they said was an invitation and refused to leave. Judge G. Johnson, Sharon Hall, and Rita Scott were arrested in 1970 when they tried to enter the VP Ball by presenting a written statement in lieu of tickets.", "Percy Green, Melvin Carr, Florence Jarrett, Ralph Brown, and Gina Scott were arrested on December 22, 1971, on a charge of general peace disturbance when they attempted to enter Kiel Auditorium with no tickets.\n\nEpiscopal resolution \n\nA convention of the Episcopal Diocese of Missouri in October 1969 adopted a resolution stating that \"Actions of the Veiled Prophet Society are such to be a source of constant irritation to the black communities\" in the diocese.\n\nUnmasking the Prophet", "On December 23, 1972, six women with tickets provided by debutantes and two of them, white women Gena Scott and Jane Sauer, walked together into Kiel Auditorium, with no problem. Then Charles Reed, that year's Black Veiled Prophet went to the entrance with Beverly Crosby and Florence Jarrett, presented the gatekeeper with three tickets and a statement demanding entrance. They were denied entry because they were not \"dressed properly.\" Refusing to leave, they were arrested and taken to a police station.", "Sauer and Scott took balcony seats on opposite sides of the house. During the program, Sauer began dropping leaflets into the audience, then \"threw the rest of the leaflets over the railing\" as two men converged on her and began to pull her away.", "Meanwhile, Scott was rappelling on a rope from a balcony when she tumbled hard to the floor, climbed to her feet, rushed to the stage, grabbed the crown and veil and yanked it from that year's VP. The Post-Dispatch reported that \"the Veiled Prophet, whom everybody could see was bald, and very angry, struggled gallantly to restore the veil and its 95-year-old tradition [of anonymity] to its proper place.\" The VP was later to be revealed as Monsanto executive Tom K. Smith Jr.", "Scott said: \"The chairman of the VP committee, Alexander Cornwell Jr., had wanted to press charges, but when he was informed that the Veiled Prophet would have to appear in open court to do so, the whole matter was dropped.\" Scott's ribs were diagnosed as bruised and possibly broken.\n\nAftermath and changes", "Aftermath and changes \n\nIn early 1973, Gena Scott was awakened when her car was bombed outside of her apartment. Her apartment was vandalized numerous times.\nIn 1975, ACTION member Patrick Dougherty unfurled a banner on stage reading \"ACTION Protests Racist VP,\" and in 1976, two ACTION members sprayed what Green called \"commercial tear gas\" at VP audience members along the stage.", "In November 1973, a class-action suit was filed on behalf of all black St. Louisans by Percy Green, George (Judge) Johnson and Melvin Carr, claiming the VP organization's rental agreement for Kiel was illegal and that blacks viewed the VP Committee as an \"antiblack, semisecret organization made up of members of the economic, political and social white power structure\" of St. Louis.\n\nThe parade was first telecast over station KSD in 1977.", "The parade was first telecast over station KSD in 1977.\n\nIn 1979 the Veiled Prophet Organization admitted its first black members, three physicians.", "In 1987, fair officials and St. Louis Metro Police Department were confronted with accusations of racism when they closed the Eads Bridge to pedestrian access, which reduced the ability of attendees from East St. Louis to reach the VP fair, where predominantly black residents were blamed for the crime that had been occurring there. Judge John F. Nangle ordered the bridge to reopen, saying that there was no proof that the crime was caused by East St. Louisans.", "Some thirty people protesting police shootings in Ferguson, Missouri, and elsewhere in 2014 marched and chanted outside the Hyatt Hotel, St. Louis, where the ball was taking place.\n\nFounding of the Veiled Prophets \n\nThe VP organization was founded by prominent St. Louisans who had been invited to a meeting in a letter signed by John B. Maude, John A. Scudder, George Bain, John G. Priest, and D.P. Rowland.", "The organization had its roots in the St. Louis Agricultural and Mechanical Fair, an annual harvest festival since 1856.\nFeaturing agricultural crops, crafts, and demonstrations, it attracted people from throughout the region. Spencer wrote that city boosters devised the Veiled Prophet Fair in an attempt to reclaim from the rapidly growing city of Chicago the fading pre-eminence for St. Louis as a manufacturing center and agricultural shipping point.", "On March 20, 1878, Charles Slayback, a grain broker who had spent several Reconstruction years in New Orleans after the Civil War and become acquainted with its Mardi Gras traditions, called a meeting of local business leaders at the Lindell Hotel. He and his brother Alonzo, a former colonel with a Missouri Cavalry Regiment which fought for the Confederates, created a mythology for a secret elite society, whose public demonstrations would coincide with the annual St. Louis Agricultural and Mechanical Fair", ". Louis Agricultural and Mechanical Fair. Alonzo wrote The First Panorama of Progress of the Veiled Prophets.", "The brothers borrowed the name \"the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan\" from Irish poet Thomas Moore's Lalla Rookh; they also incorporated features from the Comus of New Orleans. In Moore's poem, the Veiled Prophet was a horribly disfigured man who considered himself a prophet.", "The first visit of the Prophet was thus in 1878, after the Great Panic of 1875, when business needed reviving and St. Louis needed development.\n\nIn a 1956 promotional book by Vincent H. Sanders and Theodore D. Drury Jr., the Prophet was a world traveler who chose to bless St. Louis; reporter Walter E. Orthwein of the Globe-Democrat wrote in 1958 that the VP was conceived as \"a kind of Santa Claus for grownups.\"\n\nSecrecy", "Secrecy \n\nThe VP organization has traditionally attempted to keep its membership rolls secret. In his Centennial History of Missouri, Walter B. Stevens wrote: \"Mystery as to preparations greatly enhances public interest\" and means \"that the membership must be moved by altruistic motives in giving their fellow Missourians this annual pageant; that no public limelight could be focused on the doers.\"", "The VP was sometimes referred to as the Grand Oracle, as in 1880. The identity of a given year's leader has ostensibly been a secret, but the earliest members of the Veiled Prophet organization (in 1878) were reported in 1964 to have included Alonzo W. Slayback, Frank Gaiennie, John A. Scudder, Henry C. Haarstick, George Bain, Robert P. Tansey, George H. Morgan, Wallace Delafield, John B. Maude, D. P. Rowland, Leigh I. Knapp, David B. Gould, Henry Paschell, H. I. Kent, E. Pretorious, William H", ". P. Rowland, Leigh I. Knapp, David B. Gould, Henry Paschell, H. I. Kent, E. Pretorious, William H. Thompson, and William A. Hargadine, H.B. Loudermann, and George D. Capen.", "As for the leadership, public records showed in 2021 that \"the executive officers remain some of the region's most powerful businessmen and dynastic patricians[,] with surnames such as Schnucks (grocery stores), Desloge (lead mining), Maritz (employee incentives and corporate travel) and Kemper (banking).\" The prophet crowned \"a queen every year; their last names include Kemper, Busch, Danforth, Schnuck, Schlafly, Chouteau, Cabanne, Niedringhaus, Desloge and other historic St. Louis families", ". Louis families.The identity of Maids of Honor, one of whom was tapped as Queen, was also kept secret until they were introduced at the Ball.\"", "The only person ever identified in connection with the VP administration was Jane Lindemann, who in 1999 was the first woman to hold the post of \"exec director.\"\n\nFirst parade and ball \n\nThe first parade and ball were held on Tuesday, October 8, 1878. The Prophet was selected secretly from among the members, who were made up of St. Louis's business and civic elite. The first Prophet was John G. Priest, a member of the city's Board of Police Commissioners.\n\n1878 parade", "1878 parade \n\nThe Veiled Prophet was represented on the final float of the 1878 parade as:", "a huge figure about twenty-five feet high, and looking like an overgrown cigar store sign, with a mosquito bar (mosquito netting) over its face. He was costumed in green and red, and was surrounded by members of his court. His scribe stood by with huge quill and a reservoir of ink at hand, ready to issue his mandates. Two high priests were behind his throne, and near by a villainous-looking executioner and a blood-curdling butcher's block", ". Fierce and warlike guards, with breastplates of brass and steel and helmets of the same metals, kept watchful eyes upon the sacred precincts of the Prophet.", "In 1882 the Globe-Democrat described the same giant dummy as a \"huge masked figure staring sphinx-like at the crowd.\" It had been used in previous parades until it was retired and replaced that year by a [human] \"being with face masked and a long, white beard.\"", "On Sunday, October 6, the Missouri Republican had captioned a woodcut of a masked, armed, and hooded man posing in Ku Klux Klan garb (previously used in the newspaper on August 23, 1875) as \"the original Veiled Prophet himself,\" adding that \"It will be readily observed from the accoutrements of the Prophet [a pistol, a shotgun, and a billy club] that the procession is not likely to be stopped by street cars or anything else.\" Historian Thomas M", ".\" Historian Thomas M. Spencer interpreted the Republican'''s reference to \"street cars\" as related to the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. \"Newspaper feature stories since the 1950s have described the 'first Veiled Prophet parade' as a way of healing the wounds of a bitter labor-management fight,\" the 1877 St. Louis general strike, he wrote. He added, however, that the first Veiled Prophet parade was \"more a show of power than a gesture of healing.\" (See note.) 1878 ball", "The initial ball in 1878 was held in the festively decorated Grand Hall of the Merchants Exchange, beginning in the late evening after the completion of the Parade. Its official start was a quadrille of costumed men from the floats of the parade and the women who awaited them. After two dances, the first being J.S. Bach's Royal Quadrille, the men retired to replace their disguises with formal wear for the rest of the evening.", "Suzanne (Susie) Slayback was chosen by the first Veiled Prophet, John G. Priest, to be the \"belle\" of the ball.\n\n Prophet's arrival \n\nNormally the Prophet was introduced to the public either as a real person or as a giant replication when his parade exited the \"gloomy-visaged\" Den, where the organization had its headquarters. But he also arrived via a different method, as follows:\n\n Boat", "For the first time, the Prophet came to St. Louis by boat on October 1, 1892, on the upriver steamer War Eagle. (See note.) A group of civic leaders sailed to Jefferson Barracks via the Republic and the Paul Tulane to greet him. The First Regiment marched from St. Louis, and then everybody went back to St. Louis in fifty carriages or marched there in a special afternoon parade through crowded streets; a reception was held at the Exposition Building.\"St", ".\"St. Louis Carnival,\" The Burlington (Kansas) Nonpareil, September 30, 1892, page 1\"The Veiled Prophet,\" The Thayer (Kansas) News, October 7, 1892, page 3", "\"A wagonette drawn by four horses went down to the staging,\" the Post-Dispatch reported, \"and the Prophet took his seat on a raised cushion so that he might be seen by the curious and admiring multitude which he was to pass.\" At the St. Louis wharf, Samuel Kennard, an organizer of the Saint Louis Exposition, presented the Prophet with the keys to the city, and a band played \"Hail to the Chief.\"", "The VP arrived again via upriver boat Spread Eagle on October 1, 1900, at the foot of Vine Street, to be escorted to the Coliseum, where thousands had gathered.\n\n Airplane \n\nThe Prophet arrived by airplane four times, from 1924 through 1927, followed by an informal parade to the Den.\"Veiled Prophet Carnival Oct. 4, 5,\" St. Louis Daily Globe-Democrat, September 4, 1927, image 14\n\n Notable VP Ball incidents and activities \n\n The Belles and the Queens of Love and Beauty", "The custom of singling out a young woman for special attention began with the first Veiled Prophet Ball in 1878, when Suzanne (Susie) Slayback was chosen by the first Veiled Prophet, John G. Priest, to be the \"belle\" of the ball at the age of 16. According to a 1958 article in the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, in those earlier times it was \"the custom of the Prophet to select a girl for his partner in the first dance at the ball.\"\"Belle of First Ball Tells How She Felt,\" St", ".\"\"Belle of First Ball Tells How She Felt,\" St. Louis Globe-Democrat,October 7, 1958, image 39", "In 1884 the title of this honoree was changed to Queen of Love and Beauty. She was to \"act as regent\" between the Prophet's yearly visits and to \"be in charge of the social life of the city.\"\n\nIn 2021 and 2022, two celebrities were denounced in social media for having been Veiled Prophet Queens when young.", "Some Twitter users called actress Ellie Kemper a \"KKK princess\" because in December 1999, she had been Queen of Love and Beauty at the VP Ball. She responded in a five-slide Instagram apology, beginning:Chloe Melas, \"Ellie Kemper Apologizes for Participating in Controversial Pageant as a Teen,\" CNN Entertainment, June 8, 2021", "Hi guys – when I was 19 years old, I decided to participate in a debutante ball in my hometown. The century-old organization that hosted the debutante ball had an unquestionably racist, sexist and elitist past. I was not aware of this history at the time, but ignorance is no excuse. I was old enough to have educated myself before getting involved.", "Trudy Busch Valentine, a Democratic candidate for the U.S. Senate, apologized in early 2022 for having been the VP Queen in December 1977. She wrote: \"I should have known better, and I deeply regret that my actions hurt others.\"\n\n Maids and Ladies of Honor", "Maids and Ladies of Honor \n\nThe Veiled Prophet selected the Queen from among the young women who had been invited as candidates. Beginning in 1894, those not selected were retained as Maids of Honor. A number of married women were known as Ladies of Honor, to act as chaperones. In that year, residents of the wealthy West End, St. Louis, were treated to the appearance of", "an unusually elegant carriage, with coachmen and footmen in handsome livery, . . . driving through the prominent thoroughfares and delivering on a silver salver a highly illuminated and gorgeous invitation signed by the Grand Oracle of the Veiled Prophet, . . . appointments of the ladies as Maids of Honor. . . . These invitations have been delivered only to members of the inner circle of the St", ". . . . These invitations have been delivered only to members of the inner circle of the St. Louis One Hundred and are regarded as the most unique and beautiful specimens of engraving and embossing ever seen in the city.", "The custom by 1940 was that:\n\nEscorted by members of the Prophet's secret order, the maids promenade the length of the Salle de Bal, pausing to curtsy before the box of the former queens as their names are announced, and then proceed to the\n royal dais, where, for the duration of the ceremony, they occupy gold and white seats on either side of the Prophet's throne. After the coronation they make their obeisance to their new queen and later join in the general dancing . . . .\n\n Invitations", "Invitations \n\nBy 1883, the ball had become known as \"the social event of the year,\" with funding \"poured out like water,\" the result in bringing visitors to St. Louis \"more than\" justifying the cost, the Post-Dispatch commented. People wanting to attend had to apply for tickets. The recipients were then chosen by a secret committee. In 1881, nearly four thousand invitations to the Veiled Prophet Ball were issued, and in 1885 there were more than seven thousand, of which some six thousand were used.", "The Post-Dispatch wrote in September 1887 that the \"Grand Oracle of the Veiled Prophets began the distribution of his favors yesterday, and to-day the mails are burdened with big yellow packages. By 6 o'clock to-morrow evening several thousand people who have been waiting in anxious expectation . . . will have their suspense relieved[, while others] will suffer a grievous disappointment at seeing the postman trot by their door without stopping.\"", "The \"handsome and artistic\" invitations, matching a different theme for each year, looked like this:1880. Theme: The Four Seasons.On one side of the engraved bid was a picnic scene, surrounded by representations of spring, summer, autumn, and winter. On the other side were the initials V.P. and four additional scenes — summer in Germany, spring in England, autumn in France, and winter in Russia. To insure that the \"strictly personal\" invitations would not be transferred at the ball:", "Four masked detectives will be present, . . . furnished with a list of all the invitations issued. At the door the admit cards will not be taken up, but a corner will be torn off, and at any time during the ball, if the detectives see any one that they suspicion does not belong there, the party will be required to give his or her name, and show their admit card.The next year, 1881, \"Two detectives disguised in swallowtail coats, clean white shirts and clerical neckties . .", ". . . didn't dance, and there was nothing else for them to do except look mysterious, which they did to perfection.\" Post-Dispatch, quoted in \"Glorious and Grand,\" Topeka (Kansas) Daily Capital, October 8, 1881, image 6", "As there was a \"mash\" [overcrowding] last year, only half the number of invitations will be issued to the coming ball. Of course, everybody wants an invitation, and the number of disappointed ones will be large. The committee, however affable and kind-hearted, cannot include everybody, and those who have had a finger in such matters will readily understand that the position is by no means an easy or enviable one.1881", ".1881. Theme: A Day-Dream in the Woodland or Insect LifeFifteen hundred tickets were printed in Paris, France, with \"friends of the order\" each able to reserve ten of them, and \"a lady counts for as much as a gentleman in the list of names.\" The tickets were inside a coarse, outside enclosure, an imitation-leather second envelope and, finally, a peagreen envelope, the edge bordered in gold and the center bearing the face of the Veiled Prophet and the initials \"V.P", ".P.\" Within it was yet another envelope, with a highly polished gold or silver paten, containing a pink or pale blue card, the former \"for ladies\" and the latter \"for gentlemen.\" With them were dance cards for the women, \"a huge butterfly which is placed in harp-shaped envelopes of transparent linen covered with figures of gold.\"1885", ".\"1885. Theme: An Arabian NightThe invitations for 1885 were in \"what seems to be a strong metal box,\" which, when opened, revealed a satin bag bound with silk, which contained \"the coveted bidding.\" Five scenes from the Arabian Nights were \"successfully disclosed by the turning aside of a leaf hinged on a pivot, or the opening of a leaf[,] book fashion. . . . Accompanying . . . were beautifully engraved admission cards to the ball, and the dancing programme.\"1888", ". . . were beautifully engraved admission cards to the ball, and the dancing programme.\"1888. Theme: Child LoreThe six thousand invitations, again printed in Paris, included \"a spectacular view of Mother Goose, on a blue ray-lit sky . . . . The goose is very white and the old woman on its back is very red. She carries a broom in her left hand and in right holds the reins of her feathered steed. There is a friendly grin on the old lady's face . . . .\"", "Each invitation was inside a separate envelope, \"even more gorgeous than its inclosure. Its . . . principal pictorial feature is a regulation fairy queen of the modern stage in a decollete bodice, transparent skirts and ravishing pink tights. A diadem adorns her flowing yellow hair[,] and two rows of pearls shine upon her splendid throat. . . . She is seated on the backs of a pair of flame-tongued, red-tailed dragons, and the sky in the immediate vicinity is blazing with glory.\"", "An enclosed ticket for the dance consisted, according to the same story, \"of a \"rabbit's foot growing out of a rabbit's head\" [see accompanying image].1902. From the Discovery of the Mississippi to the World's FairThe invitation included \"a map of the Louisiana Purchase, supported by the palm branch, with intertwined shields of the United States and the Republic of France, [see note] with the Veiled Prophet's seal,\" along with, \"in colors,\" scenes and incidents in the Louisiana Purchase.1904", ".1904. Theme: Art and ArchitectureRecipients had to open three boxes, one inside another, to reach the souvenir,", "a tray of the new kaiserzin [ pewter ] ware, so popular of late as a material in which . . . may be wrought all the artistic effects possible in silver. . . . It is useful and beautiful either upon my lady's toilet table or upon a gentleman's office desk, for the holding of trinkets or trifles. It is in the shape of a large sea shell, and it rests upon the table on four spherical knobs.1920", ". It is in the shape of a large sea shell, and it rests upon the table on four spherical knobs.1920. There were two thousand fewer invitations sent out that year, to avoid \"the crowding that had so often in the past made balls uncomfortable,\" the Globe-Democrat reported, but that fact \"did not make it any less democratic, for the invitations included all sorts and conditions of worthy St. Louisans.\"", "Dress requirements and customs \n 19th century", "The first year of the ball, 1879, \"A great many ladies were in full evening dress, while others were attired in calling or reception toilets, and a few, seated, wearing their street suits and bonnets.\"", "The rules required \"full evening dress\" for attendees, which for women meant that \"low neck and short sleeves\" would not be \"insisted upon, but the wearing of hats or bonnets will not be countenanced... it is expected that ladies will appear in an elaborate coiffure.\" The \"orders\" that year were that women in hats or bonnets \"will be required to go into the gallery [and] . . . will not be permitted to dance.\"", "For men, the rule was swallow-tailed, black broadcloth, or Prince Albert coats, but not \"light-colored, bob-tailed or business suits.\" Military uniforms were okay.", "\"A peculiar thing\" about the ball in 1881, a Kansas City Times reporter averred, is that \"the committee lays down a law that no lady in bonnet or gentleman not in full dress shall be admitted.\" Full dress for men was defined as \"Black swallow-tail coat, black low-cut vest, black pants, white cravat and light gloves.\" Nevertheless, the reporter wrote, \"Despite this... ladies were seen on the floor with bonnets", ".\" Nevertheless, the reporter wrote, \"Despite this... ladies were seen on the floor with bonnets. Gentlemen were there in light coats, the tails of which were pinned back, thus making an improvised swallow tail.\"", "St. Louis Mayor Henry Ziegenhein refused to wear a dress suit when he was invited to attend the Veiled Prophet Ball and \"welcome\" the Veiled Prophet to his city in 1898. He said he had never worn one and never would, preferring a Prince Albert coat (frock coat), which he wore on all state occasions.\"St. Louis' Dress Coat Muddle,\" The Kansas City Journal, September 26, 1898, image 4", "In the 1870s and 1880s, a carpet of linen was laid upon the floor for dancing, \"to protect ladies' dresses.\"\"The Veiled Prophet: Complete Regulations for the Grand Ball on Tuesday Evening,\" St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 5, 1884, image 11\n\n 20th century \n\n 1901–1919 \n\n 1920–1934", "20th century \n\n 1901–1919 \n\n 1920–1934 \n\nA Globe-Democrat reporter noted in 1920 that \"short gowns and no gloves were the order of the day\" for women at the VP Ball that year. \"It was like a big reception at which all were friends, and they went about visiting with one another and nodding gayly.\" In 1921, ten of the seventy-five Maids of Honor wore their hair in a bobbed fashion. Strict dress rules were still in effect in 1930.\n\n 1935 and after", "1935 and after \n\nBy 1935, men and women in the \"floor seating and standing spaces, the boxes and balcony,\" were to be in \"full evening dress,\" but gallery viewers were expected only to be \"neatly dressed.\"", "In summer 1986, Jennifer Knight, that year's Queen of Love and Beauty, headed a group of her court members in a fund-raising fashion show at Buder Park. The dress code was \"sporty Sunday clothes, fun skirts — certainly not blue jeans,\" spokeswoman Ginny Orthwein said. A Post-Dispatch fashion writer advised in 1992 that for the Veiled Prophet, Fleur de Lis and St. Louis Charitable Foundation balls \"white tie\" for women can mean \"a genuine ball gown, more opulent than most [other] formal attire worn\" in St", ". Louis.", "Tableaux", "In 1883 the organization began a series of tableaux, which was \"not to be an exclusive affair, nor to be confined to the members of the Veiled Prophets. . . . Any person, of respectable character\" could send for tickets, which were limited so that they should \"not fall into the hands of improper or disreputable characters.\" Seats at the Olympic Theater were five dollars each, and there would be \"no discrimination.\" In addition to the tableaux, musical attractions were on the bill", ".\" In addition to the tableaux, musical attractions were on the bill. There would be no requirement for \"full dress.\"\"The Prophet's Tableaux,\" St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 13, 1889, image 7", "In conjunction with the 1889 removal of the VP Ball from the Merchants Exchange to a new site at the Music Hall, the program was changed that year from a March and Veiled Prophet's Quadrille to \"a series of magnificent tableaux\" with \"elegantly costumed\" participants. The tableaux, with scenery and costumes echoing the theme of the parade floats, continued at least until 1890.\n\n Mexican visitors", "In 1898, St. Louis was one stop for a large group of visitors on tour from Mexico, and Mrs. Otto F. Forster of St. Louis arranged for the women of that group to be \"given an insight into the high social life\" of the city, but she could not find \"enough society women who can speak Spanish to form a reception committee.\" From the local Latin-American Club she received a list of women who could speak the language, but, as the Post-Dispatch reported, \"it didn't suit", ". The ladies were all stenographers and probably not one of them figured as a maid of honor at a Veiled Prophet's Ball or acted as a lady patroness at a swell function. They were all nice and good, no doubt, Mrs. Forster argued, but they didn't represent what is conceded to be society in St. Louis.\"", "After coronation \n\nBefore 1915, the newly crowned Queen was taken by family and friends to a fashionable hotel for a \"light cotillion,\" or light refreshments, and then escorted home. In that year, the supper was supplanted by an elaborate party, first at the St. Louis Country Club, then over time at the Chase Hotel and next the Jefferson Hotel (for 27 years).", "Gus O. Nations, chief prohibition agent in St. Louis, announced in 1922 that his agents would patrol hotels \"where guests at the Veiled Prophet Ball will congregate\" after their departure from the dance. If liquor comes \"within the gaze of a prohibition enforcement agent,\" the bearer could be arrested under the Volstead Act, he warned.", "In 1926, as in \"past years\" and after \"a ceremony of allegiance to the new Queen,\" the custom for her and some others was to leave the venue \"and spend the rest of the evening in hotel ballrooms or dining rooms.\" In 1940, twenty-two young men were invited to attend such a supper dance at the Hotel Jefferson (St. Louis, Missouri); with a blue carnation in their lapels, they would \"have the privilege of dancing with any of the ladies present whether or not they have been formally introduced.\"", "The married Queen \n\nIn 1928, Mary Ambrose Smith, who was selected as Queen, was found to have secretly married Dr. Thomas Birdsall days earlier, violating the rule that the Queen of Love and Beauty must be a \"maiden.\" The Post-Dispatch\nquoted a man \"high in the councils of the Veiled Prophet organization,\" who said: \"We have no precedent to guide us. The disclosure is most extraordinary, astounding, to be exact.\"\n\nIn a 1979 interview with the St. Louis Times, Smith recalled how the Veiled Prophet:", "gave her traveling money and told her to \"begone, don't register at any large hotels, and don't use your real name.\"... Smith was \"made to feel she disgraced her family. None of her friends stuck by her (she was told she could not visit their houses), she was never invited to another VP ball, her picture was removed from the collection of queens' portraits at the Missouri Historical Society, and her name was deleted from the Social Register.\n\n Bengal Lancers", "In 1880, \"armed attendants\" accompanied the presentation of the Veiled Prophet in a ceremonial procession before the Ball. An honor guard for the VP continued around 1922 with uniforms modeled after those of a British first life guard; then, over time, a West Point cadet and, next, a cavalier. In 1935 the men were fitted with a new look: that of a Bengal lancer of India, with a royal blue turban, a scarlet tunic, white breeches, white gauntlets and black jackboots with silver spurs", ". The Globe Democrat reported that year:", "The turban is striped with yellows and reds with a green center stripe; each color representing a religion of these fighting men. The green signifies Mohammedanism, while the other colors stand for the various other Eastern faiths.", "In 1930, the team had been costumed \"in uniforms of the period of the Restoration in England,\" with \"quaint arms in keeping with the costumes.\"\n\nEach year, the guard performed an exhibition drill before the introduction of the Prophet to the assemblage. As time passed, their movements drew laughter:", "(1937) The Prophet's Guard, still garbed as Bengal lancers, began squads-righting and forming perfect fronts. The laughter which greeted them . . . must have been caused either by their [fake] black beards or their bamboo lances, which, when held defensively before them, caused some of the spectators to ask whether the fishing was good.", "(1949) Another highlight was offered by the pompously correct Bengal Lancers, who won applause and some deliberately provoked titter when their military maneuvers . . . went awkwardly awry. They seemed to enjoy the few bobbers perhaps more than their 10,000 spectators.\n\nIn 1960, the Lancers rode horseback during the Parade, just ahead of the Prophet's float.\n\nBy 1986, laughter was expected, with Patricia Rice of the Post-Dispatch observing that the Lancers'", "antics begin and end every Veiled Prophet Ball, setting its tone, and last night . . . the bearded, turbaned lancers once again kept the 1,500 guests laughing. Such fun is just one of the ways in which the guests are reminded that the ball is primarily a party, and that nothing must be taken too seriously.\n\n Grand march and quadrille", "The first ball, in 1878, began with a quadrille of costumed men from the parade and the women who awaited them. After two dances, the first being J.S. Bach's Royal Quadrille, the men retired to replace their disguises with formal wear for the rest of the evening. The next year, 1879, the Veiled Prophet and retinue entered the room and proceeded to execute a grand march, followed by a quadrille with \"fair ones of the earth as partners.\" In 1890 the music was the Coronation March by Giacomo Meyerbeer", ".\" In 1890 the music was the Coronation March by Giacomo Meyerbeer. The Royal Quadrille was on the program as late as 1921.", "Ball location and duration \n\nThe first VP Ball in 1878 was in the \"beautiful precincts of the Chamber of Commerce,\" also known as the Merchants Exchange, the largest hall in the city, with some 1,400 seats. But much of the space was taken up by a rostrum, a fountain, telegraph desks and tiers of seats around the sides.\n\nThe ball began after the parade was over and the participants had returned to the dance venue. \"The festivities lasted to the early dawn.\"", "In 1889 and 1890 the venue was switched to the Grand Exposition Music Hall, with a gallery of 1,100 seats and a dress circle of 1,400. There, \"the Prophets will be able to give a tableau on the stage before the ball, as is done in New Orleans.\"", "In the first part of the 20th century, the ball was held at the St. Louis Coliseum. Beginning in 1936 it took place at the Municipal Auditorium (which had been renamed the Kiel Auditorium) until a lawsuit was brought against the Veiled Prophet organization for shutting down the public auditorium for weeks at a time, arguing that the common taxpayers did not have access to the event", ". In the 1950s, the Chase Park Plaza Hotel constructed the opulent Khorassan Ballroom specifically to host the annual debutante ball, and the event was formally moved there in December 1975.", "Memorabilia \n\nThe Matrons of Honor in 1920 received as gifts black moiré bags lined with white, with clasps and trimmings of gold. The Maids of Honor received gold bar pins embellished with designs in filagree.", "The Queen in 1930 was given a diadem set with 71 diamonds, two pearls and two sapphires, with the crown designed so it might be removed from the platinum bandeau and worn as a brooch or pendant. An 8-inch plume was of spun silver. The Maids got coronets, \"small-scale duplicates\" of the one worn by the Queen, with only 51 diamonds.", "In 2018, two \"jewel-encrusted\" gold and silver Veiled Prophet tiaras, worn by a Special Maid in 1894 and the Queen of Love and Beauty in 1896, were stolen from the Missouri History Museum. They were never recovered.\"Century-old Tiaras Stolen From Missouri History Museum,\" St. Joseph News-Press, April 19, 2018, page B2\n\n Children's and teens' events", "\"Miniature\" Veiled Prophet balls were scheduled with children, an early one in May 1936 at the Independent Evangelical Church and another at Greeley Presbyterian Church in October 1938, with the crowning of a \"Queen.\" A Prophet and Queen were crowned at Lowell School in 1940. The first after World War 2 was at the Zion Methodist Church in June 1946. Villa Duchesne High School held Miniature VP events both before and after the war.\"Party at Villa Duchesne,\" St", ".\"Party at Villa Duchesne,\" St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 8, 1940, image 15\"Queen of Miniature V.P. Ball,\" St. Louis Star-Times, October 1, 1949, image 3", "Notable VP Parade incidents and activities \n\n Lawsuit", "In 1879, George Soulie, who had been living in New Orleans engaged in work on the annual Mardi Gras celebration, sought to do similar work for the second Veiled Prophet Parade in St. Louis. He was placed in touch with businessman John G. Priest, known as a kind of \"boss\" Prophet. The two signed a contract for Soulie \"to paint, decorate, and fix up generally in first-class style twenty-one chariots, or floats\" for $630. He worked for three weeks, then was discharged by Superintendent Daniel E. Carroll.", "Because the Prophets were supposed to be nameless, \"every effort\" was made to keep the matter quiet, but Soulie filed suit against Priest, president; Frank Galennie, secretary; Daniel Carrol, superintendent; Charles E. Slayback and Preston T. Slayback. The Daily Globe Democrat reported that after \"the indignant artist threatened to reveal all he knew concerning the Prophets and their identity,\" a \"consultation of the high-muck-a-mucks of the V.P", ".P.'s was held,\" they offered $200, Soulie withdrew the suit, \"the bounced artist promised to remain true to his plighted word not to squeal, and the awful mystery which surrounds the Prophets remains as impenetrable as before.\"", "Courthouse Square 1879. In the second year of the pageant, the Post-Dispatch reported that the \"dazzling display\" would cost some seventy thousand dollars, that \"seats are being erected at every available corner, and [that] fabulous prices are being paid for rooms along the proposed route. . . . At the Court-house the grand procession will come to a halt[,] and there will be a splendid display of fire works.\"", "The paper reported that \"The corner grass plots in the Court-house square have been boarded over and will, it is said, accommodate 3,500 people just at the very turning point in the procession. . . . Fire-works will be displayed at frequent intervals, and the fiery shower from the dome of the Court-house . . . will be one of the grandest sights ever seen by any public.\"", "But, according to the Post-Dispatch, that venture \"created a great deal of dissatisfaction and discussion as to the right of the city to allow the public square to be used for a private enterprise.\" Leslie Moffett, a member of the Board of Police Commissioners, \"understanding that some trouble might ensue to the police, owing to the general popular opinion that the people had a right to the Court-house square and might try to force their way into the enclosing\" tried to find out who was behind the idea", ". Contractor E.C. Simmons responded that the seats were \"for the benefit of the Veiled Prophets\" and that they were \"not a private enterprise or speculation in any sense whatever.\" The tickets were on sale for a dollar each in a stand at a local department store.", "The Post-Dispatch added:", "The police authorities decline to say what they will do about protecting the seats, so that there is a good deal of doubt about what will occur should the mob rush in and take possession. . .", ". . . . In this connection it may be stated that the hackmen who stand around the Court-house square, having been requested to vacate the place tonight in order not to obscure the view of the occupants of seats in the court yard, refuse to do so, saying the city gives them permission to stand around the square, and they will not forego it for the accommodation of those who purchase tickets to the inclosures.", "Further dissension arose when it was reported that Mayor Henry Overstolz and city officials would view the pageant from a room in the courthouse, thus \"controlling the Court-house\" on the evening of the parade. Overstolz countered that he had simply \"asked Judge [Amos Madden] Thayer for a window in his court-room, and he gave me his private room", ". I merely suggested that the invitations be extended by the heads of the apartments [departments?] so that the right parties will assemble there, as there are a number of valuable papers in the building. All sorts of rumors are flying about.\"", "On the evening of this second parade, a \"stream of lights, red and blue, burst forth upon the cornice of the Court-house . . . . A flight of pigeons . . . sprang out of their suddenly illuminated nests, and fled from their time honored homes in dismay. . . . A cataract of flame [fireworks] flowed down the ashen-colored roof of the dome . . . [looking like] a flood of molten lava.\"1894. The courthouse steps \"looked like a giant anthill\" they were so jammed with people.\n\n Rain delays", "Rain delays \n\nThe second parade and ball were postponed for one day in 1879, until Wednesday, October 7, because of a \"miserable, penetrating and thoroughly unpleasant rain.\" The St. Joseph (Missouri) Gazette said: \"The interest in this affair is simply amazing. Excursion trains on all the railroads leading into the city have been crammed to excess all day[,] and not less than forty thousand people came into the city.\"", "Crowding 1878. Onlookers filled every available viewing niche. From the windows of the Shorb & Boland stationers on Washington Avenue, for example, they \"stretched their bodies far out, at the risk of falling to the sidewalk.\"1879. The streets \"were thronged to such a degree that at times the procession was obliged to halt until the mounted police force and company of cavalry . . . could make an opening in the dense crowd. Every window and doorstep was filled to its utmost capacity. . .", ". Every window and doorstep was filled to its utmost capacity. . . .\" Theaters halted their performances as the parade passed through the streets fronting them, like a production of H.M.S. Pinafore at the Mercantile Library Hall.1882. Many thousands arrived via Mississippi River steamer in 1882, the Post-Dispatch said. Under the headline \"THE GREAT JAM,\" it reported that:", "The largest number of people who ever congregated within the limits of the city has arrived within the past few days. The hotels are crowded to their utmost capacity, from three to ten persons being crowded into every bed-room, while the halls and parlors are filled with cots closely packed together. . . . The Union depot was a perfect jam all day. Such a crowd never was seen . . . before at any time . . .", ". Such a crowd never was seen . . . before at any time . . . . All the railroads were running special trains, many of them coming in by sections, being too long to be drawn by one or two engines.1890. The Post-Dispatch reported that:", "Every express wagon, furniture van and grocery wagon was out for the evening and on the improvised seats were motley crowds. The colored [African-American] driver had his family and friends there and made a profit by making room for a few eager sight-seers . . . . What a motley crowd it was, to be sure, but a very orderly one.1908. A new system of \"pay as you enter\" streetcar service was put to the test in handling VP commuters", ". A new system of \"pay as you enter\" streetcar service was put to the test in handling VP commuters. Women clad in ballroom gowns had to wait on rear platforms while their escorts looked for the small change in their full-dress suits and then they all had to push their way through narrow swinging entrance doors. Women who had taken their children to see the parade were forced to stand on street corners while others, \"more active and less encumbered, pushed and fought their way into the [street]cars.\"", "The Den and the floats \n\nThe Den has been a building or complex of buildings where the floats and costumes have been prepared for the VP and America's Birthday Parade activities.", "On parade night in 1879, the Den was described by a reporter as a \"great black building running along the side of Twelfth Street, from Market to Chestnut. It stood dim and grim against the evening sky, with not a luminous line or brilliant knot-hole to be seen against its gloomy walls until 7 o'clock, when the yard gate to the east of the building suddenly opened and displayed to view an array of torch-bearers ready to march forward at a moment's notice.\"", "In 1880, design of the floats was done by artist Carl Gutherz, and his drawings were sent to Paris, France, where the costumes were made. The next year, 1881, St. Louis artists Thomas C. Noxon and Richard Halley did the work.\n\nThe Den was at 12th and Chestnut in 1883.\nThe Den land on the northeast corner of 12th and Market was sold in June 1884 by Charles L. Hunt to Thomas T. Turner, bundled with other property.", "In 1890 through 1924, the floats were prepared in a \"large building\" between 21st and 22nd at Walnut street.\"The Pageant,\" St. Louis Daily Globe-Democrat, October 9, 1901, image 8 In 1893, it was written that:", "The squatty brick building was the den of the Veiled Prophet. . . . 2120 Walnut Street is the number. . . . It contains no window nearer the ground than 15 feet.", ". . . In each door, about 20 feet from the bottom,, are two windows, heavily grated and covered on the inside with curtains, . . . a wealth of skylight perforates the roof. Around this building as early as 6 o'clock people began to gather [on VP night]. Little lads in the mischievous years were as plentiful there as the proverbial leaves in Vallambrosa. They got down flat on their stomachs at the bottom of the corrugated iron doors and tried to get a look at his mysterious Majesty's splendors.", "The Stroh Brothers purchased the Walnut Street property in 1924, to replace the Den with a large garage for \"trucks and passenger cars.\"\n\nBurglars entered the Den at 102 Rankin Avenue on January 26, 1931, hammered the combination off the safe and escaped with $2,700 worth of jewelry, $250 in cash and a .32-caliber automatic pistol.", "In 1932, the Den was on \"dingy Rankin Avenue,\" the Post-Dispatch reported, number 102 South at LaClede, where it remained until at least 1958, when a fire damaged five floats being prepared for the VP Parade. Five firemen were overcome by dense, acrid smoke. The victims received bouquets and notes from the Veiled Prophet which said, \"With deep appreciation and gratitude.\"\"V.P. Parade On Tomorrow Despite 3-Alarm Fire at Den,\" St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 7, 1958, image 1", "In the year of the fire, the St. Louis Post-Democrat claimed that the Den \"becomes an ordinary warehouse as soon as the parade is over. Having no visible abiding place, the order is not subject to influence in other social and business clubs, and this again constitutes an important fact in its longevity.\"\n\nThe South Rankin building was demolished in April 1960 for redevelopment of Mill Creek Valley, and the Den was resurrected in a warehouse on Prospect Avenue.\"V.P. Parade,\" October 6, 1960, image 15", "The Post-Dispatch in 1981 described the Den as \"a complex of former Falstaff brewery warehouses at 301 Prospect Avenue that serve as a combination workshop, storage facility and archives for VP parades and balls.\" In February 1991 the Den was a large cinderblock building near Spring Avenue and Forest Park Boulevard.\n\nBrook Marion was the leading float painter of a six-man crew in the Den in 1999.", "Brook Marion was the leading float painter of a six-man crew in the Den in 1999.\n\n Reaction of onlookers 1881: A \"gang of roughs\" pelted the floats with mud and stones. On the other hand, during the same parade \"Several young ladies in the windows of 1630 Pine\" who attracted the attention of men on one of the floats \"received quite a pelting at their hands with nuts and other missiles.\"", "In every window of all the residences and stores . . . were groups of men, women and children, crooking their necks and straining their eyes. . . . Seated on boxes, barrels, benches, chair; perched on the rails of fences and the roofs of houses; grouped on balconies, gathered on door-steps and sitting astride the branches of trees . . . were the spectators of every class, age and condition.1883: The Post-Dispatch reported that \"The large and overwhelming majority\" of the crowd were . .", ".1883: The Post-Dispatch reported that \"The large and overwhelming majority\" of the crowd were . . . visitors to the city who were enjoying their first holiday since last Christmas.\" This over,", "they repaired to the beer saloons, the restaurants, the theaters and hotels and proceeded to 'round off' the occasion in such manner as their tastes dictated. A few indulged too freely in their ardent devotions to Bacchus and were nearly corralled in the police wagons . . . very little rowdyism was indulged in, such as there was . . . being . . . for the most part, the boisterous good humor of the 'smart Aleck' era of a rising generation", ". . . for the most part, the boisterous good humor of the 'smart Aleck' era of a rising generation. A few boys, lined up in 'hand to shoulder' fashion, occasionally forced their way through the crowds of women and children, but this rudeness was received good-naturedly.1884: At Broadway and Fourth Streets \"there was a mob . . . of the most unruly character. A dozen policemen fought them back, but they crowded up to the very wheels of the floats.\"1911: According to Marguerite Martyn in the St", ".\"1911: According to Marguerite Martyn in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch:", "The slapstick, so long indispensable to low comedy, found a new use among the crowds . . . they used the slapstick to the extreme embarrassment of many women. The carnival spirit, for the most part tempered by high good humor, at times verged on rowdyism. Girls used a stick ripped with feathers to tickle the faces of young men, and they retaliated vigorously with the slapstick", ".1920: \"Ordinarily reserved young ladies used the 'Coney Island ticklers,' sold by countless vendors, upon the chins and faces of every young man who came within an arm's length,\" the Globe-Democrat reported. \"And the favor was reciprocated.\"1926: Slapsticks, rolled newspapers and feather ticklers were used \"to tease and torment.\" Women reported dresses torn and hair rumpled. Police confiscated more than a hundred slapsticks and arrested six vendors. Chief Joseph A", ". Police confiscated more than a hundred slapsticks and arrested six vendors. Chief Joseph A. Gerk said: \"I am opposed to the use of slapsticks and heartily approve of the beating of one man who used a slapstick on a woman.\" He thought some of the enthusiasm stemmed from the excitement of the World Series being played that week in St. Louis — the Cardinals against the Yankees.1930s: Some onlookers used pea-shooters, rocks and other missiles against the floats", ".1930s: Some onlookers used pea-shooters, rocks and other missiles against the floats. Confectioners' shops stocked the pea-shooters in anticipation of the parade, according to Robert Tooley, who identified himself as VP \"den superintendent\" in that era. Pea-shooters were again active in 1947, and in that same year \"the new plastic bubbles\" were evident.\"550,000 See Veiled Prophet Parade,\" St", ".\"550,000 See Veiled Prophet Parade,\" St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 8, 1947, page 11937:\"For the first time in years,\" the Globe-Democrat reported, \"great volumes of paper were dropped from windows.\" Some of it was ignited when it came in contact with sparks from trolley wires. Downtown merchants played safe either by \"boarding up windows or lining the window sills with boards in which nails were upended\" to prevent crowds from pushing against plate-glass windows", ". \"Youths with bean shooters were active, as always.\"1966: A judge sentenced an 18-year-old man to sixty days in the city workhouse after convicting him of throwing stones at a police car during the weekend VP Parade.", "Ethnic floats \n 19th Century", "In 1882, the parade theme took a new direction, which led to controversy over the inclusion of a float criticized for its portrayal of Irish people. The theme illustrated \"the leading characteristics of the principal nations of Asia, Europe and Africa, and giving a special tableau of American scenes, representing the ballot box, the Indian on the plains, life on southern plantations and the western rivers. . .", ". . . . The tableau came more directly within the comprehension of the average citizen than the mythological representations of previous years and was cheered to the echo.\"", "But St. Louis members of the Irish Land League were incensed over one of the floats, and \"it was universally agreed there that there would be a grand and frightful riot unless the Irish float was taken out of the procession.\" The Irishmen who drove the parade's teams and wagons said they would \"withdraw their services\" if the float was included, so the entry was removed.", "Figures aboard the planned float included shillelagh-wielding men and a woman in \"peasant costume\" dancing to a fiddle. A \"drinking booth with the Irish harp\" is nearby. \"A pig sty, with a couple of grunters anxiously peering over the side, stands to the left, a bushel basket of potatoes evidently tempting them.\"", "Alonzo Slayback replied that the message of the \"first procession\" in 1878 had gone \"over the heads of the spectators\" and since then \"we found that a float which aimed rather to convey a pleasant bit of fun pleased the people much better[,] and we have carried out this idea ever since. . . . Let them raise a finger against any part of the pageant, if they dare. I feel sure that there will be on hand a sufficiently large number of people . . . to prevent any attack. Yes, sir, just let them try it", ". . . to prevent any attack. Yes, sir, just let them try it.\" The day this quotation appeared in the morning Post-Dispatch, Slayback stopped in the office of managing editor John A. Cockerill to request that the latter \"suppress all mention of the action of certain citizens regarding the Irish float. . . . Our meeting was pleasant and he went away in good feeling,\" Cockerill said.", "The offending scene was eliminated, and other props were used on the refurbished float.\n\n 20th Century", "In 1938, an Irish-descended group headed by Circuit Judge O'Neil Ryan protested the imagery on a float with the title of a popular song, \"Has Anybody Here Seen Kelly?\" The name of the float was soon changed to \"The Sidewalks of New York", ".\" In addition, a statement from the Veiled Prophet organization said: \"At the same time the Order announces that the float entitled 'Schnitzelbank' has been changed to 'Harvest Moon,'\" which the Star-Times said was done \"to forestall possible criticism arising out of the recent European developments.\"", "Biblical theme \n\nSt. Louis Protestant minister S.J. Nichols castigated the Old Testament theme of the 1887 VP Parade. In a sermon on September 18, he made a \"sweeping condemnation,\" particularly condemning the printed invitation to the ball, which included representations of the Ark of the Covenant and the Ten Commandments. He also denounced floats depicting Moses and Elijah.\n\nNichols said:", "Nichols said:\n\nIn this shocking prostitution of things sacred, there is a failure to make a distinction between sacred and profane, or common things, and it is calculated to foster the spirit of irreverence and bring God's Word into contempt. . . . All this is done in the name of a great city for gain. . . . [This] last great blunder is well calculated to bring St. Louis into disrepute with other cities . . . .", "He was soon answered by David Swing, a widely known progressive minister from Chicago, who wrote:", "The \"Veiled Prophets\" are a set of rather foolish old boys, who are not worthy of any special notice from the pulpit. Their parade once a year can not have much influence for or against the real cause of Christianity. . . . No one is hurt. . . . nearly all the episodes of the Old Testament have been repeatedly pictured in a humorous aspect . . . there are thousands of persons in St. Louis who will gain . . . their first lessons in sacred things . . .", ". Louis who will gain . . . their first lessons in sacred things . . . . They will learn by pictures of Bible scenes what they can never learn from the baseball grounds alone, nor from a life-long association with cigars and beer.", "Lighting \n\n Torchbearers", "The first parade was lit by a thousand torchbearers, all dressed in brown habits, with cowls, \"priest fashion,\" walking beside the floats, carrying gasoline lanterns with three burners each, the affairs looking not unlike sections of the footlights in a small theater in a town where the gas was uncertain as to brilliancy. Others held, with outstretched hands and averted face, long beacon lights, which burned alternately red and blue", ". The air was filled with the stifling, sulphurous fumes from the burning lights; the eyes of the throng were dazzled, and the air was filled with a unanimous cough.Each man carried \"a quadruple gasoline torch with a reflector behind the flame, [flanking it on either side] . . ., respectable but disagreeable flambeaux.\" The lamp bearers wore protectors to keep their wrists from burning.\"The Veiled Prophets: At the end of the Procession,\" St. Louis Daily Globe-Democrat, October 9, 1878, image 2", "In the second year, 1879, Daniel Carroll was in charge of the six hundred men hired to lead the horses and carry beacons and torches. He told his men", "to be as mysterious as possible and to keep their cowls well drawn over their faces. . . . But the temperature and the weight of the torches began to tell . . . and . . . they threw back the cowls and . . . revealed in the ruddy light a perspiring congress of nations, for Carroll [in choosing his marchers had not been] hampered by any prejudices of race, color or previous condition of servitude.", "Each float in 1879 was drawn by six horses, \"covered with snow-white trappings, on which two cabalistic letters, 'V.P.,' were wrought in deep red color.\" Two mounted horsemen rode before and two behind, and \"at each side were four bearers of reflector torches and an equal number of flambeaux carriers.\" In 1887, these torchbearers were \"mostly colored men\" dressed in red robes. In 1890, a newspaper said that they were \"chiefly negroes of the steamboat type", ". In 1890, a newspaper said that they were \"chiefly negroes of the steamboat type.\"Black men were often used as stevedores on river boats and at wharfs.", "Other illuminations \n\nIn at least two locations in 1878 locomotive headlights lit up the streets. \"The Court-house was the center of the grandest illumination along the entire route,\" being lit \"and covered with Chinese lanterns,\" the St. Louis Evening Post said.\n\"'Red fire' was made and placed behind the fountains and caused the water to take the appearance of being sparkling blood.\" An electric light in front of Tony Faust's building at Fifth and Elm made the block \"as bright as day.\"", "The Daily Commonwealth of Topeka, Kansas, said the 1878 procession, under the", "light of various colors thrown upon it, and the glare of illuminated buildings along the route, presented one of the most gorgeous sights imaginable, and elicited almost deafening and continuous applause from the greatest crowd of people ever seen in St. Louis . . . on Bridge Square the most brilliant and beautiful ever seen in the city took place, the air being densely filled with stars of nearly all colors for a height of three hundred feet.\"", "Natural gas and calcium light", "Some business owners \"expended large sums of money\" in 1878 to furnish lighting in front of their properties by natural gas, using it \"as extravagantly as though it were to be found on the streets for nothing,\" but they found that their attempts were \"so eclipsed\" by the \"gorgeous dazzle\" of the VP Parade \"that they became disgusted\" and vowed not to do it again the next year", ". Nevertheless, in 1879, \"Fifth street was light as day with its many pyramids of gas jets that had taken the place of the every-day lamp-post illuminations. . . . At each end of the Washington avenue corners of Samuel C. Davis & Co.'s dry goods building, a calcium light shone down upon the multitude.\"", "In 1881, a line of gas pipe was run down Fourth Street, \"broken only at the cross streets, from which myriads of jets surrounded by white globes poured forth their effulgence. . . . Swung high in the air at [a] distance of about every thirty feet[,] tall branch lights had been placed, which when fully ablaze resembled . . . a row of beautiful trees hung with brilliant lanterns. The effect was magical", ". . . a row of beautiful trees hung with brilliant lanterns. The effect was magical.\" Gusts of wind from the river, however, blew out the lights, which were relit by workers with oakum torches. \"Taken as a whole, the effect was very brilliant and will long be remembered by the thousands who witnessed it.\" After the main gas pipe was opened in the early evening, merchants and businessmen along the route were responsible for lighting the gas jets themselves with torches provided by the gas company.", "The 1883 parade was held in conjunction with the 23rd St. Louis (Agricultural) Fair. Twenty-five thousand globes, nineteen arches, and \"miles of gas jets\" were newly installed, and \"many of the business houses will be brilliantly lighted up by gas and electric lights.\"\n\nIn March 1885, Charles H. Lewis and his wife received $283 from the city for the injuries they had received from the falling of a gas pipe at Broadway and Washington Avenue during the VP Parade.\n\n Electricity", "In 1881, lighting the line of the parade with electric lights suspended from the telegraph poles was discussed but abandoned because, a newspaper report said, \"the intense white flames of the electric lamps would interfere with the colored lights.\" Still, a string of electric lamps were \"stretched from the St. Louis Club-house down along Washington avenue to Samuel C. Davis' store on Fifth street", ". Louis Club-house down along Washington avenue to Samuel C. Davis' store on Fifth street.\" As well, other establishments promised to provide enough electric lights in their vicinities \"to turn night into day.\" And, torch-bearers were \"three times as numerous\" as they were in previous processions.", "In 1894, illuminations were considerably reduced, the rural visitor perhaps being unhappy with the lack of \"even the usual number of gas jets and incandescent globes,\" the Globe-Democrat said, but the floats \"and their attendant illuminators had no glare and glitter from street lamps to dim their luster,\" and the \"innovation proved to be a decided success.\"", "The 1903 parade was the first in which the floats, with more than forty thousand mounted electric lights, moved along the streetcar tracks with everything powered by the overhead electric trolley wires. \"The pageant will be more clearly seen,\" The Republic predicted in an advance story. \"There will be no dull patches in it. . . . The floats will move much more easily on the streetcar tracks\" than they had done before on the asphalt or granite streets", ". Each float was to be supplied with \"300 to 400 incandescent bulbs . . . to produce every effect of lighting that can devised, . . . vivid and full of color.\" Horses, however, still pulled the floats, \"it having been deemed inartistic and impractical to supplant the gallant steeds with buzzing motors,\" the Post-Dispatch said.", "The St. Louis Daily Globe-Democrat noted in 1906 that \"The nightly street illumination will remind all who witness its strange and brilliant combination of the wonderful recent advance in lighting the avenues and in rendering the darkness eloquent with various devices. This is one of the triumphs of the new century.\"", "In 1919, a United Railways employee walked behind each wagon, carrying the \"trolley rope.\" The trolley on the Prophet's float was accidentally torn off at 7th and Olive, so it had to be lighted by torches the rest of the way.\n\n Shift to daylight", "Shift to daylight \n\nIn 1969, the parade was shifted to daylight hours and incorporated into a larger civic celebration. That year was the first in which the Prophet did not appear in the parade.\"Blacks Attempt to Halt Parade in St. Louis,\" Decatur (Illinois) Sunday Herald and Review, September 28, 1969, image 4", "Mishaps 1884. A witch character in Float No. 10 \"spilled some of the alcohol that was used as fuel in their caldron, and in a moment it was on fire.\" Attendants stamped out the blaze, and the witches handed the cans of alcohol to them.", "Street conditions, police, and traffic 1879. \"Vehicles of all kinds swarmed in and began to block up the crossings so that the police were kept busy . . . making room for the pedestrians. . . . By 8 o'clock the street cars could hardly move . . . .\"1881", ". making room for the pedestrians. . . . By 8 o'clock the street cars could hardly move . . . .\"1881. The VP organization made out a route for the procession and handed it over to Street Commissioner Turner, who, said the Post-Dispatch, would \"patch up\" the streets \"so that the floats may not be stalled and the torch-bearers may not go over a precipice every half block.\" On parade night, \"The vacant lots and all the cross streets . . . were closely packed with wagons, carriages, etc", ". . . were closely packed with wagons, carriages, etc., in which the occupants were standing and sitting.\"1890. In advance of the parade, the Globe-Democrat said that \"A strong cordon of mounted police will act as a skirmish line to clear the crowded streets, while a similar force will follow in the wake to preserve the rear floats . . . . [They will] prevent the hilarity of the occasion from degenerating into stone-throwing . . . .\"1893", ". . . .\"1893. The \"entire police force\" was on duty, required to serve \"from fifteen to eighteen hours, or about the same time as on election days,\" an officer assigned to march behind each float, each man \"provided with a long cane.\" Two were on horseback at the rear of the procession, to \"keep advertising schemers from following.\" Police \"in citizens' clothes\" mingled with the crowds and watched for pickpockets.1894", ".\" Police \"in citizens' clothes\" mingled with the crowds and watched for pickpockets.1894. Vehicles included \"the elegant barouche, drawn by a handsome pair [of horses],\" \"the ash cart dragged along by some poor equine,\" businessmen's and farmers' wagons, baker wagons, milk carts, drays, carriages, omnibuses, \"and one enterprising malt [beer and ale] dealer had transformed his immense vehicle into an observation tower for a jolly crowd of young men and girls", ".\" Motormen, conductors and passengers climbed to the top of parked streetcars to watch. . . . It was really a question of which was the happier lot [the Globe-Democrat said] — \"the rich laden with diamonds and silks entering the grandest festival of the year or the folks from the country who milked the cows for supper and barely had time to get the straw off their bonnets before they were right there looking on.\"1906", ".\"1906. The parade that year would feature \"a great array of decorated vehicles, including automobiles, whose rapid rise and multiplying uses are one of the sensations of the day.\"1914. Again, the \"entire police department\" of 1,400 men was on duty \"to prevent rowdyism on the streets and arrest any suspicious character.\" Patrols were assigned to residential areas to guard against burglaries. A city ordinance forbade the use of confetti and slap sticks.1919. The St", ". A city ordinance forbade the use of confetti and slap sticks.1919. The St. Louis Star reported that \"never before were so many automobiles massed in the downtown district. It took virtually the entire police force to handle the traffic. Owners of trucks permitted their use by employees, who fitted them with seats for their families and friends.\" Autos with men and women in evening attire, bound for the ball at the Coliseum, had the right of way.1930", ".1930. Rules were changed to make egress for automobiles easier after the dance, \"so as to occasion the owner the least possible difficulty and delay in getting out of his parking place, and to enable chauffeur-driven cars to reach the door of the Coliseum very quickly after being called. In former years there have been twenty-three [telephone] call stations for cars and of late years only eight or ten . . . have been used because . . . so many guests drive their own cars.\"1940. In an editorial, the St", ". . have been used because . . . so many guests drive their own cars.\"1940. In an editorial, the St. Louis Star-Times castigated city officials for not having provided \"a modern, scientific pattern\" for coping with the 410,000 people who flocked to see the VP Parade, when twelve thousand VP Ball attendees were receiving \"first class\" traffic arrangements, with special routes set aside and parking places \"abundantly provided", ".\" The editorial went on: \"Failure to provide a modern, scientific pattern for coping with the traffic . . . smacks of indifference and official inertia or a perverse distaste for progress.\"1941.' Things got better in 1941, with every street intersection manned by one to six officers, and when the larger part of the parade had passed, police cars shuttled the patrolmen to the head of the procession for duty.", "Notable guests \n\nPresident Grover Cleveland and his wife, Frances Folsom, attended in 1887\"In Society,\" St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 7, 1887, image 2 and Margaret Truman, the author and daughter of President Harry S. Truman, in 1969. At the former, the number of invitations to \"perhaps the most exclusive ball of them all\" had been \"somewhat limited\" and the guest list \"carefully scrutinized,\" the St. Louis Republic recalled in 1900.", "In 1893, sixty representatives from 34 countries or colonies exhibiting at the World's Fair in Chicago arrived by train and were escorted in carriages to the Southern Hotel. They were feted at a dinner, witnessed the parade, and taken to the Ball. The next day featured a tour of St. Louis sights.", "The governors of fifteen U.S. states participated in the annual VP festivities in 1907. It was the largest number of state executives ever assembled up to that time in one city. They met with President Theodore Roosevelt and accompanied him on a voyage down the Mississippi River.\n\nPoet Edgar Guest and wife Ellen attended the 1921 ball. Guest authored a poem titled \"The Veiled Prophet.\"\n\n Publications and programs", "A printed description for the first parade in 1878 was done by Alonzo Slayback, who wrote in his diary that it was \"the nearest thing to a stroke of genius that I ever produced.\" His story, he said, was a \"prose poem\" which had \"brought order and identity out of some very gorgeous but very meaningless representations,\" the floats in the parade. \"For next year, and the year after, and so on for a hundred years . . . the strangers who visit our October fairs can be entertained . . . .\"", "In 1881, the organization's \"official publication\" was printed by the Compton Lithographic Works, St. Louis. In the \"principal illustration,\" representing the \"hall of the Veiled Prophets, . . . Three or four fire-glowing planets wandering in and out among gleaming pillars send a shower of gold down upon the radiant raiment of the assembled Prophets and light up the picture in a manner that makes a circus poster look like a postage stamp.\"", "A lady's program for each ball listed individual dances for the evening, with spaces for the names of men with whom she would dance. In 1890, for example, it was designed in the form of a shield, with a heavy black cord and hook to attach to a coat or a dress, with a miniature pencil.\n\n Gallery of illustrations", "Gallery of illustrations \n\n See also \n Ku Klux Klan in Southern Illinois, for first use of Missouri Republican woodcut of man posing in Ku Klux Klan garb\n List of Veiled Prophet Parade themes\n Fleur de Lis Ball – St. Louis's other debutante cotillion\n Jewel Ball – another debutante cotillion in Missouri\n Walter B. Stevens (1848–1939), active in the VP organization\n\n Notes and references \n\n Further reading", "Darst, Katherine. \"The Prophet's Pearls\", The St. Louis Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 4, Sept. 1963.\n Jennings, John J. The Veiled Prophets Unveiled, 1881–1882. \"This book had a large sale last year and was accepted by the public as a pleasant revelation of the mysteries of the initiation ceremony each Prophet is obliged to go through. The work is written in a humorous vein and will be found interesting reading by all who are fond of funny literature.\"", "Nance, Susan. \"The Veiled Prophet's Oriental Tale: St. Louis' Famous Festivals in Context, 1878–1895.\" Missouri Historical Review 103, no. 2 (January 2009): 90–107.\n Stevens, Walter B. St. Louis The Fourth City, 1764–1909,'' S.J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1909.", "External links", "Official site, Veiled Prophet organization\nVeiled Prophet Collection finding aid at the St. Louis Public Library\n \"Veiled Prophet History\", Missouri Historical Society, September 12, 1959 (video)\n The O'Fallon High School marching band at the 1997 VP Parade\n Memories of the Veiled Prophet; How the Floats Are Made in The Den, June 2008, from Nine PBS\n Veiled Prophet activities in 2009, video report by Anne-Marie Berger, from Nine PBS\n Veiled Prophet Parade, July 2, 2011, by Dickson Beall", "Veiled Prophet Parade, July 2, 2011, by Dickson Beall\n \"Long and Complicated History of the Veiled Prophet Parade, Organization”, KMOV St. Louis, July 6, 2021 (video feature report)\n Article and map concerning extension of and changes in the VP Parade route between 1890 and 1940\n Beth O'Malley, \"Veiled Prophet: Symbol of Wealth, Power, and, to Some, Racism,\" St. Louis Post-Dispatch, series of historic illustrations, 1878–2016", "Culture of St. Louis\nDebutante balls\nBalls in the United States\nRecurring events established in 1878\n1878 establishments in Missouri" ]

[ "Darkness, also known as World at War, is a series of six fantasy novels by Harry Turtledove.", "Though a fantasy, its general history, geography, and combatants are analogs of World War II, called the \"Derlavai War\" in this universe. Many of its characters are also the equivalents of historical people. Magic and other fantastic beasts, like dragons, are also stand-ins for World War II technology. Important battles in the series are also based on famous World War II battles. For example, the Battle of Sulingen is an analog to the Battle of Stalingrad.", "Novels\nInto the Darkness (1999)\nDarkness Descending (2000)\nThrough the Darkness (2001)\nRulers of the Darkness (2002)\nJaws of Darkness (2003)\nOut of the Darkness (2004)", "World of Derlavai\nMost of the action in the series takes place on the main continent of Derlavai, located in the southern hemisphere of an unnamed planet. There are also some lesser land masses and island chains mentioned in the story and on the map included in the novels. The planet also has the smaller continents of Siaulia and The Land of the Ice People.", "There are only 12 independent countries: Algarve, Forthweg, Gyongyos, Jelgava, Sibiu, Kuusamo, Lagoas, Ortah, Unkerlant, Valmiera, Yanina, and Zuwayza. There are also three dependent territories (Bari, Grelz, and Rivaroli). Populations are for the most part homogeneous enough that a difference in hair color is easily enough to make one stand out. The vast majority of the members of a given Derlavaian ethnic group have the same hair and eye color combination.", "All nations in the Darkness series are monarchies with the exception of Kuusamo, in which seven princes have a hereditary power-sharing arrangement. While by no means all absolute monarchies, in all of them kings (or princes in Kuusamo) seem to have the executive power. There are foreign ministers, but no prime ministers and no cabinets - a foreign minister evidently reporting directly to the King. None of the people have family names, even if they are members of the nobility", ". None of the people have family names, even if they are members of the nobility. To the extent that monarchs are limited in their power, the limitation comes mainly from hereditary aristocracies which still maintain many privileges of feudal times.", "The nations in the Darkness series do not have randomly invented names for their people and locations. Rather, each nation has personal and geographical names taken from a real nation on Earth. Turtledove has, however, mixed up the attributes so that any given Derlavaian kingdom is not instantly recognizable as a cognate of the countries which took part in World War II. For example, Unkerlant has Germanic (German, Low German, and Frankish) place and personal names", ". For example, Unkerlant has Germanic (German, Low German, and Frankish) place and personal names. Forthweg has a Germanic language, Old English. Similarly, the Algarvic nations all speak Latin-derived languages: Algarve speaks Italian, Lagoas has Portuguese, and Sibiu Romanian. Kaunian languages are based on modern Baltic languages - Lithuanian is Classical Kaunian and Latvian for Valmerian and Jelgavian.", "Unkerlant, though German-speaking, is an unmistakable Russia in both its culture and politics. On the other hand, Kuusamo - though playing the strategic role of the United States - has a Scandinavian culture, fitting with its Finnish language. Similarly, while politically and strategically Algarve is a clear analogue of Nazi Germany - including its committing genocide against the Kaunians/Jews - its culture seems more Italian than German, fitting with its language.", "Magic", "Magic in the Darkness series is not created by mages but rather harnessed by them. The mages of Derlavai gather magical power from the various power points scattered around the planet and the ley lines which link them, a recent discovery made only 200 years before the start of the books. Mages can also gather magic from human sacrifice. As such, the operation of magic is heavily reliant on location", ". As such, the operation of magic is heavily reliant on location. Large, modern cities tend to be located on or near strong power points which provide the energy for the operation of the city's lighting, heating and other comforts. In addition, large power points tend to be linked to greater numbers of ley lines, which are utilised for transportation between cities and towns.", "Mages", "There are fundamental laws of magic, which require intense studying to master in order to become a mage. Though popular \"how-to\" books for the general public do exist, the spells published in them are not always reliable, and can backfire in dangerous or embarrassing ways. Professional mages are divided into \"theoretical\" and \"practical", ". Professional mages are divided into \"theoretical\" and \"practical.\" Theoretical mages research the relationships and underlying laws governing the behaviour of matter and energy, formulate hypotheses expressed in complicated mathematical formulas, and devise careful experiments in order to prove or disprove these hypotheses empirically. Practical mages use the theories devised by theoretical mages to make devices that can be used by the general public.", "Magic and Technology\nDerlavai has gone through a \"Thaumaturgical Revolution\" instead of an Industrial Revolution, using magic as the basis for much of its technology. Because of magic, there appears to be less of a need for mass industry. There are plants producing pottery, for example, in large amounts, but behemoths and dragons are bred on farms and clothing appears to be made by tailors instead of in factories.", "On the civilian scene, magic is much less important, being limited to applications such as rest boxes (an analogue to the refrigerator which operates by slowing the effects of time on its contents), lighting (in places where such sorcerous power is available) and ley line ships, while in the military magic is involved in the production and use of almost all their weapons and supplies.", "Most of the magical items in the world of Derlavai are analogues to everyday, or military, devices in our world. While the series is more concerned with military affairs than with economic ones, it seems that there are three competing ways of producing things:", "By direct magic, using the law of similarity which can obviously be applied to mass production. This method is fast, but can produce inferior goods if not conducted with skill and effort.\n By artisans, who work by hand and use a limited amount of magic. Each profession has some spells, and the knowledge and use of them is considered a normal part of that trade rather than a form of magecraft.\n Mass production by machines, as in our world.", "There is a mention of the Kuusamans rapidly building a new port in a newly conquered island by magic, which is evident from all buildings being the same (indicating that the spells made extensive use of the law of similarity). It is noted that only a country with many skilled mages could have spared the resources for such construction", ". In another place it is noted that printing is usually done by mechanical means, but the Valmieren resistance utilises magic for reproducing a propaganda sheet in order to avoid detection by the occupying authorities. The result of this magical duplication is readable, but the ink smudges easily as it was produced without the aid of a power point or an experienced mage.", "Magical Items in the Darkness series", "Crystals: Described as smooth spheres of glass, crystals are imbued with spells which allow them to be used for communication, and thus take the place of radios in the world. If operated away from a power point or ley line, they require regular recharging by some other means, which in one instance in the series involves the sacrifice of captive humans for their life energy which is used to power the crystal", ". Crystals can operate as videophones, showing an image of the person at the other end, as well as in audio-only mode. The emanations by which speech and images are transmitted between them are subject to interception by other mages, something at the forefront of the minds of most military planners in the series.", "Eggs: The name given to the Derlavaian equivalent of bombs and shells, eggs are thin metal shells filled with magical energy which burst, or explode, when they impact a target or are triggered by an appropriate spell. A variety of uses for eggs are seen in the series. Armies launch them like shells from magically powered 'egg-tossers', which may be standalone devices or mounted on ley-line ships or behemoths. Dragons can carry eggs beneath their bellies for their fliers to drop on enemy forces or cities", ". Dragons can carry eggs beneath their bellies for their fliers to drop on enemy forces or cities. Eggs may also be buried in the ground and enchanted to explode like landmines if they sense pressure, or can be buried along ley lines and set to explode if a ley line caravan passes over them, which simultaneously destroys the caravan and overloads the ley line's controlling spells. Leviathan riders also use eggs for mining enemy ships", ". Leviathan riders also use eggs for mining enemy ships. Later in the series, the Algarvian army develops a hand held egg which can be thrown like a hand grenade; these eggs are encased in small pottery sugar bowls rather than metal shells. The reason for the term \"egg\" is never explicitly explained; apparently, originally armies used natural dragon eggs which are explosive in themselves, and then more powerful ones were developed by mages - but this is not explicitly stated.", "Sticks: Sticks are the analogue to guns in the world of Derlavai. A stick emits a beam of energy which leaves behind a sharp scent like that of a nearby lightning strike. A soldier's stick is a large device and is activated when bare flesh such as an uncovered finger is inserted into its 'blazing hole'", ". The beam from a soldier's stick can burn a hole through a person with little difficulty, although they are largely ineffective against dragons and behemoths, which are not only naturally tough but also armored or painted silver to reflect beams. Smaller sticks are seen owned by civilians for blazing vermin or hunting game, or used by constables", ". Larger sticks, known as heavy sticks, are carried by behemoths on the battlefield, and can blaze through several men, another behemoth's armor or even take down dragons. Even larger heavy sticks can be used as fixed installations on the ground, used for air and sea defense, and carried on ley-line warships for use against ships, dragons and leviathans", ". Portable sticks used away from a power point or ley line require periodic recharging, which can be achieved in some unspecified way through the delivery of what is only described as 'charges' in supply wagons, or by the interventions of a mage drawing energy from a power point or sacrifice.", "Rest crates: in function, much like a refrigerator or freezer, only considerably more effective. Rest crates are often mentioned as an archetypal application of modern sorcery, based on a spell used by the ancient Kaunian Empire to paralyze enemy soldiers. After counterspells were developed, it fell into disuse until modern systematic sorcery discovered that it operates by dramatically slowing the rate at which time affects objects under its influence", ". The rest crate, therefore, operates by slowing down the passage of time within its volume while its lid is shut. Food placed within it does not decay at a noticeable rate, but also requires no defrosting or other preparation before being used. A variant on this technique is also used by medical mages, who can slow down people suffering from serious injury in order to give them time to perform surgery, or to transport the victim to a place of treatment.", "The Naantali Project\nThe equivalent of the Manhattan Project. The project included over a hundred mages working on a secret project for Kuusamo to create a new magical weapon. Due to the inability to hide their magical experiments, attempts were made by Algarve to disrupt it but this failed. At one point it is led by the viewpoint character Pekka.", "The weapon requires grandparent and grandchild rats, rabbits or any other living creatures. Given the appropriate spells and mages able to perform them, the grandparent is pushed forward in time and the grandchild backward, killing them in the process and deriving enormous magical energy. Moreover, the mages themselves can deliver the energy to any target, by simply pointing out the spot on the globe", ". The magic can also create a protective spell to defend a city and deflect the magical energy hurled against it. It is speculated that using humans may make a more powerful magical explosion.", "Nations", "Turtledove depicts his nations as being analogous to real European nations, including as far as possible actual linguistic relationships. For example, the Derlavaian analogs of the Germanic nations are the Algarvic nations of Algarve, Sibiu, and Lagoas, but to confuse things somewhat, each uses names drawn from a different Romance language", ". In addition, the vast majority of the individuals belonging to each language group share the same hair and eye color; Algarvic peoples have red hair and green eyes, Kaunian peoples have blond hair and blue eyes, and the Unkerlantic peoples and most others have dark hair and eyes.", "Algarve", "The equivalent to Nazi Germany, ruled by King Mezentio, who is analogous to Adolf Hitler. Algarve was defeated in the Six Years' War a generation ago, which was analogous to World War I, and forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Tartus. Mezentio and his generals have spent much time and energy in preparing for a revenge on all their foes - especially the Kaunians", ". Located in the center of the continent, Algarve's people are characterized as red-headed and green-eyed, given to flamboyancy in word and gesture, and its males exhibit manifest macho behavior. Their typical dress includes kilts. To their enemies, Algarvians often seem arrogant and overbearing, and their conduct amply earns them the hatred of those who had the misfortune to live under their rule", ". While capable of great cruelty, Algarvians can also be quite generous on occasion; they doff their hats (sometimes literally) to an enemy whose conduct earned their grudging respect; and the same cultural traits which make them seem insufferably arrogant in victory also enable them to face adversity - even the certainty of imminent death - with admirable courage and fortitude. Algarvian names are drawn from Italian.", "Forthweg", "The equivalent to Poland. Its people are dark-haired, stocky, bearded, and prone to wearing long tunics. Part of the Kaunian Empire many centuries ago, about one-tenth of the prewar population were blond ethnic Kaunians, the only people in Derlavai to speak classical Kaunian as a birth language. Previous to Six Years' War Forthweg was partitioned between Algarve and Unkerlant, but later gained independence after that war", ". King Penda declared war on Algarve as part of the initial coalition against Algarve, but was attacked by both Algarve and Unkerlant and the country got re-partitioned; later, the whole is occupied by Algarve and at the end of the war is occupied by Unkerlant, which decides not to annex it outright but make it a satellite. Forthweg has a subtropical climate, with olive and citrus groves a prominent part of its agriculture. Forthwegians and Kaunians alike are extremely fond of gathering mushrooms", ". Forthwegians and Kaunians alike are extremely fond of gathering mushrooms. Forthweg's largest city as well as its capital is Eoforwic. Forthwegian names are drawn from Old English.", "Gyongyos", "The equivalent to Imperial Japan. Located in far-western Derlavai, it is separated from Unkerlant by a vast mountain range. Its people are described as tall, broad, and muscular, with wirey blonde hair and beards, and are the only nation described as having varying eye colors. Names in their language come from Hungarian. It is ruled by an ekrekek (emperor) instead of a king; he is seen as a direct descendant of the stars and is the person with whom the stars commune", ". Their religion is different from that of all other nations, distinguished by worship of the stars (those upon whom the stars shine are blessed, while those who are denied their light are cursed) and a very strong taboo against eating of the flesh of goats.", "Gyongyos and Kuusamo had been fighting a war over possession of islands in the Bothenian Ocean when the Derlavian War broke out. In the second year of the war, Gyongyos attacked Unkerlant from the west, but never threatened the Unkerlant homeland in the same way Algarve did, partly because Unkerlant stretches a \"fourth of the way around the world\" and the valleys that Gyongyos seizes are very sparsely populated", ". For several years, the Kuusamans made slow headway against Gyongyos in the Bothenian theater, capturing several key islands. In the sixth year of the war, Kuusaman magic destroyed the island of Becsehely; Gyongyosian prisoners of war watched the display, but could not convince the ekrekek's government to capitulate. Kuusamo responded with a magic attack on the capital, killing the ekrekek and forcing the horrified and demoralised Gyongyosians into surrender", ". Another contributing factor to their ultimate defeat was the simultaneous invasion of Gyongyos by Unkerlant, a move analogous to the 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria.", "Jelgava", "The equivalent of Spain and Portugal. Jelgava is portrayed as a smaller nation closely akin to Valmiera in language, ethnicity, and culture, and possesses colonies in Siaulia. Jelgava is dominated by an oppressive and reactionary aristocracy, and is ruled by the odious King Donalitu who was replaced by Algarvian King Mezentio's brother when the nation was occupied by Algarve (in this case, based more closely on the Napoleonic Wars than on World War II)", ". Jelgava has a subtropical climate where olives and oranges grow, and is separated from the rest of the continent by a high mountain chain. The capital of Jelgava is Balvi.", "Kuusamo", "The equivalent of the United States. It occupies most of the island it shares with Lagoas. Instead of a king, Kuusamo is ruled by seven hereditary princes who share power between each other (roughly equivalent to the US federal structure). The largest city is Yliharma. Its people are East Asian in appearance and are deliberate and low-key in their work, and names in their language are taken from Finnish", ". While clearly filling the strategic role of the US in WWII, Kuusamo's history and culture are quite different from that of the US. Rather than a new nation created by immigrants, the Kuusamans are proud of their heritage of having been in their land before the Kaunians and the Lagoans came; a chant to this effect is recited as a ceremony before classes and before spells. Also, Kuusamian culture seems far more Scandinavian than American.", "Kuusamo was involved in a war with Gyongyos over the possession of islands in the Bothenian Ocean when the Derlavian War started; they stayed neutral until the second year of the war, when Kuusamo declared war against Algarve over the massacre of Kaunians for their life force. The Algarvians retaliated with a magic strike against the capital city, killing two of the Seven Princes and destroying the princely palace in the city", ". Kuusaman sorcerers succeed in discovering a new method of magical energy release, first using it to counter Algarve's murder-fueled spells, and eventually, a more powerful version of the spell is used to destroy the capital of Gyongyos. Unlike in the historical World War II, the Kuusamans first demonstrate the power of the weapon for Gyongyosian captives (who are then released) but the Gyongyosian government refuses to believe in the demonstration and the spell is used to devastating effect.", "Lagoas", "The equivalent of Great Britain, with names drawn from Portuguese. Its capital is Setubal and it is ruled by King Vitor. It and Kuusamo share a large island off of the southeast coast of Derlavai, which is described as being considerably larger than Algarve. Its people are also Algarvic in blood and mannerisms - red-haired and wearing kilts like Algarvians - which is sometimes startling for other members of other peoples who had learned to hate Algarvians", ". Lagoans are, however, unique in the habit of tying their hair in ponytails - which Algarvians do not, and many of them have noticeable Kuusaman ancestry, including the viewpoint character Fernao. Lagoas joined the war against Algarve when Sibiu was invaded and underwent several air attacks from Algarvian dragons based in Valmiera. Lagoan and Kuusaman forces invaded Derlavai from the east in the fifth year of the war under the command of Kuusaman Grand General Nortano", ". Lagoas capital, Setubal, is described as being the wealthiest and most cosmopolitan city in the world. This is due in part to Setubal sitting at the confluence of more ley lines than any other city. Setubal has an extensive public transportation network and is described as having many unusually tall buildings.", "Ortah\nThe equivalent of Switzerland. Isolationist, mountainous, and protected by swamps - its people are generally left alone on the political stage. Ortah is sandwiched between Algarve and Unkerlant. As a result, Ortah is invaded near the end of the war, and ends up an Unkerlanter satellite like Forthweg and Yanina. The people of Ortah are supposed to be related to the Ice People, and their language is similar to theirs, in both cases drawn from Hebrew.", "Sibiu", "Equivalent to Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands. It is an island chain nation off of the southern coast of Derlavai. Its people are Algarvic in blood, but it allies against Algarve. Sibiu, a member of the initial coalition, was overrun in a surprise attack by Algarve in the first year of the war, and freed in the third year of the war. It is mentioned that some 300 to 250 years in the past Sibiu fought a series of naval wars with Lagoas, over trade and control of the sea", ". Sibiu is named after a town in Transylvania. The capital of Sibiu is Tirgoviste. Sibian names are drawn from Romanian.", "Unkerlant", "The equivalent to the Soviet Union. It occupies nearly all of the western part of Derlavai. Ethnic Unkerlanters are dark-haired and stocky, clean-shaven, and wear long tunics (the tendency to be clean-shaven being what distinguishes them from the Forthwegians), but Unkerlant is apparently home to ethnic minorities such as the people of the Mamming Hills in the south, who look \"more like Kuusamans than anything else", ".\" Its people are brutally treated by the paranoid and ruthless King Swemmel, analogous to Joseph Stalin. Swemmel is a hard, suspicious man who is fond of boiling his enemies alive. Swemmel defeated his brother Kyot in the Twinking's War, the equivalent to the Russian Civil War, shortly after the Six Years' War. The capital of Unkerlant is Cottbus. Names in Unkerlant are of German or pseudo-German origin.", "Valmiera", "Equivalent to France. It is located on the southeastern section of Derlavai. Its people are descendants of the ancient Kaunian Empire and as such are slim, blonde and blue-eyed and their dress is typically trousers and tunics. Valmiera was one of the states which declared war on Algarve in the first year of the war. The Algarvian offensive in the spring of the second year led to the defeat and occupation of the country", ". Activities of the Valmieran Resistance under the occupation, seen through the eyes of the character Skarnu, are closely equivalent to the French Resistance in World War II, while the collaboration of most nobles and the Valmieran police with the occupiers resembles the Vichy regime.. However, the corrupt Valmieran aristocracy is reminiscent of a much earlier period in French history, the pre-1789 Ancien Regime", ". Kuusaian and Lagoan victors give the Valmierans a share in the spoils after the war is over (like the British and Americans to 1945 France). Valmiera's capital is Priekule, describes as a center of high culture.", "Yanina", "The equivalent of Italy and Nazi Germany's other allies in general, although, strangely, their names are clearly Greek (e.g. Yanina, Patras). Allied with Algarve in the beginning of the war, its people are most noted for being incompetent militarily, though individual soldiers and dragon flyers sometimes show bravery", ". Also, Yanina has a colonial possession in the strategic Land of the Ice People, which it is unable to defend against Lagoas, and is being forced to pass effective conduct of the war there into the hands of the Algarvians (equivalent of Italy passing the war in North Africa to the Germans under Erwin Rommel). However, in the last phase of the war, when the Unkerlanter/Soviet army approaches its border and the Yaninan King quickly changes sides", ". The pom-poms which Yaninans wear on their shoes are the source of constant ridicule by members of other nations. Yaninas are described as being small, swarthy, dark-haired, and big-nosed, somewhat like Unkerlanters but shorter and less stocky. They share with the Algarvians a love for ostentatious mustaches and macho behavior; arguing is semi-humorously considered the national sport. The capital city is Patras.", "Zuwayza", "The equivalent of Finland. Located on a peninsula on the far northern part of Derlavai. Due to the hot climate, the people of Zuwayza typically go nude except for jewelry, sandals, and broad-brimmed hats. They are described as very dark-skinned, and Zuwayzin names are taken from Arabic. The Zuwayzi are known to use camels when fighting. Zuwayza was once ruled directly by Unkerlant but gained independence after the Six Years' War. Unkerlant attacked Zuwayza in the first year of the war and gained territory", ". Unkerlant attacked Zuwayza in the first year of the war and gained territory. In retaliation, Zuwayza allied with Algarve against Unkerlant. When Algarve was driven back, Zuwayza was forced to sign a separate peace, allowing Unkerlant great advantages, but preserving its independence. The Zuwayzin capital is Bishah.", "The Land of the Ice People", "The equivalent of North Africa located on an icy continent near the south pole. Ice People of both sexes have extensive body hair, on the order of primates. Their language is represented by Hebrew, as in Ortah. Ice People introduce themselves by describing their genealogy into the remote past ending by saying they are related to a god", ". Magic that works well in Derlavai will not work well in the Land of the Ice People; the Algarvians learned this to their disadvantage when they tried murdering Kaunians there. The Ice People are the only people known to worship gods, instead of spirits.", "The Duchy of Bari\nRoughly, the equivalent of the Rhineland or Austria. Once the southern part of Algarve, it was politically separated at the conclusion of the Six-Year war and given independence under Duke Alardo. Algarve's annexation of the region caused Valmiera, Forthweg, Jelgava, and Sibiu to attack, sparking the Derlavaian War.", "The Duchy of Grelz\nThe equivalent of Ukraine. Located in the southern part of Derlavai. Its people are Unkerlanter but speak with a strong accent. While under Algarvian occupation, it is made into a puppet \"Kingdom of Grelz\" and is ruled by Mezentio's cousin Raniero. Support for the foreign king is very mixed.", "The Marquisate of Rivaroli\nEquivalent of Alsace-Lorraine and the Sudetenland. It is an area long disputed between Algarve and Valmiera, which was incorporated in the latter at the end of the Six Years' War. The people of Rivaroli have an Algarvian allegiance, revolting upon the approach of the Algarvian army in the early part of the war - for which they pay dearly at the war's end, being expelled en masse by the Valmierans.", "Kaunians\nKaunians are both equivalents of the Roman Empire and Jews. Kaunians are characterised as on the slender and tall side, with fair skin and blonde hair. Kaunians face suspicion and prejudice, a separate and vaguely detested minority in many nations. Kaunian names (including those in Valmiera and Jelgava) are drawn from the Baltic languages.", "Originally most of the continent was covered by the Kaunian Empire. When the Kaunian Empire fell thanks to the \"Algarvian Irruption\" - analogous to the Germanic invasions of the late Roman Empire - the Kaunians remained the dominant cultural and ethnic group in Eastern Derlavai. First they lived in independent city states and small principalities which later coalesced into the successor-states Jelgava and Valmiera", ". Jelgavan and Valmieran have developed to the point that their speakers don't understand the classical language unless they study it especially. Ancient Kaunian is a language of many tenses and verb forms, which makes for a language of precision. Kaunians bring this precision into play when they switch to a more modern language, generally to the disdain of others.", "In the parts of Lagoas and Kuusamo which were part of the empire, Kaunians disappeared completely. In the more westward parts of the continent, in contrast, Kaunians became an ethnic minority in countries formed by the invading \"barbarians\": maintaining a distinct and largely separate minority culture, keeping the ancient language in more or less its original form as their daily speech, clinging to the short tunics and trousers common in the days of Empire, and frowning at the idea of mixed marriages", ". The wearing of trousers by the Kaunian women tends to be a distraction for other peoples, as the tight pants reveal more than the more modern knee-length tunics do. This often results in Kaunian women being regarded as sexually promiscuous - a widespread racial stereotype which is deliberately used by King Mezentio in fomenting hatred of Kaunians.", "In Algarve itself, Kaunians seem, already for several generations, to be deeply assimilated in the surrounding society. They speak Algarvian, wear kilts, call themselves by Algarvian names, and their males have Algarvian-style moustaches and behave in the blatant macho way encouraged by Algarvian culture. Until their persecutions started, there were prominent Kaunian scholars at the University of Trapani.", "What happens to the Kaunians in the Darkness series is the equivalent to the Holocaust, where Kaunians under Algarvian control are systematically stripped of their rights and violence against them is ignored by the authorities. Eventually, Algarve, facing a desperate stalemate against Unkerlant, begins slaughtering Kaunians en masse to fuel vast quantities of death-energy-powered sorcery in an attempt to break the impasse", ". Mezentio's official aim is not to exterminate Kaunians but to win the war, thus Kaunians are provided with adequate food to keep them alive until they need to be sacrificed for the war effort. Unkerlant responds to these magical attacks by sacrificing their own people to attack Algarve in the same way.", "Many Kaunians do not die without any resistance. The remaining Kaunians in Eoforwic join in the uprising in the city which is the equivalent to the Warsaw Uprising. Other Kaunians use magic to make themselves look like everyone else and are able to hide in plain sight.", "Late in the war, as they got desperate, and as it became obvious to the Algarvians that non-Kaunians were now far more of a worry than the thoroughly cowed blonds, the Algarvians began to display a somewhat more pragmatic, open attitude toward the Kaunians. They allowed Valmierans and Jelgavans to join their army, and they played an important role on the southern front against the Unkerlanters and in Jelgava", ". Their mages still defaulted toward wanting to kill Kaunians out of habit, including the soldiers fighting on their side, but Algarvian officers increasingly refused to allow this, leading the mages to turn to killing Yaninan deserters or turning to other magics.", "Viewpoint characters\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Darkness page on official website\n\n \nBook series introduced in 1999\nNovels by Harry Turtledove\nFantasy books by series\nAlternate Nazi Germany novels\nNovels about dragons" ]

[ "The Patriarchal Cathedral Basilica of Saint Mark (), commonly known as St Mark's Basilica (; ), is the cathedral church of the Patriarchate of Venice; it became the episcopal seat of the Patriarch of Venice in 1807, replacing the earlier cathedral of San Pietro di Castello. It is dedicated to and holds the relics of Saint Mark the Evangelist, the patron saint of the city.", "The church is located on the eastern end of Saint Mark's Square, the former political and religious centre of the Republic of Venice, and is attached to the Doge's Palace. Prior to the fall of the republic in 1797, it was the chapel of the Doge and was subject to his jurisdiction, with the concurrence of the procurators of Saint Mark de supra for administrative and financial affairs.", "The present structure is the third church, begun probably in 1063 to express Venice's growing civic consciousness and pride. Like the two earlier churches, its model was the sixth-century Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, although accommodations were made to adapt the design to the limitations of the physical site and to meet the specific needs of Venetian state ceremonies. Middle-Byzantine, Romanesque, and Islamic influences are also evident, and Gothic elements were later incorporated", ". To convey the republic's wealth and power, the original brick façades and interior walls were embellished over time with precious stones and rare marbles, primarily in the thirteenth century. Many of the columns, reliefs, and sculptures were spoils stripped from the churches, palaces, and public monuments of Constantinople as a result of the Venetian participation in the Fourth Crusade", ". Among the plundered artefacts brought back to Venice were the four ancient bronze horses that were placed prominently over the entry.", "The interior of the domes, the vaults, and the upper walls were slowly covered with gold-ground mosaics depicting saints, prophets, and biblical scenes. Many of these mosaics were later retouched or remade as artistic tastes changed and damaged mosaics had to be replaced, such that the mosaics represent eight hundred years of artistic styles", ". Some of them derive from traditional Byzantine representations and are masterworks of Medieval art; others are based on preparatory drawings made by prominent Renaissance artists from Venice and Florence, including Paolo Veronese, Tintoretto, Titian, Paolo Uccello, and Andrea del Castagno.", "History\n\nParticipazio church (–976)", "Several medieval chronicles narrate the , the removal of Saint Mark's body from Alexandria in Egypt by two Venetian merchants and its transfer to Venice in 828/829. The Chronicon Venetum further recounts that the relics of Saint Mark were initially placed in a corner tower of the castrum, the fortified residence of the Doge and seat of government located on the site of the present Doge's Palace", ". Doge Giustiniano Participazio () subsequently stipulated in his will that his widow and his younger brother and successor Giovanni () were to erect a church dedicated to Saint Mark wherein the relics would ultimately be housed. Giustiniano further specified that the new church was to be built between the castrum and the Church of Saint Theodore to the north", ". Construction of the new church may have actually been underway during Giustinian's lifetime and was completed by 836 when the relics of Saint Mark were transferred.", "Although the Participazio church was long believed to have been a rectangular structure with a single apse, soundings and excavations have demonstrated that St Mark's was from the beginning a cruciform church with at least a central dome, likely in wood. It has not been unequivocally established if each of the four crossarms of the church had a similar dome or were instead covered with gabled wooden roofs.", "The prototype was the Church of the Holy Apostles (demolished 1461) in Constantinople. This radical break with the local architectural tradition of a rectangular plan in favour of a centrally planned Byzantine model reflected the growing commercial presence of Venetian merchants in the imperial capital as well as Venice's political ties with Byzantium. More importantly, it underscored that St Mark's was intended not as an ecclesiastical seat but as a state sanctuary.", "Remnants of the Participazio church likely survive and are generally believed to include the foundations and lower parts of several of the principal walls, including the western wall between the nave and the narthex. The great entry portal may also date to the early church as well as the western portion of the crypt, under the central dome, which seems to have served as the base for a raised dais upon which the original altar was located.", "Orseolo church (976–)", "The Participazio church was severely damaged in 976 during the popular uprising against Doge Pietro IV Candiano () when the fire that angry crowds had set to drive the Doge from the castrum spread to the adjoining church. Although the structure was not completely destroyed, it was compromised to the point that the Concio, the general assembly, had to alternatively convene in the cathedral of San Pietro di Castello to elect Candiano's successor, Pietro I Orseolo ()", ". Within two years, the church was repaired and at the sole expense of the Orseolo family, indications that the actual damage was relatively limited. Most likely, the wooden components had been consumed, but the walls and supports remained largely intact.", "Nothing certain is known of the appearance of the Orseolo church. But given the short duration of the reconstruction, it is probable that work was limited to repairing damage with little innovation. It was at this time, however, that the tomb of Saint Mark, located in the main apse, was surmounted with brick vaults, creating the semi-enclosed shrine that would later be incorporated into the crypt when the floor of the chancel was raised during the construction of the third church.", "Contarini church (–present)\n\nConstruction\nCivic pride led many Italian cities in the mid-eleventh century to begin erecting or rebuilding their cathedrals on a grand scale. Venice was similarly interested in demonstrating its growing commercial wealth and power, and probably in 1063, under Doge Domenico I Contarini (), St Mark's was substantially rebuilt and enlarged to the extent that the resulting structure appeared entirely new.", "The northern transept was lengthened, likely by incorporating the southern lateral nave of the Church of Saint Theodore. Similarly, the southern transept was extended, perhaps by integrating a corner tower of the castrum. Most significantly, the wooden domes were rebuilt in brick. This required strengthening the walls and piers in order to support the new heavy barrel vaults, which in turn were reinforced by arcades along the sides of the northern, southern, and western crossarms", ". The vaults of the eastern crossarm were supported by inserting single arches that also served to divide the chancel from the choir chapels in the lateral apses.", "In front of the western façade, a narthex was built. To accommodate the height of the existing great entry, the vaulting system of the new narthex had to be interrupted in correspondence to the portal, thus creating the shaft above that was later opened to the interior of the church. The crypt was also enlarged to the east, and the high altar was moved from under the central dome to the chancel, which was raised, supported by a network of columns and vaults in the underlying crypt", ". By 1071, work had progressed far enough that the investiture of Doge Domenico Selvo () could take place in the unfinished church.", "Work on the interior began under Selvo who collected fine marbles and stones for the embellishment of the church and personally financed the mosaic decoration, hiring a master mosaicist from Constantinople. The Pala d'Oro (golden altarpiece), ordered from Constantinople in 1102, was installed on the high altar in 1105. For the consecration under Doge Vitale Falier Dodoni (), various dates are recorded, most likely reflecting a series of consecrations of different sections", ". The consecration on 8 October 1094 is considered to be the dedication of the church. On that day, the relics of Saint Mark were also placed into the new crypt.", "Embellishment", "As built, the Contarini church was a severe brick structure. Adornment inside was limited to the columns of the arcades, the balusters and parapets of the galleries, and the lattice altar screens. The wall surfaces were decorated with moulded arches that alternated with engaged brickwork columns as well as niches and a few cornices", ". With the exception of the outside of the apse and the western façade that faced Saint Mark's Square, the stark brick exterior was enlivened only by receding concentric arches in contrasting brick around the windows.", "The western façade, comparable to middle-Byzantine churches erected in the tenth and eleventh centuries, was characterized by a series of arches set between protruding pillars. The walls were pierced by windows set in larger blind arches, while the intervening pillars were adorned with niches and circular patere made of rare marbles and stones that were surrounded with ornamental frames", ". Other decorative details, including friezes and corbel tables, reflected Romanesque trends, an indication of the taste and craftsmanship of the Italian workers.", "With few exceptions, most notably the juncture of the southern and western crossarms, both the exterior and interior of the church were subsequently sheathed with revetments of marble and precious stones and enriched with columns, reliefs, and sculptures. Many of these ornamental elements were spolia taken from ancient or Byzantine buildings", ". Many of these ornamental elements were spolia taken from ancient or Byzantine buildings. Particularly in the period of the Latin Empire (1204–1261), following the Fourth Crusade, the Venetians pillaged the churches, palaces, and public monuments of Constantinople and stripped them of polychrome columns and stones. Once in Venice, some of the columns were sliced for revetmets and patere; others were paired and spread across the façades or used as altars", ". Despoliation continued in later centuries, notably during the Venetian–Genoese Wars. Venetian sculptors also integrated the spoils with local productions, copying the Byzantine capitals and friezes so effectively that some of their work can only be distinguished with difficulty from the originals.", "Later modifications", "In addition to the sixteen windows in each of the five domes, the church was originally lit by three or seven windows in the apse and probably eight in each of the lunettes. But many of these windows were later walled up to create more surface space for the mosaic decoration, with the result that the interior received insufficient sunlight, particularly the areas under the galleries which remained in relative darkness", ". The galleries were consequently reduced to narrow walkways with the exception of the ends of the northern, southern, and western crossarms where they remain. These walkways maintain the original relief panels of the galleries on the side facing the central section of the church. On the opposite side, new balustrades were erected.", "The narthex of the Contarini church was originally limited to the western side. As with other Byzantine churches, it extended laterally beyond the façade on both sides and terminated in niches, of which the northern remains. The southern terminus was separated by a wall in the early twelfth century, thus creating an entry hall that opened on the southern façade toward the Doge's Palace and the waterfront", ". In the early thirteenth century, the narthex was extended along the northern and southern sides to completely surround the western crossarm.", "Also, in the first half of the thirteenth century, the original low-lying brick domes, typical of Byzantine churches, were surmounted with higher, outer shells supporting bulbous lanterns with crosses. These wooden frames covered in lead provided more protection from weathering to the actual domes below and gave greater visual prominence to the church", ". Various Near-Eastern models have been suggested as sources of inspiration and construction techniques for the heightened domes, including the Al-Aqsa and Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhra mosques in Jerusalem and the conical frame erected over the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the early thirteenth century.", "Architecture\n\nExterior\nThe three exposed façades result from a long and complex evolution. Particularly in the thirteenth century, the exterior appearance of the church was radically altered: the patterned marble encrustation was added, and a multitude of columns and sculptural elements was applied to enrich the state church. It is probable that structural elements were also added to the façades or modified.\n\nWestern façade", "Western façade\n\nThe exterior of the basilica is divided into two registers. On the western façade, the lower register is dominated by five deeply recessed portals that alternate with large piers. The lower register was later completely covered with two tiers of precious columns, largely spoils from the Fourth Crusade.", "Consistent with Byzantine traditions, the sculptural elements are largely decorative: only in the arches that frame the doorways is there a functional use of sculpture that articulates the architectural lines. In addition to the reliefs in the spandrels, the sculpture at the lower level, relatively limited, includes narrow Romanesque bands, statues, and richly carved borders of foliage mixed with figures derived from Byzantine and Islamic traditions", ". The eastern influence is most pronounced in the tympana over the northern-most and southern-most portals.", "The iconographic programme is expressed primarily in the mosaics in the lunettes. In the lower register, those of the lateral portals narrate the , the translation of Saint Mark's relics from Alexandria to Venice. From right to left, they show the removal of the saint's body from Egypt, its arrival in Venice, its veneration by the Doge, and its deposition in the church", ". This last mosaic is the only one on the façade that survives from the thirteenth century; the others were remade in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. The general appearance of the lost compositions is recorded in Gentile Bellini's Procession in Piazza San Marco (1496), which also documents the earlier gilding on the façade.", "The upper register is enriched with an elaborate Gothic crowning, executed in the late-fourteenth/early-fifteenth centuries. The original lunettes, transformed into ogee arches, are outlined with foliage and topped with statues of four military saints over the lateral lunettes and of Saint Mark flanked by angels over the central lunette, the point of which contains the winged lion of Saint Mark holding a book with the angelic salutation of the : \"Peace to you Mark, my Evangelist\" ()", ". The intervening aediculae with pinnacles house figures of the Four Evangelists and on the extremities, facing one another, the Virgin and the Archangel Gabriel in allusion to Venice's legendary foundation on the 25 March 421, the feast of the Annunciation.", "Culminating in the Last Judgment over the main portal, the sequence of mosaics in the lateral lunettes of the upper register present scenes of Christ's victory over death: from left to right, the Descent from the Cross, the Harrowing of Hell, the Resurrection, and the Ascension. The central lunette was originally blind and may have been pierced by several smaller windows; the present large window was inserted after the fire of 1419 destroyed the earlier structure", ". The reliefs of Christ and the Four Evangelists, now inserted into the northern façade, may also survive from the original decoration of the central lunette.", "The four gilded bronze horses were among the early spoils brought from Constantinople after the Fourth Crusade. They were part of a quadriga adorning the Hippodrome and are the only equestrian team to survive from classical Antiquity. In the mid-thirteenth century, they were installed prominently on the main façade of St Mark's as symbols of Venice's military triumph over Byzantium and of its newfound imperial status as the successor of the Byzantine Empire", ". Since 1974 the original four horses are preserved inside, having been substituted with copies on the balcony over the central portal.", "Northern façade\nThe aediculae on the northern façade contain statues of the four original Latin Doctors of the Church: Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great. Allegorical figures of Prudence, Temperance, Faith, and Charity top the lunettes.\n\nSouthern façade\nThe Gothic crowning continues in the upper register of the southern façade, the lunettes being topped with the allegorical figures of Justice and Fortitude and the aediculae housing statues of Saint Anthony Abbot and Saint Paul the Hermit.", "The southern façade is the most richly encrusted façade with rare marbles, spoils, and trophies, including the so-called pillars of Acre, the statue of the four tetrarchs embedded into the external wall of the treasury, and the porphyry imperial head on the south-west corner of the balcony, traditionally believed to represent Justinian II and popularly identified as Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola.", "After a section of the narthex was partitioned off between 1100 and 1150 to create an entry hall, the niche that had previously marked the southern end of the narthex was removed, and the corresponding arch on the southern façade was opened to establish a second entry. Like the entry on the western façade, the passage was distinguished with precious porphyry columns. On either side, couchant lions and griffins were placed", ". On either side, couchant lions and griffins were placed. Presumably, the southern entry was also flanked by the two carved pillars long believed to have been brought to Venice from the Genoese quarter in St Jean d'Acre as booty of the first Venetian–Genoese war (1256–1270) but actually spoils of the Fourth Crusade, taken from the Church of St Polyeuctus in Constantinople.", "Between 1503 and 1515, the entry hall was transformed into the funerary chapel of Giovanni Battista Cardinal Zen, bishop of Vicenza, who had bequeathed a large portion of his wealth to the Venetian Republic, asking to be entombed in St Mark's. The southern entrance was consequently closed, blocked by the altar and a window above, and although the griffins remain, much of the decoration was transferred or destroyed. The pillars were moved slightly eastward.", "Entry hall (Zen Chapel)", "The decoration of the southern entry hall to the church was redone in the thirteenth century in conjunction with work in the adjoining narthex; of the original appearance of the entry hall, nothing is known. The present mosaic cycle in the barrel vault forms the prelude to the mosaic cycle on the main façade, which narrates the translation of Saint Mark's relics from Alexandria in Egypt to Venice", ". The events depicted include the , the angelic prophecy that Mark would one day be buried in Venice, which affirms Venice's divine right to possess the relics. The authority of Saint Mark is demonstrated in the scenes that show the writing of his Gospel which is then presented to Saint Peter. Particular relevance is also given to the departure of Saint Mark for Egypt and his miracles there, which creates continuity with the opening scene on the façade, depicting the removal of the body from Alexandria.", "Although largely redone in the nineteenth century, the apse above the doorway that leads into the narthex probably maintains the overall aspect of the decoration from the first half of the twelfth century with the Virgin flanked by angels, a theme common in middle-Byzantine churches.", "Interior", "Although St Mark's was modelled after the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, ceremonial needs and limitations posed by the pre-existing walls and foundations made it necessary to adapt the design. The cruciform plan with five domes was maintained. However the Holy Apostles was a true centrally planned church: the central dome, larger than the others, was alone pierced with windows, and the altar was located underneath", ". There was no distinction between the four crossarms: no apse existed and double-tiered arcades surrounded the interior on all sides. In contrast, the longitudinal axis was emphasized to create a space appropriate for processions associated with state ceremonies", ". Both the central and western domes are larger, accentuating the progression along the nave, and by means of a series of increasingly smaller arches, the nave visually narrows towards the raised chancel in the eastern crossarm, where the altar stands. The crossarms of the transept are shorter and narrower. Optically, their height and width are further reduced by the insertion of arches, supported on double columns within the barrel vaults. The domes of the transept and the chancel are also smaller.", "As with the Holy Apostles, each dome rests on four barrel vaults, those of the central dome rising from quadripartite (four-legged) piers. But the two-tiered arcades that reinforced the vaults in the Holy Apostles were modified. In St Mark's there are no upper arcades, and as a result the aisles are less isolated from the central part of the church", ". The effect is of more unified sense of space and an openness that have parallels in other Byzantine churches constructed in the eleventh century, an indication that the chief architect was influenced by middle-Byzantine architectural models in addition to the sixth-century Church of the Holy Apostles.", "Chancel and choir chapels\n\nThe chancel is enclosed by a Gothic altar screen, dated 1394. It is surmounted by a bronze and silver Crucifix, flanked by statues of the Virgin and Saint Mark, together with the Twelve Apostles. On the left of the screen is the ambo for readings from Scripture, while the on the right is the platform from which the newly elected Doge was presented to the people.", "Behind, marble banisters mark the limit of the choir, which after the reorganization by Doge Andrea Gritti () was utilized by the Doge, civic leaders, and foreign ambassadors. Prior to the sixteenth century, the Doge's throne was located near the choir chapel of Saint Clement I, whose doorway opened to the courtyard of the Doge's Palace. The chapel was reserved for the Doge's private use", ". The chapel was reserved for the Doge's private use. From the window above, which communicates with his private apartments, it was also possible for the Doge to assist at mass in the church.", "The tribunes on either side of the chancel are faced with bronze reliefs that portray events in the life of Saint Mark and his miracles. Beyond the banisters is the presbytery, reserved for the clergy, with the high altar which since 1835 contains the relics of Saint Mark, previously located in the crypt. The ciborium above the altar is supported by four intricately carved columns with scenes that narrate the lives of Christ and the Virgin", ". The age and provenance of the columns is disputed, with proposals ranging from sixth-century Byzantium to thirteenth-century Venice. The altarpiece, originally designed as an antependium, is the Pala d'Oro, a masterpiece of Byzantine enamels on gilded silver.", "The two choir chapels, located on either side of the chancel, occupy the space corresponding to the lateral aisles in the other crossarms. They are connected to the chancel through archways which also serve to reinforce the barrel vaults supporting the dome above.", "The choir chapel on the northern side is dedicated to Saint Peter. Historically, it was the principal area for the clergy. The mosaic decoration in the vaults above the chapels largely narrates the life of Saint Mark, including the events of the . They constitute the oldest surviving representation of the transfer of Saint Mark's relics to Venice.", "Side altars and chapels", "The side altars in the transept were used primarily by the faithful. In the northern crossarm, the altar was originally dedicated to Saint John the Evangelist: the mosaics in the dome above show the aged figure of Saint John, surrounded by five scenes of his life in Ephesus", ". The stone relief of Saint John, placed on the eastern wall of the crossarm in the thirteenth century, was later moved to the northern façade of the church, probably when the altar was rededicated in 1617 to the Madonna Nicopeia, a venerated Byzantine icon from the late-eleventh/early-twelfth century.", "The date and the circumstances of the icon's arrival in Venice are not documented. Most likely one of many sacred images taken from Constantinople at the time of the Latin Empire, it was deposited in St Mark's treasury, with no specific importance associated. It began to acquire significance for the Venetians in the fourteenth century when it was framed with Byzantine enamels looted from the Pantokrator in Contantinople", ". At that time, it may have been first carried in public procession to invoke the Virgin's intercession in ridding the city of the Black Death. The icon acquired a political role as the palladium of Venice in the sixteenth century when it came to be identified as the sacred image that had been carried into battle by various Byzantine emperors", ". In 1589, the icon was transferred to the small Chapel of Saint Isidore where it was made accessible to the public, and subsequently it was placed on the side altar in the northern crossarm. It was first referred to as the Madonna Nicopeia (Nikopoios, Bringer of Victory) in 1645.", "The altar in the southern crossarm was initially dedicated to Saint Leonard, the sixth-century Frankish saint who became widely popular at the time of the Crusades as his intercession was sought to liberate prisoners from the Muslims. He is shown in the dome above, together with other saints particularly venerated in Venice: Blaise, Nicholas, and Clement I. The altar was rededicated in 1617 to the True Cross, and since 1810, it has been the Altar of the Blessed Sacrament.", "The long-neglected relics of Saint Isidore of Chios, brought to Venice in 1125 by Doge Domenico Michiel () on return from his military expedition in the Aegean, were rediscovered in the mid-fourteenth century, and upon the initiative of Doge Andrea Dandolo (), the Chapel of Saint Isidore was constructed between 1348 and 1355 to house them. An annual feast (16 April) was also established in the Venetian liturgical calendar.", "The Mascoli Chapel, utilized by the homonymous confraternity after 1618, was decorated under Doge Francesco Foscari () and dedicated in 1430.", "Against the piers that support the central dome, on either side of the chancel, Doge Cristoforo Moro () erected at his personal expense two altars dedicated to Saint Paul and Saint James. The pier behind the Altar of Saint James is where the relics of Saint Mark are said to have been rediscovered in 1094: the miraculous event is depicted in the mosaics on the opposite side of the crossarm.", "Baptistery", "The date of construction of the baptistery is not known, but it is likely to have been under Doge Giovanni Soranzo (), whose tomb is located in the baptistery, an indication that he was responsible for the architectural adaptation. Similarly entombed in the baptistery is Doge Andrea Dandolo who carried out the decorative programme at his personal expense. The mosaics present scenes from the life of Saint John the Baptist on the walls and, in the ante-baptistery, the infancy of Christ", ". Directly above the bronze font, designed by Sansovino, the dome contains the dispersion of the Apostles, each shown in the act of baptizing a different nationality in reference to Christ's command to preach the Gospel to all people. The second dome, above the altar, presents Christ in glory surrounded by the nine angelic choirs. The altar is a large granite rock, which according to tradition was brought to Venice from Tyre following the Venetian conquest", ". It is said to be the rock upon which Christ stood to preach to the people of Tyre.", "Sacristy", "In 1486, Giorgio Spavento, as proto (consultant architect and buildings manager), designed a new sacristy, connected to both the presbytery and the choir chapel of Saint Peter; the location of the earlier sacristy is not known. It was Spavento's first project and the only one he oversaw to completion. Decoration began in 1493", ". Decoration began in 1493. The cabinets, used for storing reliquaries, monstrances, vestments, and liturgical objects and books, were inlaid by Antonio della Mola and his brother Paolo and show scenes from the life of Saint Mark. The mosaic decoration of the vault, depicting Old-Testament prophets, was designed by Titian and executed between 1524 and 1530.", "Behind the sacristy is the church, also by Spavento, dedicated to Saint Theodore, the first patron saint of Venice. Constructed between 1486 and 1493 in an austere Renaissance style, it served as the private chapel for the canons of the basilica and, later, as the seat of the Venetian Inquisition.", "Influence\nAs the state church, St Mark's was a point of reference for Venetian architects. Its influence during the Gothic period seems to have been limited to decorative patterns and details, such as the portal and painted wall decoration in the Church of Santo Stefano and the portal of the Church of the Madonna dell'Orto, consisting of an ogee arch with flame-like relief sculpture reminiscent of the crockets on St Mark's.", "In the early Renaissance, despite the introduction of classical elements into Venetian architecture by Lombard stonecutters, faithfulness to local building traditions remained strong. In the façades of Ca' Dario and the Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli, surface decoration in emulation of St Mark's is the principal characteristic, and the overall effect derives from the rich encrustation of shimmering coloured marbles and the circular patterns, derived from the basilica", ". Similarly, the Foscari Arch in the courtyard of the Doge's Palace is based on ancient triumphal arches but owes its detailing to the basilica: the superimposed columns clustered together, the Gothic pinnacles, and the crowning statuary. At the Scuola Grande di San Marco, the reference to St Mark's is made in the series of lunettes along the roofline which recalls the profile of the basilica.", "Mosaics\n\nDecorative programme\n\nInterior", "The location of the main altar within the apse necessarily affected the decorative programme. The Christ Pantocrator, customarily located in the central dome over the altar, was placed in the semi-dome of the apse. Below, interspersed with three windows, are late-eleventh and early-twelfth-century mosaics that portray Saint Nicholas of Myra, Saint Peter, Saint Mark, and Saint Hermagoras of Aquileia as the protectors and patrons of the state, Saint Nicholas being specifically the protector of seafarers.", "Over the high altar in the eastern crossarm is the Dome of Immanuel (God with us). It presents a young Christ in the centre, surrounded by stars. Radially arranged underneath are standing figures of the Virgin and Old-Testament prophets, the latter bearing scrolls with passages that largely refer to the Incarnation. Rather than seraphim as was customary in middle-Byzantine churches, the pendentives of the dome show the symbols of the Four Evangelists.", "An extensive cycle narrating the Life of Christ covers much of the interior, with the principal events located along the longitudinal axis. The eastern vault, between the central dome and the chancel, contains the major events of the infancy (Annunciation, Adoration of the Magi, Presentation in the Temple) along with the Baptism of Christ and the Transfiguration", ". The western vault depicts the events of the Passion of Jesus on one side (the kiss of Judas, the trial before Pilate, and the Crucifixion) and the Resurrection on the other side (the Harrowing of Hell and the post-resurrection appearances). A secondary series illustrating Christ's miracles is located in the transepts. The series seems to have derived from an eleventh-century Byzantine Gospel", ". The series seems to have derived from an eleventh-century Byzantine Gospel. The transepts also contain a detailed cycle of the Life of the Virgin: these scenes were probably derived from an eleventh-century illuminated manuscript of the Protogospel of James from Constantinople. As a prelude, a Tree of Jesse showing the ancestors of Christ was added to the end wall of the northern crossarm between 1542 and 1551", ". Throughout the various narrative cycles, Old-Testament prophets are portrayed holding texts that relate to the New-Testament scenes nearby.", "The Dome of the Ascension occupies the central position, whereas in the Church of the Holy Apostles it was located over the southern crossarm. The dome, executed in the late twelfth century, is exemplary of middle-Byzantine prototypes in Constantinople. In the centre Christ ascends, accompanied by four angels and surrounded by standing figures of the Virgin, two angels, and the Twelve Apostles", ". As customary for the central dome in middle-Byzantine churches, the pendentives contain the Four Evangelists, each with his gospel.", "As in the Church of the Holy Apostles, the Dome of Pentecost is located over the western crossarm. In the centre is an hetoimasia, an empty throne with a book and dove. Radiating outward are silver rays which fall on the heads of the Apostles seated around the outer rim of the dome, each with a flame on his head", ". In keeping with Pentecost, as the institution of the Church, the side vaults and walls of the western crossarm largely illustrate the subsequent missionary activities of the Apostles and their deaths as martyrs. The specific events in the lives of the various Apostles and the manner of their deaths adhere to Western traditions, as narrated in Latin martyrologies that derive in part from the Book of Acts but to a greater extent from apocryphal sources", ". However, the single representations and the overall concept of presenting the lives of the saints in a composition that combines several events together in one scene have their parallels in Greek manuscript illustrations of the middle-Byzantine period.", "The western vault illustrates Saint John's vision of the Apocalypse and the Last Judgement. On the wall below there is a thirteenth-century deesis with Christ enthroned between the Virgin and Saint Mark.", "Narthex\nThe decorative programme of the western and northern wings of the narthex seems to have been planned in its entirety in the thirteenth century when the eleventh-century narthex was extended along the northern and southern sides of the western crossarm. However, a stylistic change in the mosaics is evident in the northern wing, indicating that the execution of the programme was interrupted, presumably to await the completion of the vaulting system.", "Unlike in middle-Byzantine churches where the theme of the Last Judgement is often represented in the narthex, the decorative programme narrates the stories of Genesis and Exodus: the main subjects are the Creation and the Tower of Babel along with the lives of Noah, Abraham, Joseph, and Moses", ". Special emphasis is given to the stories of the sacrifice of Abel and the hospitality of Abraham, located prominently in the lunettes on either side of the entry to the church, due to the analogies with Christ's death and the Eucharistic meal.", "It has long been recognized that the individual scenes are very close to those of the Cotton Genesis, an important fourth or fifth-century Greek illuminated manuscript copy of the Book of Genesis: about a hundred of the 359 miniatures in the manuscript were used. Of Egyptian origin, the manuscript may have reached Venice as a result of the commercial relations of the Venetians in the Eastern Mediterranean or as booty of the Fourth Crusade", ". The sixth-century Vienna Genesis was also in Venice in the early thirteenth century and may have influenced artistic choices. With regard to the Dome of Moses, the scenes most closely resemble Palaeologan art, suggesting an unknown manuscript from the third quarter of the thirteenth century as the iconographic source.", "While the Byzantine renderings of the Old-Testament stories in illuminated manuscripts provided suitable models, Byzantine churches themselves did not generally give importance to the Old Testament in their decoration, considering the stories to be shadows of the history of salvation, inferior to the reality of the New Testament", ". The impetus for the Venetians to choose the Old Testament as the theme of the narthex was instead of western derivation and reflected an interest that had developed in Rome beginning in the late eleventh century.", "The narration begins in correspondence to the former southern entry of the church with the Dome of the Creation, which opens with the spirit of God hovering above the waters and concludes with Adam and Eve cast out from the Garden of Eden. As in the Cotton Genesis, Christ is portrayed as the agent of creation. Underneath, the pendentives contain cherubim, the guardians of Eden, and the lunettes illustrate the story of Cain and Abel", ". The stories of Noah and of the Tower of Babel with the confusion of tongues and the dispertion of the nations occupy the vaults on either side of the entry to the church. The story of Abraham, from the calling of the patriarch to the circumcision of Isaac, is narrated in a single dome and the two lunettes underneath, whereas the story of Joseph, the most extensive, occupies the next three domes. The story of Moses, until the Crossing of the Red Sea, is limited to the final bay.", "Style", "The oldest mosaics in St Mark's, located in the niches of the entry porch in the narthex, may date to as early as 1070. Although Byzantine in style, they are somewhat antiquated with respect to contemporary trends in Byzantium. Most likely, they were executed by mosaicists who had left Constantinople in the mid-eleventh century to work on the cathedral of Torcello and then remained in the local area", ". More modern but still archaic in style are the figures in the main apse which were done in the late-eleventh and early-twelfth centuries.", "The most important period of decoration was the twelfth century when Venice's relations with Byzantium alternated between political tensions that limited artistic influence from the East and moments of intense trade and cooperation that favoured the Venetians' awareness of eastern prototypes as well as the influx of Byzantine mosaicists and materials", ". The three figures in the Dome of Immanuel that date to the first quarter of the century (Jeremiah, Hosea, and Habakkuk) are the work of highly skilled mosaicists, likely Greek-trained. They demonstrate the greater classicism and realism of middle-Byzantine painting in Constantinople but also local trends in the harsher and broken lines", ". In succeeding phases of work in the choir chapels and the transept, Byzantine miniatures were copied more or less faithfully for the mosaics, but any eastern influence that could reflect the latest artistic developments in Constantinople is hardly traceable. A new and direct awareness of artistic developments in Constantinople is indicated in the Dome of Pentecost, executed sometime in the first half of the twelfth century.", "In the last third of the twelfth century, a large portion of the mosaics in the Dome of Immanuel and the entirety of the Dome of the Ascension and of several vaults in the western crossarm had to be completely redone in consequence of a catastrophic event, the nature and date of which are not known. Local influence is evident. But the more vigorous poses, agitated draperies, expressiveness, and heightened contrast show the partial assimilation of the developing dynamic style in Constantinople", ". The mosaics in the Dome of the Ascension and those depicting the Passion in the nearby vault represent the maturity of the Venetian mosaic school and are one of the great achievements of Medieval art.", "After the removal of the galleries, the mosaic decoration was extended onto the lower walls, beginning in the thirteenth century. The first mosaic, depicting the Agony in the Garden, represents a synthesizing of various traditions, both eastern and western. Traces remain of the complicated patterns of the late Komnenian period. But the statuesque quality of the figures, which are also more rounded, reflect contemporary developments in Byzantine art such as can be seen at Studenica Monastery", ". Concurrently, an elegance associated with western Gothic appears and is fused with the Byzantine traditions. The Gothic influence becomes more pronounced in later mosaics of the period with patterned backgrounds that derive from the stained-glass windows in French churches.", "The interior mosaics were apparently complete by the 1270s, with work on the narthex continuing into the 1290s. Although some activity must have still been underway in 1308 when the Great Council allowed a glass furnace on Murano to produce mosaic material for St Mark's during the summer, by 1419 no competent mosaicist remained to repair the extensive damage to the main apse and western dome caused by a fire that year", ". The Venetian government had to consequently seek assistance from the Signoria of Florence which sent Paolo Uccello. Other Florentine artists, including Andrea del Castagno, were also active in St Mark's in the mid-fifteenth century, introducing a sense of perspective largely achieved with architectural settings. In this same period, Michele Giambono executed mosaics.", "By the time a new fire in 1439 made repairs once again necessary, a number of Venetian mosaicists had been trained. Some of the replacement mosaics they created show a Florentine influence; others reflect Renaissance developments in the detailing and the modelling of the figures. But overall the replacement mosaics in this period closely imitated the design of the damaged works and were intended to look medieval.", "Efforts to maintain the stylistic integrity of the medieval works whenever repairs and restorations became necessary were largely abandoned in the sixteenth century", ". Often in the absence of any need to restore mosaics but under the sole pretense of replacing old mosaics with Renaissance and Mannerist ones, renowned artists such as Titian, Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese, Giuseppe Salviati, Palma Giovane increasingly competed for work in the church, preparing preliminary sketches for 'modern' mosaics, considered artistically superior, with little attempt to stylistically integrate the new figures and scenes into the older compositions.", "In addition to damage from fire and earthquake as well as from the vibrations that resulted whenever cannon were fired in salute from ships in the lagoon, the normal decay of the underlying masonry made it necessary to repeatedly repair the mosaics. In 1716, Leopoldo dal Pozzo, a mosaicist from Rome, was commissioned to assume responsibility for the repair and maintenance of the mosaics in St Mark's, the local craftsmen having once again largely died out", ". Dal Pozzo also executed a few new mosaics based on preliminary drawings by Giovanni Battista Piazzetta and Sebastiano Ricci. An exclusive contract for restoration was stipulated in 1867 with the mosaic workshop run by the Salviati glassmaking firm, whose highly criticized restoration work often involved removing and resetting the mosaics, usually with a considerable loss of quality", ". Although the original iconographic programme has been largely preserved, despite centuries of restoration and renewal, and roughly three-fourths of the mosaics maintain their earlier compositions and styles, only about a third can be considered original.", "Floor mosaics\n\nThe floor, executed primarily in opus sectile and to a lesser extent in opus tessellatum, dates to either the late eleventh century or first half of the twelfth century. It consists of geometric patterns and animal designs made from a wide variety of coloured limestones and marbles. The animals represented, including lions, eagles, griffons, deer, dogs, peacocks, and others, largely derive from medieval bestiaries and have symbolic meanings.", "Although it has similarities with Romanesque floors, the inclusion of large slabs of marble surrounded with decorative cornices also suggests an influence from eastern prototypes. The frequent use of intertwined circles also recalls medieval Italian cosmatesque floors.\n\nAdministration", "Administration\n\nUnder the Venetian Republic, St Mark's was the private chapel of the Doge. The , responsible for the religious functions, was nominated by the Doge personally, and despite several attempts by the Bishop of Olivolo/Castello (after 1451 Patriarch of Venice) to claim jurisdiction over St Mark's, the remained subject to the Doge alone.", "Beginning in the ninth century, the Doge also nominated a procurator , responsible for the financial administration of the church, its upkeep, and its decoration. By the mid-thirteenth century there were two procurators in charge of the church, denominated . Elected by the Great Council, they supervised the church , limiting the authority of the Doge. In 1442, there were three procurators who administered the church and its treasury", ". In 1442, there were three procurators who administered the church and its treasury. The procurators also hired and paid the proto, directly responsible for overseeing construction, maintenance, and restoration.", "St Mark's ceased to be the private chapel of the Doge as a result of the fall of the Republic of Venice to the French in 1797, and the was required to take an oath of office under the provisional municipal government. At that time, plans began to transfer the seat of the Patriarch of Venice from San Pietro di Castello to St Mark's. However, no action was taken before Venice passed under Austrian control in 1798", ". However, no action was taken before Venice passed under Austrian control in 1798. During the first period of Austrian rule (1798–1805), it was alternatively suggested that the episcopal seat be moved to the Church of San Salvador, but again no action was taken until 1807 when, during the second period of French domination (1805–1814), St Mark's became the patriarchal cathedral", ". The new status was confirmed by Emperor Francis I of Austria in 1816 during the second period of Austrian rule (1814–1866) and by Pope Pius VII in 1821.", "See also\n Venetian School (music)\n Cappella Marciana\n List of buildings and structures in Venice\n List of churches in Venice\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Zatta, Antonio, Basilica di San Marco (Gregg Press, 1964), reprinted from the original edition of 1761\n\nExternal links \n\nSatellite image from Google Maps\nThe Nicopeia Icon of San Marco", "External links \n\nSatellite image from Google Maps\nThe Nicopeia Icon of San Marco\n\n \n11th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy\nByzantine sacred architecture\nVenice\nChurch buildings with domes\nGothic architecture in Venice\nVenetian Gothic architecture\nPiazza San Marco\nCathedrals in Veneto\nMinor basilicas in Veneto" ]

[ "The following events occurred in November 1965:", "November 1, 1965 (Monday)\nThe charter of Asian Development Bank was drafted in Manila.", "King Mohammed Zahir Shah appointed Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal as the new Prime Minister of Afghanistan, replacing Mohammad Yusuf, who had been dismissed the previous Friday. Maindawal, who had served as the Afghan ambassador to the United States as well as the United Kingdom and Pakistan, would serve until November 1, 1967. After Afghanistan's declaration of a republic in 1973, Maindawal would be arrested on charges of attempting to overthrow President Mohammed Daoud Khan and would die in prison.", "In Egypt, a trolleybus plunged into the Nile River at Dokki, a suburb of Cairo, drowning 74 people. Most of the dead were high school students who were on their way home from school. Only 19 passengers survived, breaking windows or escaping from open doors to free themselves.", "The subpanel for Gemini 6 of the Agena Flight Safety Review Board met at Lockheed. The subpanel reviewed Lockheed's flight safety analysis of the failure of Gemini Agena target vehicle (GATV) 5002 on October 25. The subpanel approved the conclusions reached by Lockheed's analysts, that the catastrophic anomaly was apparently caused by a \"hard start\" of the Agena's main engine, most probably resulting from a fuel rather than oxidizer lead into the thrust chamber before ignition", ". Unlike all previous standard Agenas, the GATV had been intentionally sequenced for a fuel lead to conserve oxidizer for the many programmed restarts. The subpanel reported its findings to the parent board on November 3.", "November 2, 1965 (Tuesday)\nIsrael's Prime Minister Levi Eshkol retained his office as parliamentary elections were held for the Knesset. Eshkol's Mapai party and its alignment with the Ahdut HaAvoda lost five seats but retained 45 of the 120 available.", "Banks and newspapers in the Dominican Republic reopened for business for the first time in more than five months. All banks in the downtown district of Santo Domingo had been closed since April 24 during the outbreak of violence following a coup, and the independent newspapers El Caribe and Listin Diario had been shut down since April 28.\nRepublican John Lindsay was elected Mayor of New York City, narrowly defeating Democrat challenger (and future mayor) Abe Beame.", "The United States Treasury Department announced an embargo, effective November 10, banning \"imports of wigs made with human hair from Red China\".\nThe Houston Methodist Hospital in Texas reported that it was the first to begin regular use of the new technology of \"an instrument which makes possible the continuous monitoring of the vital signs of both mother and child\", now commonly known as the fetal heart monitor. Initially, the instrument was used only when the mother was in labor.", "Born: Shah Rukh Khan, Indian film actor, producer and TV host, in New Delhi", "Died: Norman Morrison, 31, American Quaker, of burns suffered when he set himself on fire in front of The Pentagon, in protest against the Vietnam War. Morrison was holding his one-year-old daughter as he doused himself in kerosene, and was reportedly still holding her as he began to burn, letting the child go after horrified onlookers yelled 'Drop the baby!\" The child was rescued, unharmed, and Mr. Morrison was dead on arrival at the Fort Myer dispensary", ". Morrison was dead on arrival at the Fort Myer dispensary. Morrison had set himself ablaze from, and within sight of, the office of U.S. Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara, who would write 30 years later, \"Morrison's death was a tragedy not only for his family, but also for me and the country.\" North Vietnam would memorialize him with a postage stamp and named a street after him.", "November 3, 1965 (Wednesday)", "Edward Bond's play Saved was performed for the first time, presented in its entirety in a private session by players and an audience made up of members of the English Stage Society, after Britain's Lord Chamberlain's Office had allowed only a heavily censored version for public audiences", ". Under the Theatres Act 1843, all scripts for British plays had to be sent to the Lord Chamberlain for approval, and even a \"sanitized\" version of Saved had been sent back with directions to make more than 30 cuts from the script, including entire scenes. The protest by the drama community would eventually lead to the Theatres Act 1968, abolishing censorship of plays.", "Only six people survived the sinking of the Jose Marti, a fishing boat that was carrying 25 men, nine women and 11 children who were refugees from Cuba. According to a spokesman from the Mexican Navy, the overcrowded boat \"just came to pieces\" while short of its destination in Mexico, breaking up near Isla Contoy.", "An Argentine Air Force transport plane crashed into the sea while flying from Balboa-Howard Air Force Base in Panama, toward San Salvador, El Salvador, killing all 60 passengers and the crew of nine. The passengers were 55 Air Force cadets and five officers who were one of two groups who were en route to a tour of the United States", ". The C-54G, the military version of the DC-4, was last heard from at 7:35 in the morning when the pilot sent a distress call, saying that one of the plane's engines had caught fire and that he was about from Puerto Limon, Costa Rica. More than 50 years later, no trace of the airplane had ever been found.", "The Agena Flight Safety Review Board met at Lockheed to continue its investigation of the failure of Gemini Agena target vehicle 5002 on October 25. The board, chaired by George E. Mueller, reviewed the findings of the subpanel for Gemini 6 and reached the same conclusion: the failure resulted from a hard start probably caused by the fuel lead.\nBorn: Ann Scott, French novelist, in Paris", "November 4, 1965 (Thursday)\nPavshie i zhivye (The Fallen and Living), by Soviet playwright Yuri Lyubimov, premiered at the Taganka Theatre in Moscow after the Ministry of Culture had ordered 19 changes in its script. By 1968, hardliners within the Communist Party would condemn even the censored version of the play as a departure from the official Party policy.", "Charles de Gaulle (just short of his 75th birthday) announced that he would stand for re-election on December 5 in pursuit of another seven-year term as President of the French Republic.\nThe Food and Agriculture Act of 1965 was signed into law by U.S. President Lyndon Johnson.", "Harvard University botany professor Elso Barghoorn announced the discovery of the earliest evidence of life on Earth, with the finding of fossil evidence from three billion years in the past. Dr", ". Dr. Barhoorn, who was presenting his findings to the Geological Society of America at its annual convention in Kansas City, said \"It proves that life must have existed much further back than any previous evidence has shown\", and that the fossil had been found in February, 1965, at a location in the Kingdom of Swaziland, southeast of Barberton in South Africa. The organisms, bacteria only one half of a micron long, were detected by electron microscope evaluation in October.", "Lee Breedlove, wife of Craig Breedlove, set a new women's land speed record of , based on the average between one run of and another of . She was driving her husband's jet-powered race car, the Spirit of America, on the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah.\nThe Ned Rorem opera Miss Julie was premiered by the New York City Opera.\nBorn: Wayne Static (Wayne Richard Wells), American heavy metal musician and lead vocalist for the band Static-X; in Muskegon, Michigan (died of overdose, 2014)", "Died: Dickey Chapelle, 46, American photojournalist, became the first war correspondent to be killed in the Vietnam War, and the first female American reporter to die in combat. Chapelle was mortally wounded when a land mine exploded in front of her while she was accompanying a platoon of U.S. Marines near Chu Lai.", "November 5, 1965 (Friday)\nA three-month state of emergency was declared in Southern Rhodesia by British colonial Governor Humphrey Gibbs, who said that the British colony's security was being threatened by Prime Minister Ian Smith's agitation for independence from the United Kingdom, and by two African nationalist organizations, Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union, and Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole's Zimbabwe African National Union.", "The United Nations General Assembly voted, 82 to 9, to demand that the United Kingdom use military force against Rhodesia if it made a unilateral declaration of independence.\nDied: Ho Thi Que, 38, Vietnamese fighter known as \"The Tiger Lady of South Vietnam\", was killed during an argument with her husband, Major Nguyen Van Dan.", "November 6, 1965 (Saturday)\nThe Italian luxury ocean liner Raffaello arrived in Genoa with 56 injured passengers, six days after a fire had crippled the ship in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.\nTroops from Chile and Argentina fought at their border in the Laguna del Desierto incident.", "Representatives of the United States and Cuba signed a Memorandum of Understanding brokered through the government of Switzerland, agreeing to begin \"Freedom Flights\" from Cuba to the U.S. for families whose names were on both nations' lists of Cuban applicants who had family in the states. Under the pact, the United States would pay for the air transport and use its own aircraft, and Cuba would allow officials of the U.S. Public Health Service and the U.S", ".S. Public Health Service and the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service to maintain offices at the Varadero airport to screen passengers before their embarkation. By the time of the service's end in 1971, more than 250,000 Cubans would take advantage of the program.", "The United States launched GEOS-1 (GeodeticEarth Orbiting Satellite), the first cartographic satellite, at 1:39 in the afternoon from Cape Kennedy", ". GEOS Project Director Jerome Rosenberg told reporters, \"We've got a satellite that's just peachy-dandy\", and said that it was equipped with four high-powered flashing lights, laser beam reflectors and three sets of radio gear that would provide the data to produce the most accurate maps in history, precisely locate long-range missile targets, and measure the Earth's dips and bulges with unprecedented accuracy. It was the first payload to be launched by a Delta E rocket.", "The prototype of the new Chinook ACH-47A helicopter gunship was given its first test flight by Boeing Vertol. Delivery was made to the U.S. Army the following month, and a trio of the ACH-47As would enter combat in May.\nDied:\nEdgard Varèse, 81, French classical composer\nClarence Williams, 67, American jazz composer", "November 7, 1965 (Sunday)\nThe Pillsbury Company's famous mascot, the Pillsbury Doughboy (officially known as \"Poppin' Fresh\"), made his debut, appearing for the first time in a television commercial for dough for crescent rolls. Created by advertising executive Rudolph Perz, the TV ads used stop-motion animation that required 720 separate photographs for a 30-second film.", "Parliamentary elections were held in Portugal, at the time under the dictatorship of Antonio Salazar, although the only candidates remaining on the ballot were those of Salazar's National Union Party. All candidates from opposition parties had withdrawn the previous month, charging that the elections were not democratic", ". Interior Minister Alfred dos Santos commented that the 70 percent turnout of the electorate was proof \"that the opposition would have received only an insignificant number of votes\" and that \"none of their candidates would have been elected.\"", "The government of Israel appointed boards of trustees to administer the waqf lands released to Muslim ownership, with the first towns (Haifa, Acre, Lod and Ramla) having boards of between five and seven Muslim residents to control the lands within the restrictions of the Tel Aviv government.", "Félix Houphouët-Boigny, the first President of the Republic of Ivory Coast, was re-elected to another five-year term without opposition. He would win elections in 1970, 1975, 1980 and 1990 and continue to preside over the West African nation until his death on December 7, 1993.\nBorn: Sigrun Wodars, East German Olympic athlete and gold medalist in the women's 800 meters in 1988, as well as winner of the 1987 world championship; in Neu Kaliss\nDied:", "Died:\nMirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad, 76, Indian cleric and the second Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, serving for more than 50 years.\nHerbert C. Bonner, 74, U.S. Representative for North Carolina since 1940", "Herbert C. Bonner, 74, U.S. Representative for North Carolina since 1940\nHenry Solomons, 63, British member of the House of Commons, died in a hospital on his birthday. With the death of a second Labour Party member in three months, Labour held only a 313 seats to the opposition's total of 312 in the House of Commons (Conservative 303 and Liberal 9), making the November 11 by-election even more important.", "November 8, 1965 (Monday)\nWhile carrying out Operation Hump, the U.S. Army's 173rd Airborne Division was ambushed by over 1,200 Viet Cong. The tragedy (and the date) would be referred to in a 2006 country music hit, \"8th of November\".", "The British Indian Ocean Territory was created, three days after the Council of Ministers of Mauritius agreed that the other islands (the Chagos Archipelago, and three of the Seychelles Islands — Aldabra, Farquhar and Des Roches — should be a separate territory before the residents voted on independence. On June 23, 1976, when the Seychelles became an independent nation, Aldabra, Farquhar and Des Roches would be made part of that country.", "The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 was given Royal Assent, suspending the death penalty for murder in the United Kingdom. Renewal of the Act in 1969 would make the abolition permanent.\nVoting for Canada's House of Commons took place, and although Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson's Liberal Party retained control and gained one seat, the Liberals won only 128 of the 265 seats, five short of majority. The Conservative Party of John G. Diefenbaker had 99 seats, a gain of seven.", "Manned Spacecraft Center announced that Elliot M. See, Jr., had been selected as command pilot and Charles A. Bassett II as pilot for the Gemini 9 mission. The backup crew would be Thomas P. Stafford, command pilot, and Eugene A. Cernan, pilot. The mission, scheduled for the third quarter of 1966, would last from two to three days and would include rendezvous and docking and extravehicular activity", ". Bassett was slated to remain outside the Gemini spacecraft for at least one revolution and to wear the manned maneuvering unit backpack, a self-propelled hydrogen-peroxide system with gyro stabilization designed by the United States Air Force.", "Returning to the campus of his alma mater at Southwest Texas State Teachers College (now Texas State University), President Johnson signed the Higher Education Act of 1965 into law, creating a federal program of grants and government loans with the objective that no American high school graduate would be turned away from college for lack of funds.", "The soap opera Days of Our Lives was broadcast for the first time, on NBC television in the United States. Starring Macdonald Carey as \"Dr. Thomas Horton, well-known and respected cardiologist and leading citizen in the small community of Salem\", the daytime serial would continue 50 years later to follow the problems of the Horton family. It would relocate from NBC television to NBC's Peacock video streaming service in 2022.", "American Airlines Flight 383 crashed on approach to the Greater Cincinnati Airport, killing 58 of the 62 people on board. The Boeing 727 jet had taken off from New York's La Guardia Airport and was running 20 minutes behind schedule as it approached Cincinnati in a driving rain, and burst into flames after striking a high wooded hillside near Constance, Kentucky at 7:02 in the evening. The U.S", ". The U.S. Federal Aviation Agency concluded that the accident was a result of pilot error, with the crew flying \"in a manner that would greatly expedite their arrival at the Cincinnati Airport\" and that \"both pilots became preoccupied in maintaining visual contact with the runway, resulting in inattention to and improper monitoring of the altitude reference instruments.\" One of the four survivors was record producer and music journalist Israel Horowitz", ".\" One of the four survivors was record producer and music journalist Israel Horowitz. The site itself was on the opposite side of the Ohio River from the College of Mount Saint Joseph in Delhi Township, Ohio.", "Died: Dorothy Kilgallen, 52, American newspaper, radio and television journalist, was found dead in her townhouse on Manhattan's East 68th Street.", "November 9, 1965 (Tuesday)", "In the Philippine presidential election, Ferdinand Marcos, leader of the Philippine Senate, defeated incumbent President Diosdado Macapagal. Marcos, who would assume increasingly dictatorial powers until being deposed in 1986, received 3,861,324 votes for a 51.9% majority, while President Macapagal got 3,187,752.", "Howard College, located in Birmingham, Alabama, was officially renamed Samford University at the annual meeting of the Alabama Baptist Commission. The historically white college, founded in 1842, had been named for a British philanthropist, John Howard, but the name was similar to the historically black Howard University in Washington, D.C., founded in 1867 by General Oliver O. Howard. The new name was in honor of an Alabama philanthropist, Frank P. Samford.", "A massive electrical outage swept across nearly 80,000 square miles (207,000 square kilometers) of the northeast United States and Canada, leaving almost 30 million people in the dark or trapped inside elevators and subway trains. At 5:16 in the afternoon, one of the five electrical lines of the Adam Beck station in Queenston, Ontario, was shut down by an improperly set circuit breaker", ". It was determined later that engineers had set the safety shutdown of one relay at a level so close \"that it would be triggered by the slightest overload\" without informing the station's operators of the adjustment. A minor power surge in the surrounding area caused the breaker to trip, shifting the power of five lines to the four remaining lines, which overloaded, shifting their load to neighboring utilities and creating a cascading effect. By 5:28, power had failed in Ontario and Quebec, and the U.S", ". By 5:28, power had failed in Ontario and Quebec, and the U.S. states of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and Vermont, including most of New York City, for as long as 13 1⁄2 hours.", "Born: Bryn Terfel, Welsh operatic bass-baritone, as Bryn Terfel Jones in Pant Glas, Caernarfonshire", "November 10, 1965 (Wednesday)", "In Shanghai, Chinese historian and playwright Wu Han came under sharp criticism from literary critic Yao Wenyuan, who attacked Wu's popular opera, Hai Rui Dismissed from Office as having a subversive meaning", ". Although the opera was a historical drama based on the life of a Chinese minister who courageously criticized Emperor Jiajing 400 years earlier, Yao wrote in the cultural newspaper Wenhui bao that Wu's opera was an allegory about criticizing Communist Party leader Mao Zedong, and that \"Its influence is great and its poison widespread. If we do not clean it up, it will be harmful to the affairs of the people", ". If we do not clean it up, it will be harmful to the affairs of the people.\" Yao's article initially was ignored, but would then be reprinted nationwide on November 29, making the article \"the 'first bugle call' of the Cultural Revolution.\" Wu would become one of the first of thousands of people to be denounced and imprisoned in the years to follow.", "Died: Roger Allen LaPorte, 22, American Catholic Worker Movement member, of burns suffered when he set himself on fire in front of the Dag Hammarskjöld Library in New York City on the previous day, in protest against the Vietnam War.", "November 11, 1965 (Thursday)\nThe government of Turkey's new Prime Minister, Süleyman Demirel, survived its first vote of confidence in the Grand National Assembly, winning approval by a 252 to 172 margin.", "Prime Minister Ian Smith of Rhodesia, and the other 12 members of his white minority government cabinet, carried through with their threat to sign the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), separating the African British colony from the United Kingdom", ". On the first day of the secession, Smith proclaimed that the government would continue to fly the Union Jack, Britain's flag, that God Save the Queen would continue to be the national anthem, and that Queen Elizabeth would remain the monarch, but would be referred to as \"Queen of Rhodesia\". Hours later, the UN General Assembly voted 102-2 to condemn the UDI", ". Hours later, the UN General Assembly voted 102-2 to condemn the UDI. For the next 14 years, Rhodesia would remain unrecognized by any other nation in the world except for the white-minority ruled nation of South Africa; finally, on December 12, 1979, a British Governor would resume administration of the state as a transition to being granted independence with a black majority governing it as Zimbabwe.", "In a by-election to fill the vacancy in Commons caused by the August death of sitting MP Norman Dodds, James Wellbeloved of the ruling Labour Party easily defeated Conservative challenger David Madel and Liberal Stanley Vince, winning 21,835 votes to their 11,763 and 2,823 in the traditionally Labour constituency of Erith and Crayford. If Madel had won, the Labour's 313 seats would have faced 304 from the Conservative and 9 from the Liberals.", "Aeroflot Flight 99, a Tupolev Tu-124 operating a scheduled domestic passenger flight en-route from Pulkovo Airport in Leningrad to Murmansk Airport in Murmansk, both in the Soviet Union, crashed while attempting to land. Of the 64 passengers and crew on board, 32 were killed in the accident, and many of the survivors sustained injuries.", "Hours later on the same day, United Airlines Flight 227, a Boeing 727, crashed more than short of the runway at Salt Lake City International Airport and caught fire, killing 43 of the 91 people on board. The flight from New York City to San Francisco ended when the jet's pilot brought the craft in for a hard touchdown, breaking a fuel line and igniting a fire in the fuselage, before lifting up to come around for a second landing.", "Previously named \"Falling Spikes\", Lou Reed, John Cale, Sterling Morrison and Angus Maclise played their first rock concert under their new name, The Velvet Underground.\nDied: Bill Linderman, 45, American rodeo cowboy, in crash of United Airlines Flight 227", "November 12, 1965 (Friday)\nVenera 2, the Soviet Union's second attempt to gather data on the planet Venus, was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Although Venera 2 made a flight \"so accurate that no mid-course correction was needed\" in order to allow a flyby of Venus, all communications were lost after ground control had given the command for photography to begin.", "The day after declaring Rhodesia's independence from the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Ian Smith issued an order removing all executive powers from the British colonial governor, Sir Humphrey Gibbs, and asked Gibbs to leave the Government House, the governor's residence.", "The United Nations Security Council voted 10–0 (with France abstaining) to adopt Resolution 217, condemning Rhodesia's declaration and calling upon all member nations not to recognize Ian Smith's regime, which the Resolution referred to as \"illegal\" and \"racist\".\nDied: Syedna Taher Saifuddin, 77, Indian Shi'ite Muslim leader and the Da'i al-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohra sect since 1915", "November 13, 1965 (Saturday)", "Ninety people on the cruise ship were killed when it caught fire, then sank, off Nassau, Bahamas. The ship was making its semi-weekly run between Miami and Nassau when the fire broke out at around 2:00 in the morning, and at 6:03, the burning liner capsized and plunged to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. Other ships in the area, the cruiser Bahama Star and the Finnish freighter Finnpulp rescued another 459 of the 549 people on board", ". The blaze would later be traced to the center of the ship in \"stateroom 610\" which was unoccupied and being used for storage, and had started when mattresses fell over onto a lighting system. The blaze then spread in all directions through the dry wooden panels of the aging cruiser.", "The American freighter Skipper K arrived at Key West, Florida, bringing the first 108 Cuban refugees to the United States under the agreement signed between the two nations. Earlier in the month, refugees had been departing in small boats.", "A fleet of ships from the People's Liberation Army Navy of Communist China fought a battle with two Republic of China Navy ships from Taiwan. The Taiwanese gunship Yongchang and the submarine chaser Yongtai had been dispatched toward Wuqiu, Kinmen, Fujian, Republic of China (Taiwan), near the coast of China's Fujian Province, with the purpose of trying \"to draw the PLA Navy into another battle\" after an August 6 clash", ". The PLA Navy responded with six torpedo boats and ten fast-attack gunboats and, at 11:00 at night, engaged the Yongtai and damaged it. The Yongchang returned fire and damaged several PLA boats, but was finally sunk by torpedoes, while the Yongtai disengaged after thirty minutes.", "British theatre critic Kenneth Tynan broke a taboo by saying fuck on a live television broadcast, touching off a debate in the British press about morality, censorship and social mores. Tynan was a guest on the late night (10:25) show BBC-3 when moderator Robert Robinson asked him whether, if theatrical censorship were abolished, he would allow a play depicting sexual intercourse. Tynan replied, \"Oh, I think so, certainly", ". Tynan replied, \"Oh, I think so, certainly. I doubt if there are very many rational people in this world to whom the word 'fuck' is particularly diabolical or revolting or totally forbidden.\" Telephone calls to BBC tied up its switchboards, four resolutions were introduced in the House of Commons condemning Tynan and the BBC, and most of the British press responded with outrage", ". Tynan had not been the first person to say the word on TV, in that Brendan Behan had mumbled it in 1956 on the BBC show Panorama, and a man told an Ulster TV interviewer in 1959 that his job was \"fucking boring\", but it was the first prominent use of that word. The BBC did not apologize, but did say that \"The B.B.C", ". The BBC did not apologize, but did say that \"The B.B.C. regrets the use of a word that caused offence in an unscripted part of the television programme\", while Tynan responded \"I used an old English word in a completely neutral way to illustrate a serious point... To have censored myself would, in my view, have been an insult to the viewers' intelligence.\"", "November 14, 1965 (Sunday)", "The Battle of the Ia Drang, the first major engagement of the war between regular United States and North Vietnam forces in the Vietnam War, began in the Ia Drang Valley of the Central Highlands in Vietnam. Over the next seven days, until the battle was concluded on November 20, there were 305 American soldiers killed in the battle, and 3,561 from the numerically superior North Vietnamese Army. The battle marked the first time that U.S", ". The battle marked the first time that U.S. forces used B-52 bombers (and their 36,000 pounds of explosives) in a tactical role. It has been written that the battle \"was of critical importance, as it set the precedent for the conduct of the war in Vietnam. The air mobility concept had proved its worth. In addition, [General William] Westmoreland believed that the Ia Drang validated his strategy of attrition... that it would not take many more such victories to push the Communists to the brink of defeat", "... that it would not take many more such victories to push the Communists to the brink of defeat.\" On the other hand, the General Vo Nguyen Giap of the NVA felt that the battle was \"something of a victory because they learned that they could in fact fight the Americans.\" The North Vietnamese also concluded \"that direct, prolonged exposure in firefights was not a sound strategy\" and that guerrilla warfare would be more effective than large scale battles", ". In 2002, the battle would be dramatized in the film We Were Soldiers.", "The recently formed coalition government of Congolese Prime Minister Évariste Kimba failed a vote of confidence in the Congo Parliament, losing 72-76 in the lower house and 49-58 in the upper house, despite the inclusion of 16 political parties in the cabinet. Interior Minister Victor Nendaka Bika was asked to form a new government, but before he could do so, Major General Joseph Mobutu overthrew the government on November 24.", "November 15, 1965 (Monday)\nThe United States Supreme Court ruled, 8-0, that the 1950 Subversive Activities Control Act was unconstitutional, and struck down a requirement that members of the Communist Party must register with the U.S. Department of Justice. With Justice Byron White abstaining, the Court held unanimously that the law violated the protections within the Fifth Amendment against self-incrimination.", "Walt Disney and Florida Governor Haydon Burns appeared at a press conference in Orlando, Florida, where the master showman unveiled his plans for a $100,000,000 family attraction on 27,000 acres of land adjacent to Bay Lake in Orange County, Florida. Disney's initial vision for his planned \"Disney World\" was to build two communities which would be called \"City of Tomorrow\" and \"City of Yesterday\" and that would exclude motor vehicles other than the parking area for park patrons", ". Governor Burns told reporters that it was \"the most significant day in the history of Florida\". The \"City of Yesterday\" would open in 1971 as \"The Magic Kingdom\" section of Disney World, while the City of Tomorrow would open in 1982 as the \"Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow\", or Epcot.", "The Sprint (Solid propellant rocket interceptor), a short-range anti-ballistic missile intended to intercept an incoming enemy missile that might get past the Nike Zeus defense, was launched for the first time, in a test firing from the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico.\nAmerican auto racer Craig Breedlove became the first person to drive an automobile faster than , setting a new land speed record of in his Spirit of America vehicle at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah.", "November 16, 1965 (Tuesday)\nFour days after launching Venera 2 toward Venus, the Soviet Union launched the Venera 3 space probe toward the same planet, marking the first time that the Soviets had sent two interplanetary probes at roughly the same time. On March 1, 1966, Venera 3 would become the first Earth spacecraft to reach the surface of another planet.", "Britain's House of Commons and House of Lords passed a bill giving Prime Minister Harold Wilson authority to rule the African colony of Rhodesia by decree, and Queen Elizabeth II gave formal assent on the same day so that the emergency measure would become law. Hours later, as Governor Humphrey Gibbs was awaiting an urgent phone call from Prime Minister Wilson, the phone lines to his residence were cut off by order of Ian Smith.", "Following MSC's receipt of the technical proposal for phase C of the Apollo Applications Program (AAP) from North American Aviation, Inc., covering final definition of the AAP command and service module (CSM), William A. Lee, Assistant Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, asked several of his staff members to assist in evaluation of the proposal", ". Such help, he said, would be invaluable in bringing to bear on AAP the experience that the Apollo office had obtained during the effort to develop the block II lunar version of the spacecraft.", "An arrest in Merced, California, revealed the lax security at the Castle Air Force Base, part of the U.S. Air Force's Strategic Air Command. The Merced County Sheriff's office would reveal on December 1 what it called \"The Case of the Crying Colonel\", and the perpetrators of the breach were three junior high school students, two of whom were 13 years old, and their 14-year-old companion", ". The eldest boy, who \"was wearing the complete flying uniform of a lieutenant colonel\" when he led police on a high-speed chase in a truck stolen from the base, told police that he and his friends had pedaled their bicycles to Castle AFB, driven a base vehicle to the officers club and stole uniforms and insignia, then returned a few days later dressed as officers, even being saluted as they drove two trucks off of the base", ". When they were stopped after their third visit, they were found with documents (including flight orders), radio-equipped pilot helmets, and \"pieces of nine air force uniforms.\" The federal government would decline to press charges because of the boys' ages.", "Died:\nHarry Blackstone Sr., 80, American stage musician and illusionist billed as \"The Great Blackstone\"\nW. T. Cosgrave, 85, the first Prime Minister of Ireland (as President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State), from 1922 to 1932.", "November 17, 1965 (Wednesday)", "The United Nations General Assembly voted on a resolution to admit the People's Republic of China as a member. Prior to the vote on admission, the United States and ten other nations offered a resolution, which passed 56-49, to declare Chinese representation \"an important question\". Because of the designation as important, the admission of Communist China would require a two-thirds majority, and the result was 47 in favor, 47 opposed, and 20 abstentions", ". The 47-47 tie, still short of the 64 that would have been required, was more favorable to the PRC than the last vote on October 21, 1963, which had failed, 41-57. As one historian would note later, \"The UN vote was a sobering reminder that many countries no longer tolerated Washington's unbending hostility toward Beijing.\"", "The 27 passengers and 11 crewmen of the Boeing 707 nicknamed \"Polecat\" landed in Honolulu at 10:21 in the morning, almost 62 1/2 hours after departing from the same airport on the first flight around the world to pass over both the North Pole and the South Pole. Led by pilot Jack Martin, the circumpolar expedition had started from Honolulu at 7:15 on a Sunday evening. One of the reporters on board, Lowell Thomas Jr", ". One of the reporters on board, Lowell Thomas Jr. (who broadcast to radio listeners along the way), would recount later that \"In all, we traveled 26,230 miles\", with a total time of 62:27:35 and actual time in the air at 51 hours, 27 minutes. The jet had gone from Honolulu to London by way of the North Pole, with more refueling stops at Lisbon, Buenos Aires, and Auckland before arriving at Hawaii.", "The economic term \"stagflation\" was used for the first time, by British MP Iain Macleod, as a portmanteau of the words \"stagnation\" and \"inflation\". Macleod was speaking to the House of Commons about the British economy, noting that \"We now have the worst of both worlds— not just inflation on the one side or stagnation on the other side, but both of them together. We have a sort of 'stagflation' problem.\"\nDied: Hans Nielsen, 53, German film actor", "November 18, 1965 (Thursday)\nThe Second Vatican Council voted to approve two significant changes in Roman Catholic Church doctrine, approving Dei verbum (the Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation) by a vote of 2,344 to 6, and Apostolicam Actuositatem (the Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity) by a margin of 2,340 to 6.", "John H. Disher, Saturn/Apollo Applications Deputy Director, requested the Manned Space Flight Management Operations Director to officially change the designation of the Saturn IB/Centaur Office to Saturn Applications. This change, Disher said, reflected the change in status of the office and provided for necessary management of potential Saturn Applications such as the Saturn V/Voyager by the Office of Manned Space Flight. However, on the same day, Disher ordered E. F", ". However, on the same day, Disher ordered E. F. O'Connor at MSFC to halt all Saturn IB/Centaur efforts (except those already underway that could not be recalled) and disapproved the request for an additional $1.1 million for the program. (Any funds required for definition of a Saturn V/Voyager mission, he said, would be authorized separately.)", "A barge containing of chlorine gas in cylinders, sunk two months earlier near Baton Rouge, Louisiana, by Hurricane Betsy, was recovered without any harmful effects.\nDied: Henry A. Wallace, 77, Vice President of the United States, 1941-1945, former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture, 1933-1941.", "November 19, 1965 (Friday)", "The Vatican Ecumenical Council voted 1,954 to 249 to give final approval for the Declaration on Religious Liberty issued by the Roman Catholic Church, with a statement recognizing that no person should be forced to act against conscience in matters of faith, nor be prevented from practicing a personal religious belief. The declaration, which would be promulgated by Pope Paul VI on December 7, ended any official objection by the Catholic church to Protestant Christian denominations.", "Anthony Greenwood, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, announced that the colony of British Guiana would be granted independence on May 26, 1966. Greenwood added that although Prime Minister Forbes Burnham would become head of government for the new nation (which would rename itself Guyana), Queen Elizabeth II would continue to be represented by a Governor-General until the end of 1968, at which time all parties agreed that the South American nation could opt to become a presidential republic.", "Born:\nPaulo S. L. M. Barreto, Brazilian cryptographer, in Salvador, Bahia\nLaurent Blanc, French footballer and football manager, defender for the France national team from 1989 to 2000; in Alès", "November 20, 1965 (Saturday)", "Michigan State University, ranked #1 in both the Associated Press and United Press International polls, won a share of the unofficial college football championship, defeating #4 Notre Dame, 12-3, to complete its regular season with an unbeaten 10-0-0 record. At season's end, the final UPI poll of coaches would declare the Michigan State Spartans the nation's top college football team", ". The final AP poll of sportswriters, however, would not be taken until after the postseason bowl games, and Michigan State's 14-12 loss in the Rose Bowl, #2 Arkansas' 14-7 loss in the Cotton Bowl, and #4 Alabama's 39-28 win over #3 Nebraska would result in Alabama being declared the national champion by the Associated Press.", "The first national college football championship game in Canada, the Canadian College Bowl for the Vanier Cup, was played at Varsity Stadium in Toronto, with the Varsity Blues of the University of Toronto defeating the Golden Bears of the University of Alberta, 14 to 7", ". The Vanier Cup had been inaugurated as an invitational bowl game to raise money for the Save the Children Fund to pit the champions of the Western Canadian conference (the Hardy Trophy winner) against the Yates Cup winner from the Ontario Universities conference.", "Simon Pierre Tchoungui became the third and final Prime Minister of East Cameroon during the 11-year period when the Federal Republic of Cameroon had separate cabinets for the East and West portions of the African nation. Tchoungui, who replaced Vincent de Paul Ahanda, would serve until the separate premierships were abolished on June 2, 1972, with the creation of the United Republic of Cameroon.\nBorn:\nMike D (Michael Diamond), American rapper and co-founder of the Beastie Boys; in New York City", "Mike D (Michael Diamond), American rapper and co-founder of the Beastie Boys; in New York City\nYoshiki (Yoshiki Hayashi), Japanese heavy metal musician and co-founder of the group X Japan; in Tateyama, Chiba", "November 21, 1965 (Sunday)\nPope Paul VI closed the deliberations of the Second Vatican Council, and more than 2,300 Roman Catholic archbishops and clergy from all over the world.\nChe Guevara and the last six survivors of his column of Cuban guerrillas withdrew from the Republic of the Congo after an unsuccessful attempt to aid the revolution there.", "After 84 days of preparation, the six F-100-F crews who were designated as the \"Wild Weasels\" strike force were deployed in Vietnam to locate and destroy enemy radar sites.", "Radio broadcaster Francis \"Chick\" Hearn did his first play-by-play reporting of a Los Angeles Laker basketball game (a 110-104 loss to the Philadelphia Warriors), the first of 3,338 consecutive game calls. Hearn's streak would last past his 85th birthday, until December 16, 2001, three days before scheduled open-heart surgery", ". He would return in April 2002, calling the play by play at the Lakers' June 12 NBA championship winning game over the New Jersey Nets, but would pass away on August 5, before the start of the next NBA season. Hearn is credited by historians with introducing the terms \"slam dunk\" and \"air ball\" (for a missed free throw), and the phrase \"no harm, no foul\".", "Mireille Mathieu performed on France's Télé-Dimanche and began her successful singing career.\nBorn:\nBjörk (Björk Guðmundsdóttir), Icelandic singer-songwriter, in Reykjavik\nAlexander Siddig, Sudanese-born British television and film actor, known for portraying Dr. Bashir on Star Trek: Deep Space Nine; as Siddiq at-Tahir el-Fadil in Khartoum\nYuriko Yamaguchi, Japanese anime voice actress, in Osaka", "Yuriko Yamaguchi, Japanese anime voice actress, in Osaka\nDied: Cecil Brower, 50, American country music fiddler and pioneer of the \"Western swing\" genre, died of a perforated ulcer following a Carnegie Hall concert with Jimmy Dean's band.", "November 22, 1965 (Monday)", "The United States Supreme Court selected four similar petitions for a writ of certiorari to review the issue of the right of an indigent criminal defendant to have an attorney appointed for him at government expense, including that of Ernesto Miranda. What would become known as the \"Miranda warning\" could have easily been the \"Westover warning\" or the \"Vignera warning\", but Miranda's arguments were heard first and the Court's landmark decision of June 13, 1966, would be styled Miranda v. Arizona.", "The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was established as a specialized agency of the United Nations. Paul G. Hoffman would be its first administrator.", "David M. Jones, Acting Saturn/Apollo Applications Director, solicited from the chief executives of the various companies participating in Apollo their views on proposed goals for the Apollo Applications Program", ". Alternative goals postulated for AAP were (1) to explore and utilize world resources for the benefit of humanity; (2) to define and develop the operational capabilities for the next generation of space vehicles beyond Apollo; (3) to broaden knowledge of near-Earth and lunar environments; (4) to enhance the national security of the United States through space operations; and (5) to develop the capability for crewed flights of up to one year", ". Jones asked the executives to weigh the pros and cons of these alternative goals and to make a qualitative assessment of the benefits which might accrue to the American taxpayer. NASA would include these assessments in congressional hearings early in 1966.", "The musical Man of La Mancha opened off-Broadway at the ANTA Washington Square Theatre in New York City's Greenwich Village and would become a major hit, running for 2,328 performances and winning a Tony Award for its star, Richard Kiley.", "Muhammad Ali successfully defended his world heavyweight boxing championship against a former world champion, Floyd Patterson, who had held the title from 1956 to 1959 and again from 1960 to 1962. Patterson, who had promoted the Las Vegas fight as a war over the values of Christianity vs. Islam, lost in the 12th round on a technical knockout.\nBorn: Mads Mikkelsen, Denmark-born film and television actor, in Copenhagen\nDied:", "Born: Mads Mikkelsen, Denmark-born film and television actor, in Copenhagen\nDied:\nDipa Nusantara Aidit, 42, senior leader of the Communist Party of Indonesia, the day after he was arrested by the Indonesian national police. The government maintained that he was killed while trying to escape rather than to be tried and sentenced to death, while other reports were that he was promised a trip to Jakarta and then taken to an isolated location and shot to death.", "Otto Kirchheimer, 60, German jurist and political scientist who worked for the U.S. Office of Strategic Services during World War II and later for the Central Intelligence Agency.", "November 23, 1965 (Tuesday)\nAfter reaching a tentative agreement to end the Yemen Civil War by holding a plebiscite for voters to decide on whether Yemen should be a republic or a monarchy, representatives of the Yemen Arab Republic and of the former Kingdom of Yemen met at the Yemeni town of Harad to discuss how the election would be organized, but would never reach an agreement.\nBorn: Don Frye, American mixed martial artist, professional wrestler, boxer and kickboxer; in Sierra Vista, Arizona", "Died: Elisabeth of Bavaria, Queen of Belgium, 89, queen consort during the reign of her husband, King Albert I, from 1909 to 1934, mother of King Leopold III and grandmother of King Baudoin I", ". During World War I, when her native land of Germany invaded Belgium, she established surgical centers for the Belgian soldiers at the front lines, and during World War II, she helped numerous Belgians, particularly Belgian Jews, escape from Nazi occupiers; the city of Elisabethville in the Belgian Congo was named in her honor, and would be renamed Lubumbashi a year after her death.", "November 24, 1965 (Wednesday)", "At the age of 35, Lieutenant General Joseph-Desiré Mobutu met with 14 fellow members of the Armée Nationale Congolaise high command in Léopoldville in an emergency session and decided to break the deadlock between the Congolese Parliament and President Kasavubu by staging a bloodless coup d'état", ". By dawn the next morning, the Army had seized Radio Leopoldville and it was announced that Mobutu declared himself to be the new President of the Democratic Republic of Congo and had removed Kasuvubu and Prime Minister Kimba from office", ". During his 31-year rule, Mobutu would dismiss the parliament, suspend the constitution, ban all political parties in favor of the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution, promote himself with a personality cult, inaugurate his own authenticité campaign, rename the nation to Zaire and require his citizens to adopt \"African\" names (including calling himself Mobutu Sese Seko), and amass a large personal fortune while bankrupting his country", ". Mobutu's rule would end on May 16, 1997; he would flee into exile in the face of an invasion by rebel forces, and die of prostate cancer less than four months later.", "Twenty-one people were killed, and 33 injured, in an explosion and fire at a crowded national guard armory in Keokuk, Iowa, where they were attending a square dance. The cause of the accident was later traced to natural gas that had leaked into the building through porous rock beneath the tile in the armory, and that had been ignited when a space heater had been turned on.", "A United States military spokesman reported that 240 American servicemen had been killed in the Vietnam War during the week of November 14 to November 20, in the deadliest week of the war for Americans up to that time. During the four years of 1961, 1962, 1963 and 1964, there had been 244 U.S. deaths, only slightly more than the casualties for the week. The newest casualties raised the toll to 1,335 dead and 6,131 wounded.", "Died: Abdullah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah, 70, Emir of Kuwait since 1950. He was succeeded as King by his brother, Prime Minister Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, who took the constitutional oath of office on November 27.", "November 25, 1965 (Thursday)\nGeneral Lon Nol, Chief of Staff of the Royal Cambodian Army, concluded an agreement with Luo Ruiqing, the Chief of Staff of China's People's Liberation Army, stipulating that Cambodia would permit the passage of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army troops through its border regions, and that it would allow China to ship war supplies to Vietnam through Cambodian territory. Lon Nol had traveled to Beijing at the request of Prince Norodom Sihanouk.", "In his first test since being appointed Prime Minister of Northern Ireland in 1963, Terence O'Neill increased his hold on power in the elections for the Parliament of Northern Ireland. O'Neill's Ulster Unionist Party won 36 of the 52 available seats to obtain a 59% majority, up from a 48.8% plurality before the vote.", "The Army of Peru began redeployment to the Ayacucho Region of Peru in order to surround rebel guerrillas of the Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN), the \"National Liberation Army\" movement that had been fighting the government since 1962.\nBorn: \nCris Carter, American NFL receiver and Hall of Fame member, in Troy, Ohio\n Tim Armstrong, American punk rock musician (Rancid), in Albany, California\nDied: Dame Myra Hess, 75, English pianist.", "November 26, 1965 (Friday)", "France became the third nation to place a spacecraft into orbit around the Earth, as it launched a satellite, Astérix-1, from the CIEES launch facility in Hammaguir, Algeria. The primary mission of the Asterix probe, which carried radio and radar transmitters, was to test the effectiveness of the Diamant-A rocket", ". Although France was the third nation to launch its own satellite, the United Kingdom, Canada and Italy had each contracted with the United States to send spacecraft into orbit from Cape Canaveral, Florida. \"Unfortunately,\" an author would note later, \"the satellite only operated for two days. A-1 is still in orbit and will be for centuries to come, since an antenna malfunction does not allow any commands to the satellite.\"", "Webster Bivens was arrested by a team of FBI agents who entered his Brooklyn apartment and searched the premises without a search warrant, giving rise to a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1971 in the case of Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents", ".S. Supreme Court decision in 1971 in the case of Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents. The Court would rule that, although there was no specific federal law that permitted Bivens to file suit against the government for a violation of his Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable searches and seizures, the constitutional amendment itself provided an implied right of action. The Court precedent would extend to similar interpretations of other Bill of Rights guarantees.", "McDonnell proposed building a backup target vehicle for Gemini rendezvous missions. The augmented target docking adapter (ATDA) would serve as an alternative to the Gemini Agena target vehicle (GATV) if efforts to remedy the GATV problem responsible for the October 25 mission abort did not meet the date scheduled for launching Gemini 8", ". Using Gemini-qualified equipment, the ATDA was essentially a target docking adapter (TDA) with such additions as were needed to stabilize it and allow the spacecraft to acquire and dock with it. In addition to the shroud and TDA, these included a communications system, instrumentation, a guidance and control system, electrical system, and a reaction control system identical to the Gemini spacecraft's. Robert C. Seamans, Jr", ". Robert C. Seamans, Jr., NASA Associate Administrator, approved the procurement of the ATDA on December 9, and McDonnell began assembling it December 14.", "Died: William C. Marland, 47, former Governor of West Virginia (1953-1957) who had suffered from alcoholism, and who later worked as a taxicab driver in Chicago (1962-1965) during his recovery.", "November 27, 1965 (Saturday)", "In an act which it said was being done as a \"response to the friendly sentiments of the American people against the war in South Vietnam\", the Viet Cong released U.S. Army Sergeant George E. Smith and Specialist E-5 Claude E. McClure, who had both been captured on November 24, 1963. Vietnam Communist Party official Le Duc Tho escorted Smith and McClure across the border from North Vietnam into Cambodia, freeing both men after two years as prisoners of war", ". Smith and McClure would travel across neutral Cambodia on their own and would address a press conference in Phnom Penh on November 30, praising their captors and American antiwar protesters, and criticizing the war effort. On December 27, the U.S. military command announced that Smith and McClure would face court martial for aiding the enemy.", "The entire 7th ARVN Regiment of the South Vietnamese Army was killed in a battle with Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army troops who surrounded the 1,000-man unit at the Michelin rubber plantation in the Dau Tieng district of South Vietnam. Associated Press photographer Horst Faas would begin his report the next day with the words, \"South Viet Nam's 7th regiment died at 8 a.m. yesterday,\" and note that \"Most of the Vietnamese troopers, with their American advisers, fought to the last bullet", ".\" People taken prisoner were gathered together and machine-gunned.", "The \"March on Washington for Peace in Vietnam\", organized by the \"Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy\" (SANE), attracted a crowd of almost 35,000 demonstrators who picketed the White House, then moved on toward the Washington Monument. It was the largest public protest against U.S. involvement in Vietnam up to that time", ". It was the largest public protest against U.S. involvement in Vietnam up to that time. The leaders of SANE were concerned about the public perception of the antiwar movement, so they asked that protesters only carry signs with \"authorized slogans\", and not to demand immediate withdrawal, nor to burn the American flag.", "Officials from the Pentagon told U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson that if planned major sweep operations to neutralize Viet Cong forces during the next year were to succeed, the number of American troops in Vietnam would have to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000.\nDied: Marion Probert, 32, American football player and surgeon, in plane crash", "November 28, 1965 (Sunday)", "What was described as \"an unprecedented mass meeting of racial unity in the South\" took place in Charlotte, North Carolina, as an evenly split crowd of 2,000 white and African-American community leaders, church officials, businessmen, and professionals gathered in an auditorium to condemn the bombing of four black leaders' homes the previous Monday, belonging to a city councilman, a U.S. commissioner, a physician, and the state NAACP chapter president", ".S. commissioner, a physician, and the state NAACP chapter president. During the televised event, NAACP Executive Secretary Roy Wilkins, and Charlotte Mayor Stan Brookshire told the crowd that \"We will intensify our efforts to provide equal rights for all.\" After the group, \"about evenly split between whites and Negroes\" sang and prayed, one black leader noted, \"I've never seen anything like it in the South.\"", "In response to U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's call for \"more flags\" in Vietnam, Philippines President-elect Ferdinand Marcos announced that he would send troops to help fight in South Vietnam.\nLéonard Mulamba (later Mulamba Nyunyi wa Kadima) was appointed the new Prime Minister of the Congo by President Mobutu, but would serve less than a year. Mobutu would later send Mulamba as an ambassador to India, then Japan, and Brazil.", "November 29, 1965 (Monday)\nWhat had started on November 10 as a criticism of Chinese playwright Wu Han in an obscure Shanghai newspaper was published across the People's Republic by order of Chairman Mao Zedong, in Peking's daily newspaper, Beijing Ribao and the People's Liberation Army Daily (Jiefangjun Bao). The next day, the official Chinese Communist Party newspaper, People's Daily (Renmin Ribao), published the criticism as well.", "General Christophe Soglo removed Sourou-Migan Apithy from his job as President of Dahomey (now Benin) and temporarily replaced him with National Assembly Speaker Tahirou Congacou, whom he would remove on December 22.", "The United States and all but five members of the United Nations General Assembly voted in favor of a UN resolution calling for a world disarmament conference that would include an invitation to the People's Republic of China, whose admission to the UN had been opposed by the U.S. and other western nations. The vote of participants was a unanimous 112-0. France abstained, Taiwan's delegation announced that it would not participate, and the delegations of Cambodia, The Gambia, and Paraguay were absent.", "Director Robert R. Gilruth, Manned Spacecraft Center, requested the concurrence of NASA Headquarters in plans for doffing the G5C pressure suits during orbital flight in Gemini 7. Both astronauts wanted to remove their suits after the second sleep period and don them only for transient dynamic conditions, specifically rendezvous and reentry. The primary concern was preventing the degradation of crew performance by maintaining crew comfort during the long-duration mission", ". Gemini Program Office had participated in the G5C suit program and certified the suit for intravehicular crewed flight in the Gemini spacecraft on November 19. When Gemini 7 was launched on December 4, the mission plan required one astronaut to be suited at all times, but on December 12 NASA Headquarters authorized both crew members to have their suits off at the same time.", "The Canadian satellite Alouette 2 was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.", "November 30, 1965 (Tuesday)\nUnsafe at Any Speed, the exposé by attorney and auto safety advocate Ralph Nader, was released by Grossman Publishers and became a bestseller. The most dangerous cars on the road were identified by Nader, with special attention given to models of the Chevrolet Corvair. Nader criticized both the American auto industry and federal government agencies that were trusted with enforcing motor vehicle safety.", "Temple University, the second largest private university in the United States, became a public university within Pennsylvania's Commonwealth System of Higher Education, joining Penn State and Pitt as state-supported institutions. Tuition was cut by more than half for Pennsylvania residents, and increased by almost 20% for non-residents.\nSEAMEO, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, was established to promote cooperation in education, science, and culture in the Southeast Asian region.", "Born:\nBen Stiller, American actor, in New York City\nFumihito, Prince Akishino, Japanese prince and, as brother of Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, the second in line for the Imperial throne; in Chiyoda, Tokyo\nDied:\nWalter Inglis Anderson, 62, American painter, in New Orleans, Louisiana\nDaniel Webster Whitney, 71, American cubist painter, in Covington, Louisiana", "References\n\n1965\n1965-11\n1965-11" ]

[ "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, , is a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the court held that the Constitution of the United States does not confer a right to abortion. The court's decision overruled both Roe v. Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), returning to individual states the power to regulate any aspect of abortion not protected by federal law.", "The case concerned the constitutionality of a 2018 Mississippi state law that banned most abortion operations after the first 15 weeks of pregnancy. The Mississippi law was based on a model by a Christian legal organization, Alliance Defending Freedom, with the specific intent to provoke a legal battle that would reach the Supreme Court and result in the overturning of Roe. Jackson Women's Health Organization—Mississippi's only abortion clinic at the time—had sued Thomas E", ". Dobbs, state health officer with the Mississippi State Department of Health, in March 2018. Lower courts had enjoined enforcement of the law. The injunctions were based on the ruling in Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which had prevented states from banning abortion before fetal viability, generally within the first 24 weeks, on the basis that a woman's choice for abortion during that time is protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.", "Oral arguments before the Supreme Court were held in December 2021. In May 2022, Politico published a leaked draft majority opinion by Justice Samuel Alito; the leaked draft largely matched the final decision. On June 24, 2022, the Court issued a decision that, by a vote of 6–3, reversed the lower court rulings. A smaller majority of five justices joined the opinion overturning Roe and Casey", ". A smaller majority of five justices joined the opinion overturning Roe and Casey. The majority held that abortion is not a constitutional right as the Constitution does not mention it and its substantive right was not \"deeply rooted\" in the country's history. Chief Justice John Roberts agreed with the judgment upholding the Mississippi law but did not join the majority in the opinion to overturn Roe and Casey.", "A large majority of American scientific and medical communities, economists, labor unions, editorial boards, and Democrats opposed the ruling, while the Catholic Church, many Evangelical Churches, and Republican politicians supported it. Protests and counterprotests over the decision occurred. Polling at the time of the decision found that most Americans opposed the decision, with support for abortion rights rising 10 to 15 percentage points nationally in the following year.", "After the Dobbs decision, several states immediately introduced abortion restrictions or revived laws that were made dormant by Roe and Casey. As of 2023, abortion is greatly restricted in 17 states, the vast majority in the South. Referendums conducted in the wake of the decision in Kansas, Montana, California, Vermont, Michigan, and Kentucky uniformly came out in favor of abortion rights, often by bipartisan and overwhelming margins", ". A Kaiser Family Foundation poll, among others, found that most obstetricians reported increases in maternal mortality; the ruling's effect on national abortion incidence remains uncertain.", "Background", "From the American Revolution to the mid-19th century, abortion was legal until quickening in every state under the common law, and not an issue of significant controversy. Most Americans held to the traditional Protestant Christian belief that personhood began at quickening, sometime between 18 and 21 weeks. William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765) states that life \"begins in contemplation of law as soon as an infant is able to stir in the mother's womb", ".\" James Wilson shared this view. As for legal penalties, Blackstone wrote that they applied only \"if a woman is quick with child, and by a potion, or otherwise, killeth it in her womb.\" Connecticut was the first state to regulate abortion in 1821; it outlawed abortion after quickening and forbade the use of poisons to induce one post-quickening. Many states subsequently passed various laws on abortion until the Supreme Court of the United States decisions Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton.", "In the 1973 landmark decision Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court held that a right to privacy within the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution included a woman's qualified right to terminate her pregnancy. The Court partly reaffirmed this in Planned Parenthood v. Casey, a 1992 case that also struck down Roes pregnancy trimester framework in favor of a fetal viability standard, typically 23 or 24 weeks into pregnancy", ". Casey held that laws that restrict abortion before the fetus is viable and laws that create an undue burden on women seeking abortions that place a \"substantial obstacle\" are unconstitutional under the Due Process Clause given a woman's right to \"substantive due process\" under the Fourteenth Amendment", ". The Court ruled that this right is not absolute, must be balanced with possible government interest, and may be affected by medical advancements that allow premature babies to survive at younger gestational ages.", "After Roe, there was a national political realignment surrounding abortion. The abortion-rights movement in the United States initially emphasized the national policy benefits of abortion, such as smaller welfare expenses, slower population growth, and fewer illegitimate births. The abortion-rights movement drew support from the population control movement, feminists, and environmentalists", ". Anti-abortion advocates and civil-rights activists accused abortion-rights supporters of intending to control the population of racial minorities and the disabled, citing their ties to racial segregationists and eugenicist legal reformers. The abortion-rights movement subsequently distanced itself from the population control movement and took up choice-based and rights-oriented rhetoric similar to that in the Roe decision", ". At the time of Roe, opposition to abortion was largely concentrated in the Catholic Church, with the large majority of Protestant denominations leaning in favor of or not taking a stance on it. Catholics and many Northern Democratic politicians supported an expansive welfare state, wanted to reduce rates of abortion through prenatal insurance and federally funded day care, and opposed abortion.", "Beginning in the late 1970s, the anti-abortion movement in the United States gained support from many evangelical Protestants, who saw abortion rights as part of a liberal agenda to fight against and became part of the new Christian right, unlike in other developed countries, where the vast majority of Protestants generally support abortion access", ". By the 1980s their influence helped make opposition to abortion part of the Republican Party platform, as well as a litmus test for Supreme Court justice confirmations. Republican-led states enacted laws to restrict abortion, including abortions earlier than Caseys general standard of 24 weeks. The courts enjoined the enforcement of most of these laws. Fetal viability's usage as a standard was questioned in U.S", ". Fetal viability's usage as a standard was questioned in U.S. abortion-related cases after Casey, including by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor in her dissenting opinion in City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health. These opinions argued that other scientific, philosophical, and moral considerations are involved.", "Evolution of the composition of the Supreme Court", "During the Roberts Court since 2005, there had generally been a 5–4 conservative majority with the potential to overturn Roe and Casey. But one of those conservatives, Anthony Kennedy, had been part of the controlling plurality opinion in Casey and was generally seen as a safe vote to uphold it", ". Among the other conservative members were Samuel Alito, who had sat as a circuit judge on the three-judge appellate panel and dissented from the court's invalidation of the spousal notification in Casey; and Clarence Thomas, who believed the court's use of substantive due process to confer implicit rights, including a right to abortion, was incorrect", ". Chief Justice John Roberts was also considered part of the conservative majority, but he was a strong proponent of stare decisis, believing that even some wrongly decided cases should not be overturned, and a staunch defender of the Court's reputation.", "In 2016, Senate Republicans led by majority leader Mitch McConnell prevented then-President Barack Obama from filling the vacancy left by the death of Justice Antonin Scalia. This allowed President Donald Trump to fill the vacancy with Justice Neil Gorsuch the following year, and initiated the ideological shift of the court with respect to abortion rights. The court appeared to shift further in 2018, when Kennedy retired and was replaced by Brett Kavanaugh, a known Casey opponent", ". Because of Roberts's stated positions, he was considered the \"swing vote\" in abortion cases, but his strong support for upholding even wrongly decided cases would make it difficult for Roe or Casey to be challenged. Nevertheless, several Republican-majority states passed bills restricting abortion, anticipating a potential shift in the Supreme Court and providing possible case vehicles for bringing the issue to it.", "When Amy Coney Barrett replaced Ruth Bader Ginsburg in late 2020, the Court's ideological makeup shifted further, creating a 6–3 conservative majority and providing an opportunity to additionally limit or even overturn Roe and Casey by moving Roberts out of the \"swing vote\" role. Ginsburg had generally been in the majority of past Supreme Court cases that rejected stricter abortion laws", ". Conversely, Barrett held anti-abortion views; in 1998, she wrote in a law journal article that abortion is \"always immoral\".", "Gestational Age Act", "In March 2018, the Mississippi Legislature passed the Gestational Age Act, which banned any abortion operation after the first 15 weeks of pregnancy, with exceptions for a medical emergency or severe fetal abnormality but none for cases of rape or incest. The medical emergency exception allows abortions to save the life of a pregnant woman and in situations where \"the continuation of the pregnancy will create a serious risk of substantial and irreversible impairment of a major bodily function\"", ". The severe fetal abnormality exception allows abortions of fetuses whose defects will leave them incapable of living outside the womb.", "The legislature justified this prohibition on the basis that abortions for nontherapeutic or elective reasons were \"a barbaric practice, dangerous for the maternal patient, and demeaning to the medical profession\". Another basis was that the abortion procedures forbidden under the Act were said by the legislature to carry \"significant physical and psychological risks\", and could cause various medical complications.", "The legislation was based on a model written by Alliance Defending Freedom, a Christian conservative legal organization. The model legislation was created with the intent to make it law in the states within the traditionally conservative Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals (Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas), and a means to bring abortion rights to the Supreme Court", ". Governor Phil Bryant signed the bill into law, saying he was \"committed to making Mississippi the safest place in America for an unborn child, and this bill will help us achieve that goal\". He added, \"We'll probably be sued here in about a half hour, and that'll be fine with me. It is worth fighting over.\"", "Lower courts", "Within a day of the Gestational Age Act's passage, Mississippi's only abortion clinic, Jackson Women's Health Organization, and one of its doctors, Sacheen Carr-Ellis, sued state officials Thomas E. Dobbs, state health officer with the Mississippi State Department of Health, and Kenneth Cleveland, executive director of the Mississippi State Board of Medical Licensure, to challenge the Act's constitutionality", ". The clinic performed surgical abortions up to 16 weeks' gestation and was represented in court by the Center for Reproductive Rights. The case was heard by Judge Carlton W. Reeves of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi. In November 2018, Reeves ruled for the clinic and placed an injunction on Mississippi enjoining it from enforcing the Act", ". Reeves wrote that, based on evidence that viability of the fetus begins between 23 and 24 weeks, Mississippi had \"no legitimate state interest strong enough, prior to viability, to justify a ban on abortions\". Dobbs sought to have the judges consider whether fetal pain might be possible after 15 weeks, but the District Court ruled his evidence as \"inadmissible and irrelevant\".", "The state appealed to the Fifth Circuit, which upheld Reeves's ruling in a 3–0 decision in December 2019. Senior Circuit Judge Patrick Higginbotham wrote for the Court, \"In an unbroken line dating to Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court's abortion cases have established (and affirmed, and re-affirmed) a woman's right to choose an abortion before viability. States may regulate abortion procedures prior to viability so long as they do not impose an undue burden on the woman's right, but they may not ban abortions", ".\" A request for an en banc rehearing was denied.", "In May 2019, the District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi issued another injunction, this time against a newly passed Mississippi abortion law. This was a heartbeat bill that forbade most abortions when a fetus's heartbeat could be detected, which is usually from six to 12 weeks into pregnancy. In a February 2020 per curiam decision, the Fifth Circuit also upheld the second injunction", ". In a February 2020 per curiam decision, the Fifth Circuit also upheld the second injunction. The Fifth Circuit's statements for both injunctions were similar because they both cited the lack of fetal viability during earlier stages of gestation as a reason to enjoin the laws.", "Supreme Court", "Mississippi petitioned its appeal of the Fifth Circuit decisions to the Supreme Court in June 2020. Its petition, filed by Mississippi Attorney General Lynn Fitch, focused on three questions from the appeals process. In its petition, Mississippi asked the Court to revisit the viability standard on the basis of the standard's inflexibility, and inadequate accommodation of present understandings of life before birth", ". The filing stated that fetuses can detect pain and respond to it at 10–12 weeks gestational age, and asked the Court to allow the prohibition of \"inhumane procedures\". The petition also contended that the viability standard inadequately addresses the protection of potential human life. Mississippi considered this a State interest from the \"onset of the pregnancy\" onward.", "A response brief, which focused on two questions asked in opposition to the petition, was filed by Hillary Schneller from the Center for Reproductive Rights on behalf of Jackson Women's Health Organization (JWHO). JWHO asked the Court to deny Mississippi's petition due to judicial precedent", ". JWHO asked the Court to deny Mississippi's petition due to judicial precedent. The brief said that both the District Court and the Fifth Circuit found the Mississippi law unconstitutional by properly applying precedent in a manner that did not conflict with other courts' decisions, and argued that there was therefore nothing about the case that \"warrants this Court's intervention\". The brief also argued that Mississippi was misinterpreting its role in abortion regulation", ". The brief also argued that Mississippi was misinterpreting its role in abortion regulation. While the state thought that its interest was greater than the individual right to abortion, JWHO argued that Mississippi's vested interest in regulating abortion was insufficient to ban it before viability, making the Gestational Age Act \"unconstitutional by any measure\".", "The petition went through review at more than a dozen conferences for the Court, which is unusual for most cases. The Court granted the petition for a writ of certiorari on May 17, 2021, limiting the Court's review to a single question, \"Whether all pre-viability prohibitions on elective abortions are unconstitutional.\" Over 140 amici curiae briefs were submitted before oral argument in Dobbs, approaching the record set by Obergefell v", ". Hodges, in part to separate and concurrent lawsuits filed over the Texas Heartbeat Act, which effectively gave citizens of the state the means to enforce abortion bans through civil suits.", "Oral argument", "The case was heard on December 1, 2021. During the oral arguments, Mississippi was represented by Scott G. Stewart, a state solicitor general, and argued that the U.S. Constitution does not directly guarantee a right to abortion. Because of this, he said that laws about abortion should be evaluated on a rational basis review instead of the higher level of scrutiny required by the undue burden standard", ". Stewart also argued for overturning Roe and Casey on the basis that the decisions were unworkable and that new facts had come to light since they were made. He argued that scientific knowledge had grown about \"what we know the child is doing and looks like\", and claimed that we now know that fetuses are \"fully human\" even \"very early\" in gestation", ". Stewart also defended Mississippi's claim in its briefs that new medical advances with viability were at odds with past assumptions made when formulating the viability line, and claimed that the understanding of when fetuses begin to feel pain had grown. He maintained that because of Roe and Casey, the government could not respond to these facts by prohibiting pre-viability abortions.", "JWHO, represented by Julie Rikelman (who argued the last abortion case before the Court, June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo), argued that the Court should not overrule the two decisions, because the viability standard was correct. According to Rikelman, Mississippi's arguments against Roe were not new, but instead were similar to the ones Pennsylvania made during Casey", ". Since Roes essential holding was upheld for Casey, she said that the Court should do the same here, since there had been no new changes in the laws and facts since then that could justify changing the Court's position. Rikelman argued that Mississippi's argument against using the undue burden standard was wrong because the standard actually specifically applies to post-viability abortion regulations rather than to the prohibition of abortions before viability", ". She told the Court that the undue burden standard was workable and that the viability line incorporated into the standard was likewise workable. She said that for 50 years the viability line had been clearly and consistently applied in the courts.", "Elizabeth Prelogar, the U.S. Solicitor General, argued that Roe and Casey should not be overruled. She argued that there has been a substantial reliance on the right to abortion by both individuals and society, and that the Court \"has never revoked a right that is so fundamental to so many Americans and so central to their ability to participate fully and equally in society.\"", "Based on their analysis of the questioning, Court observers said that its six conservative members were likely to uphold Mississippi's law. Chief Justice John Roberts appeared to suggest that viability was not relevant to the holdings of either Roe or Casey, and that only a fair choice or opportunity to seek an abortion was constitutionally protected. The other conservative justices appeared to be ready to overturn Roe and Casey.\n\nLeaked draft opinion", "On May 2, 2022, Politico released a draft of a majority opinion by Justice Samuel Alito circulated among the justices in February 2022. Alito's draft called the Roe decision \"egregiously wrong from the start\", arguing that abortion is not listed in the Constitution as a protected right, and instead allowed states to legislate abortion restrictions or guarantees under the Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution", ".S. Constitution. A New York Times article compared the sources Alito cited in the draft with information provided by historians and shed some light on the history of abortion in the United States.", "Sources told Politico that Justices Thomas, Gorsuch, Kavanaugh, and Barrett had voted in conference with Alito in December and their positions had remained unchanged as of May 2022, though it was unclear whether they agreed with Alito's draft, as no other drafts in concurrence or dissent had yet been circulated. According to CNN, Chief Justice Roberts voted to uphold the Gestational Age Act but \"did not want to completely overturn Roe v. Wade\"", ". Wade\". The Washington Post reported from court sources that Roberts had been working since December 2021 on his own opinion, which would uphold Roe while narrowly allowing the Mississippi law to take effect. He had been trying to convince conservative justices in the then tentative majority to join his more moderate opinion, but the leak doomed that effort, according to sources familiar with communications between the justices.", "The Supreme Court confirmed the draft's authenticity the next day; at the same time, the Supreme Court's press release said that \"it does not represent a decision by the Court or the final position of any member on the issues in the case\".", "In response to the leak, Roberts said, \"The work of the Court will not be affected in any way.\" At an Eleventh Circuit judicial conference, he called the leak \"absolutely appalling\" and said that \"one bad apple\" should not change \"people's perception\" of the Supreme Court; Thomas commented that the Court should not be \"bullied\" into delivering preferred outcomes and repeated his criticisms of stare decisis", ". He later added that the leak was an \"unthinkable breach of trust\" that \"fundamentally\" changed the Court.", "Leaks about Supreme Court deliberations in a pending case are rare, and a leak of a draft decision has been called \"unprecedented\", but it has happened before, including in the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford.\n\nReactions", "Within hours of the news of the leak, both pro-abortion rights protesters and pro-life counterprotesters gathered outside the Supreme Court building in Washington, D.C., and elsewhere in the U.S. The response to the draft put unusual public pressure on the Court as it made its decision in the case", ". While over 450 large-scale marches and protests organized by Planned Parenthood, Women's March, and other groups under the name \"Bans Off Our Bodies\" were planned for 2022, the organizers pushed the event up to May 14, 2022, after the opinion leaked. The organizers said, \"Folks are mobilizing because they see that the hour is later than we thought\", and that the event would lead off a \"summer of rage\" if Roe and Casey were overturned", ". A leaked Department of Homeland Security (DHS) memo indicated that DHS was preparing for a surge of political violence on public officials, clergy, and abortion providers after the ruling. A DHS bulletin warned that the leak had spawned further violence in the summer before the 2022 midterms. A number of isolated attacks on crisis pregnancy centers were reported in May and June 2022 after the leak.", "Nonviolent protests were held outside some of the justices' homes, leading the U.S. Senate to unanimously pass a bill that would expand protections for the justices and their families. The bill stalled in the U.S. House of Representatives before being passed on June 14 and signed into law by President Joe Biden on June 16", ". Republicans have argued that those protests violate a 1950 federal law () that criminalizes attempting to influence a judge in the course of their official duties by demonstrating near their residence. A man from California was arrested for attempted murder regarding an alleged assassination plot targeting Kavanaugh near his home over the leak and a pending decision in a gun control case, New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen", ". v. Bruen. Protests continued outside the homes of some of the justices after the final decision, leading the Supreme Court marshall Gail Curley to ask officials in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia to take steps to remove the protesters under state and local laws.", "The leak elicited outrage from high-ranking members of both major political parties, Democrats for the content of the draft, and Republicans out of concern for how the leak occurred. The leak renewed calls from Democrats, including Biden and abortion rights activists, for the Senate to pass the Women's Health Protection Act, which had already passed the House of Representatives, to codify the rights established by Roe and Casey before Dobbs was decided and supersede the Religious Freedom Restoration Act", ". It failed to pass in the Senate on May 11, after a 49–51 vote primarily along party lines. Biden denounced the draft opinion as \"radical\" and said that same-sex marriage and birth control were also at risk.", "Republicans immediately condemned the leak and called on the Supreme Court and Department of Justice, including the FBI, to launch an investigation. Twenty-two members of Congress signed a letter asking the U.S. Attorney General and FBI director to investigate. House Republican leadership issued a joint statement that called the leak \"a clearly coordinated campaign to intimidate and obstruct the Justices\".", "In May 2022, the Marquette University Law School released a poll showing a drastic change of public opinion of the Supreme Court. In March 2022, when the survey was last conducted, 54% of respondents said they approved of the nine justices and 45% said they disapproved. In the newest survey, only 44% of respondents reported approval. In June 2022, a Gallup poll showed confidence in the Supreme Court at 25%, down from 36% in 2021, and the lowest in 50 years.", "Investigation\nRoberts directed the Marshal of the United States Supreme Court, Gail A. Curley, to investigate the leak. In May 2022, CNN reported that law clerks were asked to provide private cell phone records and sign affidavits, an unprecedented move that prompted some clerks to explore hiring personal counsel.", "On January 19, 2023, the Supreme Court announced that Curley's investigation could not determine the person responsible by a preponderance of the evidence. The Court released a 20-page summary of its investigation. Michael Chertoff, a former judge and Cabinet secretary, reviewed the investigation report and said it was thorough", ". The investigative report and Chertoff's endorsement did not note that Chertoff's firm, The Chertoff Group, had been paid almost $1 million over the preceding five years to conduct security assessments for the Court; this was revealed later by the press and confirmed by Chertoff in a March 2023 letter to Congress.", "Curley found that at least 91 people (82 staff members and the nine justices) had access to the draft decision, but none of the leads provided sufficient evidence to name an individual responsible for the leak. Investigators reviewed computer networks and printer logs and interviewed at least 97 Supreme Court personnel. Court staff were asked to provide sworn statements under risk of perjury", ". Court staff were asked to provide sworn statements under risk of perjury. The initial report left unclear whether the justices had been interviewed, an omission that prompted an outpouring of questions and criticism. In response, a day after the report was issued, Curley said she had spoken \"with each of the Justices, some on multiple occasions\" but that neither the justices nor their spouses were interviewed under oath or asked to provide sworn affidavits.", "Glenn Fine, a former inspector general of the Department of Justice and acting inspector general of the Department of Defense, criticized the conduct of the investigation. In a May 2023 article in The Atlantic, he wrote that the Marshal of the Supreme Court lacked the necessary independence to investigate, since she reports to the justices themselves and was thus \"asked to investigate her bosses ... who are in the universe of potential leakers", "... who are in the universe of potential leakers.\" Fine also wrote that the investigation created a double standard by intensively scrutinizing clerks and other employees but not questioning the justices to the same extent, and that the investigation's report failed to detail the facts found or address whether justices were involved in how the investigation proceeded", ". Fine also critiqued Chertoff's endorsement of the investigative report, writing that it disregarded \"the report's weaknesses and the double standard in how the investigation was conducted\" and that his contractual relationships with the Court may have produced \"financial incentive to maintain good relations with it\"", ", leaving him \"not in the best position to provide an unbiased opinion about the thoroughness of its internal investigation\" and thereby creating \"at the very least the appearance of\" a conflict of interest", ".", "Opinions\n\nMajority opinion\n\nThe Court issued its decision on June 24, 2022. In a 6–3 judgment, the Court reversed the Fifth Circuit's decision and remanded the case for further review. The majority opinion, joined by five of the justices, held that abortion was not a protected right under the Constitution, overturning both Roe and Casey, and returned the decision regarding abortion regulations back to the states. As a result, Dobbs is considered a landmark decision of the Court.", "The majority decision was written by Justice Samuel Alito and joined by Justices Clarence Thomas, Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, and Amy Coney Barrett. The final majority decision was substantially similar to the leaked draft, with only minor changes in the original arguments and rebuttals to Justices Stephen Breyer's, Elena Kagan's, and Sonia Sotomayor's joint dissenting opinion and John Roberts's concurrence in only the judgment.", "In the introductory statement, Alito, writing for the majority, summarized a constitutional historical view of abortion rights, saying, \"The Constitution makes no reference to abortion, and no such right is implicitly protected by any constitutional provision.\" Alito based his argument on the criterion from Washington v. Glucksberg (1997) that a right must be \"deeply rooted\" in the nation's history.", "Alito wrote, \"abortion couldn't be constitutionally protected. Until the latter part of the 20th century, such a right was entirely unknown in American law. Indeed, when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, three quarters of the States made abortion a crime at all stages of pregnancy.\" He wrote, \"Roe was egregiously wrong from the start. Its reasoning was exceptionally weak, and the decision has had damaging consequences", ". Its reasoning was exceptionally weak, and the decision has had damaging consequences. And far from bringing about a national settlement of the abortion issue, Roe and Casey have enflamed debate and deepened division.\"", "After briefly describing the background of the case in Part I of the opinion, Alito argued in Part II that the right to an abortion was different from other privacy rights. He wrote, \"What sharply distinguishes the abortion right from the rights recognized in the cases on which Roe and Casey rely is something that both those decisions acknowledged: Abortion destroys what those decisions call 'potential life' and what the law at issue in this case regards as the life of an 'unborn human being'", ".\" In addition to the language from the draft, Alito responded to the dissenting opinion, writing, \"The dissent is very candid that it cannot show that a constitutional right to abortion has any foundation, let alone a 'deeply rooted' one, 'in this Nation's history and tradition'. The dissent does not identify any pre-Roe authority that supports such a right—no state constitutional provision or statute, no federal or state judicial precedent, not even a scholarly treatise.\"", "In Part III, Alito discussed stare decisis. He also addressed the dissent's concern that Dobbs would extend to other rights, stating that the extent of the majority opinion on Dobbs applied only to abortion. In Part IV, Alito wrote that justices \"cannot allow our decisions to be affected by any extraneous influences such as concern about the public's reaction to our work.\"", "In Part V, Alito further responded to Roberts's concurrence in judgment seeking middle ground, claiming there are \"serious problems with this approach\" that would only \"prolong\" the \"turmoil\" of Roe. Alito argued that by only ruling that Mississippi's 15-week law is constitutional, the Court would have to later decide whether other states' laws with different deadlines for obtaining an abortion were constitutional", ". Alito and the majority rejected any constitutional grounds for upholding a \"reasonable opportunity\" to obtain an abortion and called Roberts's proposal unconstitutional. In Part VI, Alito wrote that because abortion is not a fundamental right, the lowest standard of review must apply to abortion laws, under which the laws must be sustained if they rationally relate to a legitimate state interest.", "Concurrences", "Thomas and Kavanaugh wrote separate concurrences. Thomas argued that the Court should go further in future cases, reconsidering other past Supreme Court cases that granted rights based on substantive due process, such as Griswold v. Connecticut (the right to contraception), Obergefell v. Hodges (the right to same-sex marriage), and Lawrence v. Texas (banned laws against private sexual acts)", ". Texas (banned laws against private sexual acts). He wrote, \"Because any substantive due process decision is 'demonstrably erroneous,' we have a duty to 'correct the error' established in those precedents.\"", "Kavanaugh wrote separately, making multiple comments. He stated that it would still be unconstitutional to prohibit a woman from going to another state to seek an abortion under the right to travel, and that it would be unconstitutional to retroactively punish abortions performed before Dobbs when they had been protected by Roe and Casey.", "Concurrence in judgment", "Roberts concurred in the judgment only. He believed the Court should reverse the Fifth Circuit's opinion on the Mississippi law and that \"the viability line established by Roe and Casey should be discarded.\" Roberts did not agree with the majority's ruling to overturn Roe and Casey in their entirety, finding it \"unnecessary to decide the case before us\" and writing that overruling \"Roe and Casey is a serious jolt to the legal system\"", ". He suggested a narrower opinion to justify the constitutionality of Mississippi's law without addressing whether to overturn Roe and Casey. Roberts also wrote that abortion regulations should \"extend far enough to ensure a reasonable opportunity to choose, but need not extend any further.\" Under his approach, he wrote, the Court would \"be free to exercise our discretion in deciding whether and when to take up\" further abortion cases, \"from a more informed perspective", ".\" Roberts closed by concluding that he is \"not sure...that a ban on terminating a pregnancy from the moment of conception must be treated the same under the Constitution as a ban after fifteen weeks\" and that \"the Court's opinion and the dissent display a relentless freedom from doubt on the legal issue that I cannot share\".", "Dissent", "Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan jointly wrote the dissent. In an introductory statement, they wrote, \"The right Roe and Casey recognized does not stand alone. To the contrary, the Court has linked it for decades to other settled freedoms involving bodily integrity, familial relationships, and procreation. Most obviously, the right to terminate a pregnancy arose straight out of the right to purchase and use contraception. In turn, those rights led, more recently, to rights of same-sex intimacy and marriage", ". In turn, those rights led, more recently, to rights of same-sex intimacy and marriage. Either the mass of the majority's opinion is hypocrisy, or additional constitutional rights are under threat. It is one or the other.\"", "In Part I of their dissent, the three wrote, \"The majority would allow States to ban abortion from conception onward because it does not think forced childbirth at all implicates a woman's rights to equality and freedom. Today's Court, that is, does not think there is anything of constitutional significance attached to a woman's control of her body and the path of her life. A State can force her to bring a pregnancy to term, even at the steepest personal and familial costs", ".\" They cited New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen (\"Historical evidence that long predates [ratification] may not illuminate the scope of the right\"), and wrote, \"Had the pre-Roe liberalization of abortion laws occurred more quickly and more widely in the 20th century, the majority would say (once again) that only the ratifiers' views are germane", ".\" Addressing the majority's argument, based on Glucksberg, that a right must be \"deeply rooted in the Nation's history\", the dissenters reflected on what that approach would have meant for interracial marriage:", "In response to Alito's claim that their \"criteria, at a high level of generality, could license fundamental rights to illicit drug use, prostitution, and the like\", they wrote, \"that is flat wrong. The Court's precedents about bodily autonomy, sexual and familial relations, and procreation are all interwoven—all part of the fabric of our constitutional law, and because that is so, of our lives. Especially women's lives, where they safeguard a right to self-determination", ". Especially women's lives, where they safeguard a right to self-determination.\" In response to Kavanaugh's concurrence, they wrote, \"His idea is that neutrality lies in giving the abortion issue to the States, where some can go one way and some another. But would he say that the Court is being 'scrupulously neutral' if it allowed New York and California to ban all the guns they want?\" In Part II, the three discussed stare decisis", ". In Part III, they concluded, \"With sorrow—for this Court, but more, for the many millions of American women who have today lost a fundamental constitutional protection—we dissent.\"", "Impact", "Pre-decision", "After the Dobbs litigation began, the Texas Heartbeat Act was enacted on September 1, 2021. Two lawsuits challenging the law, Whole Woman's Health v. Jackson and United States v. Texas, quickly propagated through the court systems and reached the Supreme Court. Oral arguments for both cases were on November 1, 2021, and decisions for both were issued in December 2021", ". The decisions primarily focused on standing rather than directly addressing constitutional matters and abortion-related issues; both allowed the Texas Heartbeat Act to remain in force while litigation continued in lower courts. Concern about the Supreme Court's considering three abortion-related cases in the 2021–22 term led to the near record number of amici curiae briefs filed for Dobbs before the case was argued on December 1, 2021.", "Georgia had passed Georgia House Bill 481, best known as the Living Infants Fairness Equality (LIFE) Act, in 2019. The law banned most abortions after a fetal heartbeat was detected, about six weeks' time, with multiple exceptions: if the fetus were conceived by rape or incest, if the pregnancy were medically futile, or if the pregnancy threatened the mother's life", ". The law also revised who is considered a legal person, allowing pregnant women to receive child support and tax deductions for their offspring before birth. In October 2019, the LIFE Act was challenged, and in July 2020 the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Georgia deemed it unconstitutional under Roe", ".S. District Court for the Northern District of Georgia deemed it unconstitutional under Roe. Georgia appealed this ruling to the Eleventh Circuit, but because Dobbs was scheduled to be argued in December 2021, the Circuit Court issued a stay of review until after the Supreme Court decided Dobbs.", "At least 22 states with Republican leadership either passed or were in the process of passing anti-abortion related bills when the Supreme Court agreed to hear Dobbs in May 2021. Enforcement of most of the new laws was enjoined by courts, but they became enforceable after Roe was overturned. Thirteen states have trigger laws that ban most abortions in the first and second trimesters if Roe is overturned", ". The states with trigger laws are Arkansas, Idaho, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming. Nine states, among them Alabama (which also passed the Human Life Protection Act in 2019), Arizona, Arkansas, Michigan, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Texas, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, never repealed their pre-Roe abortion bans, such as the Texas abortion statutes (1961)", ". Those laws were not criminally enforceable due to Roe but are enforceable with Roe overturned. At least some Democratic attorneys general or candidates for attorneys general have pledged not to enforce anti-abortion laws and prevent or hinder local prosecutors' efforts to enforce them, whereas at least some Republicans have pledged to enforce new state bans.", "Post-decision\n\nState laws restricting abortion \nThe overturning of Roe did not make abortion illegal nationwide. Abortion remains legal in most states, but those with trigger laws to restrict abortion with Roe and Casey overturned immediately did so. Multiple Republican governors and attorneys general moved to invoke their trigger laws to immediately ban abortion or call special sessions to implement abortion bans. In August 2022, Indiana became the first state to pass an abortion ban law after Dobbs.", "Some states had older laws that restricted abortion but had been put on hold after Roe; after Dobbs, these states reviewed means to resume enforcement of the laws. Lawsuits challenging pre-Roe and newer laws were filed in multiple states; each argued that privacy provisions in the state's constitution provided abortion rights. In some states where such challenges were under way, injunctions against the laws restricting abortion were issued, including Louisiana and Utah on June 27, 2022", ". A lower state court placed an injunction on a 1928 pre-Roe ban in Texas on June 28; by July 1, the Texas Supreme Court reversed this order. Legal efforts to block a Wisconsin pre-Roe ban from being enforced were announced on June 28; by June 30, Michigan's state supreme court had yet to react to Governor Gretchen Whitmer's lawsuit alleging that the state's pre-Roe ban violated the state constitution", ". Abortion providers in Kentucky, Idaho, Mississippi, and Florida challenged newly passed abortion restrictions in those states; each suit alleged that the law violated provisions of the state's constitution. By June 30, judges had halted the enforcement of the laws in Kentucky and Florida.", "An Ohio abortion law came under attention in July 2022. The law disallows abortions after embryonic cardiac activity is detectable (approximately six weeks into term), and makes no exceptions for rape or incest. The law passed in 2019 and had been blocked from enforcement by a court injunction, but with Dobbs, the injunction was lifted. A ten-year-old girl who had been raped traveled from Ohio to Indiana to have an abortion, as reported by the Indianapolis Star on July 1; her rapist was arrested by July 13", ". Before this arrest was made public, right-leaning politicians and media sources called the story a hoax; Ohio's attorney general Dave Yost said, \"Every day that goes by, the more likely that this is a fabrication.\" After news of the arrest validated the Star story, these sources did not apologize for claiming the story was a hoax", ". Jim Bopp, the general counsel for the National Right to Life Committee, said in an interview that the girl should have been forced to bear the child, and that \"She would have had the baby, and as many women who have had babies as a result of rape, we would hope that she would understand the reason and ultimately the benefit of having the child.\" Bopp's comment led to ire from several left-leaning politicians and media sources, deriding Dobbs and the stance taken by the right.", "By April 2023, abortion access had become \"largely illegal\" in much of the United States, with Republican-controlled states predominately passing near-total abortion bans. Republican politicians have also predominately advocated or taken measures toward a national ban on mifepristone, enforcement of the 1870s Comstock laws, and restrictions on interstate travel for abortion.", "According to the Kaiser Family Foundation, as of April 12, 2023, 15 states have de jure early-stage bans on abortion without exceptions for rape or incest: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia and Wisconsin", ". In states with early abortion restrictions that grant de jure exceptions, it was reported that \"very few exceptions to these new abortion bans have been granted\" and that patients who had been raped or otherwise qualified were being turned away, citing \"ambiguous laws and the threat of criminal penalties make them unwilling to test the rules\".", "EMTALA and federal preemption", "Several states adopted, or began to enforce, laws that banned abortion without exceptions. But the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) issued guidance after Dobbs stating that even in these states, abortions are still allowed if a physician determines that the pregnant woman's life is at risk, under the federal Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA), which requires hospitals receiving Medicare funding to provide emergency stabilizing medical treatment", ". As a federal law, EMTALA preempts inconsistent state law. The HHS guidance said: \"If a physician believes that a pregnant patient presenting at an emergency department is experiencing an emergency medical condition as defined by EMTALA, and that abortion is the stabilizing treatment necessary to resolve that condition, the physician must provide that treatment", ". When a state law prohibits abortion and does not include an exception for the life of the pregnant person—or draws the exception more narrowly than EMTALA's emergency medical condition definition—that state law is preempted.\"", "The U.S. Department of Justice sued Idaho, arguing that EMTALA preempts Idaho's law making it a criminal offense to perform any abortion, without exception. A district judge granted a preliminary injunction blocking Idaho's abortion ban \"to the extent that [the ban] conflicts with EMTALA-mandated care.\"", "Conversely, Texas responded to the HHS guidance by suing the Biden administration. In August 2022, a district judge in the Eastern District of Texas blocked HHS from applying the guidance. The White House criticized the ruling, and the Justice Department is appealing the ruling to the Fifth Circuit.", "After Dobbs, the Department of Veterans Affairs continued its policy of offering abortion counseling to military veterans (as well as abortions to pregnant military veterans if the veteran's life is in danger and in cases of rape or incest), even in states where abortion is banned as a matter of state law. Beneficiaries of the VA's Civilian Health and Medical Program (CHAMPVA) are also entitled to the same services.", "State laws expanding abortion access", "In response to Dobbs, several states allowing abortion considered or adopted legislation expanding abortion access. Proposals by California, Oregon, and Washington state have included expanding abortion access by eliminating co-pays for abortion services, funding travel costs for those seeking abortion from states that ban abortion, and adding the right to an abortion to state constitutions", ". In early 2022, while Dobbs was pending, the Vermont Legislature had already approved sending Proposal 5 to the referendum ballot in November 2022, which would amend the state's constitution \"to guarantee sexual and reproductive freedoms\" (including the right to abortion). In the November 2022 election, Vermont voters overwhelmingly approved the reproductive-rights amendment to the state constitution", ". Also in the November 2022 election, abortion-rights referendums were passed by voters by broad margins in California (Proposition 1) and Michigan (Proposal 3).", "In the hours after Dobbs was issued, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker issued an executive order with several measures to protect abortion access in Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Legislature subsequently passed a reproductive rights package that codified many of the provisions in the executive order, and was the outcome of compromise discussions among the legislature. Baker signed the bill, which passed the House 137–16 and the Senate 16–1", ". Among other things, the Massachusetts law strengthens an existing requirement that health insurers cover abortion services and shields Massachusetts patients and providers from penalties from states with more restrictive abortion laws; for example, it prohibits the state from extraditing to another state any person charged with offenses that would be legal under Massachusetts law, and protects abortion providers from lawsuits based on extraterritorial jurisdiction.", "Congressional proposals", "Following Dobbs, Congress has introduced bills related to abortion rights. House Democrats passed two bills on July 15 to enhance abortion rights. The first, the Women's Health Protection Act of 2022, would prevent states from restricting abortions before fetal viability and prevent states from blocking access to abortion services. The second, the Ensuring Access to Abortion Act of 2022, would prevent states from blocking travel to other states to obtain abortions and support", ". Both bills passed primarily on party lines, and are expected to have difficulty passing the Senate. Some House Republicans have proposed a nationwide 15-week abortion ban, while over 100 have signed onto a six-week abortion ban. Top House Republicans have been reported to be wary of such plans, instead favoring a nationwide ban on late-term abortions only.", "Due to concerns based on Thomas's concurrence, in July 2022 the House passed bills aimed to protect rights that Thomas had mentioned, including the right to same-sex and interracial marriages via the Respect for Marriage Act, and access to contraceptives. The Senate passed the Respect for Marriage Act with amendments for exempting religious-based organizations, which the House passed in December and Biden signed into law on December 13, 2022.", "Executive action by President Biden", "After the decision, President Biden said there was a need to protect abortion rights, but said he would not support an executive order to mandate them though he did ultimately endorse reforming the Senate's filibuster to allow Democrats to pass federal abortion protections", ". On July 8, 2022, Biden issued Executive Order 14076, \"Executive Order on Protecting Access to Reproductive Healthcare Services\", which instructed the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to review and find ways to assure access to \"the full range of reproductive health services\", including \"emergency contraception and long-acting reversible contraception like intrauterine devices (IUDs)\", within the birth control coverage of the Affordable Care Act", ". The executive order also instructed HHS to evaluate ways to provide \"technical assistance to states affording legal protection to out-of-state patients as well as providers who offer legal reproductive health care\".", "On August 3, 2022, Biden issued another executive order aimed at protecting women seeking abortions in other states.", "Medical abortion and other processes", "The Court's decision also sparked concern over access to medication abortion options, including the prescription of mifepristone and misoprostol. These medications have been approved for use by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) within the first ten weeks of pregnancy", ". Secretary of Health and Human Services Xavier Becerra asserted that after the Dobbs decision, \"We stand unwavering in our commitment to ensure every American has access to health care and the ability to make decisions about health care—including the right to safe and legal abortion, such as medication abortion that has been approved by the FDA for over 20 years.\" In April 2023, in Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine v. US Food and Drug Administration in the Northern District of Texas, Judge Matthew J", ". US Food and Drug Administration in the Northern District of Texas, Judge Matthew J. Kacsmaryk ruled that the government's approval of mifepristone in 2000 was invalid, banning the use of the drug across the United States. On appeal of the ruling to the Supreme Court, the Court ruled to stay the order, leaving mifepristone available on the market, while the Fifth Circuit heard the appeal.", "Despite the federal stance, states opposed to abortion were considering laws to ban access to medical abortion, including out-of-state shipments in the U.S. mail and telemedicine support. Some states seeking to block medical abortion options are also considering censoring information about this option to residents, leading to potential First Amendment legal battles", ". Whether such state bans are legal under the Supremacy Clause, where federal law overrules conflicting state law, is unknown, as there is little case law to establish the strength of the FDA over state interests.", "States that support abortion rights expected an influx of requests for medical abortion. Doctors and prescribers saw increased demand for contraception after both the leak and the ruling, including emergency and long-lasting after the latter. Some national pharmacy chains imposed limits on purchases. Other Americans have been denied refills of medical prescriptions for methotrexate, a form of chemotherapy taken long term for many autoimmune diseases, as it is considered an abortifacient.", "Doctors throughout the U.S. reported an increase in requests for vasectomies. A Florida doctor said requests have doubled since the ruling with a prominent and continuous increase since June 24. Many of the men said they had previously considered a vasectomy but the ruling had been the tipping point.", "Privacy rights", "Privacy rights related to data tracking through Internet usage, mobile phone usage, and mobile applications have been raised after the leak and subsequently after the decision. States with strict abortion laws could use this information to determine if women were seeking to have abortions", ". In addition to users taking steps to minimize their data footprint, groups like the Electronic Frontier Foundation urged companies that make these apps to take steps to reduce the amount of data they collect and use end-to-end encryption to further aid those seeking abortions outside of states that have banned them. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi said Democrats will introduce a bill to set certain requirements for reproductive health apps such as Flo", ". She said the legislation would aim to prevent data these apps collect from identifying women seeking abortions. Google announced it would delete location history data after users visit \"medical facilities\", including abortion clinics, counseling centers, and domestic violence shelters. The company also stated that it would introduce a way to mass-delete period data for Fitbit users.", "2022 and 2024 United States election seasons", "Dobbs made abortion rights a major issue in the November 2022 United States elections. Democrats, who generally support abortion rights, used the issue to try to offset the 2021–2022 inflation surge and Biden's lower approval rating when Dobbs was announced. Republicans, who were seeking to retake seats in both the House and Senate and gain several state governor and legislature positions in tight races, had some concern that the negative reaction to Dobbs could work against them", ". They hoped that by November there would be more focus on the economy and other issues on which they expect to win. According to analyst firm AdImpact, by September 2022, Democrats had spent on political advertising that highlighted abortion rights, while Republicans had spent only on abortion-related ads, instead focusing on other issues.", "At least six states had an abortion-related ballot initiative in response to Dobbs, the most ever in a single year. The first test came with Kansas's referendum on August 2, 2022. The state's Value Them Both constitutional amendment was approved for public vote about a year before Dobbs was decided. It would have removed Kansas's constitutional protections for abortion, allowing the legislature to enact more restrictions on the procedure", ". In the wake of Dobbs, voter registration in Kansas surged, particularly among Democratic and female voters. Almost 60% of voters voted against the amendment.", "The backlash to the decision resulted in a boost in polling and performance for Democrats in special congressional races. According to election analysis site FiveThirtyEight, by August 2022 the impact of Dobbs led to an unusual swing in favor of Democrats ahead of the general election by nine points", ". The results of the midterm elections showed a significant impact of Dobbs, with voters supporting abortion rights helping Democrats retain control of the Senate as well as to support state-level changes to support abortion rights in five states.", "The debate over abortion rights remained a significant issue leading into the 2024 United States elections. Dobbs helped to increase support for abortion rights, with an estimated 25% increase in voters leaning in support a year after the decision. Republicans found a significant backlash from moderates for their hard push for abortion bans at the state level, and party leaders expressed desire to moderate views on abortion ahead of the elections.", "Effects on abortion rates \nSince Dobbs was decided, data collected by a research group shows a general increase in abortion rates up to June 2023, along with a stark difference between states that banned abortion and states that did not. States that banned abortions after the sixth week of pregnancy experienced a dramatic decrease, while in states that allow abortion, abortion rates soared.", "Legal analysis", "Alito's final opinion mirrored points made in the leaked draft, evaluating abortion from a historical standpoint and arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment covers only those rights that were \"deeply rooted\" at the time of its ratification in 1868, which did not include abortion. He referenced common law, including 17th-century English law, which outlawed abortion after quickening, the point when fetal movements are detectable (16 to 22 weeks of gestation), and the 12th-century Leges Henrici Primi", ". Alito subsequently pointed to a wave of laws introduced in the U.S. in the 19th century that outlawed pre-quickening abortions, and claimed \"abortion couldn't be constitutionally protected. Until the latter part of the 20th century, such a right was entirely unknown in American law. When the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, three quarters of the States made abortion a crime at all stages of pregnancy.\" Some historians say that Alito's view skews the history of abortion in the U.S", ".\" Some historians say that Alito's view skews the history of abortion in the U.S. and creates a flawed basis for overturning Roe. Patricia Cline Cohen, a professor emeritus at the University of California, Santa Barbara, said that these laws had come about not because society saw abortion as a crime, but from a small group of white male doctors from Boston who had taken it upon themselves to prove to the rest of the county that pre-quickening abortion should be seen as a crime", ". The doctors used flawed math to convince the American Medical Association to accept that pre-quickening abortion should also be outlawed, leading to the raft of state laws banning abortion in the latter half of the 19th century.", "Many legal observers have said the ruling creates an independent legal framework, as it lays out a state's ability to determine independent abortion laws. As many states have rulings prosecuting abortions, even out of state, some have argued that this produces a legal framework in which a U.S. state can act more like a sovereign country, prosecuting individuals from taking actions outside the state's legal jurisdiction. The enforceability and practicality of such a decision has been criticized", ". The enforceability and practicality of such a decision has been criticized. The ruling has been seen in the context of ever-increasing partisanship and political division in the country.", "The decision raised concerns about similar rights recognized by the Court that are not enumerated in the Constitution according to originalism. According to Thomas's concurrence, the rights to contraceptives and to same-sex marriage could be challenged based on Dobbs, since they were not recognized during the 19th century either. Some legal experts cautioned that Alito's and Thomas's interpretation of the Constitution could harm women, minorities, and other marginalized groups", ". University of Colorado Boulder Associate Professor of Law Scott Skinner-Thompson said, \"The Court has for a long, long time said: Look, if we define liberty only in terms of what was permitted at the time of ratification of the Bill of Rights or the 14th Amendment, then we're stuck in time. Because in the 18th and 19th centuries, this country was not very free for many, many people—particularly women, particularly people of color", ".\" Further, Roe itself was built on the legal reasoning of the two cases that assured contraceptive availability, Griswold v. Connecticut and Eisenstadt v. Baird, which held that the Fourteenth Amendment establishes a \"zone of personal privacy and autonomy\" with which the states cannot interfere, according to Emily Berman, an associate professor at the University of Houston", ". Berman said that the way Alito had rationalized overturning Roe could lead to challenges to both Griswold and Eisenstadt based on the apparent lack of explicit Fourteenth Amendment coverage. Alabama used the Dobbs rationale of deeply rooted rights to argue for lifting a federal injunction placed in May 2022 on its law that would ban sex reassignment therapy for minors that was to go into effect in 2023.", "Adam Liptak of The New York Times commented on the frequent mention of Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court case that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson and required desegregation of public schools. In the majority opinion, Alito argued for overturning Roe and Casey in the same manner that Brown argued for overturning Plessy", ". By contrast, the dissent in Dobbs stated that the decision to overrule Roe was \"the majority's method of constitutional construction\" in originalism, and that the Court \"might not ever have overruled Plessy, whether five or 50 or 500 years later\" if originalism had similarly been applied to Brown.", "Some commentators criticized the idea that abortion was not \"deeply rooted\" in American \"history and tradition\". Nancy Gertner and John Reinstein pointed out that in earlier centuries, American society was deeply sexist and excluded women from politics, banning contraception to ensure \"that women performed their duties as wives and mothers\". Molly Farrell argued that abortion techniques were widely known and practiced in colonial America, if poorly documented because illiterate women acted as midwives", ". She pointed out Benjamin Franklin, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, added a how-to section on abortion in a book intended to convey the most basic knowledge all Americans needed. In 1728, Franklin condemned publisher Samuel Keimer for publishing an article on abortion. According to biographer Walter Isaacson, Franklin did not have a strong view on the issue.", "Reaction\n\nSupreme Court \nAlito gave his first public comments on the ruling in a keynote address largely about religious liberty for Notre Dame Law School's Religious Liberty Initiative in Rome. He mocked several foreign leaders for criticizing the decision, particularly UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson, whose pending resignation Alito referenced; and Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex, who had compared the decision to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.\n\nPolitical", "Support", "Those aligned with the United States anti-abortion movement celebrated Dobbs, including the National Right to Life Committee, other anti-abortion activists, Republican Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, and many other congressional Republicans. After former president Barack Obama criticized the Court for overruling the longstanding precedent of Roe v", ". Wade, Senator John Cornyn tweeted, \"Now do Plessy vs Ferguson/Brown vs Board of Education\", alluding to the fact that the latter Supreme Court decision had largely overruled the former, a then-58-year-old precedent that racial segregation was constitutional.", "In a statement, former president Donald Trump took credit for the decision and called it \"the biggest WIN for LIFE in a generation\", although in private Trump was allegedly more ambivalent about overturning Roe, speculating that it might be \"bad for Republicans\" by leading to backlash among suburban female voters in the upcoming midterm elections. In the aftermath of the contest, he publicly blamed anti-abortion extremism for the underperformance of Republican candidates", ". Former vice president Mike Pence also applauded the decision, saying that \"life won\", and called for a national ban on abortion.", "Republican Florida Governor Ron DeSantis said, \"By properly interpreting the Constitution, the Supreme Court has answered the prayers of millions upon millions of Americans,\" adding that he would work to further restrict abortion in Florida. Republican Florida Senate President Wilton Simpson, who was adopted as a child, argued the Court's decision would promote adoption as an alternative to abortion. Simpson said, \"Florida is a state that values life.\"\n\nOpposition", "Conversely, those aligned with the United States abortion-rights movement opposed the decision, including President Joe Biden, who said, \"It's a sad day for the Court and for the country ... the health and life of women in this nation are now at risk\"; former president Barack Obama, who called it an \"attack\" on \"the essential freedoms of millions of Americans\"; U.S. Attorney General Merrick Garland, who warned states not to forbid women to seek abortions beyond their borders; U.S", ".S. Secretary of Health and Human Services Xavier Becerra, who called the decision \"unconscionable\" and said that abortion is an essential part of healthcare; Senator Elizabeth Warren, who called for increasing the number of justices on the court; and many other congressional Democrats.", "Senator Susan Collins, a Republican who supports abortion rights and voted in the Senate to confirm Kavanaugh, said she felt \"misled\" by Kavanaugh, who, she claimed, said in a private meeting with her that he would respect precedent, assuring her that he is \"a don't-rock-the-boat kind of judge\"", ". Democratic Senator Joe Manchin, who crossed party lines and voted to confirm both Kavanaugh and Gorsuch, made similar comments, saying, \"I trusted Justice Gorsuch and Justice Kavanaugh when they testified under oath that they also believed Roe v. Wade was settled legal precedent and I am alarmed they chose to reject the stability the ruling has provided for two generations of Americans", ".\" Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker, a Republican, expressed disappointment in the decision and signed an executive order protecting abortion rights in the state. Governors Jay Inslee, Kate Brown, and Gavin Newsom of Washington, Oregon, and California, respectively, announced a formation of the \"West Coast offense\", a joint policy to allow and protect abortion rights.", "Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez called Dobbs and other recent decisions she deemed favorable to conservatives a \"judicial coup\", demanding that President Joe Biden and Congress act to curtail the Supreme Court's power.", "Religious", "The decision was seen as a victory for the Christian right in American politics. The president of the anti-abortion group Operation Rescue, Troy Newman, called the decision a \"human rights victory\". Support was widespread among leaders of the Catholic Church, including Pope Francis, who compared abortion to \"hiring a hit man\"; the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops; Archbishops José Horacio Gómez and William E. Lori; and many other bishops", ". Lori; and many other bishops. President Bart Barber and other officials of the Southern Baptist Convention, and the Life Ministry of the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod, celebrated the decision.", "Mainline Protestant leaders were generally critical of the decision, including Bishop Elizabeth Eaton of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the General Ministers of United Church of Christ, and Presiding Bishop Michael Curry of the Episcopal Church.", "Many American Jewish organizations, including the National Council of Jewish Women, Hadassah, American Jewish Committee, the Anti-Defamation League, Hillel International, the Rabbinical Assembly, and the Women's Rabbinic Network, opposed the decision. They cited support for legal abortion and religious freedom, disagreeing with the court's opinion and \"conservative Christian theology\" on the beginning of human personhood", ". By contrast, the Haredi Orthodox Jewish organization Agudath Israel of America, \"welcome[d]\" the end of Roe v. Wade.", "American Muslims' reactions were varied, as views on abortion differ within Islam. Many said Dobbs curtailed religious freedom, reflected only Christian right views, and damaged cultural and religious pluralism.", "Civil rights", "Multiple civil and reproductive rights groups, including the NAACP, criticized the decision. The Congressional Black Caucus called for the declaration of a national emergency. Liberals argued that the ruling and Thomas's concurrence created the potential to jeopardize other civil rights. Laurence H. Tribe, a constitutional scholar and a professor at Harvard Law School, called it not only \"reactionary\" and \"unprincipled\" but also damaging to the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution", ". Linda Coffee, a leading attorney for Norma McCorvey in Roe v. Wade, said the Supreme Court's decision to overturn it \"flies in the face of American freedom\" and \"destroys dignity of all American women\". Jim Obergefell, the lead plaintiff in the Supreme Court case Obergefell v. Hodges that ruled same-sex marriage bans unconstitutional, criticized Thomas, whose own interracial marriage required Loving v", ". Virginia in order to be recognized by all states, for urging the Court to revisit and overrule its prior decisions.", "Health and education", "The president and CEO of the Association of American Medical Colleges, David J. Skorton, released a statement that said the decision \"will significantly limit access for so many and increase health inequities across the country, ultimately putting women's lives at risk, at the very time that we should be redoubling our commitment to patient-centered, evidence-based care that promotes better health for all individuals and communities", ".\" The statement further affirmed the association's commitment to providing abortion access, saying that it \"will continue working with our medical schools and teaching hospitals to ensure that physicians are able to provide all patients with safe, effective, and accessible health care when they need it", ".\" The president of the American Academy of Pediatrics, Moria Szilagyi, released a statement that the organization reaffirmed the policy to support \"adolescents' right to access comprehensive, evidence-based reproductive healthcare services\", including abortion. She added that the decision threatened adolescents' health and safety and jeopardized the patient-physician relationship.", "Academics from the University of Minnesota School of Public Health and the University of Colorado Boulder criticized the decision, saying that as there is going to be an increase in pregnancies, there will be an increase in maternal and infant deaths. In 2020, there were 23.8 deaths from pregnancy or childbirth-related causes for every 100,000 births, the highest maternal mortality rate of any developed country, with black mothers 2.9 times more likely to die than white mothers.", "A study published in JAMA Internal Medicine found that demand for abortion medications in the United States, as reflected by internet search trends, reached record highs nationally after the draft Dobbs opinion was leaked online. Public health activists have begun exploring ways to make medical abortion more available, particularly in states where it is subject to limitations, using social media for this purpose.\n\nInternational", "International \n\nThe United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Michelle Bachelet, said that the decision \"represents a major setback after five decades of protection for sexual and reproductive health and rights\". The Director-General of the World Health Organization, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, said, \"I am very disappointed, because women's rights must be protected. And I would have expected America to protect such rights.\"", "Western world foreign leaders generally condemned the decision. Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau called the decision \"horrific\", while pledging, \"[I]n Canada, we will always defend the woman's right to choose.\" British Prime Minister Boris Johnson called the decision \"a big step backwards\", while reassuring that there were laws \"throughout the UK\" for a \"woman's right to choose\"", ". Scottish First Minister Nicola Sturgeon tweeted after the ruling that this was \"[o]ne of the darkest days for women's rights\" in her lifetime. Belgian Prime Minister Alexander De Croo said that he was \"very concerned about implications of U.S. Supreme Court decision\" and \"the signal it sends to the world\". French President Emmanuel Macron said that \"abortion is a fundamental right for all women. It must be protected.\" He expressed his \"solidarity\" with U.S. women", ". It must be protected.\" He expressed his \"solidarity\" with U.S. women. Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen called the decision \"a huge setback\" and said that her \"heart cries for girls and women in the United States\". New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern called the decision \"incredibly upsetting\" and \"a loss for women everywhere\". Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis said he was \"really troubled\" by the decision, saying it is \"a major step back in the fight for women's rights\"", ". Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez said that \"we cannot take any right for granted\" and that \"women must be able to decide freely about their lives\".", "The President of the Vatican's Pontifical Academy for Life, Archbishop Vincenzo Paglia, called the ruling \"a powerful invitation to reflect together on the serious and urgent issue of human generativity and the conditions that make it possible\". Members of some European far-right parties, notably Beatrix von Storch of Alternative for Germany, approved of the decision", ". Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro indirectly signaled his approval, tweeting, \"May God continue to give strength and wisdom to those who protect the innocence and future of our children, in Brazil and around the world,\" the day the decision was released, one day after he had criticized abortion", ". Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador reportedly consulted with former ministers of the court about using the majority ruling as a basis for overturning a ruling by the Mexican Supreme Court that had decriminalized abortion in Mexico.", "In July 2022, the European Parliament voted 324–155, with 38 abstentions, to condemn the ruling.\n\nNews \nThe editorial boards of many news outlets opposed the ruling, including The New York Times, The Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Chicago Tribune, The Boston Globe, Newsday, Houston Chronicle, Miami Herald, Detroit Free Press, Star Tribune, and The Denver Post.", "The ruling was supported by the senior editorial staff of National Review, and the editorial boards of The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Times, and the New York Post.\n\nReadership of women-centric news publications increased during the aftermath of the ruling.\n\nPublic", "The decision was divisive among the American public. Around 55–60% of respondents expressed disapproval when asked if they believed Roe should be overturned. But polls conducted before the ruling also showed that only around 29% of Americans believe abortion should generally be legal until fetal viability (24 weeks), the threshold set by Planned Parenthood v. Casey", ". Casey. A June 2022 Harvard/Harris poll found that 44% of Americans believe that state legislatures should set abortion standards, while 25% believe the Supreme Court should, and 31% believe Congress should; a June 2022 CBS/YouGov poll found that 58% of Americans support federal legislation to protect abortion rights nationwide", ". A May 2022 Gallup poll showed that 67% of Americans support legal abortion in the first trimester of pregnancy, 36% support legal abortion in the second trimester, and 20% support legal abortion in the third trimester. Public support for abortion rights increased after the decision, with an August 2022 Wall Street Journal poll finding that 60% of Americans supported access to abortion to in most or all circumstances, up from 55% in a poll conducted in March", ". The same August poll also found that bans after six or 15 weeks of pregnancy (with the exception of cases where the mothers' health was threatened) were unpopular, with 62% and 57% of Americans opposed, respectively.", "Large numbers of protesters gathered at the Supreme Court building after the decision's announcement. Clashes between police and protesters, resulting in tear gassing and arrests, occurred in Los Angeles, New York City, and Phoenix. Protests also took place in Chicago, along with solidarity protests in Berlin, London, and Toronto, and were planned to take place throughout the U.S. over the days after the decision", ".S. over the days after the decision. The DHS issued a memo to law enforcement agencies and first responders to be aware of potential extremist violence in the weeks following the decision, particularly at federal and state government offices, abortion clinics and other health providers, and at faith-based organizations.", "The decision sparked at least one incident of trespassing into a state legislature by abortion-rights activists. Protesters breached a security barrier at the Arizona State Capitol and attempted to enter the building while the legislature was in session. The proceedings were temporarily halted as lawmakers were forced into the building's basement after tear gas was fired into the crowd.", "Some politicians and academics questioned the Supreme Court's legitimacy in the wake of the leak and official ruling in Dobbs. A June 2022 Harvard/Harris poll showed that 63% of Americans consider the Supreme Court legitimate and 59% believe it is wrong to call it illegitimate. NBC News had run polls on the public opinion of the Supreme Court since 1992, with majority opinion wavering between neutral and positive through May 2022", ". Its August 2022 poll, after Dobbs, had the majority with a negative opinion of the Court. Compared to only 17% of respondents with little to no confidence in the Court in June 2019, the number had increased to 37% by August 2022.", "A 2023 Public Religion Research Institute poll found that a majority in every state opposed the overturn of Roe v. Wade.", "Corporate and celebrity \nMost corporations remained silent about the ruling, even ones that had been outspoken on social issues in the past. But some, including Amazon, Comcast, Dell, Disney, eBay, Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, Levi Strauss & Co., Meta, Netflix, Paramount, Snap, Sony, Tesla, and Yelp, said they would cover travel benefits for employees seeking abortions in states that protected abortion access.", "Several technology executives and celebrities have condemned the ruling. The NBA and WNBA released a joint statement supporting the right to abortion. The National Women's Soccer League Players Association and Major League Soccer (MLS) also condemned the ruling.\n\nLegacy", "Cultural and political", "After Dobbs, support for abortion began to significantly increase. According to pollster Celinda Lake, support for abortion access rose by 10 to 15 points in the year after the decision. Polling conducted after the decision found that most Republican voters do not care deeply about restricting abortion. Many identify as pro-choice and are in favor of abortion access, with issues such as the American economy, taxes, and illegal immigration holding much more relative importance", ". Laws restricting the procedure have predominantly arisen out of elite-driven support rather than that of the Republican electorate. U.S. areas that restricted abortion became global outliers on reproductive rights", ". U.S. areas that restricted abortion became global outliers on reproductive rights. Internationally, the widespread trend over the past 50 years has been toward loosening restrictions, with more restrictions on abortion passed in only Russia, Iran, Turkey, North Korea, Belarus, and several other countries, the large majority of which are authoritarian polities or undergoing democratic backsliding.", "Abortion became greatly restricted in 17 states, the vast majority in the South.\n\nReferendums \nReferendums conducted in the wake of the decision in Kansas, Montana, California, Vermont, Michigan, Kentucky, and Ohio uniformly came out in favor of abortion rights, often by bipartisan and overwhelming margins.\n\nSee also \n\n Abortion law\n List of United States Supreme Court leaks\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences \nInline", "See also \n\n Abortion law\n List of United States Supreme Court leaks\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences \nInline\n\nGeneral\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {{cite journal |last=Ziegler |first=Mary |date=2013 |title=''Roes Race: The Supreme Court, Population Control, and Reproductive Justice |url=https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/7052/04_25YaleJL_Feminism1_2013_2014_.pdf |journal=Yale Journal of Law and Feminism |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=|doi=}}\n\n Further reading", "Further reading \n \n \n \n\n External links Written opinions Annotated Analysis The Dobbs v. Jackson Decision, Annotated Annotated analysis of the decision by The New York Times. June 24, 2022Texts of the two state laws \n Oral arguments'''", "2022 in United States case law\nHistory of women in Mississippi\nHistory of women's rights in the United States\nMedical lawsuits\nRight to abortion under the United States Constitution\nRight to privacy under the United States Constitution\nUnited States abortion case law\nUnited States privacy case law\nUnited States Supreme Court cases\nUnited States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court\nUnited States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision", "United States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision\nAnti-abortion movement in the United States\nArticles containing video clips" ]

[ "Levantine archaeology is the archaeological study of the Levant. It is also known as Syro-Palestinian archaeology or Palestinian archaeology (particularly when the area of inquiry centers on ancient Palestine). Besides its importance to the discipline of Biblical archaeology, the Levant is highly important when forming an understanding of the history of the earliest peoples of the Stone Age.", "Current archaeological digs in Israel are carried out by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), and in the areas governed by the Palestinian Authority (PA), by its Ministry of Tourism and Antiquity, working under the auspices of the IAA. The Palestinian Authority prohibits unrestricted excavation at sites of archaeological importance", ". The Palestinian Authority prohibits unrestricted excavation at sites of archaeological importance. There are equivalent and similarly named authorities in Jordan and in Cyprus, a Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums in Syria and a department of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Turkey).", "Terminology and scope", "Levantine archaeology encompasses excavations, salvage, conservation and reconstruction efforts, as well as off-site research, interpretation, and other scholarship. The geographical scope of Levantine archaeology includes the Hatay Province of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Cyprus. The terminology for archaeology in the Levant has been defined in various, often competing or overlapping ways", ". Prior to and during the period of the British Mandate in Palestine (1920–1948), archaeology of the region was typically described as Palestinian archaeology or Biblical archaeology.", "Under the influence of William F. Albright (1891–1971), biblical inquiry and narratives became increasingly important; indeed, Albright conceived of Palestinian archaeology or Levantine archaeology as a sub-field of biblical archaeology. \"The archaeology of ancient Israel,\" is described by Franken and Franken-Battershill as, \"but a small part of the far greater study of Palestinian archaeology.\" in A Primer of Old Testament Archaeology (1963)", ".\" in A Primer of Old Testament Archaeology (1963). In a survey of North American dissertations, the overwhelming emphasis has been on the southern Levant. However it is only when considering the northern Levant alongside the southern that wider archaeological and historical questions can be addressed.", "While both Classical archaeology and Levantine archaeology deal with the same general region of study, the focus and approach of these interrelated disciplines differs. Even scholars who have continued to advocate a role for Classical archaeology have accepted the existence of a general branch of Levantine archaeology. In addition, Classical archaeology may cover areas relevant to the Bible outside of the Levant (e.g", ".g., Egypt or Persia) and it takes into account the use and explanation of biblical texts, which Levantine archaeologist ignore. Beyond its importance to the discipline of classical archaeology, the region of the Levant is critical for an understanding of the history of the earliest peoples of the Stone Age", "In academic, political, and public settings, the region's archaeology can also be described in terms of ancient or modern Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, and the Hatay province of Turkey. Archaeologists may define the geographic range more narrowly, especially for inquiries that focus on 'Israel' or 'Palestine,' whether construed as ancient or modern territories. The shifting terminology over the past 50 years reflects political tensions that operate within and upon the field.", "Levantine archaeology in the 21st century has relegated biblical concerns to a less dominant position, functioning as a \"big tent\" incorporating multiple archaeological practices. The Levant has displayed cultural continuity during most historical periods, leading to the increased study of the region as a whole.\n\nTemporal scope", "Temporal scope\n\nFrom prehistoric times through the Iron Age, chronological periods are usually named in keeping with technological developments that characterized that era. From the Babylonian era onward, naming is based on historical events. Scholars often disagree on the exact dates and terminology to be used for each period.", "Some definitions for the temporal scope, particularly earlier on tended to exclude events after the Byzantine Period, but the temporal scope of Levantine archaeology has expanded over the years. In 1982, James A", ". In 1982, James A. Sauer wrote that the Islamic periods (630-1918 CE) were part of Levantine archaeological research, and that while some periods had been \"ignored, neglected, or even discarded for the sake of other periods,\" it is now \"an almost universally accepted principle that archaeological evidence from all periods must be treated with equal care.\"", "Leslie J. Hoppe, writing in 1987, submits that Dever's definition of temporal scope of Levantine archaeology excludes the Early Arab period (640-1099), the Crusader period (1099–1291), the Mamluk period (1250–1517) and the Ottoman period (1517-1918). However, Dever's definition of the temporal scope of the field in What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? (2001), indicates that Hoppe's critique is no longer valid", ". There, Dever writes that the time-frame of Levantine archaeology, \"extends far beyond the 'biblical period,' embracing everything from the Lower Paleolithic to the Ottoman period.\"", "List of archaeological periods\n\nThe list below, from the Paleolithic Age to the Byzantine period, is drawn from the definitions provided by the Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. For periods thereafter, the terminology and dates come from Sauer and Hoppe.", "Prehistory is defined as the period preceding the advent of writing, which brought about the creation of written history. For the Levant the introduction of writing occurs at varying moments, but the Late Bronze Age is considered as the first period firmly outside prehistory. To avoid sub-regional conflicts, the prehistory as a category is left out of the list.\n Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age = 1,500,000-14,000 BCE\n Epipaleolithic (Mesolithic, Middle Stone) Age = 14,000-8,000 BCE", "Epipaleolithic (Mesolithic, Middle Stone) Age = 14,000-8,000 BCE\n Neolithic (New Stone) Age = 8,000-5,800 BCE\n Chalcolithic (Copper Stone) Age = 5,800-3,700 BCE\nBronze Age\n Early Bronze (EB) Age = 3,700-2,500 BCE\n EB IV/Intermediate Bronze (IB) (formerly EB IV/MB I) = 2,500-2,000 BCE\n Middle Bronze (MB) Age = 2,200-1,550 BCE\n MB I (formerly MB IIA) = 2,000-1,750 BCE\n MB II(-III) (formerly MB IIB/C) = 1,750-1550 BCE\n Late Bronze (LB) Age = 1,550-1,200 BCE\n LB I = 1,550-1,400 BCE\n LB II = 1,400-1,200 BCE", "Late Bronze (LB) Age = 1,550-1,200 BCE\n LB I = 1,550-1,400 BCE\n LB II = 1,400-1,200 BCE\n Iron Age = 1,200-586 BCE \n Iron I = 1,200-980 BCE\n Iron IIA = 980-830 BCE\n Iron IIB = 830-721 BCE\n Iron IIC = 721-586 BCE\n Babylonian period = 586-539 BCE\n Persian period = 539-332 BCE\n Hellenistic period = 332-63 BCE\n Early Hellenistic = 332-198 BCE\n Late Hellenistic = 198-63 BCE\n Roman period = 63 BCE-324 CE\n Early Roman = 63 BCE-135 CE\n Late Roman = 135-324 CE\n Byzantine period = 324-640 CE", "Early Roman = 63 BCE-135 CE\n Late Roman = 135-324 CE\n Byzantine period = 324-640 CE\n Islamic period = 630-1918 CE\n Early Arab period = 640-1099 CE\n Crusader period = 1099-1291 CE\n Mamluk period = 1250-1517 CE\n Ottoman period = 1517-1918 CE", "History\n\nModern Palestinian archaeology began in the late 19th century. Early expeditions lacked standardized methods for excavation and interpretation, and were often little more than treasure-hunting expeditions. A lack of awareness of the importance of stratigraphy in dating objects led to digging long trenches through the middle of a site that made work by later archaeologists more difficult.", "Edward Robinson identified numerous sites from antiquity and published his findings with Eli Smith in a pivotal three-volume study entitled Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions: Journal of Travels in the Year 1838. In Syria, Ernest Renan carried out research in the 1860s and Howard Crosby Butler of Princeton University carried out surveys of Byzantine Christian sites (1904–1909). In the early 1900s, major projects were set up at Samaria, Gezer, Megiddo and Jericho.", "An early school of modern Palestinian archaeology was led by William F. Albright, whose work focused on biblical narratives. Albright himself held that Frederick Jones Bliss (1857–1939) was the father of Palestinian archaeology, although Bliss is not well known in the field. Jeffrey A. Blakely attributes this to Bliss' successor at the Palestine Exploration Fund, R.A.S. Macalister (1870–1950), who underplayed his predecessor's achievements.", "After the creation of independent Arab states in the region, national schools of archaeology were established in the 1960s. The research focuses and perspectives of these institutions differed from those of Western archaeological approaches, tending to eschew biblical studies and the search for theological roots in the Holy Land and concentrating more, though not exclusively on Islamic archaeology. \n\nIn doing so, Arab archaeologists added a \"vigorous new element to Syro-Palestinian archaeology.\"", "While the importance of stratigraphy, typology and balk grew in the mid-twentieth century, the continued tendency to ignore hard data in favour of subjective interpretations invited criticism. Paul W. Lapp, for example, whom many thought would take up the mantle of Albright before his premature death in 1970, wrote:\"Too much of Palestinian archaeology is an inflated fabrication [..", "...] Too often a subjective interpretation, not based on empirical stratigraphic observation, is used to demonstrate the validity of another subjective interpretation. We assign close dates to a group of pots on subjective typological grounds and go on to cite our opinion as independent evidence for similarly dating a parallel group. Too much of Palestinian archaeology's foundation building has involved chasing ad hominem arguments around in a circle.\"", "In 1974, William Dever established the secular, non-biblical school of Syro-Palestinian archaeology and mounted a series of attacks on the very definition of biblical archaeology. Dever argued that the name of such inquiry should be changed to \"archaeology of the Bible\" or \"archaeology of the Biblical period\" to delineate the narrow temporal focus of Biblical archaeologists", ". Frank Moore Cross, who had studied under Albright and had taught Dever, emphasized that in Albright's view, biblical archaeology was not synonymous with Palestinian archaeology, but rather that, \"William Foxwell Albright regarded Palestinian archaeology or Levantine archaeology as a small, if important section of biblical archaeology. One finds it ironical that recent students suppose them interchangeable terms", ". One finds it ironical that recent students suppose them interchangeable terms.\" Dever agreed that the terms were not interchangeable, but claimed that \"'Syro-Palestinian archaeology' is not the same as the 'biblical archaeology'. I regret to say that all who would defend Albright and 'biblical archaeology' on this ground, are sadly out of touch with reality in the field of archaeology.\"", "In recent decades, the term Levantine archaeology has generally replaced Syro-Palestinian archaeology. Electronic database results reveal an \"overwhelming adoption\" of the term ‘Levant’ when compared to ‘Syria-Palestine’ for archaeological studies. This is primarily due to the strong cultural and geographic continuity of the Levant, the northern sections of which were generally ignored in Syro-Palestinian archaeology", ". Towards the end of the twentieth century, Palestinian archaeology and/or Levantine archaeology became a more interdisciplinary practice. Specialists in archaeozoology, archaeobotany, geology, anthropology and epigraphy now work together to produce essential environmental and non-environmental data in multidisciplinary projects.", "Foci in Levantine archaeology\n\nCeramics analysis", "A central concern of Levantine archaeology since its genesis has been the study of ceramics. Whole pots and richly decorated pottery are uncommon in the Levant and the plainer, less ornate ceramic artifacts of the region have served the analytical goals of archaeologists, much more than those of museum collectors", ". The ubiquity of pottery sherds and their long history of use in the region makes ceramics analysis a particularly useful sub-discipline of Levantine archaeology, used to address issues of terminology and periodization.", "Awareness of the value of pottery gained early recognition in a landmark survey conducted by Edward Robinson and Eli Smith, whose findings were published in first two works on the subject: Biblical Researches in Palestine (1841) and Later Biblical Researches (1851).", "Ceramics analysis in Levantine archaeology has suffered from insularity and conservatism, due to the legacy of what J.P Dessel and Alexander H. Joffe call \"the imperial hubris of pan-optic 'Biblical Archaeology", ".P Dessel and Alexander H. Joffe call \"the imperial hubris of pan-optic 'Biblical Archaeology.'\" The dominance of biblical archaeological approaches meant that the sub-discipline was cut off from other branches of ancient Near Eastern studies, apart from occasional references to Northwest Semitic epigraphy and Assyriology, as exemplified in the Mesha Stele, the Sefire Stelae, and the Tel Dan Stele.", "As a result, widely varying principles, emphases, and definitions are used to determine local typologies among archaeologists working in the region. Attempts to identify and bridge the gaps made some headway at the Durham conference, though it was recognized that agreement on a single method of ceramic analysis or a single definition of a type may not be possible.", "The solution proposed by Dessel and Joffe is for all archaeologists in the field to provide more explicit descriptions of the objects that they study. The more information provided and shared between those in related sub-disciplines, the more likely it is that they will be able to identify and understand the commonalities in the different typological systems.", "Defining Phoenician", "Levantine archaeology also includes the study of Phoenician culture, cosmopolitan in character and widespread in its distribution in the region. According to Benjamin Sass and Christoph Uehlinger, the questions of what is actually Phoenician and what is specifically Phoenician, in Phoenician iconography, constitute one well-known crux of Levantine archaeology", ". Without answers to these questions, the authors contend that research exploring the degree to which Phoenician art and symbolism penetrated into the different areas of Syria and Palestine will make little progress.", "Practitioners", "Israeli", "Jewish interest in archaeology dates to the beginnings of the Zionist movement and the founding of the Jewish Palestine Exploration Society in 1914. Excavations at this early stage focused on sites related to the Bible and ancient Jewish history and included Philistine sites in Afula and Nahariya, as well as a second- to fourth-century village at Beth She'arim and a synagogue in Bet Alpha", ". Early archaeological pioneers in 1920s and 1930s included Nahman Avigad, Michael Avi-Yonah, Ruth Amiran, Immanuel Ben-Dor, Avraham Biran, Benjamin Mazar, E.L. Sukenik, and Shmuel Yeivin.", "By the 1950s, in contrast to the religious motivations of Biblical archaeologists, Israeli archaeology developed as a secular discipline motivated in part by the nationalistic desire to affirm the link between the modern, nascent Israeli nation-state and the ancient Jewish population of the land. Paleolithic archaeology was of little interest, nor was archaeology of Christian and Muslim periods", ". Yigael Yadin, the pioneer of the Israeli School of archaeology, excavated some of the most important sites in the region, including the Qumran Caves, Masada, Hazor and Tel Megiddo. Yadin's world view was that the identity of modern Israel was directly tied to the revolutionary past of the ancient Jewish population of the region", ". He therefore focused much of his work on excavating sites related to previous periods of Israelite nationalistic struggles: Hazor, which he associated with the conquest of Canaan by Joshua in c. 1250 BCE, and Masada, the site where Jewish rebels held out against the Romans in 72-73 CE. Masada was extensively excavated by a team led by Yadin from 1963 to 1965 and became a monument symbolizing the will of the new Israeli state to survive.", "Today, Israeli universities have respected archaeology departments and institutes involved in research, excavation, conservation and training. Notable contemporary archaeologists include Eilat Mazar, Yoram Tsafrir, Ronny Reich, Ehud Netzer, Adam Zertal, Yohanan Aharoni, Eli Shukron, Gabriel Barkay, Israel Finkelstein, Yizhar Hirschfeld, and many more.\n\nBritish and European", "European archaeologists also continue to excavate and research in the region, with many of these projects centered in Arab countries, primary among them Jordan and Syria, and to a lesser extent in Lebanon. The most significant British excavations include the Tell Nebi Mend site (Qadesh) in Syria and the Tell Iktanu and Tell es-Sa'adiyah sites in Jordan", ". Other notable European projects include Italian excavations at Tell Mardikh (Ebla) and Tell Meskene (Emar) in Syria, French participation in Ras Shamra (Ugarit) in Syria, French excavations at Tell Yarmut and German excavations at Tell Masos (both in modern-day Israel), and Dutch excavations Tell Deir 'Alla in Jordan.", "Italian archaeologists were the first to undertake joint missions with Palestinian archaeologists in the West Bank, which were possible only after the signing of the Oslo Accords. The first joint project was conducted in Jericho and coordinated by Hamdan Taha, director of the Palestinian Antiquities Department and the University of Rome \"La Sapienza\", represented by Paolo Matthiae, the same archaeologist who discovered the site of Ebla in 1964", ". Unlike the joint missions between Americans and Jordanians, this project involved Italians and Palestinians digging at the same holes, side by side.", "North American\nApart from Israeli archaeologists, Americans make up the largest group of archaeologists working in Israel. Joint American-Jordanian excavations have been conducted, but Nicolo Marchetti, an Italian archaeologist, says they do not constitute genuine collaboration: \"[...] you might find, at a site, one hole with Jordanians and 20 holes with Americans digging in them. After the work, usually it's the Americans who explain to the Jordanians what they've found.\"\n\nPalestinian", "Palestinian\n\nThe involvement of Palestinians as practitioners in the study of Palestinian archaeology is relatively recent. The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land notes that, \"The 1990s have seen the development of Palestinian archaeological activities, with a focus on tell archaeology on the one hand (H. Taha and M. Sadeq) and on the investigation of the indigenous landscape and cultural heritage on the other (K. Nashef and M. Abu Khalaf).\"", "The Palestinian Archaeology Institute at Bir Zeit University in Ramallah was established in 1987 with the help of Albert Glock, who headed the archaeology department at the university at the time. Glock's objective was to establish an archaeological program that would emphasize the Palestinian presence in Palestine, informed by his belief that, \"Archaeology, as everything else, is politics, and my politics [are those] of the losers.\" Glock was killed in the West Bank by unidentified gunmen in 1992", ".\" Glock was killed in the West Bank by unidentified gunmen in 1992. The first archaeological site excavated by researchers from Bir Zeit University was undertaken in Tell Jenin in 1993.", "Glock's views are echoed in the work of , a Palestinian archaeologist at Bir Zeit and editor of the university's Journal of Palestinian Archaeology, who writes that for too long the history of Palestine has been written by Christian and Israeli \"biblical archaeologists\", and that Palestinians must themselves re-write that history, beginning with the archaeological recovery of ancient Palestine", ". Such a perspective can also be seen in the practices of Hamdan Taha, the director of the Palestinian National Authority's Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage, responsible for overseeing preservation and excavation projects that involve both internationals and Palestinians.", "Gerrit van der Kooij, an archaeologist at Leiden University in the Netherlands who works with Taha, says that, \"It doesn't surprise me that outsiders become frustrated [... Taha] sticks by his policy of equal partnership. That means Palestinians must be involved at every step,\" from planning and digging to publishing. In Van der Kooij's opinion, this policy is \"fully justified and adds more social value to the project.\"", "Dever submits that the recent insistence that Palestinian archaeology and history be written by \"real Palestinians\" stems from the influence of those he terms the \"biblical revisionists\", such as Keith W. Whitelam, Thomas L. Thompson, Phillip Davies and Niels Peter Lemche", ". Whitelam, Thomas L. Thompson, Phillip Davies and Niels Peter Lemche. Whitelam's book, The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History (1996) and Thompson's book, The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology and the Myth of Israel (1999) were both translated into Arabic shortly after their publication. Dever speculates that, \"Nashef and many other Palestinian political activists have obviously read it", ".\" Harshly critical of both books, Dever accuses Whitelam's thesis that Israelis and \"Jewish-inspired Christians\" invented Israel, thus deliberately robbing Palestinians of their history, of being \"extremely inflammatory\" and \"bordering on anti-Semitism\", and Thompson's book of being \"even more rabid.\"", "Dever cites an editorial by Nashef published in the Journal of Palestinian Archaeology in July 2000 entitled, \"The Debate on 'Ancient Israel': A Palestinian Perspective\", that explicitly names the four \"biblical revisionists\" mentioned above, as evidence for his claim that their \"rhetoric\" has influenced Palestinian archaeologists", ". In the editorial itself, Nashef writes: \"The fact of the matter is, the Palestinians have something completely different to offer in the debate on 'ancient Israel,' which seems to threaten the ideological basis of BAR (the American popular magazine, Biblical Archaeology Review, which turned down this piece - WGD): they simply exist, and they have always existed on the soil of Palestine ...\"", "According to the Palestinian Authority's Ministry of Tourism and Antiquity, in the West Bank and Gaza Strip there are 12,000 archaeological and cultural heritage sites, 60,000 traditional houses, 1,750 major sites of human settlement, and 500 sites which have been excavated to date, 60 of which are major sites.\n\nArchaeology in Israel", "Excavation in Israel continues at a relatively rapid pace and is conducted according to generally high standards. Excavators return each year to a number of key sites that have been selected for their potential scientific and cultural interest. Current excavated sites of importance include Ashkelon, Hazor, Megiddo, Tel es-Safi, Dor, Hippos, Tel Kabri, Gamla and Rehov", ". Recent issues center on the veracity of such artifacts as the Jehoash Inscription and the James Ossuary, as well as the validity of whole chronological schemes. Amihai Mazar and Israel Finkelstein represent leading figures in the debate over the nature and chronology of the United Monarchy.", "Archaeology in the West Bank\nAfter the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the West Bank was annexed by Jordan (1950), and archaeological excavations in the region were carried out by its Department of Antiquities, as had been the case throughout the British Mandate in Palestine. Made up of Muslim and Christian officials and headed by the British archaeologist Gerald Lankaster Harding until 1956, field archaeology was conducted primarily by foreigners.", "Large-scale expeditions included those of the American Schools of Oriental Research at Tell Balata (1956–1964), the British School of Archaeology at Jericho (1952–1958), and the École Biblique at Tell el-Farah (1946–1960) and Khirbet Qumran (1951–1956). Rising nationalistic pressures led to Harding's dismissal in 1956 and thereafter, the Department of Antiquities was headed by Jordanian nationals.", "After Israel occupied the area during the 1967 war, all antiquities in the area came under the control of the Archaeological Staff Officer. Though the Hague Convention prohibits the removal of cultural property from militarily occupied areas, both foreign and Israeli archaeologists mounted extensive excavations that have been criticized as overstepping the bounds of legitimate work to protect endangered sites", ". Vast amounts of new archaeological data have been uncovered in these explorations, although critics say that \"relatively little effort was made to preserve or protect archaeological remains from the later Islamic and Ottoman periods, which were of direct relevance to the areas Muslim inhabitants.\"", "In the early 20th century, Palestinians focused on investigating Palestinian \"material culture,\" as it relates to folklore and customs. In 1920, the Palestine Oriental Society was founded by, most prominently among them Tawfiq Canaan. The work of this society was more ethnographic and anthropological than archaeological. Interest in archaeological fieldwork increased as West Bank universities emerged in the 1980s and cultivated a new approach to Palestinian archaeology", ". A new generation of Palestinians, like Albert Glock, introduced innovations to the field by studying Islamic and Ottoman period ruins in village contexts.", "Notable findings and sites\n\nBelameh\nBelameh, located a little over one mile (1.6 km) south of Jenin, is an important Bronze Age site identified with the ancient Ibleam, a Canaanite city mentioned in the Egyptian Royal Archive that was conquered by Thutmose III in the 15th century BCE. Ibleam is also mentioned in three passages of the Hebrew Bible. The location was called Belemoth during Roman-Byzantine times, and Castellum Beleismum in the Crusader sources.", "The site was initially discovered by Victor Guérin in 1874, then by Gottlieb Schumacher in 1910, and Bellarmino Bagatti in 1974. Later on, excavations in Khirbet Belameh, led by Hamdan Taha of the Palestinian Antiquities Department, began in 1996. These have focused on a water tunnel carved out of rock sometime in the Late Bronze or Early Iron Age that connected the city at the top of the hill to its water source at the bottom, a spring known as Bir es-Sinjib", ". The tunnel allowed inhabitants to walk through it undetected, particularly useful during times of siege. There is evidence that the tunnel fell into disuse in the 8th century BCE, and that the entrance was subsequently rehabilitated some time in the Roman period, while the site itself shows occupation into the medieval period. Plans have been drawn up to turn the site into an archaeological park. G. Schumacher had described the water tunnel in 1908, and a small-scale excavation was conducted by Z", ". Schumacher had described the water tunnel in 1908, and a small-scale excavation was conducted by Z. Yeivin in 1973. The water passage of Belameh is important for the understanding of ancient water systems in Palestine.", "Bethlehem\n\nAs of April 2007, the procedures to add Bethlehem and the Church of the Nativity to the UNESCO World Heritage List have been initiated.\n\nDead Sea Scrolls", "The Dead Sea Scrolls are 981 parchments discovered in 11 caves in the hills above Qumran between 1947 and 1956. The discovery of the scrolls was dubbed \"[u]nquestionably the greatest manuscript find of modern times\" by William F. Albright, and the majority are transcribed in a unique form of Hebrew now known as \"Qumran Hebrew\", and seen as a link between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew. Some 120 scrolls are written in Aramaic, and a few of the biblical texts are written in Ancient Greek", ". Israel purchased some of the parchments, believed to have been composed or transcribed between 1 BCE and 1 CE, after they were first unearthed by a Bedouin shepherd in 1947. The remainder were acquired by Israel from the Rockefeller Museum in the 1967 war.", "When 350 participants from 25 countries gathered at a conference at the Israel Museum marking the fiftieth anniversary of their discovery, Amir Drori, head of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), said that the 2,000-year-old documents were legally acquired and an inseparable part of Jewish tradition. A Palestinian academic, Hamdan Taha, responded that Israel's capture of the works after the 1967 war was theft \"which should be recitified now\"", "., Israel is now digitally photographing the thousands of fragments that make up the Dead Sea Scrolls in order to make them freely available on the Internet.", "Nablus", "The Old City of Nablus consists of seven quarters representing a distinctive style of traditional urban architecture in Palestine. Founded in 72 CE by the emperor Vespasian under the name Neapolis, the city flourished during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, becoming the seat of a bishopric", ". Monuments in the city include \"nine historic mosques (four built on Byzantine churches and five from the early Islamic period), an Ayyubid mausoleum, and a 17th-century church, but most buildings are Ottoman-era structures such as 2 major khans, 10 Turkish bath houses, 30 olive-oil soap factories (7 of which were functioning), 2850 historic houses and exceptional family palaces, 18 Islamic monuments and 17 sabeel (water fountains)", ".\" A few monuments within the Old City date back to the Byzantine and Crusader periods. A Roman-era aqueduct system runs under the city, part of which had recently been preserved by the municipality and opened for visitors.", "According to Hamdan Taha, great damage was inflicted on the historic core of the city during Israeli military incursions in 2002–2003. Taha's claim was confirmed by a series of reports produced by UNESCO that noted that pursuant to military operations undertaken in April 2002, hundreds of buildings in the Old City were affected, sixty-four of which were severely damaged", ". Of these, seventeen were designated as being of particular significance to world heritage, as per an inventory of sites prepared by Graz University between 1997 and 2002. According to UNESCO, reconstruction costs are estimated at tens of millions USD, though \"the loss of irreplaceable heritage damage cannot be determined financially.\"", "Tel es-Sultan\n\nTel es-Sultan (meaning the \"Sultan's Hill\") is located in Jericho, approximately two kilometers from the city center. Kathleen Kenyon's excavations at the site beginning in 1951, established that it was one of the earliest sites of human habitation, dating back to 9000 BCE. The mound contains several layers attesting to its habitation throughout the ages.", "Despite recognition of its importance by archaeologists, the site is not presently included on the World Heritage List. In April 2007, Hamdan Taha announced that the Palestinian Authority's Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage had begun the procedures for its nomination.\n\nChallenges posed by the Israeli–Palestinian conflict", "West Bank barrier", "Construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier has damaged and threatens to damage a number of sites of interest to Palestinian archaeology in and around the Green Line, prompting condemnation from the World Archaeological Congress (WAC) and a call for Israel to abide by UNESCO conventions that protect cultural heritage", ". In the autumn of 2003, bulldozers preparing the ground for a section of the barrier that runs through Abu Dis in East Jerusalem damaged the remains of a 1,500-year-old Byzantine era monastery. Construction was halted to allow the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) to conduct a salvage excavation that recovered a mosaic, among other artifacts. Media reported that an IAA official media blamed the IDF for proceeding without procuring the opinion of the IAA.", "Archaeology in Gaza Strip", "For the last 3,500 years, Gaza's history has been shaped by its location on the route linking North Africa to the fertile land of the Levant to the north. First strategically important to the Egyptian Pharaohs, it remained so for the many empires who sought to wield power in the region that followed. Gerald Butt, historian and author of Gaza at the Crossroads, explains that, \"It's found itself the target of constant sieges - constant battles [..", "...] The people have been subject to rule from all over the globe. Right through the centuries Gaza's been at the centre of the major military campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean.\" Gaza's main highway, the Salah al-Din Road, is one of the oldest in the world, and has been traversed by the chariots of the armies of the Pharaohs and Alexander the Great, the cavalry of the Crusaders, and Napoleon Bonaparte.", "Having long been overlooked in archaeological research, the number of excavations in the Gaza Strip has multiplied since the establishment in 1995 of the Department of Antiquities in Gaza, a branch of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities of the Palestinian National Authority. Plans to build a national archaeological museum also promise to highlight the rich history of Gaza City, which has been described as, \"one of the world's oldest living cities", ".\" Rapid urban development makes the need for archaeological research all the more urgent to protect the region's archaeological heritage. Population pressure in the tiny Gaza Strip is intense, which means that numerous potential archaeological sites may have been built over and lost. According to specialists, there is much more under ground and under the sea than what has been discovered to date.", "Notable findings and sites\n\nAnthedon\nJoint archaeological excavations by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and the École Biblique et Archéologique Française began in the Beach refugee camp in Gaza in 1995. Various artifacts dating back as far as 800 BCE include high walls, pottery, warehouses and mud-brick houses with colorful frescoed walls. Archaeologists believe the site may be Anthedon (Antidon), a major Hellenistic seaport on the Mediterranean which connected Asia and Africa to Europe.", "Christian sites", "A 6th-century Byzantine church was discovered in 1999 by an Israeli archaeologist on the site of an IDF military installation in the northwestern tip of the Gaza Strip. The well-preserved 1,461-year-old church contains three large and colorful mosaics with floral-motifs and geometric shapes. The most impressive of these is a multi-colored medallion at the entrance to the church. Inscribed therein is the name of the church, St", ". Inscribed therein is the name of the church, St. John, (named for John the Baptist), the names of the mosaic's donors, Victor and Yohanan, and the date of the laying of the church's foundations (544 CE). Also found nearby were a Byzantine hot bath and artificial fishponds.", "Palestinian archaeologists have also discovered a number of sites of significance to Christianity. At Tell Umm el ‘Amer in 2001, a Byzantine-era mosaic was unearthed. Experts believe it forms part of the oldest monastic complex ever to be discovered in the Middle East, likely founded in the 3rd century by Saint Hilario", ". While the archaeologists working at the site are Muslim Palestinians, they see nothing unusual about their desire to protect and promote a Christian shrine in an area inhabited by only 3,500 Christians today. Said Yasser Matar, co-director of the dig: \"This is our history; this is our civilisation and we want our people to know about it [...] First we were Christians and later we became Muslims. These people were our forefathers: the ancient Palestinians.\" Dr", ". These people were our forefathers: the ancient Palestinians.\" Dr. Moin Sadeq, director general of the Department of Antiquities in Gaza, has submitted an application to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to assign it World Heritage Site status and fund the site's protection, restoration and rehabilitation for visitors", ". Another Byzantine era monastery and mosaic, since named the 'Jabalya Mosaic', was excavated by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities after its discovery by labourers working on Salah ad-Din road in Gaza City.", "Tell es-Sakan", "Tell es-Sakan is the only Early Bronze Age site in Gaza discovered to date. Located five kilometers south of Gaza City, the site was discovered by chance in 1998 during construction for a new housing complex, and work was halted to allow archaeological soundings to be conducted. The site spans an area of eight to twelve hectares and shows evidence of continuous habitation throughout the Early Bronze Age (3,300 to 2,200 BCE)", ". Joint Franco-Palestinian excavations with UNDP support began in August 2000, covering an area of 1,400 square meters and revealed two main phases of occupation. Four strata at the base of the site reveal Protodynastic Egyptian settlement dating towards the end of the 4th millennium BCE, while middle and upper strata reveal Canaanite settlement during the 3rd millennium BCE.", "Challenges posed by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict", "In 1974, the IAA removed a sixth-century Byzantine mosaic from Gaza City, dubbed 'King David Playing the Lyre', which is now in the synagogue section of the Israel Museum. According to Jerusalem Post, it is illegal for an occupying power to remove ancient artifacts from the land it occupies, but Israel alleges that the Palestinians have not been able to safeguard antiquities in the areas under their control", ". Hananya Hizmi, deputy of Israel's Department of Antiquities in Judea and Samaria, explained, \"Probably it was done to preserve the mosaic. Maybe there was an intention to return [the mosaic] and it didn't work out. I don't know why.\"", "Archaeology of the Old City of Jerusalem", "Sovereignty dispute", "Proposals to internationalize the Old City of Jerusalem have been rejected by all parties in the Israeli-Arab conflict, each insisting on exclusive sovereignty. Neil Silberman, an Israeli archaeologist, has demonstrated how legitimate archaeological research and preservation efforts have been exploited by Palestinians and Israelis for partisan ends", ". Rather than attempting to understand \"the natural process of demolition, eradication, rebuilding, evasion, and ideological reinterpretation that has permitted ancient rulers and modern groups to claim exclusive possession,\" archaeologists have become active participants in the battle. Silberman writes that archaeology, a seemingly objective science, has exacerbated, rather than ameliorated the ongoing nationalist dispute: \"The digging continues", ". Claims and counterclaims about exclusive historical 'ownership' weave together the random acts of violence of bifurcated collective memory.\"", "An archaeological tunnel running the length of the western side of the Temple Mount, as it is known to Jews, or the Haram al-Sharif, as it is known to Muslims, sparked a serious conflict in 1996. As a result, rioting broke out in Jerusalem and spread to the West Bank, leading to the deaths of 86 Palestinians and 15 Israeli soldiers.\n\nDamage to archaeological sites", "During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, and throughout the period of Jordanian rule of Jerusalem which ended in 1967, Jordanian authorities and military forces undertook a policy described by their military commander as \"calculated destruction,\", aimed at the Jewish Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem", ". The Jordanian actions were described in a letter to the United Nations by Yosef Tekoa, Israel's permanent representative to the organization at the time, as a \"policy of wanton vandalism, desecration and violation,\" which resulted in the destruction of all but one of 35 Jewish houses of worship. Synagogues were razed or pillaged. Many of them were demolished by explosives, and others subjected to ritual desecration, through the conversion to stables", ". In the ancient historic Jewish graveyard on the Mount of Olives, tens of thousands of tombstones, some dating from as early as 1 BCE, were torn up, broken or used as flagstones, steps and building materials in Jordanian military installations. Large areas of the cemetery were levelled and turned into parking lots and gas stations.", "The Old City of Jerusalem and its walls were added to the List of World Heritage in Danger in 1982, after it was nominated for inclusion by Jordan. Noting the \"severe destruction followed by a rapid urbanization,\" UNESCO determined that the site met \"the criteria\nproposed for the inscription of properties on the List of World Heritage in Danger as they apply to both 'ascertained danger' and 'potential danger'.\"", "Work carried out by the Islamic Waqf since the late 1990s to convert two ancient underground structures into a large new mosque on the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif damaged archaeological artifacts in Solomon's Stables and Huldah Gates areas. From October 1999 to January 2000, the Waqf authorities in Jerusalem opened an emergency exit to the newly renovated underground mosque, in the process digging a pit measuring and deep", ". The Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) expressed concern over the damage sustained to Muslim-period structures within the compound as a result of the digging. Jon Seligman, a Jerusalem District archaeologist told Archaeology magazine that, \"It was clear to the IAA that an emergency exit [at the Marwani Mosque] was necessary, but in the best situation, salvage archaeology would have been performed first", ".\" Seligman also said that the lack of archaeological supervision \"has meant a great loss to all of humanity. It was an archeological crime.\".", "Some Israeli archaeologists also charged that archaeological material dating to the First Temple Period (c. 960-586 BCE) was destroyed when the thousands of tons of ancient fill from the site were dumped into the Kidron Valley, as well as into Jerusalem's municipal garbage dump, where it mixed with the local garbage, making it impossible to conduct archaeological examination. They further contended that the Waqf was deliberately removing evidence of Jewish remains. For example, Dr", ". For example, Dr. Eilat Mazar told Ynet news that the actions by the Waqf were linked to the routine denials of the existence of the Jerusalem Temples by senior officials of the Palestinian Authority. She stated that, \"They want to turn the whole of the Temple Mount into a mosque for Muslims only. They don't care about the artifacts or heritage on the site", ". They don't care about the artifacts or heritage on the site.\" However, Seligman and Gideon Avni, another Israeli archaeologist, told Archaeology magazine that while the fill did indeed contain shards from the First Temple period, they were located in originally unstratified fill and therefore lacked any serious archaeological value.", "Archaeology in Jordan\n\nCompared to Israel, archaeological knowledge about Jordan (formerly Transjordan) is limited. Two universities, the University of Jordan and Yarmouk University, offer archaeology studies. Apart from the work of the official antiquities department, there are many foreign-educated professional archaeologists in Jordan, working on dozens of field projects. Findings have been published in the four-volume Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan (1982–1992).", "Archaeology in Lebanon", "Important sites in Lebanon dating to the Neanderthal period include Adloun, Chekka Jdidé, El-Masloukh, Ksar Akil, Nahr Ibrahim and Naame. Byblos is a well-known archaeological site, a Phoenician seaport, where the tomb of Ahiram is believed to be located. An ancient Phoenician inscription on the tomb dates to between the 13th and 10th centuries BCE", ". An ancient Phoenician inscription on the tomb dates to between the 13th and 10th centuries BCE. Byblos, as well as archaeological sites in Baalbek, Tyre, Sidon, and Tripoli, contain artifacts indicating the presence of libraries dating back to the period of Classical antiquity.", "Archaeology in Syria", "Coastal, central and southern Syria (including modern Lebanon) \"constitute the major part of ancient Canaan, or the southern Levant,\" and according to Dever, the area is \"potentially far richer in archaeology remains than Palestine.\" Yet, in the 19th century, Syria received significantly less archaeological exploration than Palestine. Beginning in the 1920s, large excavations have been conducted in such key sites as Ebla, Hama, and Ugarit", ". Albright envisioned Palestine and Syria within the same cultural orbit and, though best known for his pioneering work on biblical archaeology, he also foreshadowed contemporary scholars in using \"Syro-Palestinian\" to integrate the archaeology from Syria.", "Syria is often acknowledged to be a \"crossroads of civilizations\", \"traversed by caravans and military expeditions moving between the economic and political poles of the Ancient Near Eastern world, from Egypt to Anatolia, from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia.\" While there is significant geographical and cultural overlap with its neighbouring regions, Akkermans and Schwartz note that specialists in Syria itself, rarely use the term \"Syro-Palestinian archaeology\" to describe their inquiries in the field", ". Syria can be seen as a distinct and autonomous geographical and cultural entity whose rainfall-farming plains could support larger scale populations, communities, and political units than those in Palestine and Lebanon.", "Following the program of the French Mandate, the Syrian school of archaeology has an official antiquities department, museums in Aleppo and Damascus, and at least two important scholarly journals.", "Archaeology in Turkey (Hatay Province)\nThe Amuq Valley in the Hatay Province of Turkey has aided in the understanding of western Syrian historical chronologies. Robert Braidwood documented 178 ancient sites in the Amuq Valley, eight of which were then further excavated. Artifacts recovered from these excavations helped in the formation of a historical chronology of Syrian archaeology spanning from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age.\n\nArchaeology, history and modern Arab-Israeli politics", "Archaeology has been widely influenced by the modern Arab-Israeli conflict. During the British Occupation, many Jewish and Christian populations have renewed their interest in the ancient Judaic archaeological sites located in the region. Several Palestinian authors argue that Zionists, or individuals who believe in a Jewish homeland, use archaeology to create a sense of national identity", ". One author, in a highly controversial book, when as far as to state that a joint project of the Jewish Palestine Exploration Society and the Va‘adat Shemot (Names Committee) attempted to rename sites from an Arab-Ottoman template to the template of biblical Israel. Today this attitude, is an important factor in the controversy over the West Bank", ". Today this attitude, is an important factor in the controversy over the West Bank. Judea and Samaria, (the name of the region prior to the occupation of the region by Jordan), are the locations of several archaeological sites and ancient Hebrew artifacts. Israeli (and Jewish) scholar Nachman Ben-Yehuda, quoting Y", ". Shavit", ", lists the following aspects of archaeology that have been placed in the service of a Jewish homeland: (1) confirming the essence of the biblical narrative; (2) proving the continuity of Jewish settlement in Israel as well as its size; (3) \"to emphasize the attitude of Jewish settlers to the land\"; (4) emphasizing the practical side of life in the land; (5) providing the contemporary Jewish presence with a deep \"structural-historical\" meaning; and (6) \"to provide the new Jewish presence with concrete", "a deep \"structural-historical\" meaning; and (6) \"to provide the new Jewish presence with concrete symbols from the past which can be transformed into symbols of historical legitimization and presence", ".\"", "Some Palestinian scholars have argued that they, not modern Jews, are the genuine descendants of the Israelites and Philistines ancient inhabitants of the land. Renovations on the Temple Mount conducted by the Islamic Religious Authority, especially in the area adjoining and underlying the El-Aqsa Mosque, have sacrificed the integrity of underlying structures by dumping debris and other materials. This has contributed to the bulge in the southern wall of the Temple.", "See also\n Archaeology of Israel\n List of archaeological sites in Israel and Palestine\n Near Eastern archaeology\n Near Eastern bioarchaeology\n Prehistory of the Levant\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n.\n\n.\n.\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n \n\n.\n.\n\n.\n\n.", "External links\nThe West Bank and East Jerusalem Archaeological Database Project from the S. Daniel Abraham Center for International and Regional Studies, Tel Aviv University.\nMEGA–Jordan Archaeological Sites Database - Getty Conservation Institute, World Monuments Fund and Jordanian Department of Antiquities\nDead Sea Scrolls still a puzzle after 50 years\nNew Discoveries in Mosaics in the Territory under Palestinian Authority\nNova special, The Bible's Buried Secrets", "Nova special, The Bible's Buried Secrets\nBiblical Pseudo-Archeologists Pillaging the West Bank", "Archaeology of the Near East\nArchaeology of Palestine (region)\nNationalism and archaeology" ]

[ "Water heating is a heat transfer process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses.", "Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters, kettles, cauldrons, pots, or coppers. These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs. The temperature varies with the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases.", "Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called water heaters, hot water heaters, hot water tanks, boilers, heat exchangers, geysers (Southern Africa and the Arab world), or calorifiers. These names depend on region, and whether they heat potable or non-potable water, are in domestic or industrial use, and their energy source. In domestic installations, potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called domestic hot water (DHW).", "Fossil fuels (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, oil), or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water. These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that, in turn, heats water. Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source, such as nuclear power or renewable energy", ". Alternative energy such as solar energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling, and geothermal heating can also heat water, often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity.", "Densely populated urban areas of some countries provide district heating of hot water. This is especially the case in Scandinavia, Finland and Poland. District heating systems supply energy for water heating and space heating from combined heat and power (CHP) plants such as incinerators, central heat pumps, waste heat from industries, geothermal heating, and central solar heating. Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers' premises", ". Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers' premises. Generally the consumer has no in-building backup system as redundancy is usually significant on the district heating supply side.", "Today, in the United States, domestic hot water used in homes is most commonly heated with natural gas, electric resistance, or a heat pump. Electric heat pump water heaters are significantly more efficient than electric resistance water heaters, but also more expensive to purchase. Some energy utilities offer their customers funding to help offset the higher first cost of energy efficient water heaters.\n\nTypes of water heating appliances", "Types of water heating appliances \n\nHot water used for space heating may be heated by fossil fuels in a boiler, while potable water may be heated in a separate appliance. This is common practice in the US, especially when warm-air space heating is usually employed.\n\nStorage water heaters (tank-type)", "In household and commercial usage, most North American and Southern Asian water heaters are the tank type, also called storage water heaters. These consist of a cylindrical vessel or container that keeps water continuously hot and ready to use. Typical sizes for household use range from 75400 L (20100 US gallons). These may use electricity, natural gas, propane, heating oil, solar, or other energy sources", ". These may use electricity, natural gas, propane, heating oil, solar, or other energy sources. Natural gas heaters are most popular in the US and most European countries, since the gas is often conveniently piped throughout cities and towns and currently is the cheapest to use. In the United States, typical natural gas water heaters for households without unusual needs are with a burner rated at .", "This is a popular arrangement where higher flow rates are required for limited periods. Water is heated in a pressure vessel that can withstand a hydrostatic pressure close to that of the incoming mains supply. A pressure reducing valve is sometimes employed to limit the pressure to a safe level for the vessel. In North America, these vessels are called hot water tanks, and may incorporate an electrical resistance heater, a heat pump, or a gas or oil burner that heats water directly.", "Where hot-water space heating boilers are installed, domestic hot water cylinders are usually heated indirectly by primary water from the boiler, or by an electric immersion heater (often as backup to the boiler). In the UK these vessels are called indirect cylinders and direct cylinders, respectively. Additionally, if these cylinders form part of a sealed system, providing mains-pressure hot water, they are known as unvented cylinders", ". In the US, when connected to a boiler, they are called indirect-fired water heaters.", "Compared to tankless heaters, storage water heaters have the advantage of using energy (gas or electricity) at a relatively slow rate, storing the heat for later use. The disadvantage is that over time, heat escapes through the tank wall and the water cools down, activating the heating system to heat the water back up, so investing in a tank with better insulation improves this standby efficiency", ". Additionally, when heavy use exhausts the hot water, there is a significant delay before hot water is available again. Larger tanks tend to provide hot water with less temperature fluctuation at moderate flow rates.", "Volume storage water heaters in the United States and New Zealand are typically vertical cylindrical tanks, usually standing on the floor, a 'cylinder tray' or on a platform raised a short distance above the floor. Volume storage water heaters in Spain are typically horizontal. In India, they are mainly vertical. In apartments they can be mounted in the ceiling space over laundry-utility rooms", ". In apartments they can be mounted in the ceiling space over laundry-utility rooms. In Australia, gas and electric outdoor tank heaters have mainly been used (with high temperatures to increase effective capacity), but solar roof tanks are becoming fashionable.", "Tiny point-of-use (POU) electric storage water heaters with capacities ranging from 832 L (26 gallons) are made for installation in kitchen and bath cabinets or on the wall above a sink. They typically use low power heating elements, about 1 kW to 1.5 kW, and can provide hot water long enough for hand washing, or, if plumbed into an existing hot water line, until hot water arrives from a remote high capacity water heater", ". They may be used when retrofitting a building with hot water plumbing is too costly or impractical. Since they maintain water temperature thermostatically, they can only supply a continuous flow of hot water at extremely low flow rates, unlike high-capacity tankless heaters.", "In tropical countries like Singapore and India, a storage water heater may vary from 10 L to 35 L. Smaller water heaters are sufficient, as ambient weather temperatures and incoming water temperature are moderate. The Coldest regions in India like Kashmir, people are mostly dependent on the storage type electric water heaters. Mostly 50L or 75L Storage type electric water heaters are connected to overhead water source.", "Point-of-use (POU) vs centralized hot water", "A locational design decision may be made between point-of-use and centralized water heaters. Centralized water heaters are more traditional, and are still a good choice for small buildings. For larger buildings with intermittent or occasional hot water use, multiple POU water heaters may be a better choice, since they can reduce long waits for hot water to arrive from a remote heater. The decision where to locate the water heater(s) is only partially independent of the decision of a tanked vs", ". tankless water heater, or the choice of energy source for the heat.", "Instantaneous water heaters (tankless-type) \n\nTankless water heaters—also called instantaneous, continuous flow, inline, flash, on-demand, or instant-on water heaters—are gaining in popularity. These high-power water heaters instantly heat water as it flows through the device, and do not retain any water internally except for what is in the heat exchanger coil. Copper heat exchangers are preferred in these units because of their high thermal conductivity and ease of fabrication.", "Tankless heaters may be installed throughout a household at more than one point-of-use (POU), far from a central water heater, or larger centralized models may still be used to provide all the hot water requirements for an entire house. The main advantages of tankless water heaters are a plentiful continuous flow of hot water (as compared to a limited flow of continuously heated hot water from conventional tank water heaters), and potential energy savings under some conditions", ". The main disadvantage is their much higher initial costs; a US study in Minnesota reported a 20- to 40-year payback for the tankless water heaters. In a comparison to a less efficient natural gas fired hot water tank, on-demand natural gas will cost 30% more over its useful life.", "Stand-alone appliances for quickly heating water for domestic usage are known in North America as tankless or on demand water heaters. In some places, they are called multipoint heaters, geysers or ascots. In Australia and New Zealand they are called instantaneous hot water units. In Argentina they are called calefones. In that country calefones use gas instead of electricity, although gas powered tankless water heaters can also be found in other countries", ". A similar wood-fired appliance was known as the chip heater.", "A common arrangement where hot-water space heating is employed is for a boiler also to heat potable water, providing a continuous supply of hot water without extra equipment. Appliances that can supply both space-heating and domestic hot water are called combination (or combi) boilers. Though on-demand heaters provide a continuous supply of domestic hot water, the rate at which they can produce it is limited by the thermodynamics of heating water from the available fuel supplies.\n\nElectric shower heads", "Electric shower heads \n\nAn electric shower head has an electric heating element which heats water as it passes through. These self-heating shower heads are specialized point-of-use (POU) tankless water heaters, and are widely used in some countries.", "Invented in Brazil in the 1930s due to a lack of central gas distribution and used frequently since the 1940s, the electric shower is a home appliance often seen in South and Central American countries due to the higher costs of gas distribution, combined with households that in most cases do not support conventional water heaters", ". Earlier models were made of chromed copper or brass, which were expensive, but since 1970, units made of injected plastics are popular due to low prices similar to that of a hair dryer.", "Electric showers have a simple electric system, working like a coffee maker, but with a larger water flow. A flow switch turns on the device when water flows through it. Once the water is stopped, the device turns off automatically. An ordinary electric shower often but not always has three heat settings: high (5.5 kW), low (2.5 kW), or cold (0 W) to use when a central heater system is available or in hot seasons. Higher power (up to 7.5 KW) and lower power (up to 3", ". Higher power (up to 7.5 KW) and lower power (up to 3.2 KW) versions are also made, as well as versions with 4 heat settings or a variable heat setting.", "Energy usage", "The power consumption of electric showers in the max. heating setting is about 5.5 kW for 120 V and 7.5 kW for 220 V. The lower costs with electric showers compared to the higher costs with tank boilers is due to the time of use: an electric shower uses energy only while the water flows, while a tank boiler works many times a day to keep a quantity of standing water hot for use throughout the day and night", ". Moreover, the transfer of electric energy to the water in an electric shower head is very efficient, approaching 100%. Electric showers may save energy compared to electric tank heaters, which lose some standby heat.", "Safety", "There is a wide range of electric shower heads, with various designs and types of heating controls. The heating element of an electric shower is immersed in the water stream, using an often replaceable nichrome resistive heating element which is often not sheathed and electrically isolated, in which case isolation is provided by earthing electrodes that directly touch the water before it exits the head", ". Electric shower heads with sheathed and electrically isolated heating elements are often marketed as such (chuveiros blindados in Portuguese) and are more expensive. Due to electrical safety standards as well as cost, modern electric showers are made of plastic instead of using metallic casings like in the past.", "As an electrical appliance that uses more electric current than a clothes washer or a hair dryer, an electric shower installation requires careful planning, and generally is intended to be wired directly from the electrical distribution box with a dedicated circuit breaker and ground system", ". A poorly installed system with old aluminum wires, bad connections or an unconnected ground wire (which is often the case) may be dangerous, as the wires can overheat or electric current may leak via the water stream through the body of the user to earth.", "Solar water heaters \n\nIncreasingly, solar powered water heaters are being used. Their solar collectors are installed outside dwellings, typically on the roof or walls or nearby, and the potable hot water storage tank is typically a pre-existing or new conventional water heater, or a water heater specifically designed for solar thermal. In Cyprus and Israel 90 percent of homes have solar water heating systems.", "The most basic solar thermal models are the direct-gain type, in which the potable water is directly sent into the collector. Many such systems are said to use integrated collector storage (ICS), as direct-gain systems typically have storage integrated within the collector", ". Heating water directly is inherently more efficient than heating it indirectly via heat exchangers, but such systems offer very limited freeze protection (if any), can easily heat water to temperatures unsafe for domestic use, and ICS systems suffer from severe heat loss on cold nights and cold, cloudy days.", "By contrast, indirect or closed-loop systems do not allow potable water through the panels, but rather pump a heat transfer fluid (either water or a water/antifreeze mix) through the panels. After collecting heat in the panels, the heat transfer fluid flows through a heat exchanger, transferring its heat to the potable hot water", ". When the panels are cooler than the storage tank or when the storage tank has already reached its maximum temperature, the controller in closed-loop systems stops the circulation pumps. In a drainback system, the water drains into a storage tank contained in conditioned or semi-conditioned space, protected from freezing temperatures", ". With antifreeze systems, however, the pump must be run if the panel temperature gets too hot (to prevent degradation of the antifreeze) or too cold (to prevent the water/antifreeze mixture from freezing.)", "Flat panel collectors are typically used in closed-loop systems. Flat panels, which often resemble skylights, are the most durable type of collector, and they also have the best performance for systems designed for temperatures within of ambient temperature. Flat panels are regularly used in both pure water and antifreeze systems.", "Another type of solar collector is the evacuated tube collector, which are intended for cold climates that do not experience severe hail and/or applications where high temperatures are needed (i.e., over ). Placed in a rack, evacuated tube collectors form a row of glass tubes, each containing absorption fins attached to a central heat-conducting rod (copper or condensation-driven)", ". The evacuated description refers to the vacuum created in the glass tubes during the manufacturing process, which results in very low heat loss and lets evacuated tube systems achieve extreme temperatures, far in excess of water's boiling point.", "Geothermal heating \nIn countries like Iceland and New Zealand, and other volcanic regions, water heating may be done using geothermal heating, rather than combustion.", "Gravity-fed system", "Where a space-heating water boiler is employed, the traditional arrangement in the UK is to use boiler-heated (primary) water to heat potable (secondary) water contained in a cylindrical vessel (usually made of copper)—which is supplied from a cold water storage vessel or container, usually in the roof space of the building. This produces a fairly steady supply of DHW (domestic hot water) at low static pressure head but usually with a good flow", ". In most other parts of the world, water heating appliances do not use a cold water storage vessel or container, but heat water at pressures close to that of the incoming mains water supply.", "Other improvements", "Other improvements to water heaters include check valve devices at their inlet and outlet, cycle timers, electronic ignition in the case of fuel-using models, sealed air intake systems in the case of fuel-using models, and pipe insulation. The sealed air-intake system types are sometimes called \"band-joist\" intake units. \"High-efficiency\" condensing units can convert up to 98% of the energy in the fuel to heating the water", ". The exhaust gases of combustion are cooled and are mechanically ventilated either through the roof or through an exterior wall. At high combustion efficiencies a drain must be supplied to handle the water condensed out of the combustion products, which are primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor.", "In traditional plumbing in the UK, the space-heating boiler is set up to heat a separate hot water cylinder or water heater for potable hot water. Such water heaters are often fitted with an auxiliary electrical immersion heater for use if the boiler is out of action for a time. Heat from the space-heating boiler is transferred to the water heater vessel/container by means of a heat exchanger, and the boiler operates at a higher temperature than the potable hot water supply", ". Most potable water heaters in North America are completely separate from the space heating units, due to the popularity of HVAC/forced air systems in North America.", "Residential combustion water heaters manufactured since 2003 in the United States have been redesigned to resist ignition of flammable vapors and incorporate a thermal cutoff switch, per ANSI Z21.10.1. The first feature attempts to prevent vapors from flammable liquids and gases in the vicinity of the heater from being ignited and thus causing a house fire or explosion. The second feature prevents tank overheating due to unusual combustion conditions", ". The second feature prevents tank overheating due to unusual combustion conditions. These safety requirements were made in response to homeowners storing, or spilling, gasoline or other flammable liquids near their water heaters and causing fires. Since most of the new designs incorporate some type of flame arrestor screen, they require monitoring to make sure they do not become clogged with lint or dust, reducing the availability of air for combustion", ". If the flame arrestor becomes clogged, the thermal cutoff may act to shut down the heater.", "A wetback stove (NZ), wetback heater (NZ), or back boiler (UK), is a simple household secondary water heater using incidental heat. It typically consists of a hot water pipe running behind a fireplace or stove (rather than hot water storage), and has no facility to limit the heating. Modern wetbacks may run the pipe in a more sophisticated design to assist heat-exchange", ". Modern wetbacks may run the pipe in a more sophisticated design to assist heat-exchange. These designs are being forced out by government efficiency regulations that do not count the energy used to heat water as 'efficiently' used.", "History", "Another type of water heater developed in Europe predated the storage model. In London, England, in 1868, a painter named Benjamin Waddy Maughan invented the first instantaneous domestic water heater that did not use solid fuel. Named the geyser after an Icelandic gushing hot spring, Maughan's invention made cold water at the top flow through pipes that were heated by hot gases from a burner at the bottom. Hot water then flowed into a sink or tub", ". Hot water then flowed into a sink or tub. The invention was somewhat dangerous because there was no flue to remove heated gases from the bathroom. A water heater is still sometimes called a geyser in the UK.", "Maughn's invention influenced the work of a Norwegian mechanical engineer named Edwin Ruud. The first automatic, storage tank-type gas water heater was invented around 1889 by Ruud after he immigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (US). The Ruud Manufacturing Company, still in existence today, made many advancements in tank-type and tankless water heater design and operation.\n\nThermodynamics and economics", "Thermodynamics and economics \n\nWater typically enters residences in the US at about , depending on latitude and season. Hot water temperatures of are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use. The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow rate is per minute. Sink and dishwasher usages range from per minute.", "Natural gas is often measured by volume or heat content. Common units of measurement by volume are cubic metre or cubic feet at standard conditions or by heat content in kilowatt hours, British thermal units (BTU) or therm, which is equal to 100,000 BTU. A BTU is the energy required to raise one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. A US gallon of water weighs . To raise of water from to at 90% efficiency requires", ". A US gallon of water weighs . To raise of water from to at 90% efficiency requires . A heater, as might exist in a tankless heater, would take about 15 minutes to do this. At $1 per therm, the cost of the gas would be about 40 cents. In comparison, a typical tank electric water heater has a heating element, which at 100% efficient results in a heating time of about 2.34 hours. At $0.16/kWh the electricity would cost $1.68.", "Energy efficiencies of water heaters in residential use can vary greatly, particularly depending on manufacturer and model. However, electric heaters tend to be slightly more efficient (not counting power station losses) with recovery efficiency (how efficiently energy transfers to the water) reaching about 98%. Gas-fired heaters have maximum recovery efficiencies of only about 8294% (the remaining heat is lost with the flue gasses)", ". Overall energy factors can be as low as 80% for electric and 50% for gas systems. Natural gas and propane tank water heaters with energy factors of 62% or greater, as well as electric tank water heaters with energy factors of 93% or greater, are considered high-efficiency units", ". Energy Star-qualified natural gas and propane tank water heaters (as of September 2010) have energy factors of 67% or higher, which is usually achieved using an intermittent pilot together with an automatic flue damper, baffle blowers, or power venting.", "Direct electric resistance tank water heaters are not included in the Energy Star program; however, the Energy Star program does include electric heat pump units with energy factors of 200% or higher. Tankless gas water heaters (as of 2015) must have an energy factor of 90% or higher for Energy Star qualification", ". Since electricity production in thermal plants has efficiency levels ranging from only 15% to slightly over 55% (combined cycle gas turbine), with around 40% typical for thermal power stations, direct resistance electric water heating may be the least energy efficient option.", "However, use of a heat pump can make electric water heaters much more energy efficient and lead to a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, even more so if a low carbon source of electricity is used. Using district heating utilizing waste heat from electricity generation and other industries to heat residences and hot water gives an increased overall efficiency, removing the need for burning fossil fuel or using high energy value electricity to produce heat in the individual home.", "Fundamentally, it takes a great deal of energy to heat water, as one may experience when waiting to boil a gallon of water on a stove. For this reason, tankless on-demand water heaters require a powerful energy source. A standard 120V, 15-ampere rated wall electric outlet, by comparison, only sources enough power to warm a disappointingly small amount of water: about per minute at temperature elevation.", "The energy used by an electric water heater can be reduced by as much as 18% through optimal schedule and temperature control that is based on knowledge of the usage pattern.", "US minimum requirements", "On April 16, 2015, as part of the National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA), new minimum standards for efficiency of residential water heaters set by the United States Department of Energy went into effect", ". All new gas storage tank water heaters with capacities smaller than sold in the United States in 2015 or later shall have an energy factor of at least 60% (for 50-US-gallon units, higher for smaller units), increased from the pre-2015 minimum standard of 58% energy factor for 50-US-gallon gas units", ". Electric storage tank water heaters with capacities less than 55 US gallons sold in the United States shall have an energy factor of at least 95%, increased from the pre-2015 minimum standard of 90% for 50-US-gallon electric units.", "Under the 2015 standard, for the first time, storage water heaters with capacities of 55 US gallons or larger now face stricter efficiency requirements than those of 50 US gallons or less. Under the pre-2015 standard, a gas storage water heater with a nominal input of or less was able to have an energy factor as low as 53%, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for a 75-US-gallon gas storage tank water heater is now 74%, which can only be achieved by using condensing technology", ". Storage water heaters with a nominal input of or greater are not currently affected by these requirements, since energy factor is not defined for such units. An electric storage tank water heater was able to have a minimum energy factor of 86% under the pre-2015 standard, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for an 80-gallon electric storage tank water heater is now 197%, which is only possible with heat pump technology. This rating measures efficiency at the point of use.", "Depending on how electricity is generated, overall efficiency may be much lower. For example, in a traditional coal plant, only about 30–35% of the energy in the coal ends up as electricity on the other end of the generator. Losses on the electrical grid (including line losses and voltage transformation losses) reduce electrical efficiency further. According to data from the Energy Information Administration, transmission and distribution losses in 2005 consumed 6.1% of net generation", ".1% of net generation. In contrast, 90% of natural gas's energy value is", "delivered to the consumer. (In neither case is the energy expended exploring, developing and extracting coal or natural gas resources included in the quoted efficiency numbers.) Gas tankless water heaters shall have an energy factor of 82% or greater under the 2015 standards, which corresponds to the pre-2015 Energy Star standard.", "In 2022 the Department of Energy proposed rules that would take effect in 2026 and would effectively eliminate inefficient non-condensing gas water heaters in commercial buildings. Non-condensing models waste heat, while condensing models capture and used otherwise lost energy. The change will reduce emissions by 38 million tons of carbon dioxide over 30 years and reduce buildings' energy costs.\n\nWater heater safety\n\nExplosion hazard", "Water heaters potentially can explode and cause significant damage, injury, or death if certain safety devices are not installed. A safety device called a temperature and pressure relief (T&P or TPR) valve, is normally fitted on the top of the water heater to dump water if the temperature or pressure becomes too high. Most plumbing codes require that a discharge pipe be connected to the valve to direct the flow of discharged hot water to a drain, typically a nearby floor drain, or outside the living space", ". Some building codes allow the discharge pipe to terminate in the garage.", "If a gas or propane fired water heater is installed in a garage or basement, many plumbing codes require that it be elevated at least above the floor to reduce the potential for fire or explosion due to spillage or leakage of combustible liquids in the garage. Furthermore, certain local codes mandate that tank-type heaters in new and retrofit installations must be secured to an adjacent wall by a strap or anchor to prevent tipping over and breaking the water and gas pipes in the event of an earthquake.", "For older houses where the water heater is part of the space heating boiler, and plumbing codes allow, some plumbers install an automatic gas shutoff (such as the \"Watts 210\") in addition to a TPR valve. When the device senses that the temperature reaches , it shuts off the gas supply and prevents further heating. In addition, an expansion tank or exterior pressure relief valve must be installed to prevent pressure buildup in the plumbing from rupturing pipes, valves, or the water heater.", "Thermal burns (scalding)", "Scalding is a serious concern with any water heater. Human skin burns quickly at high temperature, in less than 5 seconds at , but much slower at — it takes a full minute for a second degree burn. Older people and children often receive serious scalds due to disabilities or slow reaction times. In the United States and elsewhere it is common practice to put a tempering valve or thermostatic mixing valve on the outlet of the water heater", ". The result of automatically mixing hot and cold water via a tempering valve is referred to as \"tempered water\".", "A tempering valve mixes enough cold water with the hot water from the heater to keep the outgoing water temperature fixed at a more moderate temperature, often set to . Without a tempering valve, reduction of the water heater's setpoint temperature is the most direct way to reduce scalding. However, for sanitation, hot water is needed at a temperature that can cause scalding. This may be accomplished by using a supplemental heater in an appliance that requires hotter water.", "Most residential dishwashing machines, for example, include an internal electric heating element for increasing the water temperature above that provided by a domestic water heater.", "Bacterial contamination", "Two conflicting safety issues affect water heater temperature—the risk of scalding from excessively hot water greater than , and the risk of incubating bacteria colonies, particularly Legionella, in water that is not hot enough to kill them. Both risks are potentially life-threatening and are balanced by setting the water heater's thermostat to", ". The European Guidelines for Control and Prevention of Travel Associated Legionnaires' Disease recommend that hot water should be stored at and distributed so that a temperature of at least and preferably is achieved within one minute at points of use.", "If there is a dishwasher without a booster heater, it may require a water temperature within a range of for optimum cleaning, but tempering valves set to no more than can be applied to faucets to avoid scalding. Tank temperatures above may produce limescale deposits, which could later harbor bacteria, in the water tank. Higher temperatures may also increase etching of glassware in the dishwasher.", "Tank thermostats are not a reliable guide to the internal temperature of the tank. Gas-fired water tanks may have no temperature calibration shown. An electric thermostat shows the temperature at the elevation of the thermostat, but water lower in the tank can be considerably cooler. An outlet thermometer is a better indication of water temperature.", "In the renewable energy industry (solar and heat pumps, in particular) the conflict between daily thermal Legionella control and high temperatures, which may drop system performance, is subject to heated debate. In a paper seeking a green exemption from normal Legionellosis safety standards, Europe's top CEN solar thermal technical committee TC 312 asserts that a 50% fall in performance would occur if solar water heating systems were heated to the base daily", ". However some solar simulator analysis work using Polysun 5 suggests that an 11% energy penalty is a more likely figure. Whatever the context, both energy efficiency and scalding safety requirements push in the direction of considerably lower water temperatures than the legionella pasteurization temperature of around .", "Legionella pneumophila has been detected at the point of use downstream from horizontally-mounted electric water heaters with volumes of 150 Liters.", "However, legionella can be safely and easily controlled with good design and engineering protocols. For instance raising the temperature of water heaters once a day or even once every few days to at the coldest part of the water heater for 30 minutes effectively controls legionella. In all cases and in particular energy efficient applications, Legionnaires' disease is more often than not the result of engineering design issues that do not take into consideration the impact of stratification or low flow.", "It is also possible to control Legionella risks by chemical treatment of the water. This technique allows lower water temperatures to be maintained in the pipework without the associated Legionella risk. The benefit of lower pipe temperatures is that the heat loss rate is reduced and thus the energy consumption is reduced.\n\nSee also", "See also \n\n Aquastat\n Architectural engineering\n Condensing boiler\n Electric water boiler\n Energy conservation\n Heat trap\n Joule heating\n List of home appliances\n Outdoor wood-fired boiler\n Solar water heating\n Thermal immersion circulator\n Water heat recycling\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n How It Works - Water Heater from Popular Mechanics\n More Information India BIS\n\nBoilers\nHeating, ventilation, and air conditioning\nPlumbing" ]

[ "Apple Inc. is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California. , Apple is the world's biggest company by market capitalization, and with the largest technology company by 2022 revenue. , Apple is the fourth-largest personal computer vendor by unit sales; the largest manufacturing company by revenue; and the second-largest mobile phone manufacturer in the world", ". It is considered one of the Big Five American information technology companies, alongside Alphabet (parent company of Google), Amazon, Meta Platforms, and Microsoft.", "Apple was founded as Apple Computer Company on April 1, 1976, by Steve Wozniak, Steve Jobs and Ronald Wayne to develop and sell Wozniak's Apple I personal computer. It was incorporated by Jobs and Wozniak as Apple Computer, Inc. in 1977. The company's second computer, the Apple II, became a best seller and one of the first mass-produced microcomputers. Apple went public in 1980 to instant financial success", ". Apple went public in 1980 to instant financial success. The company developed computers featuring innovative graphical user interfaces, including the 1984 original Macintosh, announced that year in a critically acclaimed advertisement called \"1984\". By 1985, the high cost of its products, and power struggles between executives, caused problems. Wozniak stepped back from Apple and pursued other ventures, while Jobs resigned and founded NeXT, taking some Apple employees with him.", "As the market for personal computers expanded and evolved throughout the 1990s, Apple lost considerable market share to the lower-priced duopoly of the Microsoft Windows operating system on Intel-powered PC clones (also known as \"Wintel\"). In 1997, weeks away from bankruptcy, the company bought NeXT to resolve Apple's unsuccessful operating system strategy and entice Jobs back to the company", ". Over the next decade, Jobs guided Apple back to profitability through a number of tactics including introducing the iMac, iPod, iPhone and iPad to critical acclaim, launching the \"Think different\" campaign and other memorable advertising campaigns, opening the Apple Store retail chain, and acquiring numerous companies to broaden the company's product portfolio. When Jobs resigned in 2011 for health reasons, and died two months later, he was succeeded as CEO by Tim Cook.", "Apple became the first publicly traded U.S. company to be valued at over $1 trillion in August 2018, then at $2 trillion in August 2020, and at $3 trillion in January 2022. In June 2023, it was valued at just over $3 trillion. The company receives criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors, its environmental practices, and its business ethics, including anti-competitive practices and materials sourcing. Nevertheless, the company has a large following and enjoys a high level of brand loyalty", ". Nevertheless, the company has a large following and enjoys a high level of brand loyalty. It has also been consistently ranked as one of the world's most valuable brands.", "History\n\n1976–1980: Founding and incorporation", "Apple Computer Company was founded on April 1, 1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne as a partnership. The company's first product was the Apple I, a computer designed and hand-built entirely by Wozniak. To finance its creation, Jobs sold his Volkswagen Bus, and Wozniak sold his HP-65 calculator. Wozniak debuted the first prototype Apple I at the Homebrew Computer Club in July 1976", ". Wozniak debuted the first prototype Apple I at the Homebrew Computer Club in July 1976. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard with CPU, RAM, and basic textual-video chips—a base kit concept which would not yet be marketed as a complete personal computer. It went on sale soon after debut for . Wozniak later said he was unaware of the coincidental mark of the beast in the number 666, and that he came up with the price because he liked \"repeating digits\".", "Apple Computer, Inc. was incorporated on January 3, 1977, without Wayne, who had left and sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800 only twelve days after having co-founded Apple. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of to Jobs and Wozniak during the incorporation of Apple. During the first five years of operations, revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months", ". Between September 1977 and September 1980, yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118 million, an average annual growth rate of 533%.", "The Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16, 1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its major rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics and open architecture. While the Apple I and early Apple II models used ordinary audio cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a -inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II in 1978.", "The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first \"killer application\" of the business world: VisiCalc, a spreadsheet program released in 1979. VisiCalc created a business market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II: compatibility with the office, but Apple II market share remained behind home computers made by competitors such as Atari, Commodore, and Tandy.", "On December 12, 1980, Apple (ticker symbol \"AAPL\") went public selling 4.6 million shares at $22 per share ($.10 per share when adjusting for stock splits ), generating over $100 million, which was more capital than any IPO since Ford Motor Company in 1956. By the end of the day, 300 millionaires were created, from a stock price of $29 per share and a market cap of $1.778 billion.\n\n1980–1990: Success with Macintosh", "A critical moment in the company's history came in December 1979 when Jobs and several Apple employees, including human–computer interface expert Jef Raskin, visited Xerox PARC in to see a demonstration of the Xerox Alto, a computer using a graphical user interface. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for the option to buy 100,000 shares (22.4 million split-adjusted shares ) of Apple at the pre-IPO price of $10 a share", ".4 million split-adjusted shares ) of Apple at the pre-IPO price of $10 a share. After the demonstration, Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a graphical user interface, and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa, named after Jobs's daughter.", "The Lisa division would be plagued by infighting, and in 1982 Jobs was pushed off the project. The Lisa launched in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a GUI, but was a commercial failure due to its high price and limited software titles.", "Jobs, angered by being pushed off the Lisa team, took over the company's Macintosh division. Wozniak and Raskin had envisioned the Macintosh as a low-cost computer with a text-based interface like the Apple II, but a plane crash in 1981 forced Wozniak to step back from the project. Jobs quickly redefined the Macintosh as a graphical system that would be cheaper than the Lisa, undercutting his former division", ". Jobs was also hostile to the Apple II division, which at the time, generated most of the company's revenue.", "In 1984, Apple launched the Macintosh, the first personal computer to be sold without a programming language. Its debut was signified by \"1984\", a $1.5 million television advertisement directed by Ridley Scott that aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984. This is now hailed as a watershed event for Apple's success and was called a \"masterpiece\" by CNN and one of the greatest TV advertisements of all time by TV Guide.", "The advertisement created great interest in the original Macintosh, and sales were initially good, but began to taper off dramatically after the first three months as reviews started to come in. Jobs had made the decision to equip the original Macintosh with 128 kilobytes of RAM, attempting to reach a price point, which limited its speed and the software that could be used. The Macintosh would eventually ship for , a price panned by critics in light of its slow performance", ". In early 1985, this sales slump triggered a power struggle between Steve Jobs and CEO John Sculley, who had been hired away from Pepsi two years earlier by Jobs saying, \"Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life or come with me and change the world?\" Sculley decided to remove Jobs as the head of the Macintosh division, with unanimous support from the Apple board of directors.", "The board of directors instructed Sculley to contain Jobs and his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products. Rather than submit to Sculley's direction, Jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at Apple. Informed by Jean-Louis Gassée, Sculley found out that Jobs had been attempting to organize a boardroom coup and called an emergency meeting at which Apple's executive staff sided with Sculley and stripped Jobs of all operational duties", ". Jobs resigned from Apple in September 1985 and took a number of Apple employees with him to found NeXT. Wozniak had also quit his active employment at Apple earlier in 1985 to pursue other ventures, expressing his frustration with Apple's treatment of the Apple II division and stating that the company had \"been going in the wrong direction for the last five years", ".\" Despite Wozniak's grievances, he officially remained employed by Apple, and to this day continues to work for the company as a representative, receiving a stipend estimated to be $120,000 per year for this role. Both Jobs and Wozniak remained Apple shareholders after their departures.", "After the departures of Jobs and Wozniak, Sculley worked to improve the Macintosh in 1985 by quadrupling the RAM and introducing the LaserWriter, the first reasonably priced PostScript laser printer. PageMaker, an early desktop publishing application taking advantage of the PostScript language, was also released by Aldus Corporation in July 1985. It has been suggested that the combination of Macintosh, LaserWriter and PageMaker was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market.", "This dominant position in the desktop publishing market allowed the company to focus on higher price points, the so-called \"high-right policy\" named for the position on a chart of price vs. profits. Newer models selling at higher price points offered higher profit margin, and appeared to have no effect on total sales as power users snapped up every increase in speed", ". Although some worried about pricing themselves out of the market, the high-right policy was in full force by the mid-1980s, notably due to Jean-Louis Gassée's mantra of \"fifty-five or die\", referring to the 55% profit margins of the Macintosh II.", "This policy began to backfire in the last years of the decade as desktop publishing programs appeared on PC clones that offered some or much of the same functionality of the Macintosh, but at far lower price points. The company lost its dominant position in the desktop publishing market and estranged many of its original consumer customer base who could no longer afford their high-priced products", ". The Christmas season of 1989 was the first in the company's history to have declining sales, which led to a 20% drop in Apple's stock price. During this period, the relationship between Sculley and Gassée deteriorated, leading Sculley to effectively demote Gassée in January 1990 by appointing Michael Spindler as the chief operating officer. Gassée left the company later that year.", "1990–1997: Decline and restructuring", "The company pivoted strategy and in October 1990 introduced three lower-cost models, the Macintosh Classic, the Macintosh LC, and the Macintosh IIsi, all of which saw significant sales due to pent-up demand. In 1991, Apple introduced the hugely successful PowerBook with a design that set the current shape for almost all modern laptops. The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the Macintosh operating system, adding color to the interface and introducing new networking capabilities.", "The success of the lower-cost Macs and PowerBook brought increasing revenue. For some time, Apple was doing incredibly well, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the \"first golden age\" of the Macintosh.", "The success of Apple's lower-cost consumer models, especially the LC, also led to the cannibalization of their higher-priced machines. To address this, management introduced several new brands, selling largely identical machines at different price points, aimed at different markets: the high-end Quadra models, the mid-range Centris line, and the consumer-marketed Performa series. This led to significant market confusion, as customers did not understand the difference between models.", "The early 1990s also saw the discontinuation of the Apple II series, which was expensive to produce, and the company felt was still taking sales away from lower-cost Macintosh models. After the launch of the LC, Apple began encouraging developers to create applications for Macintosh rather than Apple II, and authorized salespersons to direct consumers towards Macintosh and away from Apple II. The Apple IIe was discontinued in 1993.", "Throughout this period, Microsoft continued to gain market share with its Windows graphical user interface that it sold to manufacturers of generally less expensive PC clones. While the Macintosh was more expensive, it offered a more tightly integrated user experience, but the company struggled to make the case to consumers.", "Apple also experimented with a number of other unsuccessful consumer targeted products during the 1990s, including digital cameras, portable CD audio players, speakers, video game consoles, the eWorld online service, and TV appliances. Most notably, enormous resources were invested in the problem-plagued Newton tablet division, based on John Sculley's unrealistic market forecasts.", "Throughout this period, Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows by focusing on delivering software to inexpensive personal computers, while Apple was delivering a richly engineered but expensive experience. Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response; instead, they sued Microsoft for using a GUI similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp. The lawsuit dragged on for years before it was finally dismissed.", "The major product flops and the rapid loss of market share to Windows sullied Apple's reputation, and in 1993 Sculley was replaced as CEO by Michael Spindler.", "With Spindler at the helm, Apple, IBM, and Motorola formed the AIM alliance in 1994 with the goal of creating a new computing platform (the PowerPC Reference Platform; PReP), which would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind and thus counter the dominance of Windows. The same year, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh, the first of many Apple computers to use Motorola's PowerPC processor.", "In the wake of the alliance, Apple opened up to the idea of allowing Motorola and other companies to build Macintosh clones. Over the next two years, 75 distinct Macintosh clone models were introduced. However, by 1996, Apple executives were worried that the clones were cannibalizing sales of their own high-end computers, where profit margins were highest.", "In 1996, Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO. Hired for his reputation as a corporate rehabilitator, Amelio made deep changes, including extensive layoffs and cost-cutting.", "This period was also marked by numerous failed attempts to modernize the Macintosh operating system (MacOS). The original Macintosh operating system (System 1) was not built for multitasking (running several applications at once). The company attempted to correct this with by introducing cooperative multitasking in System 5, but the company still felt it needed a more modern approach. This led to the Pink project in 1988, A/UX that same year, Copland in 1994, and the attempted purchase of BeOS in 1996", ". Talks with Be stalled when the CEO, former Apple executive Jean-Louis Gassée, demanded $300 million instead of the $125 million Apple wanted to pay.", "Only weeks away from bankruptcy, Apple's board decided NeXTSTEP was a better choice for its next operating system and purchased NeXT in late 1996 for $400 million, bringing back Apple co-founder Steve Jobs.", "1997–2007: Return to profitability \nThe NeXT acquisition was finalized on February 9, 1997, and the board brought Jobs back to Apple as an advisor. On July 9, 1997, Jobs staged a boardroom coup that resulted in Amelio's resignation after overseeing a three-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses.", "The board named Jobs as interim CEO and he immediately began a review of the company's products. Jobs would order 70% of the company's products to be cancelled, resulting in the loss of 3,000 jobs, and taking Apple back to the core of its computer offerings. The next month, in August 1997, Steve Jobs convinced Microsoft to make a $150 million investment in Apple and a commitment to continue developing software for the Mac", ". The investment was seen as an \"antitrust insurance policy\" for Microsoft who had recently settled with the Department of Justice over anti-competitive practices. Jobs also ended the Mac clone deals and in September 1997, purchased the largest clone maker, Power Computing. On November 10, 1997, Apple introduced the Apple Store website, which was tied to a new build-to-order manufacturing that had been successfully used by PC manufacturer Dell.", "The moves paid off for Jobs; at the end of his first year as CEO, the company turned a $309 million profit.", "On May 6, 1998, Apple introduced a new all-in-one computer reminiscent of the original Macintosh: the iMac. The iMac was a huge success for Apple selling 800,000 units in its first five months and ushered in major shifts in the industry by abandoning legacy technologies like the -inch diskette, being an early adopter of the USB connector, and coming pre-installed with internet connectivity (the \"i\" in iMac) via Ethernet and a dial-up modem", ". The device also had a striking teardrop shape and translucent materials, designed by Jonathan Ive, who although hired by Amelio, would go on to work collaboratively with Jobs for the next decade to chart a new course the design of Apple's products.", "A little more than a year later on July 21, 1999, Apple introduced the iBook, a laptop for consumers. It was the culmination of a strategy established by Jobs to produce only four products: refined versions of the Power Macintosh G3 desktop and PowerBook G3 laptop for professionals, along with the iMac desktop and iBook laptop for consumers. Jobs felt the small product line allowed for a greater focus on quality and innovation.", "At around the same time, Apple also completed numerous acquisitions to create a portfolio of digital media production software for both professionals and consumers. Apple acquired of Macromedia's Key Grip digital video editing software project which was renamed Final Cut Pro when it was launched on the retail market in April 1999. The development of Key Grip also led to Apple's release of the consumer video-editing product iMovie in October 1999", ". Next, Apple successfully acquired the German company Astarte in April 2000, which had developed the DVD authoring software DVDirector, which Apple would sell as the professional-oriented DVD Studio Pro software product, and used the same technology to create iDVD for the consumer market. In 2000, Apple purchased the SoundJam MP audio player software from Casady & Greene. Apple renamed the program iTunes, while simplifying the user interface and adding the ability to burn CDs.", "2001 would be a pivotal year for the Apple with the company making three announcements that would change the course of the company.", "The first announcement came on March 24, 2001, that Apple was nearly ready to release a new modern operating system, Mac OS X. The announcement came after numerous failed attempts in the early 1990s, and several years of development. Mac OS X was based on NeXTSTEP, OPENSTEP, and BSD Unix, with Apple aiming to combine the stability, reliability, and security of Unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface, heavily influenced by NeXTSTEP", ". To aid users in migrating from Mac OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of OS 9 applications within Mac OS X via the Classic Environment.", "In May 2001, the company opened its first two Apple Store retail locations in Virginia and California, offering an improved presentation of the company's products. At the time, many speculated that the stores would fail, but they went on to become highly successful, and the first of more than 500 stores around the world.", "On October 23, 2001, Apple debuted the iPod portable digital audio player. The product, which was first sold on November 10, 2001, was phenomenally successful with over 100 million units sold within six years.", "In 2003, Apple's iTunes Store was introduced. The service offered music downloads for 99¢ a song and integration with the iPod. The iTunes Store quickly became the market leader in online music services, with over five billion downloads by June 19, 2008. Two years later, the iTunes Store was the world's largest music retailer.", "In 2002, Apple purchased Nothing Real for their advanced digital compositing application Shake, as well as Emagic for the music productivity application Logic. The purchase of Emagic made Apple the first computer manufacturer to own a music software company. The acquisition was followed by the development of Apple's consumer-level GarageBand application. The release of iPhoto in the same year completed the iLife suite.", "At the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Jobs announced that Apple would move away from PowerPC processors, and the Mac would transition to Intel processors in 2006. On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac became the first Apple computers to use Intel's Core Duo CPU. By August 7, 2006, Apple made the transition to Intel chips for the entire Mac product line—over one year sooner than announced", ". The Power Mac, iBook, and PowerBook brands were retired during the transition; the Mac Pro, MacBook, and MacBook Pro became their respective successors. On April 29, 2009, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple was building its own team of engineers to design microchips. Apple also introduced Boot Camp in 2006 to help users install Windows XP or Windows Vista on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X.", "Apple's success during this period was evident in its stock price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apple's stock increased more than tenfold, from around $6 per share (split-adjusted) to over $80. When Apple surpassed Dell's market cap in January 2006, Jobs sent an email to Apple employees saying Dell's CEO Michael Dell should eat his words. Nine years prior, Dell had said that if he ran Apple he would \"shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders\".", "2007–2011: Success with mobile devices \n\nDuring his keynote speech at the Macworld Expo on January 9, 2007, Jobs announced that Apple Computer, Inc. would thereafter be known as \"Apple Inc.\", because the company had shifted its emphasis from computers to consumer electronics. This event also saw the announcement of the iPhone and the Apple TV. The company sold 270,000 iPhone units during the first 30 hours of sales, and the device was called \"a game changer for the industry\".", "In an article posted on Apple's website on February 6, 2007, Jobs wrote that Apple would be willing to sell music on the iTunes Store without digital rights management (DRM), thereby allowing tracks to be played on third-party players if record labels would agree to drop the technology. On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May 2007", ". Other record labels eventually followed suit and Apple published a press release in January 2009 to announce that all songs on the iTunes Store are available without their FairPlay DRM.", "In July 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell third-party applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch. Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and registered an average daily revenue of $1 million, with Jobs speculating in August 2008 that the App Store could become a billion-dollar business for Apple. By October 2008, Apple was the third-largest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iPhone.", "On January 14, 2009, Jobs announced in an internal memo that he would be taking a six-month medical leave of absence from Apple until the end of June 2009 and would spend the time focusing on his health. In the email, Jobs stated that \"the curiosity over my personal health continues to be a distraction not only for me and my family, but everyone else at Apple as well\", and explained that the break would allow the company \"to focus on delivering extraordinary products\"", ". Though Jobs was absent, Apple recorded its best non-holiday quarter (Q1 FY 2009) during the recession with revenue of $8.16 billion and profit of $1.21 billion.", "After years of speculation and multiple rumored \"leaks\", Apple unveiled a large screen, tablet-like media device known as the iPad on January 27, 2010. The iPad ran the same touch-based operating system as the iPhone, and all iPhone apps were compatible with the iPad. This gave the iPad a large app catalog on launch, though having very little development time before the release. Later that year on April 3, 2010, the iPad was launched in the U.S", ". Later that year on April 3, 2010, the iPad was launched in the U.S. It sold more than 300,000 units on its first day, and 500,000 by the end of the first week. In May of the same year, Apple's market cap exceeded that of competitor Microsoft for the first time since 1989.", "In June 2010, Apple released the iPhone 4, which introduced video calling using FaceTime, multitasking, and a new uninsulated stainless steel design that acted as the phone's antenna. Later that year, Apple again refreshed its iPod line of MP3 players by introducing a multi-touch iPod Nano, an iPod Touch with FaceTime, and an iPod Shuffle that brought back the clickwheel buttons of earlier generations", ". It also introduced the smaller, cheaper second generation Apple TV which allowed renting of movies and shows.", "On January 17, 2011, Jobs announced in an internal Apple memo that he would take another medical leave of absence for an indefinite period to allow him to focus on his health. Chief operating officer Tim Cook assumed Jobs's day-to-day operations at Apple, although Jobs would still remain \"involved in major strategic decisions\". Apple became the most valuable consumer-facing brand in the world", ". Apple became the most valuable consumer-facing brand in the world. In June 2011, Jobs surprisingly took the stage and unveiled iCloud, an online storage and syncing service for music, photos, files, and software which replaced MobileMe, Apple's previous attempt at content syncing. This would be the last product launch Jobs would attend before his death.", "On August 24, 2011, Jobs resigned his position as CEO of Apple. He was replaced by Cook and Jobs became Apple's chairman. Apple did not have a chairman at the time and instead had two co-lead directors, Andrea Jung and Arthur D. Levinson, who continued with those titles until Levinson replaced Jobs as chairman of the board in November after Jobs' death.\n\n2011–present: Post-Jobs era, Cook's leadership", "2011–present: Post-Jobs era, Cook's leadership \n\nOn October 5, 2011, Steve Jobs died, marking the end of an era for Apple. The first major product announcement by Apple following Jobs's passing occurred on January 19, 2012, when Apple's Phil Schiller introduced iBook's Textbooks for iOS and iBook Author for Mac OS X in New York City. Jobs stated in the biography \"Steve Jobs\" that he wanted to reinvent the textbook industry and education.", "From 2011 to 2012, Apple released the iPhone 4S and iPhone 5, which featured improved cameras, an intelligent software assistant named Siri, and cloud-synced data with iCloud; the third- and fourth-generation iPads, which featured Retina displays; and the iPad Mini, which featured a 7.9-inch screen in contrast to the iPad's 9.7-inch screen", ".9-inch screen in contrast to the iPad's 9.7-inch screen. These launches were successful, with the iPhone 5 (released September 21, 2012) becoming Apple's biggest iPhone launch with over two million pre-orders and sales of three million iPads in three days following the launch of the iPad Mini and fourth-generation iPad (released November 3, 2012). Apple also released a third-generation 13-inch MacBook Pro with a Retina display and new iMac and Mac Mini computers.", "On August 20, 2012, Apple's rising stock price increased the company's market capitalization to a then-record $624 billion. This beat the non-inflation-adjusted record for market capitalization previously set by Microsoft in 1999. On August 24, 2012, a US jury ruled that Samsung should pay Apple $1.05 billion (£665m) in damages in an intellectual property lawsuit. Samsung appealed the damages award, which was reduced by $450 million and further granted Samsung's request for a new trial", ". On November 10, 2012, Apple confirmed a global settlement that dismissed all existing lawsuits between Apple and HTC up to that date, in favor of a ten-year license agreement for current and future patents between the two companies. It is predicted that Apple will make $280 million a year from this deal with HTC.", "In May 2014, the company confirmed its intent to acquire Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine's audio company Beats Electronics—producer of the \"Beats by Dr. Dre\" line of headphones and speaker products, and operator of the music streaming service Beats Music—for $3 billion, and to sell their products through Apple's retail outlets and resellers. Iovine believed that Beats had always \"belonged\" with Apple, as the company modeled itself after Apple's \"unmatched ability to marry culture and technology", ".\" The acquisition was the largest purchase in Apple's history.", "During a press event on September 9, 2014, Apple introduced a smartwatch, the Apple Watch. Initially, Apple marketed the device as a fashion accessory and a complement to the iPhone, that would allow people to look at their smartphones less. Over time, the company has focused on developing health and fitness-oriented features on the watch, in an effort to compete with dedicated activity trackers.\n\nIn January 2016, it was announced that one billion Apple devices were in active use worldwide.", "In January 2016, it was announced that one billion Apple devices were in active use worldwide.\n\nOn June 6, 2016, Fortune released Fortune 500, their list of companies ranked on revenue generation. In the trailing fiscal year (2015), Apple appeared on the list as the top tech company. It ranked third, overall, with $233 billion in revenue. This represents a movement upward of two spots from the previous year's list.", "In June 2017, Apple announced the HomePod, its smart speaker aimed to compete against Sonos, Google Home, and Amazon Echo. Towards the end of the year, TechCrunch reported that Apple was acquiring Shazam, a company that introduced its products at WWDC and specializing in music, TV, film and advertising recognition", ". The acquisition was confirmed a few days later, reportedly costing Apple $400 million, with media reports noting that the purchase looked like a move to acquire data and tools bolstering the Apple Music streaming service. The purchase was approved by the European Union in September 2018.", "Also in June 2017, Apple appointed Jamie Erlicht and Zack Van Amburg to head the newly formed worldwide video unit. In November 2017, Apple announced it was branching out into original scripted programming: a drama series starring Jennifer Aniston and Reese Witherspoon, and a reboot of the anthology series Amazing Stories with Steven Spielberg. In June 2018, Apple signed the Writers Guild of America's minimum basic agreement and Oprah Winfrey to a multi-year content partnership", ". Additional partnerships for original series include Sesame Workshop and DHX Media and its subsidiary Peanuts Worldwide, as well as a partnership with A24 to create original films.", "During the Apple Special Event in September 2017, the AirPower wireless charger was announced alongside the iPhone X, 8 and Watch Series 3. The AirPower was intended to wirelessly charge multiple devices, simultaneously. Though initially set to release in early 2018, the AirPower would be canceled in March 2019, marking the first cancellation of a device under Cook's leadership.", "On August 19, 2020, Apple's share price briefly topped $467.77, making Apple the first US company with a market capitalization of $2 trillion.", "During its annual WWDC keynote speech on June 22, 2020, Apple announced it would move away from Intel processors, and the Mac would transition to processors developed in-house. The announcement was expected by industry analysts, and it has been noted that Macs featuring Apple's processors would allow for big increases in performance over current Intel-based models", ". On November 10, 2020, the MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, and the Mac Mini became the first Mac devices powered by an Apple-designed processor, the Apple M1.", "In April 2022, it was reported that Samsung Electro-Mechanics would be collaborating with Apple on its M2 chip instead of LG Innotek. Developer logs showed that at least nine Mac models with four different M2 chips were being tested.", "The Wall Street Journal reported that an effort to develop its own chips left Apple better prepared to deal with the semiconductor shortage that emerged during the pandemic era and led to increased profitability, with sales of Mac computers that included M1 chips rising sharply in 2020 and 2021. It also inspired other companies like Tesla, Amazon, and Meta Platforms to pursue a similar path.", "In April 2022, Apple opened an online store that allowed anyone in the US to view repair manuals and order replacement parts for specific recent iPhones, although the difference in cost between this method and official repair is anticipated to be minimal.", "In May 2022, a trademark was filed for RealityOS, an operating system reportedly intended for virtual and augmented reality headsets, first mentioned in 2017. According to Bloomberg, the headset may come out in 2023. Further insider reports state that the device uses iris scanning for payment confirmation and signing into accounts.", "On June 18, 2022, the Apple Store in Towson, Maryland became the first to unionize in the U.S., with the employees voting to join the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers.\n\nOn July 7, 2022, Apple added Lockdown Mode to macOS 13 and iOS 16, as a response to the earlier Pegasus revelations; the mode increases security protections for high-risk users against targeted zero-day malware.", "Apple launched a buy now, pay later service called 'Apple Pay Later' for its Apple Wallet users in March 2023. The program allows its users to apply for loans between $50 and $1,000 to make online or in-app purchases and then repaying them through four installments spread over six weeks without any interest or fees.\n\nProducts\n\nMac", "Products\n\nMac \n\nThe Mac is Apple's family of personal computers. Macs are known for their ease of use and distinctive aluminium, minimalist designs. Macs have been popular among students, creative professionals, and software engineers. The current lineup consists of the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro laptops, and the iMac, Mac mini, Mac Studio and Mac Pro desktop computers.", "Often described as a walled garden, Macs use Apple silicon chips, run the macOS operating system, and include Apple software like the Safari web browser, iMovie for home movie editing, GarageBand for music creation, and the iWork productivity suite. Apple also sells pro apps: Final Cut Pro for video production, Logic Pro for musicians and producers, and Xcode for software developers.", "Apple also sells a variety of accessories for Macs, including the Pro Display XDR, Apple Studio Display, Magic Mouse, Magic Trackpad, and Magic Keyboard.\n\niPhone", "iPhone \n\nThe iPhone is Apple's line of smartphones, which run the iOS operating system. The first iPhone was unveiled by Steve Jobs on January 9, 2007. Since then, new models have been released annually. When it was introduced, its multi-touch screen was described as \"revolutionary\" and a \"game-changer\" for the mobile phone industry. The device has been credited with creating the app economy.", ", the iPhone has 15% market share, yet represents 50% of global smartphone revenues, with Android phones accounting for the rest. The iPhone has generated large profits for the company, and is credited with helping to make Apple one of the world's most valuable publicly traded companies.\n\nThe most recent iPhones are the iPhone 15, iPhone 15 Plus, iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max.\n\niPad", "The iPad is Apple's line of tablets which run iPadOS. The first-generation iPad was announced on January 27, 2010. The iPad is mainly marketed for consuming multimedia, creating art, working on documents, videoconferencing, and playing games. The iPad lineup consists of several base iPad models, and the smaller iPad Mini, upgraded iPad Air, and high-end iPad Pro", ". Apple has consistently improved the iPad's performance, with the iPad Pro adopting the same M1 and M2 chips as the Mac; but the iPad still receives criticism for its limited OS.", "Apple has sold more than 500 million iPads, though sales peaked in 2013. The iPad still remains the most popular tablet computer by sales , and accounted for nine percent of the company's revenue .\n\nApple sells several iPad accessories, including the Apple Pencil, Smart Keyboard, Smart Keyboard Folio, Magic Keyboard, and several adapters.\n\nOther products", "Other products \n\nApple also makes several other products that it categorizes as \"Wearables, Home and Accessories\". These products include the AirPods line of wireless headphones, Apple TV digital media players, Apple Watch smartwatches, Beats headphones and HomePod Mini smart speakers.\n\n, this broad line of products comprises about 11% of the company's revenues.", ", this broad line of products comprises about 11% of the company's revenues.\n\nAt WWDC 2023, Apple introduced its new VR headset, Vision Pro, along with visionOS. Apple announced that it will be partnering with Unity to bring existing 3D apps to Vision Pro using Unity's PolySpatial technology.", "Services \nApple also offers a broad line of services that it earns revenue on, including advertising in the App Store and Apple News app, the AppleCare+ extended warranty plan, the iCloud+ cloud-based data storage service, payment services through the Apple Card credit card and the Apple Pay processing platform, a digital content services including Apple Books, Apple Fitness+, Apple Music, Apple News+, Apple TV+, and the iTunes Store.", ", services comprise about 19% of the company's revenue. Many of the services have been launched when Apple announced it would be making a concerted effort to expand its service revenues.\n\nMarketing\n\nBranding", "According to Steve Jobs, the company's name was inspired by his visit to an apple farm while he was on a fruitarian diet. Jobs thought the name \"Apple\" was \"fun, spirited and not intimidating.\" Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak were fans of the Beatles, but Apple Inc. had name and logo trademark issues with Apple Corps Ltd., a multimedia company started by the Beatles in 1968. This resulted in a series of lawsuits and tension between the two companies", ". This resulted in a series of lawsuits and tension between the two companies. These issues ended with the settling of their lawsuit in 2007.", "Apple's first logo, designed by Ron Wayne, depicts Sir Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. It was almost immediately replaced by Rob Janoff's \"rainbow Apple\", the now-familiar rainbow-colored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it. On August 27, 1999, Apple officially dropped the rainbow scheme and began to use monochromatic logos nearly identical in shape to the previous rainbow incarnation.", "Apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company at one time, but this was after the phenomenon had already been firmly established. Apple evangelist Guy Kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism \"something that was stumbled upon,\" while Ive claimed in 2014 that \"people have an incredibly personal relationship\" with Apple's products.", "Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world from 2008 to 2012. On September 30, 2013, Apple surpassed Coca-Cola to become the world's most valuable brand in the Omnicom Group's \"Best Global Brands\" report. Boston Consulting Group has ranked Apple as the world's most innovative brand every year .\n\n there were 1.65 billion Apple products in active use. In February 2023 that number exceeded 2 billion devices.\n\nAdvertising", "Advertising \n\nApple's first slogan, \"Byte into an Apple\", was coined in the late 1970s. From 1997 to 2002, the slogan \"Think different\" was used in advertising campaigns, and is still closely associated with Apple. Apple also has slogans for specific product lines—for example, \"iThink, therefore iMac\" was used in 1998 to promote the iMac, and \"Say hello to iPhone\" has been used in iPhone advertisements. \"Hello\" was also used to introduce the original Macintosh, Newton, iMac (\"hello (again)\"), and iPod.", "From the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984, with the 1984 Super Bowl advertisement to the more modern Get a Mac adverts, Apple has been recognized for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for its products. However, claims made by later campaigns were criticized, particularly the 2005 Power Mac ads. Apple's product advertisements gained significant attention as a result of their eye-popping graphics and catchy tunes", ". Musicians who benefited from an improved profile as a result of their songs being included on Apple advertisements include Canadian singer Feist with the song \"1234\" and Yael Naïm with the song \"New Soul\".", "Stores", "The first Apple Stores were originally opened as two locations in May 2001 by then-CEO Steve Jobs, after years of attempting but failing store-within-a-store concepts. Seeing a need for improved retail presentation of the company's products, he began an effort in 1997 to revamp the retail program to get an improved relationship to consumers, and hired Ron Johnson in 2000. Jobs relaunched Apple's online store in 1997, and opened the first two physical stores in 2001", ". Jobs relaunched Apple's online store in 1997, and opened the first two physical stores in 2001. The media initially speculated that Apple would fail, but its stores were highly successful, bypassing the sales numbers of competing nearby stores and within three years reached US$1 billion in annual sales, becoming the fastest retailer in history to do so.", "Over the years, Apple has expanded the number of retail locations and its geographical coverage, with 499 stores across 22 countries worldwide . Strong product sales have placed Apple among the top-tier retail stores, with sales over $16 billion globally in 2011. Apple Stores underwent a period of significant redesign, beginning in May 2016", ". Apple Stores underwent a period of significant redesign, beginning in May 2016. This redesign included physical changes to the Apple Stores, such as open spaces and re-branded rooms, as well as changes in function to facilitate interaction between consumers and professionals.", "Many Apple Stores are located inside shopping malls, but Apple has built several stand-alone \"flagship\" stores in high-profile locations. It has been granted design patents and received architectural awards for its stores' designs and construction, specifically for its use of glass staircases and cubes", ". The success of Apple Stores have had significant influence over other consumer electronics retailers, who have lost traffic, control and profits due to a perceived higher quality of service and products at Apple Stores. Due to the popularity of the brand, Apple receives a large number of job applications, many of which come from young workers", ". Although Apple Store employees receive above-average pay, are offered money toward education and health care, and receive product discounts, there are limited or no paths of career advancement.", "Market power \nOn March 16, 2020, France fined Apple €1.1 billion for colluding with two wholesalers to stifle competition and keep prices high by handicapping independent resellers. The arrangement created aligned prices for Apple products such as iPads and personal computers for about half the French retail market. According to the French regulators, the abuses occurred between 2005 and 2017 but were first discovered after a complaint by an independent reseller, eBizcuss, in 2012.", "On August 13, 2020, Epic Games, the maker of the popular game Fortnite, sued Apple and Google after its hugely popular video game was removed from Apple and Google's App Store. The suits come after both Apple and Google blocked the game after it introduced a direct payment system, effectively shutting out the tech titans from collecting fees", ". In September 2020 Epic Games founded the Coalition for App Fairness together with other thirteen companies, which aims for better conditions for the inclusion of apps in the app stores. Later in December 2020, Facebook agreed to assist Epic in their legal game against Apple, planning to support the company by providing materials and documents to Epic", ". Facebook had, however, stated that the company will not participate directly with the lawsuit, although did commit to helping with the discovery of evidence relating to the trial of 2021. In the months prior to their agreement, Facebook had been dealing with feuds against Apple relating to the prices of paid apps as well as privacy rule changes", ". Head of ad products for Facebook Dan Levy commented, saying that \"this is not really about privacy for them, this is about an attack on personalized ads and the consequences it's going to have on small-business owners,\" commenting on the full-page ads placed by Facebook in various newspapers in December 2020.", "Customer privacy", "Apple has a notable pro-privacy stance, actively making privacy-conscious features and settings part of its conferences, promotional campaigns, and public image. With its iOS 8 mobile operating system in 2014, the company started encrypting all contents of iOS devices through users' passcodes, making it impossible at the time for the company to provide customer data to law enforcement requests seeking such information", ". With the popularity rise of cloud storage solutions, Apple began a technique in 2016 to do deep learning scans for facial data in photos on the user's local device and encrypting the content before uploading it to Apple's iCloud storage system", ". It also introduced \"differential privacy\", a way to collect crowdsourced data from many users, while keeping individual users anonymous, in a system that Wired described as \"trying to learn as much as possible about a group while learning as little as possible about any individual in it\". Users are explicitly asked if they want to participate, and can actively opt-in or opt-out.", "With Apple's release of an update to iOS 14, Apple required all developers of iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch applications to directly ask iPhone users permission to track them. The feature, titled \"App Tracking Transparency\", received heavy criticism from Facebook, whose primary business model revolves around the tracking of users' data and sharing such data with advertisers so users can see more relevant ads, a technique commonly known as targeted advertising", ". Despite Facebook's measures, including purchasing full-page newspaper advertisements protesting App Tracking Transparency, Apple released the update in mid-spring 2021. A study by Verizon subsidiary Flurry Analytics reported only 4% of iOS users in the United States and 12% worldwide have opted into tracking.", "However, Apple aids law enforcement in criminal investigations by providing iCloud backups of users' devices, and the company's commitment to privacy has been questioned by its efforts to promote biometric authentication technology in its newer iPhone models, which do not have the same level of constitutional privacy as a passcode in the United States.", "Prior to the release of iOS 15, Apple announced new efforts at combating child sexual abuse material on iOS and Mac platforms. Parents of minor iMessage users can now be alerted if their child sends or receives nude photographs. Additionally, on-device hashing would take place on media destined for upload to iCloud, and hashes would be compared to a list of known abusive images provided by law enforcement; if enough matches were found, Apple would be alerted and authorities informed", ". The new features received praise from law enforcement and victims rights advocates, however privacy advocates, including the Electronic Frontier Foundation, condemned the new features as invasive and highly prone to abuse by authoritarian governments.", "Ireland's Data Protection Commission launched a privacy investigation to examine whether Apple complied with the EU's GDPR law following an investigation into how the company processes personal data with targeted ads on its platform.", "In December 2019, a report found that the iPhone 11 Pro continues tracking location and collecting user data even after users have disabled location services. In response, an Apple engineer said the Location Services icon \"appears for system services that do not have a switch in settings.\"", "According to published reports by Bloomberg News on March 30, 2022, Apple turned over data such as phone numbers, physical addresses, and IP addresses to hackers posing as law enforcement officials using forged documents. The law enforcement requests sometimes included forged signatures of real or fictional officials", ". The law enforcement requests sometimes included forged signatures of real or fictional officials. When asked about the allegations, an Apple representative referred the reporter to a section of the company policy for law enforcement guidelines, which stated, \"We review every data request for legal sufficiency and use advanced systems and processes to validate law enforcement requests and detect abuse.\"", "Corporate affairs\n\nLeadership", "Senior management \nAs of March 16, 2021, the management of Apple Inc. includes:\n Tim Cook (chief executive officer)\n Jeff Williams (chief operating officer)\n Luca Maestri (senior vice president and chief financial officer)\n Katherine L. Adams (senior vice president and general counsel)\n Eddy Cue (senior vice president – Internet Software and Services)\n Craig Federighi (senior vice president – Software Engineering)\n John Giannandrea (senior vice president – Machine Learning and AI Strategy)", "John Giannandrea (senior vice president – Machine Learning and AI Strategy)\n Deirdre O'Brien (senior vice president – Retail + People)\n John Ternus (senior vice president – Hardware Engineering)\n Greg Josiwak (senior vice president – Worldwide Marketing)\n Johny Srouji (senior vice president – Hardware Technologies)\n Sabih Khan (senior vice president – Operations)", "Board of directors \nAs of January 20, 2023, the board of directors of Apple Inc. includes:\n Arthur D. Levinson (chairman)\n Tim Cook (executive director and CEO)\n James A. Bell\n Al Gore\n Alex Gorsky\n Andrea Jung\n Monica Lozano\n Ronald Sugar\n Susan Wagner\n\nPrevious CEOs \n Michael Scott (1977–1981)\n Mike Markkula (1981–1983)\n John Sculley (1983–1993)\n Michael Spindler (1993–1996)\n Gil Amelio (1996–1997)\n Steve Jobs (1997–2011)\n\nCorporate culture", "Apple is one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of corporate culture. Jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after Apple became a Fortune 500 company. By the time of the \"1984\" television advertisement, Apple's informal culture had become a key trait that differentiated it from its competitors. According to a 2011 report in Fortune, this has resulted in a corporate culture more akin to a startup rather than a multinational corporation", ". In a 2017 interview, Wozniak credited watching Star Trek and attending Star Trek conventions while in his youth as a source of inspiration for his co-founding Apple.", "As the company has grown and been led by a series of differently opinionated chief executives, it has arguably lost some of its original character. Nonetheless, it has maintained a reputation for fostering individuality and excellence that reliably attracts talented workers, particularly after Jobs returned to the company. Numerous Apple employees have stated that projects without Jobs's involvement often took longer than projects with it.", "To recognize the best of its employees, Apple created the Apple Fellows program which awards individuals who make extraordinary technical or leadership contributions to personal computing while at the company. The Apple Fellowship has so far been awarded to individuals including Bill Atkinson, Steve Capps, Rod Holt, Alan Kay, Guy Kawasaki, Al Alcorn, Don Norman, Rich Page, Steve Wozniak, and Phil Schiller.", "At Apple, employees are intended to be specialists who are not exposed to functions outside their area of expertise. Jobs saw this as a means of having \"best-in-class\" employees in every role. For instance, Ron Johnson—Senior Vice President of Retail Operations until November 1, 2011—was responsible for site selection, in-store service, and store layout, yet had no control of the inventory in his stores. This was done by Tim Cook, who had a background in supply-chain management", ". This was done by Tim Cook, who had a background in supply-chain management. Apple is known for strictly enforcing accountability. Each project has a \"directly responsible individual\" or \"DRI\" in Apple jargon. As an example, when iOS senior vice president Scott Forstall refused to sign Apple's official apology for numerous errors in the redesigned Maps app, he was forced to resign. Unlike other major U.S", ". Unlike other major U.S. companies, Apple provides a relatively simple compensation policy for executives that does not include perks enjoyed by other CEOs like country club fees or private use of company aircraft. The company typically grants stock options to executives every other year.", "In 2015, Apple had 110,000 full-time employees. This increased to 116,000 full-time employees the next year, a notable hiring decrease, largely due to its first revenue decline. Apple does not specify how many of its employees work in retail, though its 2014 SEC filing put the number at approximately half of its employee base. In September 2017, Apple announced that it had over 123,000 full-time employees.", "Apple has a strong culture of corporate secrecy, and has an anti-leak Global Security team that recruits from the National Security Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Secret Service.\n\nIn December 2017, Glassdoor said Apple was the 48th best place to work, having originally entered at rank 19 in 2009, peaking at rank 10 in 2012, and falling down the ranks in subsequent years.", "In 2023, Bloomberg Mark Gurman revealed the existence of Apple's Exploratory Design Group (XDG), which was working to add glucose monitoring to the Apple Watch. Gurman compared XDG to Alphabet's X \"moonshot factory\".\n\nOffices", "Apple Inc.'s world corporate headquarters are located in Cupertino, in the middle of California's Silicon Valley, at Apple Park, a massive circular groundscraper building with a circumference of . The building opened in April 2017 and houses more than 12,000 employees", ". The building opened in April 2017 and houses more than 12,000 employees. Apple co-founder Steve Jobs wanted Apple Park to look less like a business park and more like a nature refuge, and personally appeared before the Cupertino City Council in June 2011 to make the proposal, in his final public appearance before his death.", "Apple also operates from the Apple Campus (also known by its address, 1 Infinite Loop), a grouping of six buildings in Cupertino that total located about to the west of Apple Park. The Apple Campus was the company's headquarters from its opening in 1993, until the opening of Apple Park in 2017. The buildings, located at 1–6 Infinite Loop, are arranged in a circular pattern around a central green space, in a design that has been compared to that of a university.", "In addition to Apple Park and the Apple Campus, Apple occupies an additional thirty office buildings scattered throughout the city of Cupertino, including three buildings that also served as prior headquarters: \"Stephens Creek Three\" (1977–1978), Bandley One\" (1978–1982), and \"Mariani One\" (1982–1993). In total, Apple occupies almost 40% of the available office space in the city.", "Apple's headquarters for Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) are located in Cork in the south of Ireland, called the Hollyhill campus. The facility, which opened in 1980, houses 5,500 people and was Apple's first location outside of the United States. Apple's international sales and distribution arms operate out of the campus in Cork.", "Apple has two campuses near Austin, Texas: a campus opened in 2014 houses 500 engineers who work on Apple silicon and a campus opened in 2021 where 6,000 people work in technical support, supply chain management, online store curation, and Apple Maps data management.\n\nThe company also has several other locations in Boulder, Colorado, Culver City, California, Herzliya (Israel), London, New York, Pittsburgh, San Diego, and Seattle that each employ hundreds of people.\n\nLitigation", "Apple has been a participant in various legal proceedings and claims since it began operation. In particular, Apple is known for and promotes itself as actively and aggressively enforcing its intellectual property interests. Some litigation examples include Apple v. Samsung, Apple v. Microsoft, Motorola Mobility v. Apple Inc., and Apple Corps v. Apple Computer. Apple has also had to defend itself against charges on numerous occasions of violating intellectual property rights", ". Most have been dismissed in the courts as shell companies known as patent trolls, with no evidence of actual use of patents in question. On December 21, 2016, Nokia announced that in the U.S. and Germany, it has filed a suit against Apple, claiming that the latter's products infringe on Nokia's patents", ". Most recently, in November 2017, the United States International Trade Commission announced an investigation into allegations of patent infringement in regards to Apple's remote desktop technology; Aqua Connect, a company that builds remote desktop software, has claimed that Apple infringed on two of its patents. In January 2022, Ericsson sued Apple over payment of royalty of 5G technology.", "Finances \n\nApple is the world's largest technology company by revenue, the world's largest technology company by total assets, and the world's second-largest mobile phone manufacturer after Samsung.", "In its fiscal year ending in September 2011, Apple Inc. reported a total of $108 billion in annual revenues—a significant increase from its 2010 revenues of $65 billion—and nearly $82 billion in cash reserves. On March 19, 2012, Apple announced plans for a $2.65-per-share dividend beginning in fourth quarter of 2012, per approval by their board of directors.", "The company's worldwide annual revenue in 2013 totaled $170 billion. In May 2013, Apple entered the top ten of the Fortune 500 list of companies for the first time, rising 11 places above its 2012 ranking to take the sixth position. , Apple has around US$234 billion of cash and marketable securities, of which 90% is located outside the United States for tax purposes.", "Apple amassed 65% of all profits made by the eight largest worldwide smartphone manufacturers in quarter one of 2014, according to a report by Canaccord Genuity. In the first quarter of 2015, the company garnered 92% of all earnings.\n\nOn April 30, 2017, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple had cash reserves of $250 billion, officially confirmed by Apple as specifically $256.8 billion a few days later.", ", Apple was the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. On August 2, 2018, Apple became the first publicly traded U.S. company to reach a $1 trillion market value. Apple was ranked No. 4 on the 2018 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.", "In July 2022, Apple reported an 11% decline in Q3 profits compared to 2021. Its revenue in the same period rose 2% year-on-year to $83 billion, though this figure was also lower than in 2021, where the increase was at 36%. The general downturn is reportedly caused by the slowing global economy and supply chain disruptions in China.", "In May 2023, Apple reported a decline in its sales for the first quarter of 2023. Compared to that of 2022, revenue for 2023 fell by 3%. This is Apple's second consecutive quarter of sales decline. This fall is attributed to the slowing economy and consumers putting off purchases of iPads and computers due to increased pricing. However, iPhone sales held up with a year-on-year increase of 1.5%. According to Apple, demands for such devices were strong, particularly in Latin America and South Asia.", "Taxes", "Apple has created subsidiaries in low-tax places such as Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the British Virgin Islands to cut the taxes it pays around the world. According to The New York Times, in the 1980s Apple was among the first tech companies to designate overseas salespeople in high-tax countries in a manner that allowed the company to sell on behalf of low-tax subsidiaries on other continents, sidestepping income taxes", ". In the late 1980s, Apple was a pioneer of an accounting technique known as the \"Double Irish with a Dutch sandwich\", which reduces taxes by routing profits through Irish subsidiaries and the Netherlands and then to the Caribbean.", "British Conservative Party Member of Parliament Charlie Elphicke published research on October 30, 2012, which showed that some multinational companies, including Apple Inc., were making billions of pounds of profit in the UK, but were paying an effective tax rate to the UK Treasury of only 3 percent, well below standard corporate tax rates", ". He followed this research by calling on the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne to force these multinationals, which also included Google and The Coca-Cola Company, to state the effective rate of tax they pay on their UK revenues. Elphicke also said that government contracts should be withheld from multinationals who do not pay their fair share of UK tax.", "According to a US Senate report on the company's offshore tax structure concluded in May 2013, Apple has held billions of dollars in profits in Irish subsidiaries to pay little or no taxes to any government by using an unusual global tax structure. The main subsidiary, a holding company that includes Apple's retail stores throughout Europe, has not paid any corporate income tax in the last five years. \"Apple has exploited a difference between Irish and U.S. tax residency rules\", the report said.", "On May 21, 2013, Apple CEO Tim Cook defended his company's tax tactics at a Senate hearing.\n\nApple says that it is the single largest taxpayer in the U.S., with an effective tax rate of approximately of 26% as of Q2 FY2016. In an interview with the German newspaper FAZ in October 2017, Tim Cook stated that Apple was the biggest taxpayer worldwide.", "In 2016, after a two-year investigation, the European Commission claimed that Apple's use of a hybrid Double Irish tax arrangement constituted \"illegal state aid\" from Ireland, and ordered Apple to pay 13 billion euros ($14.5 billion) in unpaid taxes, the largest corporate tax fine in history. This was later annulled, after the European General Court ruled that the Commission had provided insufficient evidence", ". In 2018, Apple repatriated $285 billion to America, resulting in a $38 billion tax payment spread over the following 8 years.", "Charity \nApple is a partner of (PRODUCT)RED, a fundraising campaign for AIDS charity. In November 2014, Apple arranged for all App Store revenue in a two-week period to go to the fundraiser, generating more than US$20 million, and in March 2017, it released an iPhone 7 with a red color finish.", "Apple contributes financially to fundraisers in times of natural disasters. In November 2012, it donated $2.5 million to the American Red Cross to aid relief efforts after Hurricane Sandy, and in 2017 it donated $5 million to relief efforts for both Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Harvey, as well as for the 2017 Central Mexico earthquake", ". The company has also used its iTunes platform to encourage donations in the wake of environmental disasters and humanitarian crises, such as the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Japan earthquake, Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in November 2013, and the 2015 European migrant crisis", ". Apple emphasizes that it does not incur any processing or other fees for iTunes donations, sending 100% of the payments directly to relief efforts, though it also acknowledges that the Red Cross does not receive any personal information on the users donating and that the payments may not be tax deductible.", "On April 14, 2016, Apple and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) announced that they have engaged in a partnership to, \"help protect life on our planet.\" Apple released a special page in the iTunes App Store, Apps for Earth. In the arrangement, Apple has committed that through April 24, WWF will receive 100% of the proceeds from the applications participating in the App Store via both the purchases of any paid apps and the In-App Purchases", ". Apple and WWF's Apps for Earth campaign raised more than $8 million in total proceeds to support WWF's conservation work. WWF announced the results at WWDC 2016 in San Francisco.", "During the COVID-19 pandemic, Apple's CEO Cook announced that the company will be donating \"millions\" of masks to health workers in the United States and Europe.\n\nOn January 13, 2021, Apple announced a $100 million \"Racial Equity and Justice Initiative\" to help combat institutional racism worldwide.\n\nEnvironment", "Apple Energy", "Apple Energy, LLC is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Apple Inc. that sells solar energy. , Apple's solar farms in California and Nevada have been declared to provide 217.9 megawatts of solar generation capacity. In addition to the company's solar energy production, Apple has received regulatory approval to construct a landfill gas energy plant in North Carolina. Apple will use the methane emissions to generate electricity", ". Apple will use the methane emissions to generate electricity. Apple's North Carolina data center is already powered entirely with energy from renewable sources.", "Energy and resources", "In 2010, Climate Counts, a nonprofit organization dedicated to directing consumers toward the greenest companies, gave Apple a score of 52 points out of a possible 100, which puts Apple in their top category \"Striding\"", ". This was an increase from May 2008, when Climate Counts only gave Apple 11 points out of 100, which placed the company last among electronics companies, at which time Climate Counts also labeled Apple with a \"stuck icon\", adding that Apple at the time was \"a choice to avoid for the climate-conscious consumer\".", "Following a Greenpeace protest, Apple released a statement on April 17, 2012, committing to ending its use of coal and shifting to 100% renewable clean energy. By 2013, Apple was using 100% renewable energy to power their data centers. Overall, 75% of the company's power came from clean renewable sources.", "In May 2015, Greenpeace evaluated the state of the Green Internet and commended Apple on their environmental practices saying, \"Apple's commitment to renewable energy has helped set a new bar for the industry, illustrating in very concrete terms that a 100% renewable Internet is within its reach, and providing several models of intervention for other companies that want to build a sustainable Internet.\"", ", Apple states that 100% of its U.S. operations run on renewable energy, 100% of Apple's data centers run on renewable energy and 93% of Apple's global operations run on renewable energy. However, the facilities are connected to the local grid which usually contains a mix of fossil and renewable sources, so Apple carbon offsets its electricity use. The Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) allows consumers to see the effect a product has on the environment", ". Each product receives a Gold, Silver, or Bronze rank depending on its efficiency and sustainability. Every Apple tablet, notebook, desktop computer, and display that EPEAT ranks achieves a Gold rating, the highest possible. Although Apple's data centers recycle water 35 times, the increased activity in retail, corporate and data centers also increase the amount of water use to in 2015.", "During an event on March 21, 2016, Apple provided a status update on its environmental initiative to be 100% renewable in all of its worldwide operations. Lisa P. Jackson, Apple's vice president of Environment, Policy and Social Initiatives who reports directly to CEO, Tim Cook, announced that , 93% of Apple's worldwide operations are powered with renewable energy", ". Also featured was the company's efforts to use sustainable paper in their product packaging; 99% of all paper used by Apple in the product packaging comes from post-consumer recycled paper or sustainably managed forests, as the company continues its move to all paper packaging for all of its products. Apple working in partnership with Conservation Fund, have preserved 36,000 acres of working forests in Maine and North Carolina", ". Another partnership announced is with the World Wildlife Fund to preserve up to of forests in China. Featured was the company's installation of a 40 MW solar power plant in the Sichuan province of China that was tailor-made to coexist with the indigenous yaks that eat hay produced on the land, by raising the panels to be several feet off of the ground so the yaks and their feed would be unharmed grazing beneath the array", ". This installation alone compensates for more than all of the energy used in Apple's Stores and Offices in the whole of China, negating the company's energy carbon footprint in the country. In Singapore, Apple has worked with the Singaporean government to cover the rooftops of 800 buildings in the city-state with solar panels allowing Apple's Singapore operations to be run on 100% renewable energy", ". Liam was introduced to the world, an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter designed by Apple Engineers in California specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones. Reuses and recycles parts from traded in products.", "Apple announced on August 16, 2016, that Lens Technology, one of its major suppliers in China, has committed to power all its glass production for Apple with 100 percent renewable energy by 2018. The commitment is a large step in Apple's efforts to help manufacturers lower their carbon footprint in China. Apple also announced that all 14 of its final assembly sites in China are now compliant with UL's Zero Waste to Landfill validation", ". The standard, which started in January 2015, certifies that all manufacturing waste is reused, recycled, composted, or converted into energy (when necessary). Since the program began, nearly 140,000 metric tons of waste have been diverted from landfills.", "On July 21, 2020, Apple announced its plan to become carbon neutral across its entire business, manufacturing supply chain, and product life cycle by 2030. In the next 10 years, Apple will try to lower emissions with a series of innovative actions, including: low carbon product design, expanding energy efficiency, renewable energy, process and material innovations, and carbon removal.", "In April 2021, Apple said that it had started a $200 million fund in order to combat climate change by removing 1 million metric tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year.", "In February 2022, the NewClimate Institute, a German environmental policy think tank, published a survey evaluating the transparency and progress of the climate strategies and carbon neutrality pledges announced by 25 major companies in the United States that found that Apple's carbon neutrality pledge and climate strategy was unsubstantiated and misleading.", "Toxins", "Following further campaigns by Greenpeace, in 2008, Apple became the first electronics manufacturer to eliminate all polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in its complete product line. In June 2007, Apple began replacing the cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlit LCD displays in its computers with mercury-free LED-backlit LCD displays and arsenic-free glass, starting with the upgraded MacBook Pro", ". Apple offers comprehensive and transparent information about the CO2e, emissions, materials, and electrical usage concerning every product they currently produce or have sold in the past (and which they have enough data needed to produce the report), in their portfolio on their homepage. Allowing consumers to make informed purchasing decisions on the products they offer for sale. In June 2009, Apple's iPhone 3GS was free of PVC, arsenic, and BFRs", ". In June 2009, Apple's iPhone 3GS was free of PVC, arsenic, and BFRs. All Apple products now have mercury-free LED-backlit LCD displays, arsenic-free glass, and non-PVC cables. All Apple products have EPEAT Gold status and beat the latest Energy Star guidelines in each product's respective regulatory category.", "In November 2011, Apple was featured in Greenpeace's Guide to Greener Electronics, which ranks electronics manufacturers on sustainability, climate and energy policy, and how \"green\" their products are. The company ranked fourth of fifteen electronics companies (moving up five places from the previous year) with a score of 4.6/10. Greenpeace praised Apple's sustainability, noting that the company exceeded its 70% global recycling goal in 2010", ". Apple continues to score well on product ratings, with all of their products now being free of PVC plastic and BFRs. However, the guide criticized Apple on the Energy criteria for not seeking external verification of its greenhouse gas emissions data, and for not setting any targets to reduce emissions. In January 2012, Apple requested that its cable maker, Volex, begin producing halogen-free USB and power cables.", "Green bonds \nIn February 2016, Apple issued a US$1.5 billion green bond (climate bond), the first ever of its kind by a U.S. tech company. The green bond proceeds are dedicated to the financing of environmental projects.\n\nSupply chain", "Apple products were made in America in Apple-owned factories until the late 1990s; however, as a result of outsourcing initiatives in the 2000s, almost all of its manufacturing is now handled abroad. According to a report by The New York Times, Apple insiders \"believe the vast scale of overseas factories, as well as the flexibility, diligence and industrial skills of foreign workers, have so outpaced their American counterparts that \"Made in the USA\" is no longer a viable option for most Apple products\".", "The company's manufacturing, procurement, and logistics enable it to execute massive product launches without having to maintain large, profit-sapping inventories. In 2011, Apple's profit margins were 40 percent, compared with between 10 and 20 percent for most other hardware companies. Cook's catchphrase to describe his focus on the company's operational arm is: \"Nobody wants to buy sour milk.\"", "In May 2017, the company announced a $1 billion funding project for \"advanced manufacturing\" in the United States, and subsequently invested $200 million in Corning Inc., a manufacturer of toughened Gorilla Glass technology used in its iPhone devices. The following December, Apple's chief operating officer, Jeff Williams, told CNBC that the \"$1 billion\" amount was \"absolutely not\" the final limit on its spending, elaborating that \"We're not thinking in terms of a fund limit..", "... We're thinking about, where are the opportunities across the U.S. to help nurture companies that are making the advanced technology— and the advanced manufacturing that goes with that— that quite frankly is essential to our innovation.\"", ", Apple uses components from 43 countries. The majority of assembling is done by Taiwanese original design manufacturer firms Foxconn, Pegatron, Wistron and Compal Electronics with factories mostly located inside China, but also Brazil, and India.", "Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co., (TSMC) is a pure-play semiconductor manufacturing company. They make the majority of Apple's smartphone SoCs, with Samsung Semiconductor, playing a minority role. Apple, alone accounted for over 25% of TSMC's total income in 2021. Apple's Bionic lineup of smartphone SoCs, are currently made exclusively by TSMC from the A7 bionic onwards, previously manufacturing was shared with Samsung", ". The M series of Apple SoC for consumer computers and tablets is made by TSMC as well.", "During the Mac's early history Apple generally refused to adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware, instead creating their own. This trend was largely reversed in the late 1990s, beginning with Apple's adoption of the PCI bus in the 7500/8500/9500 Power Macs. Apple has since joined the industry standards groups to influence the future direction of technology standards such as USB, AGP, HyperTransport, Wi-Fi, NVMe, PCIe and others in its products", ". FireWire is an Apple-originated standard that was widely adopted across the industry after it was standardized as IEEE 1394 and is a legally mandated port in all Cable TV boxes in the United States.", "Apple has gradually expanded its efforts in getting its products into the Indian market. In July 2012, during a conference call with investors, CEO Tim Cook said that he \"[loves] India\", but that Apple saw larger opportunities outside the region. India's requirement that 30% of products sold be manufactured in the country was described as \"really adds cost to getting product to market\"", ". In May 2016, Apple opened an iOS app development center in Bangalore and a maps development office for 4,000 staff in Hyderabad. In March, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple would begin manufacturing iPhone models in India \"over the next two months\", and in May, the Journal wrote that an Apple manufacturer had begun production of iPhone SE in the country, while Apple told CNBC that the manufacturing was for a \"small number\" of units", ". In April 2019, Apple initiated manufacturing of iPhone 7 at its Bengaluru facility, keeping in mind demand from local customers even as they seek more incentives from the government of India. At the beginning of 2020, Tim Cook announced that Apple schedules the opening of its first physical outlet in India for 2021, while an online store is to be launched by the end of the year.", "During the 2022 COVID-19 protests in China, Chinese state-owned company Wingtech was reported by The Wall Street Journal to gain an additional foothold in Apple's supply chain following protests at a Foxconn factory in the Zhengzhou Airport Economy Zone.\n\nWorker organizations", "Worker organizations \n\nIn 2006, one complex of factories in Shenzhen, China that assembled the iPod and other items had over 200,000 workers living and working within it. Employees regularly worked more than 60 hours per week and made around $100 per month. A little over half of the workers' earnings was required to pay for rent and food from the company.", "Apple immediately launched an investigation after the 2006 media report, and worked with their manufacturers to ensure acceptable working conditions. In 2007, Apple started yearly audits of all its suppliers regarding worker's rights, slowly raising standards and pruning suppliers that did not comply. Yearly progress reports have been published . In 2011, Apple admitted that its suppliers' child labor practices in China had worsened.", "The Foxconn suicides occurred between January and November 2010, when 18 Foxconn () employees attempted suicide, resulting in 14 deaths—the company was the world's largest contract electronics manufacturer, for clients including Apple, at the time. The suicides drew media attention, and employment practices at Foxconn were investigated by Apple. Apple issued a public statement about the suicides, and company spokesperson Steven Dowling said:", "The statement was released after the results from the company's probe into its suppliers' labor practices were published in early 2010. Foxconn was not specifically named in the report, but Apple identified a series of serious labor violations of labor laws, including Apple's own rules, and some child labor existed in a number of factories. Apple committed to the implementation of changes following the suicides.", "Also in 2010, workers in China planned to sue iPhone contractors over poisoning by a cleaner used to clean LCD screens. One worker claimed that he and his coworkers had not been informed of possible occupational illnesses. After a high suicide rate in a Foxconn facility in China making iPads and iPhones, albeit a lower rate than that of China as a whole, workers were forced to sign a legally binding document guaranteeing that they would not kill themselves", ". Workers in factories producing Apple products have also been exposed to hexane, a neurotoxin that is a cheaper alternative than alcohol for cleaning the products.", "A 2014 BBC investigation found excessive hours and other problems persisted, despite Apple's promise to reform factory practice after the 2010 Foxconn suicides. The Pegatron factory was once again the subject of review, as reporters gained access to the working conditions inside through recruitment as employees", ". While the BBC maintained that the experiences of its reporters showed that labor violations were continuing , Apple publicly disagreed with the BBC and stated: \"We are aware of no other company doing as much as Apple to ensure fair and safe working conditions\".", "In December 2014, the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights published a report which documented inhumane conditions for the 15,000 workers at a Zhen Ding Technology factory in Shenzhen, China, which serves as a major supplier of circuit boards for Apple's iPhone and iPad. According to the report, workers are pressured into 65-hour work weeks which leaves them so exhausted that they often sleep during lunch breaks", ". They are also made to reside in \"primitive, dark and filthy dorms\" where they sleep \"on plywood, with six to ten workers in each crowded room.\" Omnipresent security personnel also routinely harass and beat the workers.", "In 2019, there were reports stating that some of Foxconn's managers had used rejected parts to build iPhones and that Apple was investigating the issue.\n\nSee also \n List of Apple Inc. media events\n Pixar\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links", "1976 establishments in California\n1980s initial public offerings\nAmerican brands\nCompanies based in Cupertino, California\nCompanies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average\nCompanies in the PRISM network\nCompanies listed on the Nasdaq\nComputer companies established in 1976\nComputer companies of the United States\nDisplay technology companies\nElectronics companies of the United States\nHome computer hardware companies\nMobile phone manufacturers\nMultinational companies headquartered in the United States", "Mobile phone manufacturers\nMultinational companies headquartered in the United States\nNetworking hardware companies\nPortable audio player manufacturers\nRetail companies of the United States\nSoftware companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area\nSoftware companies established in 1976\nSteve Jobs\nTechnology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area\nTechnology companies established in 1976\nTechnology companies of the United States" ]

[ "The Phoenix Suns are an American professional basketball team based in Phoenix, Arizona. They compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Pacific Division of the Western Conference. The Suns are the only team in their division not to be based in California. They play their home games at the Footprint Center", ". They play their home games at the Footprint Center. The Suns are one of four major league sports teams based in the Phoenix area, but are the only one to bill themselves as representing the city (the Cardinals, Coyotes, and Diamondbacks all bill themselves as representing the state of Arizona).", "The franchise began play in 1968 as an expansion team. Though their early years were mired in mediocrity, their fortunes changed in the 1970s after partnering Dick Van Arsdale and Alvan Adams with Paul Westphal. The team reached the 1976 NBA Finals, in what is considered to be one of the biggest upsets in NBA history. However, after failing to capture a championship, the Suns would rebuild around Walter Davis for a majority of the 1980s, until the acquisition of Kevin Johnson in 1988.", "Under Johnson, and after trading for perennial NBA All-Star Charles Barkley, and combined with the output of Tom Chambers and Dan Majerle, the Suns reached the playoffs for a franchise-record thirteen consecutive appearances and remained a regular title contender throughout the 1990s, and reached the 1993 NBA Finals. However, the team would again fail to win a championship, and entered into another period of mediocrity until the early part of the 2000s.", "In 2004, the Suns signed free agent Steve Nash (who had blossomed for the Dallas Mavericks after being traded from Phoenix six years earlier), and returned into playoff contention. With Nash, Shawn Marion, and Amar'e Stoudemire, and under head coach Mike D'Antoni, the Suns became renowned worldwide for their quick, dynamic offense, which led them to tie a franchise record in wins in the 2004–05 season", ". Two more top two Conference placements followed, but the Suns again failed to attain an NBA championship, and were forced into another rebuild.", "After ten consecutive seasons without a playoff berth, the Suns reached the 2021 NBA Finals after acquiring Chris Paul, who formed a quartet with their young core of Devin Booker, Deandre Ayton and Mikal Bridges. In 2023, the Suns acquired 13-time All-Star and two-time NBA champion Kevin Durant and three-time All-Star Bradley Beal.", "The Suns own the NBA's fifth-best all-time winning percentage, and have the second highest winning percentage of any team to have never won an NBA championship. 11 Hall of Famers have played for Phoenix, while two — Barkley and Nash — won NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) while playing for the team. Additionally, their Hall of Fame radio announcer Al McCoy is the longest-tenured broadcaster in NBA history.", "Overview\nThe franchise began play in 1968 as an expansion team. Though their early years were mired in mediocrity, their fortunes changed in the 1970s after partnering Dick Van Arsdale and Alvan Adams with Paul Westphal. The team reached the 1976 NBA Finals, in what is considered to be one of the biggest upsets in NBA history. However, after failing to capture a championship, the Suns would rebuild around Walter Davis for a majority of the 1980s, until the acquisition of Kevin Johnson in 1988.", "Under Johnson, and after trading for perennial NBA All-Star Charles Barkley, and combined with the output of Tom Chambers and Dan Majerle, the Suns reached the playoffs for a franchise-record thirteen consecutive appearances and remained a regular title contender throughout the 1990s, and reached the 1993 NBA Finals. However, the team would again fail to win a championship, and entered into another period of mediocrity until the early part of the 2000s.", "In 2004, the Suns signed free agent Steve Nash (who had blossomed for the Dallas Mavericks after being traded from Phoenix six years earlier), and returned into playoff contention. With Nash, Shawn Marion, and Amar'e Stoudemire, and under head coach Mike D'Antoni, the Suns became renowned worldwide for their quick, dynamic offense, which led them to tie a franchise record in wins in the 2004–05 season", ". Two more top two Conference placements followed, but the Suns again failed to attain an NBA championship, and were forced into another rebuild.", "After ten consecutive seasons without a playoff berth, the Suns reached the 2021 NBA Finals after acquiring Chris Paul, who formed a quartet with their young core of Devin Booker, Deandre Ayton and Mikal Bridges. In 2023, the Suns acquired 13-time All-Star and two-time NBA champion Kevin Durant and three-time All-Star Bradley Beal.", "The Suns own the NBA's fifth-best all-time winning percentage, and have the second highest winning percentage of any team to have never won an NBA championship. 11 Hall of Famers have played for Phoenix, while two — Barkley and Nash — won NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) while playing for the team. Additionally, their Hall of Fame radio announcer Al McCoy is the longest-tenured broadcaster in NBA history.\n\nFranchise history", "1968–1976: Team creation and early years", "The Suns were one of two franchises to join the NBA at the start of the 1968–69 season, alongside the Milwaukee Bucks from Milwaukee. They were the first major professional sports franchise in the Phoenix market and in the entire state of Arizona, and remained the only one for the better part of 20 years (a Phoenix Roadrunners team played in the World Hockey Association from 1974 to 1977) until the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League relocated from St. Louis in 1988", ". Louis in 1988. The Suns played their first 24 seasons at Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum, called the \"Madhouse on McDowell\", located slightly northwest of downtown Phoenix. The franchise was formed by an ownership group led by Karl Eller, owner of a public enterprise, the investor Donald Pitt, Don Diamond, Bhavik Darji, Marvin Meyer, and Richard L. Bloch. Other owners with a minority stake consisted of entertainers, such as Andy Williams, Bobbie Gentry and Ed Ames", ". There were many critics, including then-NBA commissioner J. Walter Kennedy, who said that Phoenix was \"too hot,\" \"too small,\" and \"too far away\" to be considered a successful NBA market. This was despite the fact that the Phoenix metropolitan area was growing rapidly, and the Suns would have built-in geographical foes in places like in San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle.", "After continual prodding by Bloch (who became president of the Phoenix Suns), in 1968 the NBA Board of Governors granted franchises to Phoenix and Milwaukee on January 22, 1968, with an entry fee of $2 million. The Suns nickname was among 28,000 entries that were formally chosen in a name-the-team contest sponsored by The Arizona Republic, with the winner awarded $1,000 and season tickets for the inaugural season", ". Suns was preferred over Scorpions, Rattlers, Thunderbirds, Wranglers, Mavericks, Tumbleweeds, Mustangs and Cougars. Stan Fabe, who owned a commercial printing plant in Tucson, designed the team's first iconic logo for a mere $200; this was after the team paid $5,000 to a local artist to design the team's logo. However, they were disappointed with the results.", "In the 1968 NBA expansion draft, notable Suns' pickups were future Hall of Famer Gail Goodrich and Dick Van Arsdale.", "Jerry Colangelo, then a player scout, came over from the Chicago Bulls, a franchise formed two years earlier, as the Suns' first general manager at the age of 28, along with Johnny \"Red\" Kerr as head coach. Unlike the first-year success that Colangelo and Kerr had in Chicago, in which the Bulls finished with a first-year expansion record of 33 wins and a playoff berth (plus a Coach of the Year award for Kerr), Phoenix finished its first year at 16–66, and finished 25 games out of the final playoff spot.", "Both Goodrich and Van Arsdale were selected to the All-Star Game in their first season with the Suns. Goodrich returned to his former team, the Lakers, after two seasons with the Suns, but Van Arsdale spent the rest of his playing days as a Sun and a one-time head coach for Phoenix.", "The Suns' last-place finish that season led to a coin flip for the number-one overall pick for the 1969 NBA draft with the expansion-mate Bucks. Milwaukee won the flip, and the rights to draft UCLA center Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (then known as Lew Alcindor), while Phoenix settled on drafting center Neal Walk from Florida. The 1969–70 season posted better results for the Suns, finishing 39–43, but lost to the Los Angeles Lakers in the first round of the playoffs", ". The next two seasons (1970–71 and 1971–72), the Suns finished with 48- and 49-win seasons, but did not qualify for the playoffs in either year, and did not reach the playoffs again until 1976. The major draw for the franchise in this era was the dramatic play of Connie Hawkins.", "This era was also marked by the arrival of longtime Suns play-by-play and Naismith Hall of Fame announcer Al McCoy, hired by Jerry Colangelo before the start of the 1972–73 NBA season. Soon locally renowned as \"the Voice of the Suns\", his broadcasts were simulcast on both television and radio from 1972 until 2003 when he became exclusive to the Suns Radio Network", ". He was still broadcasting Suns home games on radio as of the 2022–23 season, having called all three NBA Finals appearances for the franchise (in 1976, 1993, and 2021).", "Colangelo called Al McCoy \"the greatest salesman for the game of basketball in our entire state.\" \"He had as much to do with the success of the Suns as any player, coach or manager.\"", "1975–1976: Trip to the NBA Finals", "The 1975–76 season proved to be a pivotal year for the Suns as they made several key moves, including the off-season trade of former All-Star guard Charlie Scott to the Boston Celtics in exchange for guard Paul Westphal, a member of Boston's 1974 championship team. They also drafted center and eventual fan favorite Alvan Adams from the University of Oklahoma and guard Ricky Sobers of UNLV", ". The Suns and Buffalo Braves made a midseason trade, with Phoenix sending forward/center John Shumate to Buffalo in exchange for forward Garfield Heard.", "Phoenix had an inconsistent regular season, starting out at 14–9 (then the best start in team history), then went 4–18 during a stretch where the team sustained several injuries (including Dick Van Arsdale breaking his right arm in a February game). The Suns then went 24–13 in the final 37 games to finish 42–40, clinching their first playoff spot since 1970", ". The Suns faced the Seattle SuperSonics in the first round of the Western Conference playoffs, winning the series four games to two, and beat the defending NBA champion Golden State Warriors in the Western Conference finals, four games to three, to advance to their first NBA Finals.", "The Suns faced an experienced Celtics team, led by eventual Hall of Famers Dave Cowens, John Havlicek and Jo Jo White. Game five of the 1976 NBA Finals took place at Boston Garden, where the Suns came back from a 22-point first-half deficit to force overtime. Havlicek made what was supposed to be a game-winning basket, but due to fans rushing the floor before time officially expired, officials put one second back on the clock with Phoenix having possession of the ball, but under their own basket", ". Instead of attempting a desperation heave, the Suns' Westphal intentionally called a timeout that they did not have, a technical foul, giving the Celtics a free throw, which Jo Jo White converted to put them up 112–110. However, this advanced the ball to half-court, and once the Suns had possession, Garfield Heard made a buzzer-beating turnaround jump shot to force a third overtime", ". The Suns' hard-fought battle was short-lived, as Boston's reserve player Glenn McDonald scored six of his eight points in the third overtime to lead the Celtics to a 128–126 win. Boston eventually won the series in six games, clinching the championship at the Coliseum, defeating Phoenix in game six, 87–80.", "1976–1988: From success to scandals", "In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Suns enjoyed several successful seasons including the 1981 Pacific Division title, making the playoffs eight seasons in a row including an appearance at the 1984 Western Conference finals. Problems arose on and off the court in the mid-1980s. In 1987, the Maricopa County Attorney's Office indicted 13 people on drug-related charges, three of whom were active Suns' players James Edwards, Jay Humphries and Grant Gondrezick", ". These indictments were partially based on testimony from star player Walter Davis, who was given immunity. No defendants ever went to trial: two of the players went into a prosecution diversion program, while another received probation. Nevertheless, the scandal, although now perceived in many respects to be a witch hunt tarnished the reputation of the franchise both nationally and within the community", ". The scandal did provide an opening for general manager Jerry Colangelo to lead a group that bought the team from its owners for $44 million at the start of the 1987–88 season, a record at that time. With a drug scandal and the loss of promising young center Nick Vanos, who was killed in the crash of Northwest Airlines Flight 255, the franchise was in turmoil both on and off the court.", "1988–1992: The Kevin Johnson/Tom Chambers/Dan Majerle era", "The Suns' luck began to turn around in 1988 with the acquisition of Kevin Johnson from the Cleveland Cavaliers, along with Mark West and Tyrone Corbin, for All-Star power forward Larry Nance and Mike Sanders. This was the beginning of a franchise-record 13 consecutive playoff appearances", ". This was the beginning of a franchise-record 13 consecutive playoff appearances. All-Star Tom Chambers came over from the Seattle SuperSonics (the first unrestricted free agent in NBA history), 1986 second-round draft pick Jeff Hornacek continued to develop, and \"Thunder\" Dan Majerle was drafted with the 14th pick in the 1988 draft", ". Kurt Rambis was added from the Charlotte Hornets in 1989, and the team upset the Los Angeles Lakers in five games during the playoffs that season, before falling to the Portland Trail Blazers in the Western Conference finals. In 1990–91, the Suns went 55–27 but lost in the first round to the Utah Jazz, 3–1. In 1991–92, the Suns went 53–29", ". In 1991–92, the Suns went 53–29. Having sent four players to the All-Star Game in the previous two seasons (Chambers, Johnson, Hornacek, and Majerle), the Suns swept the San Antonio Spurs in three games in the first round of the 1992 NBA playoffs. The Suns then were defeated in five games to the Trail Blazers in the conference semifinals. The series was punctuated by a game four in which the Suns lost in double overtime 153–151 (the highest-scoring game in NBA playoff history to date)", ". That game was the last Suns game ever played at the Coliseum.", "1992–1996: The Charles Barkley era\nIn 1992, the Suns moved into their new arena in downtown Phoenix, the America West Arena. The arena is occasionally referred to as the \"Purple Palace\" due to its purple seats, one of the Suns' colors. All-Star power forward Charles Barkley was traded from the Philadelphia 76ers for Jeff Hornacek, Andrew Lang, and Tim Perry. Barkley went on to win the MVP award that 1992–93 season.", "In addition to Barkley, the Suns added key players to their roster, including Danny Ainge and draftees Arkansas center Oliver Miller and forward Richard Dumas (who was actually drafted in 1991 but was suspended for his rookie year for violating the NBA drug policy).", "Under rookie head coach Paul Westphal, a former Suns assistant and player with the 1976 Suns in the NBA Finals, the Suns won 62 games in 1992–93, setting a franchise record. In the first round of the playoffs, they defeated the eighth-seeded Lakers, coming back from a 0–2 deficit in the five-game series. The Suns then eliminated the Spurs and SuperSonics, advancing to the NBA Finals for the second time in franchise history", ". They eventually lost to the Chicago Bulls, led by eventual Hall of Famers Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen. The series also included a triple-overtime game in game three, making this and their previous game five in the 1976 series the only triple-overtime games in the history of the NBA Finals. Approximately 300,000 fans braved the 105° heat to celebrate the memorable season in the downtown streets of Phoenix after the Finals had ended.", "The Suns continued to be successful in the regular season, going 178–68 during the 1992–93, 1993–94, and 1994–95 seasons. They continued to bolster their roster by adding players such as A. C. Green, Danny Manning, Wesley Person, Wayman Tisdale, and Elliot Perry. Despite a Pacific Division title in 1995, the Suns were eliminated in consecutive Western Conference Semifinal rounds by the Houston Rockets, both series going a full seven games", ". Manning was rarely at full strength with the Suns, injuring his ACL in 1995 just before the All-Star break. In both years, the Suns led the series by two games at one point (2–0 in 1994, 3–1 in 1995) only to see the Rockets come back to win each series.", "At the end of the 1994–95 season, Phoenix general manager Bryan Colangelo, the son of Jerry, initiated an eventually costly trade, sending the All-Star Majerle and a first-round draft pick to the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for John \"Hot Rod\" Williams. Majerle was a fan favorite in Phoenix and in the Suns' locker room. The trade was made to address the Suns' need of a shot-blocking center but Majerle's presence was missed and Williams's production never met expectations.", "The 1995–96 season was a disappointing year for the Suns, despite drafting NBA All-Rookie First Team member Michael Finley, who became unavailable for the playoffs due to injury. The Suns posted a 41–41 record and were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the San Antonio Spurs. Westphal was fired midway through the season and replaced by Fitzsimmons, his third stint as head coach", ". A combination of front office unrest, along with the dwindling possibility of winning a championship, led to turmoil in Barkley's relationship with Jerry Colangelo, who both spurned each other publicly. This led to Barkley being traded to Houston for Sam Cassell, Robert Horry, Mark Bryant, and Chucky Brown", ". Three of the four players were not with the franchise one year later, and two of the most talented players (Horry and Cassell) constantly clashed with the coach and seemed to be a negative influence in the locker room.", "1996–2004: Average times\nIn the 1996 NBA draft, the Suns used their 15th pick for Santa Clara guard Steve Nash. Upon hearing the draft announcement, Suns fans booed in disapproval of the relatively unknown player, because he had not played in one of the major college conferences. During his first two seasons in the NBA, he played a supporting role behind star point guards Jason Kidd and Kevin Johnson.", "After the Barkley trade, the Suns began the 1996–97 season 0–13, a franchise record for the worst start. During the 13-game losing streak, Fitzsimmons stepped down as the coach and was replaced by former player Danny Ainge.", "After an on-the-court altercation between Ainge and Horry, Horry was traded to the Lakers for former Sun and NBA all-star Cedric Ceballos. Cassell was later traded to Dallas for all-star guard Jason Kidd. With a mostly small lineup, the Suns put together an 11-game win streak that put them in the playoffs as the seventh seed, in a series that almost upset the favored Sonics", ". Despite the loss in the playoffs, the Suns became one of the few NBA teams to make the playoffs after starting the season 0–10 or worse, and one of the few to make the playoffs after experiencing a 10-plus-game losing streak during the regular season.", "With Kidd starting at point guard, Nash was traded to the Mavericks in June 1998 in exchange for Martin Müürsepp, Bubba Wells, the draft rights to Pat Garrity, and a future first-round draft pick (later used to select Shawn Marion).", "In the off-season prior to the 2000 NBA season, the Suns traded for perennial All-Star Anfernee \"Penny\" Hardaway, creating the tandem of Kidd and Hardaway called \"Backcourt 2000\". However, the combination of Hardaway and Kidd was never fully realized as Hardaway missed several games during the middle of the 1999–2000 season and Kidd broke his ankle going into the playoffs just as Hardaway returned to the court", ". As the Suns entered the 2000 playoffs, they beat the higher-seeded San Antonio Spurs 3–1 in the best-of-five series. The Spurs were without their best player Tim Duncan throughout the whole series. However, even with the return of Kidd in the next round, the Suns fell to the eventual champion Los Angeles Lakers in a 4–1 series.", "The Suns continued to make the playoffs until the 2001–02 season when they fell short for the first time in 14 years. That season marked the trade of Jason Kidd, partly due to a publicized domestic violence episode, to the New Jersey Nets for Stephon Marbury. With the resultant high draft pick, the Suns were able to draft Amar'e Stoudemire.", "The 2002–03 campaign saw the emergence of Stoudemire, a graduate of Cypress Creek High School (Orlando, Florida). He became the first high school-drafted player to win the NBA Rookie of the Year for the 2002–03 season, during which the Suns posted a record of 44–38 and returned to the playoffs. Marbury had a successful individual season, making the All-NBA Third Team and being selected for the 2003 NBA All-Star Game", ". The Suns were eliminated in the first round once again by the San Antonio Spurs; a six-game series with the eventual NBA champions.", "In the 2003–04 season, the Suns finished out of the playoffs with a 29–53 record. The Suns made a blockbuster mid-season trade sending Marbury and Hardaway to the New York Knicks for Antonio McDyess and a future first round pick that was later dealt to Denver.\n\n2004–2012: The Steve Nash era\n\n2004–2006: Nash wins back-to-back MVPs", "The beginning of 2004 saw the departure of the face of Suns management since the team's inception, when Jerry Colangelo announced that the Phoenix Suns were to be sold to an investment group headed by San Diego-based business executive and Tucson native Robert Sarver for $401 million. The 2004–05 season marked the Suns' return to the NBA's elite, finishing with the best record at 62–20, and tying a franchise record set by the 1992–93 team", ". They set a team record for greatest one-season improvement at 33 games. During the off-season, the Suns signed unrestricted free agent All-Star point guard Steve Nash from Dallas, who had formerly played for the Suns at the beginning of his career. Nash went on to win the MVP award that season. Amar'e Stoudemire and Shawn Marion were named All-Stars and first-year coach Mike D'Antoni was named NBA Coach of the Year.", "In the 2005 NBA playoffs, Phoenix was the first seed in the Western Conference. The Suns swept the Memphis Grizzlies, 4–0, and defeated the fourth-seeded Dallas Mavericks in the second round, 4–2, as Nash forced game six into overtime with a three-pointer in the closing seconds. In the Western Conference finals, the Suns played the San Antonio Spurs, who won the series 4–1, ending Phoenix's season, partly due to Joe Johnson missing the first two games of the series", ". Johnson went on to start the remaining games where he averaged 40 minutes per game and 18.3 points per game. The Suns lost the first two at home, as well as the following game in San Antonio to fall behind 3–0 in the series, before winning game four at San Antonio 111–106. The team then lost game five at home 101–95 to be eliminated from the playoffs. Stoudemire averaged 37.0 points per game during the series against the Spurs, the highest ever by a player in the Western Conference finals.", "The 2005–06 NBA season began with Stoudemire undergoing microfracture surgery in his knee on October 18, 2005, missing all but three games that season. Shooting guard Joe Johnson also demanded a sign-and-trade deal to the Atlanta Hawks, in which the Suns got Boris Diaw and two future first-round picks. Other acquisitions included Raja Bell and Kurt Thomas. Despite the turnover in players, the Suns again won the Pacific Division, going 54–28 and capturing the second seed in the Western Conference", ". Nash was awarded a second consecutive NBA Most Valuable Player Award, becoming the second point-guard, after Magic Johnson, to win the award in consecutive seasons. Also, Diaw was named NBA Most Improved Player.", "The Suns began the 2006 Western Conference Playoffs as favorites against the Los Angeles Lakers. After winning the first game in Phoenix, they found themselves trailing in the series 3–1 after impressive performances by Lakers' shooting guard Kobe Bryant. However, the Suns went on to win three straight games. With 7:33 left in the fifth game, Suns guard Raja Bell grabbed Bryant around the neck and threw him down as the Lakers' star drove to the basket", ". Bell earned a technical foul, his second of the game, and an automatic ejection. The Suns took game six in overtime, their first overtime win all season, despite 50 points from Bryant and Bell out serving a one-game suspension with last-second help from mid-season acquisition Tim Thomas. On their home court, the Suns won game seven 121–90, eliminating the Lakers for the first time since 1993. The Suns are 1 of 9 teams in NBA history to win a playoff series after being behind 3–1.", "In the second round, the Suns faced the Los Angeles Clippers. The series was played closely, with both teams trading games on each other's courts. The series was 2–2 and the Suns were behind in game five before coming back and won in double overtime. After a game six loss, the Suns won the series in the seventh game on their home court at US Airways Center, winning by a margin of 20 with an NBA record fifteen 3-point FGs on May 22, 2006.", "They went on to play the Dallas Mavericks in the Western Conference finals as underdogs. The Suns took game one in Dallas by a single point and their May 30 victory in game four marked the most wins for the franchise in a Conference finals series since the 1993 season. The Suns lost games five and six by a combined 25 points and were eliminated from the series on June 3.", "2006–2008: \"Seven seconds or less\"\nUnder coach D'Antoni, the Suns popularized the fast break offense known as 7 seconds or less, which was later published in a book written by Sports Illustrated writer Jack McCallum. Though criticized for a supposed lack of defense, the Suns specialized an efficient offense designed to quickly get off shots that made regrouping on defense difficult for the opposing team.", "The Suns entered the 2006–07 season aiming to win the first championship in franchise history. From November 20 to December 22, the Suns posted a 15-game win streak, followed almost immediately with a 17-game win streak from December 29 to January 28. On March 14, the 49–14 Suns met the 52–10 Dallas Mavericks in a match-up where both teams were fighting for the top seed in the Western conference and Nash was going for his third consecutive MVP award against Dirk Nowitzki", ". Though the Suns won the game in double overtime, the Mavericks would finish with the West's top seed at 67–15, and Nowitzki would narrowly win the MVP award ahead of Nash.", "While the Mavericks were upset in the first round by the eight-seed Golden State Warriors, the 61–21 Suns defeated Kobe Bryant and the Lakers in five games in the opening round of the playoffs. This set up a rematch of the 2005 Western Conference finals against the San Antonio Spurs. The series saw the Spurs defeat the Suns in six games, in what many called \"the real finals\" of the 2006–07 season. The Spurs went on to win the championship that year.", "On June 6, former TNT TV analyst and NBA three-point specialist, Steve Kerr, was appointed Suns' general manager and president of basketball operations. Kerr was also a part of the Sarver-led investment group that purchased the franchise from Jerry Colangelo. His first off-season signing was former Orlando Magic small forward Grant Hill on a one-year $1.8 million deal with a player option for a second season at $2 million", ".8 million deal with a player option for a second season at $2 million. Hill, who was previously considered injury-prone, played in the majority of games over the next four seasons as a starter.", "The Suns finished 55–27 on the season, two games behind the Lakers who won the division. In the opening round of the playoffs, the Suns lost to the Spurs in five games, the first time they did not advance past the first round in the D'Antoni-Nash era. Some have attributed this to the mid-season acquisition of aging former MVP Shaquille O'Neal for four-time All Star Shawn Marion", ". Though O'Neal was brought in as a physical presence to match with the likes of the Spurs' Tim Duncan, the move all but ended their fast-paced offense which had brought them to the cusp of a Finals appearance.", "On May 11, 2008, Suns' head coach Mike D'Antoni left the team and signed with the New York Knicks.", "2008–2010: Ups and downs", "On June 9, 2008, Terry Porter was named head coach of the Phoenix Suns, succeeding Mike D'Antoni. Porter was an assistant coach of the Detroit Pistons when he was let go after the Pistons were eliminated by the Boston Celtics in the 2008 NBA Eastern Conference finals. During the off-season, the Suns had difficulties signing free agents because of being over the luxury tax. They made attempts to sign a backup point guard, Tyronn Lue; however, he decided to sign with the Bucks for more money", ". The Suns selected Robin Lopez (15th overall pick out of Stanford) in the 2008 NBA draft and acquired Goran Dragić, who was originally picked by the rival San Antonio Spurs.", "On February 16, 2009, the Suns fired Porter and he was succeeded by Alvin Gentry. The Suns were expected to make the transition back to the up-tempo style basketball nicknamed the \"7 Seconds or Less\" or \"Run and Gun\" style. On February 18, Gentry began his head coaching tenure with a 140–100 win over the Clippers at home. Six Suns players scored in double digits, led by Leandro Barbosa's 24 points", ". Six Suns players scored in double digits, led by Leandro Barbosa's 24 points. The Suns led by as much as 50 points during the game and were without their swingman Jason Richardson who was serving a one-game suspension. However, this offense cost them their defense, allowing over 107 points per game, 27th in the league. The Suns scored 140 in the next two games. On February 20, Amar'e Stoudemire underwent eye surgery and was out for eight weeks. They went 18–13 under Gentry in the last 31 games", ". They went 18–13 under Gentry in the last 31 games. At the end of the season, the Suns missed the playoffs with a 46–36 record.", "During the 2009–10 season, the Suns played a far more balanced style of basketball and finished with a 54–28 record. The Suns advanced to the NBA's Western Conference finals, eliminating the Portland Trail Blazers in six games and the San Antonio Spurs in four games, including an explosive performance by Goran Dragić in game three against the Spurs, scoring 23 points in the fourth quarter. The Suns faced the Lakers in the Western Conference finals but lost in six games.", "On June 15, 2010, Kerr resigned as general manager of the Suns and opted to return as an analyst for TNT effective June 30, 2010. In the wake of Kerr's decision to leave the club, senior vice president of basketball operations David Griffin told managing partner Robert Sarver he did not want to be a candidate to replace Kerr and left when his contract expired on June 30", ". The last moves of both Steve Kerr and David Griffin were drafting players Gani Lawal and Dwayne Collins with the second-round draft picks that they had in the 2010 NBA draft.", "2010–2012: Slow decline without Amar'e\nThe Suns attempted to re-sign Amar'e Stoudemire in the 2010 free agency period with a five-year contract for around $95 million, with $71 million guaranteed, and the rest of his salary coming only if certain conditions were held, such as getting guaranteed 4th and 5th-season money if he remained healthy enough to meet those conditions. Stoudemire instead signed with the New York Knicks for $100 million.", "The Suns hired player agent Lon Babby as president of basketball operations. The team then paid over $80 million to acquire Hedo Türkoğlu, Josh Childress, and Hakim Warrick to not only replace Stoudemire but also add bench depth. On August 5, 2010, the Suns hired Lance Blanks as general manager. On December 19, 2010, the Suns acquired Vince Carter, Mickaël Piétrus, and Marcin Gortat from the Orlando Magic, along with a low draft pick and cash considerations", ". For this acquisition, the Suns traded Jason Richardson, Earl Clark, and the recently acquired Hedo Türkoğlu. On February 24, 2011, the Suns acquired point guard Aaron Brooks, trading first round (lottery-protected) draft pick and point guard Goran Dragić to the Houston Rockets. The Suns ended the 2010–11 season with a losing record and missed the playoffs.", "In the 2011 NBA draft, the Suns used their 13th pick on Markieff Morris, a 6' 10\" power forward from the Kansas Jayhawks. Markieff is the twin brother of Marcus Morris, who played together for three years in Kansas. In the 2012 NBA draft, the Suns used their 13th pick to select Kendall Marshall, a 6' 4\" point guard from the North Carolina Tar Heels", ". Marshall was a prolific passer in his two seasons at North Carolina; setting the ACC and North Carolina season assist records, along with winning the Bob Cousy Award in his sophomore season with the Tar Heels.", "2012–2015: Pre–Booker and struggle years", "2012: The departure of Steve Nash", "During the 2012 free agency period, the Suns traded Steve Nash to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for first-round picks in 2013 and 2015, as well as second-round picks in 2013 and 2014. After the trade, the Suns then re-acquired point guard Goran Dragić from Houston, signed Minnesota Timberwolves forward Michael Beasley, and claimed Houston forward Luis Scola off amnesty waivers while also using the same amnesty clause (as codified in the 2011 collective bargaining agreement) to waive Josh Childress", ". They also did a three-way trade with the New Orleans Hornets and the Timberwolves by trading Robin Lopez and Hakim Warrick to the Hornets and a 2014 second-rounder to the Timberwolves in exchange for Wesley Johnson, a top 14-protected future first-rounder and the rights to Brad Miller and Jerome Dyson. The latter two players' rights were later waived and the Suns then signed Jermaine O'Neal for one year. The Suns also signed P. J. Tucker based on his performance with the Suns' Summer League team", ". The Suns also signed P. J. Tucker based on his performance with the Suns' Summer League team. On September 20, it was announced that Channing Frye had dilated cardiomyopathy and as a result, he missed the entire 2012–13 season, although he sometimes made special appearances to do the pre-game show for local Suns games with Tom Leander and Tom Chambers", ". On January 12, 2013, the Suns became the fourth-fastest NBA team to win 2,000 games with a 97–81 road victory against the Chicago Bulls, which also marked the last victory for Alvin Gentry as head coach for the Suns. On January 18, 2013, the day after a loss that broke a 24-home-game winning streak against the Milwaukee Bucks, Gentry agreed to leave the Phoenix Suns organization. Two days later, player development coach Lindsey Hunter was named interim head coach role for the remainder of the season", ". A few days later, assistant head coaches Dan Majerle and Elston Turner had also resigned from their positions. On February 21, 2013, the Suns had traded their 2013 second-round pick to the Houston Rockets in exchange for Marcus Morris, the twin brother of power forward Markieff Morris. A day later, the Suns traded point guard Sebastian Telfair to the Toronto Raptors in exchange for Iranian center Hamed Haddadi and a 2014 second-round pick", ". The Suns ended their first post-Steve Nash season with a 25–57 win–loss record, their second-worst record in franchise history behind only their inaugural season.", "2013: The arrival of Ryan McDonough", "On April 22, 2013, it was announced that the Suns had fired general manager Lance Blanks. On May 7, 2013, former Celtics assistant general manager Ryan McDonough was announced as the new general manager of the Suns. On May 26, 2013, the Suns hired Jeff Hornacek as their head coach to replace interim head coach Lindsey Hunter. The team also started the new season with new modified logos, replacing most of the purple on their logos with black, although purple would still be found on their jerseys.", "In the 2013 NBA draft on June 27, the Suns selected Ukrainian center Alex Len from Maryland with their 5th pick and power forward Alex Oriakhi from Missouri with their 57th pick. Although the Suns were expected to have a poor season, they began the season with a 19–11 record. Eric Bledsoe then went down against the Los Angeles Clippers with a torn meniscus and missed the following 33 games", ". The Suns went 17–16 during his absence led by Goran Dragić, keeping Phoenix in the playoff race with the Memphis Grizzlies and Dallas Mavericks. At 47–32, while Dallas and Memphis were both 48–32, Phoenix lost against both teams before they defeated the Sacramento Kings to finish the season 48–34. Dallas finished 49–33 and Memphis finished 50–32, resulting in Memphis finishing with the seventh seed, Dallas with the eighth, and Phoenix out of the playoffs.", "During the 2014 NBA draft, the Suns drafted sophomore forward T. J. Warren from NC State, Canadian freshman point guard Tyler Ennis from Syracuse, Serbian shooting guard Bogdan Bogdanović, and senior center-power forward Alec Brown from Wisconsin-Green Bay", ". After trying to obtain players like LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, and Chris Bosh, and losing Channing Frye to the Orlando Magic, the Suns decided to sign-and-trade for Sacramento Kings point guard Isaiah Thomas under a four-year contract worth $27 million in exchange for Alex Oriakhi, using a $7 million traded-player exception. On September 24, 2014, the Suns and Eric Bledsoe agreed on a five-year contract worth $70 million", ". On September 24, 2014, the Suns and Eric Bledsoe agreed on a five-year contract worth $70 million. A couple of days after, on September 29, 2014, they extended both Markieff and Marcus Morris to four-year deals that combine to $52 million, with Markieff earning $32 million and Marcus getting the remaining $20 million. Right before the trade deadline on February 19, 2015, the Suns made moves to change the roster", ". Right before the trade deadline on February 19, 2015, the Suns made moves to change the roster. After demanding a trade due to lingering frustrations with the front office and direction of the team, Goran Dragić and his brother Zoran were traded by the Suns to the Miami Heat for Danny Granger and Miami's 2017 and 2021 first round picks in a three-team trade with the New Orleans Pelicans", ". Immediately after the trade, the Suns replaced Dragić by trading for Milwaukee Bucks guard Brandon Knight, sending Tyler Ennis and Miles Plumlee to Milwaukee and the Lakers' 2015 first round pick to the Philadelphia 76ers. Isaiah Thomas was then traded to the Boston Celtics for Marcus Thornton and the Cleveland Cavaliers' 2016 first round pick.", "2015–present: The Devin Booker era\n\n2015–2020: The arrival of Devin Booker and further struggle years", "In the 2015 NBA draft, the Suns drafted Kentucky shooting guard Devin Booker with the 13th pick. He was the youngest player drafted at the time by the Suns at 18-years-old and debuted two days before his 19th birthday against the Dallas Mavericks. On July 1, 2015, the Suns retained the rights of Brandon Knight under an offer similar to that of Eric Bledsoe's, and signed Dallas Mavericks center Tyson Chandler to a four-year deal worth $52 million", ". A day later, the Suns traded Markieff's brother Marcus Morris, Reggie Bullock, and Danny Granger to the Detroit Pistons in exchange for their 2020 second-round selection. However, star player Eric Bledsoe sustained a season-ending injury on December 26, 2015.", "On February 1, 2016, the Suns relieved Jeff Hornacek of his duties as head coach. Former NBA player Earl Watson took on interim head coaching duties. The Suns traded the disgruntled Markieff Morris on February 19, 2016, to the Washington Wizards for Kris Humphries, DeJuan Blair, and the Wizards' first-round pick in the 2016 NBA draft", ". On March 14, 2016, the Suns were eliminated from playoff contention for a sixth straight season making it the longest drought in franchise history surpassing the five straight misses from the 1970–71 NBA season to the 1974–75 NBA season. However, rookie Devin Booker went from being a sixth-man off-the-bench player for Kentucky to future impact player after the injuries to Eric Bledsoe and Brandon Knight. He earned the team's first NBA All-Rookie Team honors since Amar'e Stoudemire back in 2003", ". He earned the team's first NBA All-Rookie Team honors since Amar'e Stoudemire back in 2003. Earl Watson officially became the full-time head coach on April 19, 2016, with his new assistant coaches Jay Triano, former Suns player Tyrone Corbin, Marlon Garnett, and Scott Duncan replacing most of the assistant coaches from the previous season", ". During the 2016 NBA draft, the Suns drafted the 18-year-old Bosnian-born Croatian forward-center Dragan Bender, Washington power forward Marquese Chriss, and Kentucky point guard Tyler Ulis; Chriss was acquired by trading the Suns' 13th and 28th selections, Bogdan Bogdanovic, and the Pistons' 2020 second-round pick to the Sacramento Kings. During the 2016 free agency period, the Suns regained former players and fan-favorites Jared Dudley and Leandro Barbosa under new deals.", "While the Suns ended the 2016–17 season with only a slight improvement from their previous record despite the return of Eric Bledsoe, Devin Booker continued to improve in his second season with the team, leading the team in points scored at 22.1 per game. Marquese Chriss was also named to the All-Rookie Second Team that season. In the 2017 NBA draft, the Suns dropped to the 4th pick in the draft and selected Josh Jackson from the University of Kansas", ". On October 22, 2017, head coach Earl Watson was fired after a 0–3 start that included two losses of 40+ point deficits, which led to Jay Triano being promoted to interim head coach. On November 7, Bledsoe was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks in exchange for Greg Monroe and a protected first- and second-round draft pick. The Suns ended the season with the second-worst record in franchise history at 21–61", ". The Suns ended the season with the second-worst record in franchise history at 21–61. After the season concluded, the Suns let go of interim head coach Triano and hired Igor Kokoškov as the team's new head coach. The Suns earned their first no. 1 pick in the 2018 NBA draft lottery after ending the season with the league-worst record that year. With the first overall pick in the 2018 NBA draft, Phoenix selected Deandre Ayton", ". With the first overall pick in the 2018 NBA draft, Phoenix selected Deandre Ayton. They would also trade up into the top 10 that year to take Mikal Bridges with the 10th pick from the Philadelphia 76ers, a draft pick the Suns already had from the Steve Nash trade before trading the pick to the 76ers in the Brandon Knight trade. In the off-season, Devin Booker signed a 5-year $158 million contract extension with the Suns.", "Before the start of the regular season and during preseason on October 8, 2018, owner Robert Sarver decided to relieve Ryan McDonough from the general manager position, and named vice president of basketball operations James Jones and assistant general manager Trevor Bukstein as the interim general managers", ". A highlight of the season was when a planned three-way trade with the Washington Wizards and Memphis Grizzlies fell apart through miscommunication of the players involved and being sent in the planned deal.", "The Suns would once again have another losing season as they missed the playoffs for the ninth straight season. At the end of the season, the Suns made James Jones the team's permanent general manager, with co-interim general manager Trevor Bukstein returning to his prior assistant general manager role. When the season came to an end, the coaching staff, including head coach Igor Kokoškov, were fired on April 23, 2019", ". Former New Orleans Hornets/Pelicans head coach and Philadelphia 76ers assistant coach Monty Williams was hired as the team's new head coach on May 3, and completed the rest of the new coaching staff on June 26. Phoenix finished with a 19–63 record, the worst in the Western Conference. Ayton made the All-Rookie First Team. The Suns had the third odds in the lottery but landed the sixth pick.", "During the day of the 2019 NBA draft, the Suns agreed to deal T. J. Warren to the Indiana Pacers and their second-round pick (which would become KZ Okpala) to the Miami Heat for cash considerations", ". During the draft, they agreed to swap their sixth pick (which would become Jarrett Culver), trading down for the Minnesota Timberwolves' 11th pick (which would become Cameron Johnson) and Dario Šarić, and also agreeing to deal the Milwaukee Bucks' future first-round pick to the Boston Celtics for Aron Baynes and the draft rights to point guard Ty Jerome, as well as agree to a deal with undrafted Jalen Lecque", ". In the off-season they signed veteran point guard Ricky Rubio to a three-year deal, and re-signed Oubre to a two-year deal, signed Frank Kaminsky and Cheick Diallo.", "The Suns played the Kings in their season opener on October 23, 2019, and won 124–95. On October 24, Ayton was suspended 25 games for failing a drug test. However, the Suns continued to play well, going 11–12 over their next 23 games.\n\nOn January 22, 2020, Larry Fitzgerald purchased a minority stake in the Suns, becoming the second active (at the time) NFL player with an NBA ownership share.", "On February 13, 2020, NBA Commissioner Adam Silver announced that Devin Booker had been named as a reserve in the 2020 NBA All-Star Game, marking the first time since Steve Nash in 2012 that a Phoenix Suns player had been selected to the game. This later selection came as a result of an injury to Portland's Damian Lillard, who was unable to participate", ". Following the suspension of the 2019–20 NBA season, the Suns were one of the 22 teams invited to the NBA Bubble to participate in the final 8 games of the regular season. They went undefeated in the bubble, finishing 8–0, but failed to qualify for the playoffs for the 10th consecutive season. They finished the season with a record of 34–39.", "2020–2022: The arrival of Chris Paul and return to the playoffs", "In the 2020 off-season, the Suns traded Kelly Oubre Jr., Ricky Rubio, Jalen Lecque, Ty Jerome, and a future first-round draft pick for 10-time All-Star, 10-time All-NBA, and nine-time All-Defensive point guard Chris Paul from the Oklahoma City Thunder. Phoenix also received small forward Abdel Nader. Both Devin Booker and Paul were named All-Star reserves for the 2020–21 NBA season", ". Both Devin Booker and Paul were named All-Star reserves for the 2020–21 NBA season. The Suns went on to have a 51–21 record (2nd best in the entire NBA), clinching the second seed in the Western Conference while head coach Monty Williams was named NBCA Coach of the Year. The Suns made the playoffs for the first time since 2010. The Suns faced the defending champions Los Angeles Lakers in the first round, defeating them in six games to win their first playoff series since 2010", ". The Suns then went on to sweep the Denver Nuggets, advancing the team to the Western Conference finals. Prior to the Western Conference finals, Paul entered into the NBA's COVID-19 health and safety protocols and missed the first two games of the series. On June 30, 2021, the Suns won the conference finals in six games against the Los Angeles Clippers to advance to the NBA Finals for the first time since 1993 after a 41-point performance by Paul", ". The Suns won the first two games of the Finals but ultimately lost the series 4–2 to the Milwaukee Bucks, led by two-time regular season MVP Giannis Antetokounmpo, who would be eventually named Finals MVP. Despite the loss, Booker set the NBA record for the most points scored by a player in his debut postseason. Paul was awarded All-NBA Second Team honors for his performance that season although he came up short in the finals", ". He was also the first player to lose all four playoff series in which his team led 2–0.", "On July 29, 2021, the day of the 2021 NBA draft, the Suns traded guard Jevon Carter and the 29th pick to the Brooklyn Nets for guard Landry Shamet. In August, the Suns re-signed free agent center Frank Kaminsky and also signed veteran center JaVale McGee to a one-year deal. Starting point guard Chris Paul was re-signed to a partially guaranteed four-year deal.", "After beginning the 2021–22 season with a 1–3 record, the Suns rattled off a winning streak that was capped off on December 2 with a 114–103 victory over the Detroit Pistons, which gave the Suns their 18th consecutive win to best the team's previous record of 17 games set in the 2006-07 season. On February 3, 2022, starting guards Devin Booker and Chris Paul were selected to reserve spots for the 2022 NBA All-Star Game", ". On February 10, the Suns traded second-year big man Jalen Smith and a second-round pick to the Indiana Pacers to reacquire wing Torrey Craig and acquired guard Aaron Holiday from the Washington Wizards for cash considerations at the NBA trade deadline. On March 10, the Suns became the first team that season to clinch a playoff berth after defeating the Miami Heat 111–90 on the road to claim their 53rd win", ". On March 24, the Suns clinched the NBA's top overall record with a 140–130 victory over the Denver Nuggets. In the 79th game of the season, the Suns set a new franchise record for wins with a 121–110 victory over the Los Angeles Lakers to tally their 63rd win on April 5, eliminating the Lakers from playoff contention in the process. The Suns finished the regular season with a record of 64–18 with Devin Booker finishing 4th in MVP voting", ". In the first round of the 2022 NBA playoffs, the Suns would defeat the New Orleans Pelicans in six games, before falling to the Dallas Mavericks in seven games in the second round despite holding a 2–0 series lead.", "2022–present: Transition of ownership and the arrival of Kevin Durant", "On September 13, 2022, the NBA fined owner Robert Sarver $10 million and suspended him for one year after an independent investigation determined that he used the \"N-word\" multiple times in public, as well as conduct that included \"unequal treatment of female employees; sex-related statements and conduct; and harsh treatment of employees that on occasion constituted bullying", ".\" Both current and former NBA players, including LeBron James, Suns player Chris Paul, and Draymond Green, said that the punishment was too lenient, with Green requesting for a league vote to terminate Sarver as a league owner. On September 21, Sarver announced he would begin the process of selling both the Phoenix Suns and the Phoenix Mercury", ". Sarver eventually accepted the purchase of both teams to United Wholesale Mortgage's CEO Mat Ishbia and his brother Justin for a record-high $4 billion purchasing price on December 20, 2022, with the move being made official on February 7, 2023. At 43 years old, Mat Ishbia became the 2nd youngest team owner in league history.", "During Ishbia's first few days of ownership, the Suns acquired 13-time All-Star and four-time scoring champion Kevin Durant, along with reacquiring T. J. Warren, from the Brooklyn Nets in exchange for Mikal Bridges, Cameron Johnson, Jae Crowder, four unprotected first-round picks, and a 2028 first-round pick swap. Durant had previously requested a trade during the 2022 offseason, with Phoenix being listed as one of Durant's preferred landing spots", ". Following the acquisition of Durant, the Suns' odds to win the NBA Finals surged from +1800 to +450 per BetMGM, trailing only the Boston Celtics at +350.", "In the first round of the 2023 playoffs, the Suns would defeat the Los Angeles Clippers in five games. In the second round of the 2023 playoffs against the Denver Nuggets, the Suns lost the first two games to Denver, as Chris Paul suffered a groin injury in game 2. The Suns came back to win the next two games at home without Chris Paul, as Devin Booker and Kevin Durant became the first duo in NBA playoff history to each record 35 points, five rebounds, and five assists in consecutive playoff games", ". However, after dropping game 5 in Denver, Phoenix went on to lose the series to the Nuggets in six games, as they trailed by 30 points at halftime in an elimination game at home for the second straight season. Following their series loss to the Nuggets, the Suns dismissed head coach Monty Williams after four seasons with the team. Williams finished his Phoenix tenure with a record of 194–115 (.628) in the regular season and 27–19 in the playoffs", ".628) in the regular season and 27–19 in the playoffs. Subsequently, the Suns hired Frank Vogel as their new head coach on June 6, 2023. On June 24, Phoenix acquired veteran guard Bradley Beal from the Washington Wizards in a three-team deal also involving the Indiana Pacers, with the Suns sending Chris Paul, Landry Shamet, five future second-round picks, four future pick swaps and cash considerations to Washington and one future second-round pick to Indiana.", "Season-by-season record\nList of the last five seasons completed by the Suns. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Phoenix Suns seasons.\n\nNote: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, W–L% = Winning percentage", "Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, W–L% = Winning percentage\n\nHome arenas\nThe Suns played at the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum from 1968 until 1992. In 1992, they moved to the Footprint Center, which at the time was called the America West Arena and referred to as \"The Purple Palace\". Although not without controversy, eventually the Phoenix City Council and the Suns Organization together completed renovation on the arena in 2021.\n\nUniform history", "Uniform history\n\n1968–1973: Original uniforms\nAfter the NBA had awarded a franchise to the Phoenix metropolitan area in 1968, local designers chose purple and orange as the main colors for the Phoenix Suns' uniforms. The original uniforms featured a futuristic \"Phoenix\" wordmark in front plus block numbers and letters in orange with purple and white trim. An orange sunburst logo was added on the sides of the shorts.", "1973–1992: Western look\nThe Suns tweaked their uniforms for the 1973–74 season. Other than the basic template itself, only the lettering and numbers were changed from the original uniforms. The \"Phoenix\" wordmark and numbers were modified to a Western-style font, with a few changes to the treatment of the player's name at the back.", "1992–2000: Streaking Sun look\nIn time for the move to the America West Arena for the 1992–93 season, the Suns overhauled their look. The home white and road purple uniforms now feature the \"Streaking Sun\" logo in the chest with \"Suns\" on top and the number at the bottom. The shorts feature the word \"Phoenix\" in orange letters written diagonally on the left leg. Prior to the 1994–95 season, the Suns introduced a black alternate uniform featuring the same template.", "2000–2013: Seven Seconds or Less look", "Before the 2000–01 season, the Suns changed to a more simplistic uniform style. The home white uniform has the word \"Suns\" and the numbers in purple with orange trim along with purple side stripes. The road purple uniform has the word \"Phoenix\" and the numbers in white with orange trim along with grey side stripes. An orange alternate uniform, with the abbreviation \"PHX\" and the numbers in white with purple trim along with grey side stripes, arrived prior to the 2003–04 season", ". All three uniforms featured the updated \"Streaking Sun\" alternate logo on the stripes while the players' numbers were seen on the left leg until the 2005–06 season.", "2013–2017: Updated Streaking Sun look", "The Suns overhauled their uniforms anew prior to the 2013–14 season. The look was inspired from their previous uniform designs. The home white uniforms featured \"Suns\" in orange with black trim along with black numbers, orange streaks and grey and orange sunbursts. The purple road uniforms featured \"Phoenix\" in white with orange trim along with orange numbers, white streaks and black, grey and orange sunbursts", ". The orange alternate uniforms (sleeved from 2013 to 2015; sleeveless from 2015 to 2017) featured \"Suns\" in white with black trim along with black numbers, white streaks and black and dark orange sunbursts.", "During the 2014–15 season, the Suns added a grey-sleeved alternate uniform. The uniform has \"Phoenix\" and the numbers in black with orange trim. The \"Phoenix\" wordmark was a callback to the \"Western\" look of the 1970s and 1980s. A black alternate uniform was also added prior to the 2015–16 season. The black uniforms featured \"PHX\" in black with white trim along with white numbers and purple and orange trim.", "2017–present: Switch to Nike", "When the NBA switched to Nike beginning with the 2017–18 season, the Suns drastically revamped their uniforms. Gone was the modernized \"Streaking Sun\" and the sunburst of the previous uniforms, and the Suns returned to a more simplified design. Purple also returned as a prominent color. The home-and-away designations were eliminated and in its place were the white \"Association\" uniform, the primary color \"Icon\" uniform, the secondary color \"Statement\" uniform and the annual \"City\" uniform.", "The Suns' \"Association\" uniforms featured \"Suns\" in orange and the numbers in purple. The purple \"Icon\" uniforms featured \"Phoenix\" in grey and the numbers in orange. The black \"Statement\" uniform featured \"PHX\" in grey and the numbers in orange. All three uniforms have the \"Streaking Sun\" logo on the beltline.", "Starting with the 2019–20 season, the Suns replaced the black uniform with a new orange uniform, featuring the \"Streaking Sun\" logo in front, the numbers in white, and the \"PHX\" abbreviation on the beltline. They wore the orange \"Statement\" uniform until the 2021–22 season, after which the Suns released a black \"Statement\" uniform with design elements inspired by the popular \"City\" uniforms worn in the 2020–21 and 2021–22 seasons (see below).", "In the 2023–24 season, the Suns updated their purple \"Icon\" and white \"Association\" uniforms, revisiting the 1990s \"Streaking Sun\" look. The set featured the \"Suns\" wordmark inside the \"Streaking Sun\" instead of above the logo unlike its 1990s predecessors. Grey accents were eliminated, and orange drop shadows on the numbers were added.", "Los Suns special uniforms\nThe Suns started wearing special \"Noche Latina\" uniforms in 2007 to commemorate the Latin American fanbase. The 2007 edition used the home white uniform template with the flag of Latin American countries substituting for the orange stripes. Starting in 2008, the Suns began to wear a modified version of their orange alternate uniforms with \"Los Suns\" in front, which they kept until 2013.", "During the 2010 NBA playoffs, the Suns wore their \"Los Suns\" uniforms on Cinco de Mayo for Game 2 of the Western Conference semifinals against the San Antonio Spurs. Sports reporter Dave Zirin called the \"Los Suns\" action an \"unprecedented political statement by a sports team.\" The move was also widely reported to be a protest of an Arizona illegal-immigration law enacted in April.", "After the 2013 rebrand, the Suns wore a black sleeved uniform with \"Los Suns\" in white with orange trim along with Latin-inspired accents at the back. This lasted only one season, however, as the Suns introduced a modified version of their purple uniforms in 2015, albeit with \"Los Suns\" in place of \"Phoenix\". This version lasted until 2017.", "For 2018, Nike added a fourth uniform option, the \"City\" uniform. The Suns used the occasion to unveil a new version of the \"Los Suns\" uniform, albeit using only purple, grey and white. Unlike in previous years where the \"Los Suns\" uniform was worn only during the month of March, this uniform was first used during the month of January. For 2019, the \"Los Suns\" uniform added orange trim on the letters and stylized black piping while moving the front numbers to the left chest", ". It also featured a recolored Arizona flag in Suns colors on the shorts and \"SOMOS PHX\" slogan above the uniform tag. The 2020 version kept the same template albeit with black as the base color and purple as the trim color.", "City Edition: \"The Valley\"", "The 2020–21 Nike NBA Suns City Edition artwork makes tribute to the Phoenix valley region. The uniform features a black base, and pixelated mountain view sunset with an inspired rainbow of yellow, orange, red and purple. The image is based on Camelback Mountain located in North Phoenix. Camelback Mountain is a geographical identifier of The Valley, which has been the nickname of the Phoenix valley for decades", ". The front of the uniform reads \"The Valley\" in custom script lettering across a sunset themed rainbow over Camelback Mountain.", "Even though the NBA commemorated the league's 75th anniversary by having teams release mashup designs of previous uniforms for the 2021–22 \"City\" edition, the Suns elected to keep their \"The Valley\" uniforms for another season.\n\nCity Edition: Salute to Native American Culture\nThe Suns went with a Native American motif for their 2022–23 \"City\" uniform, featuring a turquoise base, black letters, red trim, and indigenous art designs on the striping.\n\nMascot", "The Suns Gorilla", "Barring a brief, early attempt involving a sunflower costume, the Suns had no official mascot for the first 11 seasons of their existence. This changed when a messenger for Eastern Onion, a singing telegram service, delivered a telegram at Veterans Memorial Coliseum dressed as a gorilla. As he began to leave, Coliseum security suggested he do a few dances underneath the basket during a timeout", ". The fans loved it, as did the messenger, Henry Rojas, who kept coming to games until he was officially invited to be part of the team. Nicknamed \"Go\", the Gorilla has a fictional background story consisting of coming from the Banana Republic and earning an education at Furman University.", "As Rojas' announced retirement from the role following the 1987-88 NBA season, the Suns held open auditions and try-outs to find a new Gorilla. Former Arizona State University national champion gymnast Bob Woolf immediately stood out with his more acrobatic, aerial take on the character, particularly impressing evaluators when he jumped off a trampoline onto a basketball hoop, pulled himself atop the raised fixture, and danced high above the rim", ". Woolf took over the role, introducing the Gorilla's signature slam dunk routines, backflips, and slapstick during games, such as running the stadium stairs to the Rocky theme. He became the first NBA mascot to incorporate \"Evel Knievel\"-inspired daredevil stunts like jumping through a ring of fire or being propelled to the hoop via catapult or grapple wire. He was also the first NBA mascot to ride a Harley-Davidson to courtside and integrate elaborate comedy sketches with costumes and props in his routine", ". The Gorilla soon became one of the most famous mascots in the NBA, his popularity in the 90's resulting in his inclusion as a hidden character in NBA Jam.", "Woolf performed as the Gorilla until the 2005–06 season, with Devin Nelson briefly taking over until end of the 2011–12 season, as Woolf then resumed the role to the present date. Rojas, the original telegram Gorilla, has since been involved in numerous charity projects. Woolf prefers to keep his relative anonymity, saying off-camera in a 2014 feature for SportsCenter, \"I don't want to be seen. I don't want to be known. I want the character to take center stage.\"", "\"Go\" was inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame in 2005 and still makes appearances with charities, schools, hospitals and local businesses.", "Media", "98.7 KMVP-FM serves as flagship station of the Suns Radio Network. Al McCoy has served as the team's play-by-play announcer and \"Voice of the Suns\" since 1972, making him the longest-tenured broadcaster in NBA history. He was awarded the Curt Gowdy Media Award at the 2007 Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame induction ceremony, and was inducted into the Suns' Ring of Honor in 2016. The 2021–22 season marked McCoy's 50th season with the team", ". The 2021–22 season marked McCoy's 50th season with the team. For 50 consecutive seasons (barring remote broadcasts due to COVID-19), Al McCoy was positioned at courtside, adjacent to the Suns' home bench, as recent as May 2022. He stopped broadcasting road games in 2019 due to difficult vantage points at higher locations in other NBA arenas limiting his preferred style of descriptive play-by-play", ". On October 2, 2022, his broadcast position was moved higher up in the arena, closer to the skybox-area of the Footprint Center. Tim Kempton serves as analyst, while Jon Bloom handles play-by-play for road games not broadcast by McCoy.", "Television broadcasts formerly featured a simulcast of McCoy's radio commentary, but this was dropped in 2003 in favor of dedicated commentary teams for radio and television. Studio host Tom Leander initially served as the television play-by-play announcer. As of the 2022–23 season, Kevin Ray and Leander split play-by-play duties, with either former Sun Eddie Johnson or Ann Meyers Drysdale on color", ". Eddie Johnson has been the Suns TV analyst since 2000, paired initially with McCoy until the discontinuation of radio simulcasts.", "In October 2008, the Suns, along with partnered advertising agencies, were honored with 12 Emmy Awards by the Rocky Mountain Southwest Chapter of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences.", "On television, Suns games not aired exclusively by one of the league's national television partners are carried on broadcast television by Gray Television's Arizona's Family Sports network (which consists of KPHE-LD in Phoenix, KAZF 32 in Flagstaff, KAZS 27 in Yuma, and KOLD-TV 13.5 in Tucson), or Phoenix independent station KTVK. Games are also carried on a over-the-top subscription streaming service known as Suns Live, in partnership with Kiswe.", "The contract succeeds a previous agreement with regional sports network (RSN) Bally Sports Arizona (formerly Fox Sports Arizona), which first assumed rights to Suns home games in 2003, and added exclusive rights to away games beginning in the 2011–12 season (away games had previously been carried by KUTP)", ". Suns owner Mat Ishbia stated that the agreements would give Suns fans \"more options and access than they’ve ever had\", explaining in an interview that moving from the RSN model to free-to-air television would help counter the trend of cord cutting and increase the Suns' potential audience to three million households.", "The contract was initially blocked by a lawsuit by Bally Sports' parent company, Diamond Sports Group (which had recently filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection) in April 2023. Diamond accused the team of breaching its contract and bankruptcy law, stating that the team was making an \"improper effort\" to \"change their broadcasting partner without permitting Diamond to exercise our contractual rights", ".\" Diamond sued the Suns over the Gray agreement, and the contract was voided by the bankruptcy court in accordance with an automatic stay. The stay did not impact a related agreement for rights to its WNBA sister team, the Phoenix Mercury. Diamond was ultimately allowed to exercise its right of first refusal, but did not make an offer before the deadline lapsed; as a result, the Suns' and Gray formalized the new broadcasting agreement on July 14, 2023.", "Players\n\nCurrent roster", "Retained draft rights", "Retained draft rights\nThe Suns hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.", "Head coaches\n\nHall of Famers, retired and honored numbers\n\nRing of Honor and retired numbers\n\nNotes:\n * Retired number\n 1 Also served as interim head coach in 1987.\n 2 Also served as assistant head coach (2008–2013).\n 3 Number was temporarily unretired for Grant Hill (2008–2012).\n 4 Was named one of the NBA's 50 Greatest Players in 1996.\n 5 Also served as assistant head coach (1988–1992) and head coach (1992–1996).\n The NBA retired Bill Russell's No. 6 for all its member teams on August 11, 2022.", "Phoenix Suns' All-Century Team\nThe Suns' All-Century Team was voted on by the fans:\n\n40th Anniversary Team\nThe 40th Anniversary Suns Team, selected by fans through an Internet vote, was unveiled on January 3, 2008. The same night the Suns defeated the Seattle SuperSonics, 104–96, to celebrate the team's 40th season. The Suns' inaugural game in 1968 was against the Sonics.\n\nBasketball Hall of Famers", "Basketball Hall of Famers\n\nNotes:\n 1 In total, Barkley was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice – as player and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team.\n 2 Inducted posthumously.\n 3 He also served as assistant head coach in 1988–1992, and head coach in 1992–1996.\n 4 He also coached the team in 1970 and 1972–1973, and was the owner of the team in 1987–2004.\n\nFIBA Hall of Famers\n\nExecutive personnel\n\nOwners", "FIBA Hall of Famers\n\nExecutive personnel\n\nOwners\n\n*Sam Garvin took on the role of interim team governor during the 2022–23 NBA season, effectively taking on most ownership responsibilities for Robert Sarver while he served his season-long suspension in the NBA. Mat Ishbia officially took over the Suns and Phoenix Mercury on February 7, 2023.\n\nGeneral managers", "General managers\n\n*During the 2018–19 NBA season, both James Jones and Trevor Bukstein were given the roles of interim general managers for the entirety of that season after Ryan McDonough was fired before the start of their regular season period at the time. After that season concluded, Jones was given the permanent general manager role while Bukstein was demoted back to his original position of assistant general manager for the Suns.", "Ryan Resch came out in 2022 while working as vice president of strategy and evaluation for the Phoenix Suns, making him the first openly gay person in league history to work basketball operations in an NBA front office.\n\nFranchise leaders\n\nNBA Outdoors", "Franchise leaders\n\nNBA Outdoors\n\nThe Suns held an annual basketball exhibition game, the NBA Outdoors, every first weekend of October in Indian Wells Tennis Garden in Indian Wells, California, near the city of Palm Springs from 2008 to 2010. However, the club ceased playing the outdoor preseason game prior to the 2011–12 NBA preseason.", "As a result of a recommendation by the Coachella Valley Recreation and Park District's Superintendent of Operations, Craig DeWitt, the NBA held its first outdoor exhibition basketball game on October 11, 2008. That stadium facility was built primarily for tennis tournaments and music concerts, and it can hold up to 15,000 fans. The Phoenix Suns lost the game to the Denver Nuggets. A second annual outdoor exhibition game was played on October 10, 2009, this time the Suns lost to the Golden State Warriors", ". On October 9, 2010, the Suns beat the Dallas Mavericks in the third annual outdoor exhibition.", "In 2008 and 2009 pre-seasons, the Suns held training camp in the Auditorium in La Quinta, California, and the College of the Desert Gymnasium in Palm Desert, California, alongside the Portland Trail Blazers. But in 2010, the Suns began their training in San Diego and the Trail Blazers in Tucson, Arizona, as well held exhibition games in Seattle, Washington.\n\nReferences", "References\n\nGeneral\nPhoenix Gazette, January 22, 1968.\nThe Arizona Republic, January 23, 1968.\n\"Suns continue ties to Tucson\", Greg Hansen, Arizona Daily Star, April 17, 2004.\n\nSpecifica\n\nExternal links\n\n \n\n \nNational Basketball Association teams\nBasketball teams established in 1968\n1968 establishments in Arizona\n2023 mergers and acquisitions" ]

[ "The science fiction multimedia franchise of Star Trek since its original debut in 1966 has been one of the most successful television series in science fiction television history and has been considered by many to have had a large influence in popular culture as a result.", "The original series, which aired in the late 1960s, has since spawned nine successor series and thirteen movies , merchandise, and a multibillion-dollar industry collectively known as the Star Trek franchise. The franchise is owned by CBS Studios, which currently owns television properties previously held by Paramount Pictures, the studio that produced Star Trek for many decades. Paramount Global continues to hold DVD rights to the television series, and the rights to produce feature films.", "Two films, Galaxy Quest (1999) and Free Enterprise (1999), and a television series, The Orville, have been inspired by the cultural influence of Star Trek.\n\nStar Trek: The Original Series", "Gene Roddenberry sold Star Trek in 1964 to NBC as a classic adventure drama, calling it a \"Wagon Train to the Stars\". But Roddenberry wanted to tell more sophisticated stories, using futuristic situations as analogies for current problems on Earth and showing how they could be rectified through humanism and optimism. The series' writers frequently addressed moral and social issues such as slavery, warfare, and discrimination", ". The opening line \"to boldly go where no man has gone before\" is almost verbatim from a US White House booklet on space produced after the Sputnik flight in October 1957.", "A major inspiration for Star Trek was the science fiction film Forbidden Planet (1956), whose influence is especially apparent in the pilot episode \"The Cage\". Previous sophisticated science fiction television series included anthology series such as The Twilight Zone and the British Quatermass serials, but Star Trek was the first American science fiction series with a continuing cast that was aimed at adults, telling modern morality tales with complex narratives.", "Earlier British science fiction series with marionettes and soap operas had interracial casting, but this was the first American live-action series to do this. At a time when there were few non-white or foreign roles in American television dramas, Roddenberry created a multi-ethnic crew for the Enterprise, including an African woman (Uhura), a Scotsman (Montgomery Scott), an Asian man (Hikaru Sulu), and an alien, the half-Vulcan Spock", ". In the second season, reflecting the contemporaneous Cold War, Roddenberry added a Russian crew member, Pavel Chekov (played by Walter Koenig). The original series is also credited with American television's first interracial kiss, between a white man and an African-American woman, although this had happened earlier in a British medical soap opera, Emergency – Ward 10", ". Also, the spy series I Spy featured a scripted, unedited interracial kiss between Robert Culp (white) and France Nuyen (Vietnamese) in the episode \"The Tiger\"; a kiss that would not gain the controversy or attention as the Star Trek kiss did.", "Star Treks contributions to television history include giving women jobs of respect, most notably through the casting of Nichelle Nichols, a black actress, as Uhura, the ship's communications officer. Black actresses at that time on television were almost always cast as servants", ". Black actresses at that time on television were almost always cast as servants. In fact, Whoopi Goldberg recalled that the first time she saw Uhura, she excitedly told her mother: \"Mama, there's a black woman on television and she ain't no maid!\" In an interview, Nichelle Nichols, who played the black female communications officer, said that the day after she told Roddenberry she planned to leave the show, she was at a fund-raiser at the NAACP and was told there was a big fan who wanted to meet her", ". Nichols said, I thought it was a Trekkie, and so I said, 'Sure.' I looked across the room, and there was Dr. Martin Luther King walking towards me with this big grin on his face. He reached out to me and said, 'Yes, Ms. Nichols, I am your greatest fan.' He said that Star Trek was the only show that he, and his wife Coretta, would allow their three little children to stay up and watch. [She told King about her plans to leave the series.] I never got to tell him why, because he said, 'You can't", ".] I never got to tell him why, because he said, 'You can't. You're part of history.' When she told Roddenberry what King had said, he cried.", "The Original Series has later received some criticism for its portrayal of women, particularly its visual aesthetics. Women's crew uniforms, which consisted of miniskirts, high heeled boots, and heavy makeup, have been pointed-to as degrading to women for highlighting their frequent role as sexual objects. Researchers have pointed out that this was not necessarily the way the wardrobe, or the overall femininity of female characters in the series, was viewed by contemporary female viewers", ". Cited are the concerns of women of the time period with the perceived upsetting of traditional gender roles for women of the future, with the women of the show's feminine behavior acting to reaffirm that women's sexuality and traditional femininity would not be lost. This fear was manifested by the media's criticisms of Valentina Tereshkova, the first female astronaut to go to space, as masculine and \"mannish\"", ". The uniform's usage of the miniskirt was also considered progressive by some at the time, as the miniskirt, at that time, was a symbol of the modern woman's economic and sexual independence.", "Computer engineer and entrepreneur Steve Wozniak credited watching Star Trek and attending Star Trek conventions while in his youth as a source of inspiration for him co-founding Apple Inc. in 1976, which would later become the world's largest technology company by revenue and the world's third-largest mobile phone manufacturer.", "The series gained multiple Emmy Award nominations during its run, but never won. Despite a restricted budget, the series' special effects were superior to contemporary television series, its stories were often written by prominent science fiction authors (though often re-written by the series' regular writers), and many of its production values—such as costuming and set design—were of high caliber for the series' low budget", ". Some of the production staff of The Outer Limits worked on Star Trek and often made creative re-use of props from the earlier series.", "During its network run from 1966 to 1969, TOS ratings were mediocre. A letter-writing campaign by fans, unprecedented in size, contributed to NBC's decision to renew the series for a third season, but the network put the series in a disadvantageous timeslot, and TOS was finally canceled after its third season.\n\nCancellation and aftermath", "Cancellation and aftermath\n\nAfter its cancellation, through reruns Star Trek became more popular and reached a much wider audience than when it had originally aired. Known as \"trekkies\" or \"trekkers\", the series' fans formed clubs and organized conventions. In 1976, following another fan-organized letter-writing campaign, NASA named its first Space Shuttle orbiter, Enterprise (OV-101), after the fictional starship.", "After the series, Nichelle Nichols, who played Uhura, used her public standing to speak for women and people of colour and against their exclusion from the human space program of the United States. NASA reacted by asking her to find people for its future Space Shuttle program. Nichols proceeded and successfully brought the first people of colour and women into the US space program, working in this role for NASA from the late 1970s until the late 1980s.\n\nFilm reception", "In the mid-1970s, encouraged by the burgeoning fanbase for the series, Roddenberry sought to start a second television series (Star Trek: Phase II); this abortive attempt morphed into Star Trek: The Motion Picture in 1979. The movie did sufficiently well at the box office, grossing more than $80 million in the United States and $139 million worldwide, to spawn several more movies during the 1980s", ". In 1987, Roddenberry created a second television series, Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG), which was set aboard the fifth starship USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D) more than seventy years after events in the earlier series and related movies. Unlike TOS—which often reflected a bold, interventionist American philosophy—TNG had a less aggressive and more socially liberal message", ". Unlike its progenitor, this series entered syndicated, rather than a nationwide network, from the beginning, and was sold to individual local television stations. It became the number one syndicated television, lasting seven seasons, spawned two sequels, a prequel, four movies, and a vast marketing franchise.", "Star Trek and its spin-offs have proved highly popular in television repeats, in the United States and throughout the world. The Star Trek franchise is similarly prolific. Only Star Wars has had as significant an influence as a science fiction and popular culture phenomenon. According to Forbes magazine, as of 2005:", "the five live-action Star Trek series to date had garnered 31 Emmy Awards and 140 nominations. At least nine specials have been produced\n the first eleven movies cumulatively grossed US$2.145 billion at the box office: the most successful movie was Star Trek (2009) grossing $385 million worldwide and after a combined nine nominations for four films, it was the first Star Trek film to win an Academy Award. Having been nominated in four categories, it received the award for Best Make-up", "at least 120 compact discs and 40 video games contained \"Star Trek\" in their titles; the CDs are mostly soundtracks and audiobooks but also Klingon language instruction\n about 70 million books were in print\n the franchise entailed a merchandising business with a total lifetime gross of about $4 billion from companies including the Mego Corporation, Playmates Toys, Hallmark Cards and Hasbro", "resorts included rides and attractions at Paramount-owned amusement parks as well as Star Trek: The Experience formerly at the Las Vegas Hilton", "Even-odd popularity", "Fans commonly considered the films to follow a \"curse\" that even-numbered films were better than the odd-numbered installments. This is partially borne out by review aggregator statistics. For example, prior to the release of the 13th film the odd-numbered entries averaged 57% on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes while the even-numbered entries averaged 79%", ". However, this perceived difference in quality is not reflected in box-office performance with the odd and even numbered entries having a virtually identical attendance in the United States and Canada on average.", "The tenth film, Star Trek: Nemesis, was considered the even film that defied the curse. Its failure and the subsequent success of Star Trek (2009) were considered to have broken the trend. The curse has been mentioned often in popular culture. One of the best known examples occurred in a 1999 episode of the Channel 4 sitcom Spaced, where it was referenced by Tim Bisley, played by Simon Pegg; Pegg, quite conscious of the irony, played Scotty in the eleventh and subsequent films.\n\nFandom", "Fandom\n\nStar Trek conventions have been popular, and some are now meshed with conventions of other genres. Fans coined the terms \"Trekkies\" and \"Trekkers\" to describe themselves, and produce an abundance of material like fanzines with fiction, art and songs.", "The series' cultural influence goes far beyond its longevity and profitability. An entire subculture grew up around the series and, anecdotally, there are indications that Star Trek has influenced many people's lives. Many scientists and engineers claim that their professional and life choices were influenced by Star Trek", ". An article in Columbia asserted that the starship captains of the Star Trek franchise are consistently among the best father figures on television, inspiring real fathers to embrace their responsibilities and act with \"selfless authority\". The inventor of the first non-vehicular cell phone, Martin Cooper, states he was motivated to develop it from watching Star Trek. Others have also been inspired by Star Trek when designing new technology, such as Dr", ". Others have also been inspired by Star Trek when designing new technology, such as Dr. Peter Jansen, who invented a functional tricorder, and several computer scientists at the University of Illinois, who have created a prototypical version of Star Treks famous Holodeck.", "Some fans were drawn to a franchise that stood out for being unusually hopeful about the future, compared with most other works of science fiction. Rolling Stone credited its appeal to \"sunny assurances\": \"Optimism. Respect for diversity. Faith that reason shall triumph over ignorance. Confidence that our destructive emotions can be mastered without denying us the benefits of more saintly ones like loyalty and love", ".\" Rejecting mainstream cynicism, the franchise presented the future Earth as a peaceful, egalitarian planet. The original series presented a utopian future for humanity, to the point that conflict and allegory often had to be inserted through encounters with less \"enlightened\" nonhuman races that stood in, from the series' perspective, as didactic proxies for disfavored aspects of 20th-century culture.", "Some fans took the egalitarian nature of the show a step further. The unofficial homosexual pairing “Kirk/Spock” (or “K/S”) slowly became popular within fan spaces, particularly with female fans. This led to the production of an abundance of fanworks centered around the pairing, including stories, poems, and art", ". Most widely believed to be the first K/S fan fiction is a 40-page privately-circulated novel written in 1968 by Jennifer Guttridge titled The Ring of Soshern, which was later printed in the highly controversial fanzine Alien Brothers without the author’s knowledge and soared in popularity and notoriety within the fandom. The genre of “slash fiction” is considered to have originated or at least been popularized by the K/S fanbase, with the “slash” in the pairing lending itself to the genre’s name", ". Over time, slash fiction has spread to other fandoms and remains popular in fan spaces to this day.", "Well-known phrases like \"Beam me up, Scotty\", \"Resistance is futile\" (from the Borg), and Treknobabble have also managed to enter the English vernacular. Beyond this, \"Trekkie\" is the only fan label listed in the Oxford English Dictionary, and words from the series including Klingon have also been added to that dictionary.\n\nKlingon has actually spawned a life of its own, going on to garner its own grammar and vocabulary and dedicated speakers from across the globe.", "A broad consensus amongst fans is that the Star Trek franchise became formulaic and mediocre in the 1990s on account of over-exploitation of the franchise by Paramount and production of multiple spin-offs and movies, though fans do not necessarily agree as to when this began (some adult viewers of TOS felt it also could be formulaic and repetitive)", ". The release in May 2009 of Star Trek, a reboot involving characters from the original series and set in an alternate timeline, was developed with the partial hope to resurrect the franchise.", "Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly, in reviewing the new film states that the Star Trek franchise had \"devolved into a near-irrelevant cultural joke, likely to inspire giggles and unprintable curses from even its most ardent supporters.\" Leonard Nimoy wondered in 2003 whether or not the franchise \"had run its course\". Director J. J", ".\" Leonard Nimoy wondered in 2003 whether or not the franchise \"had run its course\". Director J. J. Abrams said, \"People [may not] even understand what Star Trek means anymore,\" and joked that a parody like Galaxy Quest which \"mocks the paradigm\" made the task of producing a credible Star Trek film that much more challenging. Even on set, Abrams felt nervous \"with all these tattooed faces and pointy ears, bizarre weaponry and Romulan linguists, with dialogue about 'Neutral Zones' and 'Starfleet'\"", ". In covering the relaunch film, Jensen remarked the series' optimistic nature ran counter to an increasingly cynical culture, and that the film had been delayed from December 2008 to May 2009 to \"rehab\" the series' image.", "Upon release, the film was a major critical and box office success, sparking comments by fans and critics that the franchise has a bright renewed future.\n\nStar Trek is the only media franchise that's clearly referenced in the Unicode emoji standard. The 🖖 emoji has an American English short name of \"vulcan salute\".", "\"When I was in high school, I'd smoke a joint in my closet in Yonkers, New York, and watch Star Trek,\" recalled Aerosmith front-man Steven Tyler. \"I knew Sulu. When Uhura said, 'Open all hailing frequencies,' I picked up my phone.\"\n\nThe music of Star Trek", "The opening fanfare of Star Trek: The Original Series, written by Alexander Courage, is one of the most culturally-recognized musical memes in existence. Also included as the opening fanfare to Star Trek: The Next Generation and the Star Trek film series, it has come to iconically symbolize Star Trek to even the casual viewer. Michael Giacchino has written a well-received distinctive new fanfare for the reboot Star Trek movie and its sequels, Star Trek Into Darkness and Star Trek Beyond.", "Star Trek: Voyager and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine received their own distinctive opening fanfares. In a departure from the tradition of sweeping classical themes symbolizing the various incarnations of Star Trek, the opening theme to Star Trek: Enterprise is the (pre-existing) pop song \"Faith of the Heart\", by Diane Warren (Star Trek: Enterprise episodes close with the orchestral \"Archer's Theme\" epilogue, a piece which is more similar to the preceding Star Trek themes than \"Faith of the Heart\").", "Some of the most prominent composers of 20th- and 21st-century film music have written film scores and television scores for Star Trek. These include Jay Chattaway, Cliff Eidelman, Michael Giacchino, Jerry Goldsmith, James Horner, Dennis McCarthy and Leonard Rosenman.", "A subgenre of Star Trek fandom has developed, specifically for the music of Star Trek, which includes music lovers who are not otherwise interested in Star Trek fandom. Dozens of commercially produced musical recordings of performances of Star Trek music exist—unrelated to the performance of screen Star Trek itself—evidencing the intrinsic cultural value and influence of the music of Star Trek.", "A concert series, Star Trek: The Music, by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra, played in several US and Canadian cities between 2007 and 2010.", "Science fiction, fantasy and television", "The first television series with comparable storyline and set-up to Star Trek (aside from the genre rival Doctor Who) was the 1990s series Babylon 5. When pitching the series, the producer J. Michael Straczynski had hoped that television executives would think Trek had opened up the market for science-fiction on television. However, he was told that Star Trek only created a market for more Star Trek and that the prospects for non-Trek related science fiction were seen as bleak", ". Eventually, Babylon 5 was greenlit. Three script writers who had worked for the original Trek series were to write for Babylon 5 (including D. C. Fontana who had written for three different Trek series), and Star Trek actor Walter Koenig was cast in a recurring role. All this, and the strong similarities of the series' premise to Star Trek: Deep Space Nine invited comparison to Star Trek", ". In addition, Babylon 5 was the first television series since Star Trek to get nominated for or win the Hugo award for best science fiction drama, which had only recognized feature films in the media category since Star Trek", ". Gene Roddenberry's widow and Star Trek actress, Majel Barrett-Roddenberry, publicly stated that her decision to do a guest star appearance on Babylon 5 was to stop the feuding and bickering among hardline fans of the two series, which broke out occasionally at science fiction conventions. Ultimately, the series ran for its intended length of five seasons, making it the longest running American space oriented futuristic television series outside of the Star Trek franchise.", "Star Trek fandom in fiction\nSome television series feature major or supporting characters whose love of Star Trek affects the storyline of the series.\n \n\"The Replacement\", a Season 5 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, features two versions of the character Xander, a huge Star Trek fan, which is a simultaneous tribute to the original series episode \"The Enemy Within\", in which there are two Captain Kirks.", "In crossover casting, two other television series have cast actors from Star Trek in series in which other characters are Star Trek fans who frequently refer to Trek moments or cite Trek storylines. The character Hiro Nakamura on NBC's Heroes likes to describe his ability to teleport as \"like Star Trek\", and has often performed Mr. Spock's Vulcan salute. His father is played by George Takei, who played Hikaru Sulu on the original series", ". His father is played by George Takei, who played Hikaru Sulu on the original series. Additionally, Nichelle Nichols, who played Nyota Uhura on the original series also appears on the series.", "Over a dozen actors from various Star Trek series have made guest appearances on one or the other of the Stargate series. In those series, Colonel Jack O'Neill makes unsuccessful pitches to name new space vessels after the Enterprise, and also gives the Vulcan salute in tribute to Trek. In an earlier episode of Stargate: SG-1, O'Neill travels back in time to the 1960s and during an interrogation by an Air Force officer he refers to himself as \"James T. Kirk, captain of the federation starship Enterprise\"", ". Kirk, captain of the federation starship Enterprise\". Another Trek reference is made when a character questions whether or not another team member can be \"beamed up\". The response is \"What am I, Scotty\"? Later on the series, advanced alien technology allows team members to \"beam\" up and down in manner similar to that seen on Star Trek.", "In the Cold War submarine film Crimson Tide (1995), in a moment of crisis, the USS Alabamas executive officer (played by Denzel Washington) gives a pep talk to his young radioman, urging him to repair the ship's radio by referring to Captain Kirk telling Scotty they need \"more power\"", ". The Trek fandom of Noel, a recurring character on the sitcom Frasier, plays a role in several episodes, including \"Star Mitzvah\", in which he deceives Frasier into believing a speech is written in Hebrew when it is really in the Klingon language.", "The main characters from the sitcom The Big Bang Theory, especially Sheldon Cooper, make various references to and are huge fans of Star Trek, with Sheldon even citing Starfleet regulations during an argument in one episode and the main characters dressing up as Data, Worf, Captain Picard and a Borg drone, respectively, in another", ". Also the series features Wil Wheaton in a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself plus guest appearances from Brent Spiner, LeVar Burton and William Shatner, and a voice-only cameo from Leonard Nimoy, who voices a Mr. Spock action figure talking to Sheldon in his dreams. There was also an appearance of a Gorn in one episode.", "The Gorn captain's fight to the death with Captain Kirk in the original series episode, \"Arena\", was the subject of an episode of the television series MythBusters, in which the viability of Kirk's improvised bamboo cannon was put to the test.\n\nParodies and tributes\n\nStar Trek has been the subject of a large number of parodies and tributes.", "Parodies and tributes\n\nStar Trek has been the subject of a large number of parodies and tributes.\n\nProminent among film parodies is the 1999 film Galaxy Quest, as it parodied the original Star Trek series, elements of Star Trek: The Next Generation, and the whole Trekkie phenomenon.", "On television, the animated series Futurama makes frequent references to Star Trek and parodies some of its better known plot elements on a regular basis, including the character Zapp Brannigan who is based on a combination of Captain Kirk and William Shatner, and cast members of the original series have taken part in one episode. Prominent examples in other television series include multiple episodes of The Simpsons and Family Guy", ". The children's series The Backyardigans has an episode titled \"Garbage Trek\" that is an homage to the original series. Joss Whedon has cited Star Trek as being the father of his cult series Firefly and its film Serenity (2005).", "The direct-to-video series VeggieTales features two Star Trek parodies, including \"The Gourds Must Be Crazy\" (from Are You My Neighbor?) and Veggies in Space: The Fennel Frontier which serves as a sequel to the other. The character Scooter is based on Montgomery Scott.\n\nThere are many other parodies in comic strips, music and computer games, such as Eminem's song \"We Made You\". In the music video, Eminem was dressed as Mr. Spock and Dr. Dre as Captain Kirk.", "In 1995, MTV's animated series Beavis and Butt-Head parodied the series with Beavis as Captain Picard and Butt-Head as Commander Riker.\n\nAn entire Finnish parody series Star Wreck was produced starting in 1992, culminating with Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning in 2005, all available as legal downloads on the web . Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning is a fan-made parody of both Star Trek and Babylon 5.", "NASA and other institutions have paid explicit tribute to the series in the use of names of ships and characters from the series. Subtle acknowledgments in media and real life include the use of Star Trek ships' registry numbers, especially the Enterprises NCC-1701.\n\nTwo episodes of Eek! The Cat parodied Star Trek (with the main character as a Captain Kirk-esque character; one episode featured William Shatner voicing the villain Captain Berserk).", "In August 2010, the members of the Internal Revenue Service created a six-minute Star Trek themed training video for an agency conference. The video featured a mock set of the Enterprise in one of the agency's studios. The project cost 62 hours of staff time and cost $3,100. Revealed to the public in 2013, the spoof along with parodies of other media franchises was cited as an example of the misuse of taxpayer funds and \"insulting the beloved sci-fi TV show\".", "Animaniacs has made an obvious parody of Star Trek, calling it Star Truck. Another Star Trek band, Warp 11, has released several studio albums.\n\nActor William Shatner re-enacted his battle fighting the Gorn, for an advertisement for the 2013 Star Trek video game (Kelvin Timeline). In the spot they have similar fight, but it takes place in a modern day living room starts with the two playing a console video game together in co-op mode.\n\nThe Orville", "The Orville\n\nStarting in 2017, Seth MacFarlane produced a TV series heavily inspired by the original Star Trek and its Next Generation successor, titled The Orville. Like the series it pays homage too, The Orville is set in the 25th century, features an interstellar alliance of Earth and many other planets, and follows an exploratory space vessel interacting with various monocultures.\n\nLocations", "Locations\n\nCanada\nA limited number of Famous Players theatres in Canada house large replicas of the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-A). They can be found in the cities of Thunder Bay, Windsor, Ottawa, Winnipeg and Richmond. In the Greater Toronto Area, replicas can be seen in the Yorkdale Shopping Centre, and in the SilverCity in Richmond Hill.", "In addition, a replica of the Sovereign-class USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-E) can be found in Laser Planet in Oakville, Ontario as well as in the Colossus theatres, in Langley, British Columbia and Laval, Québec.\n\nThe coincidentally-named Vulcan, Alberta hosts Trek-related memorabilia and events.\n\nUnited States", "Riverside, Iowa has proclaimed itself the future birthplace of Captain James T. Kirk. Gene Roddenberry, the creator of Star Trek, asserts in the book The Making of Star Trek by Stephen Whitfield, that the character Kirk had been born in the state of Iowa", ". In March 1985, when the town was looking for a theme for its annual town festival, Steve Miller, a member of the Riverside City Council who had read Roddenberry's book, suggested to the council that Riverside should proclaim itself to be the future birthplace of Kirk. Miller's motion passed unanimously. The council later wrote to Roddenberry for his permission to be designated as the official birthplace of Kirk, and Roddenberry agreed", ". In the reboot Star Trek movie, Riverside is depicted as having a Starfleet shipyard on its outskirts, where the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701) was built.", "The city of Garland, Texas is the first city known to have an official place name based on the television series: \"Star Trek Lane\", located off of Apollo Road and east of North Jupiter Road ().\n\nThe city of Birmingham, Alabama also boasts a \"Star Trek Lane\" and \"Star Trek Circle\", in the Sunrise East subdivision of its Roebuck neighborhood.\n\nThe unincorporated Sky Parkway area of South Sacramento, California has a number of space-themed street names, including Klingon Court and Romulan Court.", "An unincorporated area near the Las Vegas Strip contains a residential street named \"Roddenberry Avenue\". While the mailing address lists the avenue as being located in Las Vegas, Nevada, the physical address is an unincorporated township called \"Enterprise\". There is no indication that the township's name has any connection with the Star Trek series, and it is unknown whether or not the street name is a deliberate tribute to the Star Trek creator.", "Turlock, California has a subdivision with several Trek-themed road names including Picard Lane, Warp Drive, Impulse Lane, Crusher Avenue, and Federation Court.", "Northern Virginia has a few Star Trek-inspired locations including Warp Drive at the headquarters of local space company Orbital ATK, named such at the request of the company; and the Intelligence and Security Command's Information Dominance Center, whose interior was designed to mimic the bridge of the Enterprise by a Hollywood set designer. The Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center annex of the National Air and Space Museum occasionally hosts set pieces and movie screenings.", "Star Trek and space exploration", "The series greatly influenced public interest in the U.S. Space Program and in education on the topic of space exploration. Star Trek: The Original Series ran from 1966 to 1969 benefited from the popularity of the televised July 1969 Apollo 11 Moon landing. The association between Star Trek and NASA grew stronger over time – the first NASA orbiter shuttle, Space Shuttle Enterprise, was named after the USS Enterprise of Star Trek fame", ". The IXS Enterprise, NASA's conceptual design for a superluminal spacecraft, was similarly named after the USS Enterprise in 2014.", "This connection remained solid throughout the 1990s, when many of the cast members began narrating documentaries about the franchise's content and space exploration. Some of these documentaries were produced in cooperation with NASA itself, most notably the IMAX title Destiny in Space (1994), narrated by Leonard Nimoy. In 2013, NASA produced a 30-second ad to accompany the theatrical release of Star Trek Into Darkness in an effort to bolster support for its space program.", "In addition, NASA has named a number of asteroids after people or elements connected to the Star Trek franchise: \n 2309 Mr. Spock\n 4659 Roddenberry\n 7307 Takei\n 9777 Enterprise\n 26733 Nanavisitor\n 26734 Terryfarrell\n 68410 Nichols\n 155142 Tenagra", "Star Trek and government activities\nIn addition to space exploration, other government activities have been influenced by Star Trek. In 2020, the United States effort to develop a vaccine to protect against COVID-19 was named Operation Warp Speed, which is the brainchild of a huge Star Trek fan, Dr. Peter Marks. Dr. Marks leads the unit at the Food and Drug Administration which approves vaccines and therapies.", "See also\n Star Wars sources and analogues amongst which includes Star Trek as an inspiration for Star Wars.\n\nReferences", "Further reading \n Nygard, Roger, director; Crosby, Denise, host. 1997. Trekkies (film documentary: official website). Los Angeles: Neo Motion Pictures.\n \"Star Trek as a Cultural Phenomenon\", US Centennial of Flight Commission\n \"Star Wars Vs. Star Trek\", Forbes — see also Comparison of Star Trek and Star Wars\n Müller, Sebastian. Neo-Frontier Spaces in Science Fiction Television, McFarland & Company, 2023.", "Müller, Sebastian. Neo-Frontier Spaces in Science Fiction Television, McFarland & Company, 2023.\n Whitfield, Stephen E. and Roddenberry, Gene. 1968 (27th printing, 1991). The Making of Star Trek. (; (27th pr.)). New York City: Ballantine Books.", "External links\n\nStar Trek\nStar Trek\nStar Trek\nStar Trek fandom" ]

[ "The Petroleum Warfare Department (PWD) was a government department established in Britain in 1940 in response to the invasion crisis during World War II, when Germany apparently would invade the country. The department was initially tasked with developing the uses of petroleum as a weapon of war, and it oversaw the introduction of a wide range of flame warfare weapons", ". Later in the war, the department was instrumental in the creation of the Fog Investigation and Dispersal Operation (commonly known as FIDO) that cleared runways of fog allowing the landing of aircraft returning from bombing raids over Germany in poor visibility, and Operation Pluto, which installed prefabricated fuel pipelines between England and France soon after the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944.", "Inception \n\nAt the beginning of World War II, in September 1939, little fighting occurred in the West until the German invasion of France and the Low Countries in May 1940. Following the fall of France and the withdrawal of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from the beaches at Dunkirk in June 1940, Britain was threatened with invasion by German armed forces in 1940 and 1941.", "In response to this threat of invasion, the British sought to expand the Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, and Army, replace the equipment that had been left behind at Dunkirk, and supplement the regular armed services with volunteer organisations such as the part-time soldiers in the Home Guard. With many types of equipment in short supply, frantic efforts were made to develop new weapons – particularly those that did not require scarce materials.", "Although oil imports from the Middle East had stopped and most oil for Britain came from the United States, no shortage of oil existed at the time; supplies originally intended for Europe were filling British storage facilities and full tankers were kept waiting in American ports. The amount of petrol allocated for civilian use was strictly rationed and pleasure motoring was strongly discouraged", ". This was not, at least initially, because of a shortage of petrol, but because it might lead to large congregations of well-fuelled vehicles at popular places.", "In the event of an invasion, the British would be faced with the problem of destroying these stocks lest they should prove of use to the enemy (as they had in France). By mid-June, as a basic anti-invasion precaution, wayside petrol stations near the coast had been emptied, or at least had their pumps disabled, and garages everywhere were required to have a plan to prevent their stocks being of use to the invader.", "On 29 May 1940, as the evacuation of the BEF was in progress, Maurice Hankey, then a cabinet minister without portfolio, joined the Ministerial Committee on Civil Defence (CDC) chaired by Sir John Anderson, the Secretary of State for the Home Office and Home Security. Among many ideas, Hankey \"brought out of his stable a hobby horse, which he had ridden very hard in the 1914–18 war – namely the use of burning oil for defensive purposes", ".\" Hankey believed that oil should not just be denied to an invader, but used to impede him. Towards the end of June, Hankey brought his scheme up at a meeting of the Oil Control Board and produced for Commander-in-Chief Home Forces Edmund Ironside extracts of his paper on experiments with oil in the First World War. On 5 June, Churchill authorised Geoffrey Lloyd, the Secretary for Petroleum, to press ahead with experiments, with Hankey taking the matter under his general supervision.", "Donald Banks", "Donald Banks had served with distinction in World War I, winning the Distinguished Service Order and Military Cross. He joined the civil service, and in 1934, he was made Director-General of the Post Office, he then moved to the Air Ministry and served there as Permanent Under Secretary from 1936 to 1938. Due to overwork, Banks was given lighter duties, including a mission to Australia to advise on aircraft production and a job at the Import Duties Advisory Committee", ". During this period, Banks was in the Territorial Army Reserve. When hostilities broke out in September 1939, the advisory committee was abolished and he was free to serve in the armed forces.", "Banks was soon posted as air attaché to the quartermaster general of 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division – a first-line division of the Territorial Army. Banks got on well with his commander, Major-general Giffard LeQuesne Martel. Banks admired his leadership and his enthusiasm for experimentation and improvisation. In October 1939, the division was sent to the Cotswolds, and in January 1940, it was moved to France.", "When Germany attacked in May, the division was heavily involved in the fighting around Arras and was later withdrawn to the coast. Banks later recalled looking out to sea from a clifftop and seeing \"an awe-inspiring sight [...] A few miles away an oil tanker had been bombed or had struck a mine. Masses of the blackest smoke pillared up into a gigantic pall in the sky while in the vast lake of fire, spreading it seemed for miles on the water a flame blazed and leapt like an angry volcano [..", "...] I was often to recall that scene in subsequent days of Flame Warfare\". The division was evacuated to England.", "Early in July 1940, Banks was summoned to the presence of Geoffrey Lloyd, who explained the vision that Hankey and he shared: \"Flame all across Britain\" he said, \"ringing the coasts, spurting from the hedges and rolling down the hills. We will burn the invader back into the sea.\"", "Considering Lloyd's ideas over the next few days and consulting with other soldiers, Banks found both professional scepticism and enthusiasm. Banks, a man who said he preferred the prospect of real fighting over \"Whitehall warfare\", was not himself keen and his first instinct was to suggest that petroleum weapons should be developed locally. Lloyd would have none of it and Banks was ordered to report to him for special duties", ". Lloyd would have none of it and Banks was ordered to report to him for special duties. On 9 July, cutting through red tape, the Petroleum Warfare Department was created.", "The Petroleum Warfare Department started on 9 July 1940 in three small rooms. They were independently administered and financed with a few staff entirely lacking in technical knowledge.\n\nFlame traps", "Flame traps \n\nPWD took inspiration from events that happened during the retreat to Dunkirk in June 1940. One example occurred when Boulogne was attacked in the early hours of 23 May and the road to Calais was cut. In the defence of Boulogne, a group of pioneers under Lieutenant-colonel Donald Dean , had improvised a road block made of vehicles and piles of furniture from bombed-out houses. An approaching tank began to push its way over the obstruction, as Dean wrote:", "The newly formed department quickly made arrangements for some practical experiments at Dumpton Gap in Kent. These were the source of some excitement for witnesses, who included the pilots of enemy planes. Many of the first ideas to be tried proved fruitless, but experience quickly led to the development of the first practical weapon - the static flame trap.\n\nStatic flame trap", "A static flame trap allowed a length of road, typically , to be covered in flame and smoke at a moment's notice. The weapon was a simple arrangement of perforated pipes placed alongside a road. The pipes were steel, in diameter and drilled with holes at angles carefully calculated to cover the road evenly. The perforated pipes were connected to larger pipes that led to a tank of fuel in a raised position", ". The fuel mixture was 25% petrol and 75% gas-oil that was contrived to be of no use as motor vehicle fuel should it be captured. All that was required to trigger the weapon was to open a valve and for a Home Guard to throw in a Molotov cocktail creating an inferno. The ideal location for the trap was a place where vehicles could not easily escape, such as a steep-sided sunken road", ". Some trouble was taken with camouflage; pipes could be hidden in gutters or disguised as handrails; others were simply left as innocent-looking plumbing.", "All the required pipes and valves could be obtained from the gas and water industries with little modification required beyond drilling a few holes. In general, gravity was all that was required to provide sufficient pressure for the fountains of oil but, where necessary, pumps were provided.", "Later versions were a little more sophisticated; remote ignition could be achieved in a variety of ways. In one system, called the Birch Igniter, the pressure of the oil at the end of the pipe would squeeze glycerine from a rubber bulb; the glycerine would fall onto a container of potassium permanganate, which would then ignite spontaneously", ". Another method was to run a pair of small rubber tubes, down one of which would be passed acetylene and the other chlorine; when, at the far end, these two gases were allowed to mix, there would be a spontaneous ignition. This system had the advantage that it could be turned on and off repeatedly. The development of the flame fougasse (see below) provided a method of remote electrical ignition that could only be used once, but was virtually instantaneous.", "Some 200 static flame traps were installed, mainly by the employees of oil companies whose services were placed at the disposal of the government.\n\nMobile flame traps", "In addition to the static flame traps, mobile units were created. The main design used an otherwise redundant tank mounted on the back of a 30 cwt lorry, just behind the cabin. In the middle of the remaining space was a petrol-driven pump and either side of this was stored of armoured rubber hose. Two nozzles were provided with a primitive sight and with spikes for pushing into the ground. Gas tubes for chlorine and acetylene gas were provided for ignition. The resulting jets of flame had a range of .", "Because a shortage of pumps existed – they were badly needed for fighting fires started by bombing – a simpler type of mobile flame trap was also designed. This consisted of a number of diameter pipes welded shut to make a long cylindrical drum, which was filled with of petrol-oil mixture and pressurised with an inert gas. Five of these cylinders could be transported on the back of a vehicle, and at a weight just under , could be deployed reasonably quickly wherever an ambush was required", ". The cylinders would be placed at intervals along a road, each with a short length of hose leading to a nozzle secured by ground spikes. Flow was initiated by a pull string that opened a valve and ignition was provided by Molotov cocktails.", "Flame fougasse \n\nThe Petroleum Warfare Department soon received the assistance of Henry Newton and William Howard Livens, both known for designing mortars during the First World War.", "During the First World War, Livens had developed a number of chemical-warfare and flame-throwing weapons. The largest of his works was the Livens large-gallery flame projector, which could project burning fuel . His best-known invention was the Livens projector: a simple mortar that could throw a projectile containing about of explosives, incendiary oil, or most commonly, poisonous phosgene gas", ". The great advantage of the Livens projector was that it was cheap; this allowed hundreds, and on occasions thousands, to be set up and then fired simultaneously, catching the enemy by surprise. Both Livens and Newton experimented with field-expedient versions of the Livens projector using commercially available five-gallon drums and tubes. Newton experimented with firing milk bottles filled with phosphorus using a rifle. None of these experiments were taken forward.", "However, one of Livens' PWD demonstrations, probably first seen about mid-July at Dumpton Gap, was more promising. A barrel of oil was simply blown up on the beach; Lloyd was said to have been particularly impressed when he observed a party of high-ranking officers witnessing a test from the top of a cliff making \"an instantaneous and precipitate movement to the rear\". The work was dangerous", ". The work was dangerous. Livens and Banks were experimenting with five-gallon drums in the shingle at Hythe when a short circuit triggered several weapons. By good fortune, the battery of drums where the party was standing failed to go off.", "The experiments led to a particularly promising arrangement - a 40-gallon steel drum buried in an earthen bank with just the round front end exposed. At the back of the drum was an explosive which, when triggered, ruptured the drum and shot a jet of flame about wide and long. The design was reminiscent of a weapon dating from late medieval times called a fougasse - a hollow in which was placed a barrel of gunpowder covered by rocks, the explosives to be detonated by a fuse at an opportune moment", ". Livens' new weapon was duly dubbed the flame fougasse. The flame fougasse was demonstrated to Clement Attlee (Lord Privy Seal), Maurice Hankey, and General Liardet (GOC 56th Division) on 20 July 1940.", "A variant of the flame fougasse called the \"demi-gass\" was a fougasse barrel placed horizontally in the open with an explosive charge underneath that would rupture the barrel and flip it over towards the target. Another variant was the \"hedge hopper\", a fougasse barrel on its end with an explosive charge underneath that would send it bounding over a hedge or wall; this made the hedge hopper particularly easy to conceal", ". A further variant of the hedge hopper idea was devised for St Margaret's Bay, where the barrels would be sent rolling over the cliff edge.", "In all, some 50,000 flame fougasse barrels were distributed, of which the great majority were installed in one of 7,000 batteries mostly in southern England and a little later at 2,000 sites in Scotland. Some barrels were held in reserve, while others were deployed at storage sites to destroy fuel depots at short notice. The size of a battery varied from just one drum to as many as 14; a four-barrel battery was the most common installation and the recommended minimum", ". Where possible, half the barrels in a battery were to contain the 40/60 mixture and half the sticky 5B mixture.", "Troubled waters\n\nOperation Lucid", "A series of experiments investigated the possibility of burning the invader's barges before they could reach the English shore. The first idea was simply to explode a vessel filled with oil, and this was tried at Maplin Sands, where a Thames oil tanker, Suffolk, with 50 tonnes of petroleum, was blown up in shallow water. Another idea developed was that the oil should be held in place on the water by a trough formed from coir matting", ". A machine formed the trough from a flat mat as it was paid out over the stern of a ship. Trials with the Ben Hann produced a flaming ribbon 880 yards long and 6 feet wide (800 m × 2 m) that could be towed at four knots. Neither of these experiments were carried forward to produce workable defences.", "The Suffolk did, however, provide a trial run for an even more ambitious idea - the invasion barges would be burned even before they left port. The plan was first floated in early June/July 1940 and became known as Operation Lucid.", "Three old tankers were quickly prepared as fire ships for the operation under the command of Augustus Agar VC with Morgan Morgan-Giles as his staff officer. Each ship was laden with over 2,000 tons of flammable oils and a miscellany of leftover explosive devices. Although the operation was started several times in September–October 1940, the attempts were thwarted by bad weather, unreliable ships, and finally, one of the destroyers in the group was damaged by a mine", ". By November, any invasion plan had been called off and Lucid was shelved.", "Burning seas \n\nFrom its earliest days, the PWD experimented with \"setting the sea on fire\" by burning oil that was floating on the surface. It was immediately appreciated that the possibilities of such a weapon lay not only in its ability to destroy the enemy, but also in the propaganda value of the terror of fire.", "In 1938, an Enemy Publicity Section, created for propaganda to be sent to the enemy, was formed by Hankey and a new section was formed under Sir Campbell Stuart, who was a former editor of The Times newspaper. Being allocated premises at Electra House, the new section was dubbed Department EH. During the Munich crisis of 1938, a number of leaflets were printed with the intention of dropping them over Germany", ". The leaflet drop never took place, but the exercise prompted Department EH to issue a note to the Air Ministry insisting on the importance of a properly coordinated system for sending information to enemy countries. The Permanent Secretary (most senior civil servant of a department) at the Air Ministry to whom the note was addressed was Sir Donald Banks, who would later head the PWD.", "On 25 September 1939, Department EH was mobilised to Woburn Abbey where it joined another subversion team known as Section D that had been formed by Major Laurence Grand.", "In July 1940, Prime Minister Winston Churchill invited Hugh Dalton to take charge of the newly formed Special Operations Executive (SOE). The mission of the SOE was to encourage and facilitate espionage and sabotage behind enemy lines, or as Churchill put, it: to \"set Europe ablaze\". Among those present at the first summit meeting of SOE on 1 July 1940 were Lord Hankey, Geoffrey Lloyd and Desmond Morton – people who would be instrumental in the formation of the PWD just a few days later.", "Department EH and section D later became SO1 and SO2 of the SOE. Subsequently, in September 1941, responsibilities for political warfare was taken away from the SOE with the formation of the Political Warfare Executive.", "Although PWD would go on to work on burning floating oil, a plan was hatched to spread the story that such a weapon already existed even before the first trials were performed. Writer James Hayward has made an extensive study of this curious story; in The Bodies on the Beach, Hayward makes a compelling case for the view that the burning seas work was driven substantially by the needs of propaganda and was a sophisticated bluff that became Britain's first major propaganda success of the war", ". Writing just after the war, Banks said, \"Perhaps the greatest contribution from all these variegated efforts was in building up the great propaganda story of the Flame Defence of Britain which swept the Continent of Europe in 1940.\"", "The details of the story indicated the invention of a bomb that would spread a thin film of volatile liquid on the surface of the water and then ignite it. This rumour was whispered into attentive ears in neutral cities such as Stockholm, Lisbon, Madrid, Cairo, Istanbul, Ankara, New York, and other places, probably around late July or early August 1940. The burning-seas rumour appealed to the dark imaginations of both friend and foe", ". The burning-seas rumour appealed to the dark imaginations of both friend and foe. Soon, interrogation of captured Luftwaffe pilots revealed that the rumour had become common knowledge.", "German armed forces began experimenting with burning floating oil. On 18 August, they ignited 100 tons of floating oil; it burned for 20 minutes producing heat and copious smoke – this was almost a week before the first successful British ignition.", "In Europe, the burning-seas story became embellished to the point where the story included a German invasion attempt thwarted by the ignition of oil on water. American war correspondent William Lawrence Shirer was based in Berlin at the time, but in mid-September, he visited Geneva, Switzerland.\n\nOn the evening of the following day, Shirer arrived back in Berlin:", "The following day, Shirer heard about further train loads of wounded soldiers. A plausible explanation for these wounded is that they were hurt in RAF bombing raids on ports of embarkation. Such raids were certainly going on, though it seems they were generally fairly ineffective and no records of significant German casualties have been turned up. It seems likely that the rumour machine inflated light casualties to proportions of strategic consequence.", "The British were getting better organised. A system was set up to collect suggestions for Inspired Rumours; these suggestions, which became known as SIBS (from the Latin sibilare, to hiss). SIBS, were sifted through at weekly meetings in order that they should present a consistent message and to ensure that ludicrously improbable and inadvertently true rumours were filtered out. New SIBS included \"small scale attempts at invasion have been made and have been beaten off with devastating losses", ". In fact none are alive to tell. Thousands of floating German corpses have been washed ashore.\" and \"The fishing populations of the west coast of Denmark and the south coast of Norway are selling fish but they won't eat them. The reason is that there are numbers of German corpses on which the fish feed. There have even been cases of shreds of clothing and buttons, etc. being found inside the fish.\"", "The story of the burning seas was further reinforced. In October, the RAF dropped leaflets containing handy phrases for visitors to the United Kingdom in German, French, and Dutch", ". The phrases included \"the sea smells of petrol here\", \"the sea even burns here\", \"see how well the captain burns\", \"Karl/Willi/Fritz/Johann/Abraham: cremated/drowned/minced by the propellers!\" As Hayward explains, these leaflets were simply building on and reinforcing the rumours of a failed invasion attempt that were being disseminated around the world from late September. The original propaganda was conflated with other events both real and imaginary and the rumours spread", ". Of course, the German command knew that the stories were untrue; the real targets of the propaganda were the men who might actually be asked to attempt a landing in England. Berlin felt forced officially to deny the rumours:", "Inevitably, the story made its way back to the UK. Publication of the contents of propaganda leaflets dropped by the RAF was not permitted and other stories such as an official statement from the Free French Information Service through the Ministry of Information saying that \"30,000 Germans drowning in an attempted embarkation last September\" were suppressed. Vivid and plausible accounts of a thwarted invasion were published in American newspapers and the rumours spread in Britain and proved persistent", ". Questions were even asked in parliament. Writing just after the war, the Chief Press Censor, Rear Admiral George Pirie Thomson said that \"... in the whole course of the war there was no story which gave me so much trouble as this one of the attempted German invasion, flaming oil on the water and 30,000 burned Germans.\"", "On 7 September 1940, the Battle of Britain was still raging, but the German Air Force () changed its tactics and started to bomb London. With the accumulation of invasion barges and favourable tides, the authorities were convinced that invasion was imminent, the codeword Cromwell was passed to the Army and Home Forces", ". The codeword was only meant to indicate \"invasion imminent\", but with a nation tense with expectation and some Home Guardsmen incompletely briefed, some believed that the invasion had started and this caused great confusion. In some areas, church bells were rung on receipt of the codeword even though this was only supposed to happen when invaders were in the immediate area. Roadblocks were set up, some bridges blown, and land mines sown on some roads (killing three Guards officers)", ". Home Guard units searched beaches for invasion barges and scanned the skies for approaching German paratroopers, but none came. Public recollection of these events did much to reinforce the idea that some kind of landing had, in fact, been attempted.", "The burning sea lie provided the British with their first major black propaganda victory. The compelling story is likely to be the basis of a number of invasion myths that remained in circulation throughout the remainder of the 20th century, that the Germans attempted an invasion which was thwarted by the use of sea-burning bombs. The most persistent of these stories becoming known as the Shingle Street Mystery named after an isolated village on the Suffolk coast.\n\nFlame barrage", "Propaganda aside, the efforts of the PWD were real enough; they continued with experiments to actually set the sea on fire. Although initial tests were discouraging, Geoffrey Lloyd was reluctant to let the matter go. On 24 August 1940, on the northern shores of the Solent, near Titchfield, 10 tanker wagons began to pump oil down pipes running from the top of a 30-foot-high (10 m) cliff down into the water at the rate of about 12 tons/hour", ". In front of many spectators, the oil was ignited by flares and a system of sodium and petrol pellets. In a matter of seconds, a raging wall of flame was produced; the intense heat caused the water to boil and people at the cliff edge were obliged to retreat. The demonstration was very dramatic, but it was not an unqualified success because the circumstances were improbably favourable; in the sheltered waters of the Solent, the sun-warmed sea was calm and the winds light", ". A lengthy series of experiments continued with many reverses; in one case, the pipes attached to \"Admiralty scaffolding\"' (an antitank barrier of scaffolding placed in the shallows) were torn up in a storm and in another incident sappers were blown up by beach mines. It was found that effectiveness was very much affected by sea conditions; a low temperature made ignition more difficult and waves would quickly break up the oil into small ineffectual slicks.", "On 20 December 1940, Generals Harold Alexander and Bernard Montgomery and many other senior officers gathered for a demonstration. The performance was completely unconvincing with just a few small pools of burning oil battered by the surf. The cold, cloudy weather matched the mood of pessimism; Banks describes this day as the Black Friday in the annals of the PWD.", "General Alexander was sympathetic to the PWD's problems, and suggested that the pipes be moved to a point immediately above the high tide point and, after several months of further work, this proved to be the solution – oil sprayed and burnt over rather than on the water", ". On 24 February 1941, the Chiefs of Staff committee, that included General Brooke, watched films of the recent experiments and approved the installation of 50 miles of flame barrage - 25 miles on the south-eastern coast, 15 miles on the eastern, and 10 miles on the southern commands.", "Although Geoffrey Lloyd, Secretary for Petroleum, was enthusiastic, General Brooke was, on reflection, not convinced of its efficacy. Brooke's main objections were that the weapon was dependent upon favourable winds, it created a smokescreen that might favour the enemy, and it was very vulnerable to bombing and shell fire; in any case, it was of short duration", ". The required resources were considerable and a serious shortage of materials existed; lack of support from authorities and the competing demands for supplies meant that the plans were cut back to thirty miles of barrage, then fifteen and then less than ten miles. According to Banks: \"Lengths of this flame defence ultimately were completed at Deal between Kingsdown and Sandwich, at St", ". Margaret's Bay, at Shakespeare Cliff near Dover railway tunnel, at Rye where a remarkable system of remote control across the marshes was installed, and at Studland Bay. In South Wales long stretches were put in hand at the time when the airborne threat to Ireland was looming large, and sections at Wick and Thurso, but these were not brought to completion. In Cornwall at Porthcurno, where the important transatlantic cables came ashore, a gravity fed section was put in as a security measure against raids.\"", "Portable flamethrowers \nDuring World War I, the British had developed flamethrowers. Banks had seen the Livens large-gallery flame projector used at the Somme in July 1916 and a large-scale flamethrower had been installed on HMS Vindictive and used in the raid on Zeebrugge. Portable flame-throwing apparatus was also designed, but the war ended before it could be fully employed; further development ceased and records of the work were lost.", "Work restarted in 1939 at the newly formed Ministry of Supply Research Department at Woolwich, and many of the basic technical problems were investigated such as the design of valves and nozzles, the problem of ignition, and of fuels and propellants. Independently, Commander Marsden was working on portable flamethrowers for the Army. His work eventually resulted in the semiportable \"Harvey\" flamethrower and the backpack \"Marsden\" flamethrower", ". Meanwhile, the PWD developed the Home Guard flamethrower as a quickly extemporised weapon.", "Home Guard flamethrower \nThe so-called Home Guard flamethrower was not a flamethrower in the conventional sense, but a small, semimobile flame trap.", "From about September 1940, 300 Home Guard units received a kit of parts provided by the PWD - a barrel, of hose, a hand pump, some connective plumbing, and a set of do-it-yourself instructions. The barrel was set upon an hand cart that was made locally from four-by-two-inch timber and mounted on a pair of wheels salvaged from a car axle", ". The nozzle and ground spike were of simple construction from sections of three-quarter-inch-diameter gas pipe with a used food can over the end to catch drips of fuel that would maintain a flame when the pressure was allowed to drop. When completed, the weapon was filled with a 40/60 mixture obtained locally.", "The Home Guard flamethrower was light enough to be wheeled along roads and possibly over fields to where it was needed by its crew of five or six men. It would be used as part of an ambush in combination with Molotov cocktails and whatever other weapons were available. The pump was operated by hand and would give a flame of up to in length, but only for about two minutes of continuous operation.\n\nHarvey flamethrower", "The Harvey flamethrower was introduced in August 1940, and was mostly made from readily available parts such as wheels from agricultural equipment manufacturers and commercially available compressed air cylinders. It comprised a welded-steel cylinder containing 22 gallons (100 L) of creosote and a standard bottle of compressed nitrogen at mounted on a sack truck of the type that a railway-station porter might use", ". About of armoured hose provided the connection to a lance with a nozzle and some paraffin-soaked cotton waste that was set alight to provide a source of ignition. In operation, the pressure in the fuel container was raised to about , causing a cork in the nozzle to be ejected followed by a jet of fuel lasting about 10 seconds at a range up to", ". Like the Home Guard flamethrower, it was intended as an ambush weapon, but in this case the operator was able to direct the flames by moving the lance which would be pushed through a hole in otherwise bulletproof cover such as a brick wall.", "Marsden flamethrower \nThe Marsden flamethrower, probably introduced about June 1941, comprised a backpack with of fuel pressurised to by compressed nitrogen gas; the backpack was connected to a \"gun\" by means of a flexible tube, and the weapon was operated by a simple lever. The weapon could give 12 seconds of flame divided into any number of individual spurts. The Marsden flamethrower was heavy and cumbersome; 1500 were made but few were issued.", "Neither the Harvey nor the Marsden was popular with the Army; both ended up with the Home Guard. The Marsden was superseded in 1943 by the Flamethrower, Portable, No 2 which became known as the \"lifebuoy\" flamethrower from the ring shape of the fuel tank.\n\nVehicle-mounted flamethrowers\n\nCockatrice", "The PWD brought together and supervised a number of otherwise independent developments of vehicle-mounted flamethrowers. The first product of this work was a prototype of Cockatrice that was demonstrated in August 1940. Reginald Fraser of Imperial College, London University, who was also a director of the Lagonda car company, developed an annular flamethrower, that threw petrol with an outer layer of thickened fuel", ". He thought that this would reduce the risk of fire working backwards to the fuel tank because oxygen would not be present. With the encouragement of the PWD, Fraser produced and demonstrated a prototype at Snoddington Furze in August 1940. Fraser went on to have an experimental vehicle put together by Lagonda on a Commer lorry chassis", ". Fraser went on to have an experimental vehicle put together by Lagonda on a Commer lorry chassis. A demonstration of the Lagonda vehicle at PWD's test site at Moody Down farm near Winchester was attended by Nevil Shute Norway and Lieutenant Jack Cooke of the Admiralty Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development. Norway later recalled, \"It was a terrifying apparatus ... [It] fired a mixture of diesel oil and tar and had a range of about 100 yards", "... [It] fired a mixture of diesel oil and tar and had a range of about 100 yards. It had a flame 30 feet in diameter and used 8 gallons of fuel a second ... When demonstrated to admirals and generals, it usually appalled and horrified them ...\"", "Norway understood that invading airborne troops landing at an airfield would need about one minute after touchdown while they prepared their equipment, in which time they would be extremely vulnerable; a flamethrower on a vehicle that could be driven at speed could envelop the enemy in fire before the vehicle itself was destroyed. Cooke worked on the problem and the result was \"Cockatrice\"", ". Cooke worked on the problem and the result was \"Cockatrice\". This device had a rotating weapon mount with elevation to 90° and a range around , stored about two tons of fuel and used compressed carbon monoxide as a propellant. The Light Cockatrices variant was based on an armoured Bedford QL vehicle with flame–projector; sixty of these were ordered for the protection of Royal Naval Air Stations", ". The Heavy Cockatrice was based on the larger AEC Matador 6×6 chassis already in RAF service as a fuel bowser; six of these were constructed for RAF airfield defence. Other than having a larger fuel tank, the Heavy Cockatrice was the same vehicle. The Army showed little interest in Cockatrice, and it never went into mass production.", "The flamethrower from Cockatrice was also deployed on a number of small ships. German pilots were in the habit of attacking coastal vessels, flying in very low hoping to avoid detection and dropping their bombs before flying over the ship at mast height. Norway thought that a vertical flamethrower might discourage such attacks", ". Norway thought that a vertical flamethrower might discourage such attacks. An experiment with a Cockatrice-like flamethrower on board La Patrie, the flame's length was increased by the up-draft of the heat generated so that the pillar of fire reached vertically. A pilot was found to make dummy attacks, flying closer and closer with each pass he eventually had his wingtip virtually in the flame", ". Norway was disheartened to find that the pilot was not more deterred by the flames, but the pilot had been briefed to know what to expect. In a later trial with a pilot who had not been told about the flame weapon, Norway was dismayed to see that he flew with half a wing cutting into the flame. This pilot had worked for a stunt firm, so was used to driving cars \"through plates of glass and walls of fire\". Despite these discouraging results, the flamethrower was installed on a number of coastal vessels", ". Despite these discouraging results, the flamethrower was installed on a number of coastal vessels. Although seemingly unable to do any real damage, intelligence sources indicated that the height of attacks went up well above .", "The Admiralty also ordered a version of Cockatrice that could be taken from a lorry and mounted on a landing craft to make a landing craft assault (flame thrower) or LCA(FT). The LCA(FT) does not appear to have been used in action. A successor to Cockatrice called Basilisk was designed with improved cross-country performance, for use with armoured car regiments, but it was not adopted and only a prototype was produced.\n\nRonson", "The first British vehicle mounted flamethrower for regular army use was developed in 1940 by the then newly established PWD. This flamethrower was known as the Ronson after the cigarette lighter manufacturer of the same name known for its stylish and dependable cigarette lighter products. Fraser developed the Ronson from his original Cockatrice prototypes. The Ronson was mounted on a Universal Carrier which was an open topped, lightly armoured tracked vehicle", ". The Ronson had fuel and compressed gas mounted tanks over the rear of the vehicle. The British Army turned the design down for various reasons but specifically requiring greater range.", "Lieutenant-General Andrew McNaughton, commander of Canadian forces in Britain, was an imaginative officer with a keen eye for potential new weapons. He played a significant part in the development of flamethrowers and ordered 1,300 Ronsons on his own initiative. The Canadians eventually developed the Wasp Mk IIC (see below) which became the preferred model. The Ronson was also attached to the Churchill tank", ". The Ronson was also attached to the Churchill tank. Fraser was told that a tank was preferable to the Universal Carrier as a mount for a flamethrower, because it was very much less vulnerable. A Churchill MkII tank was modified as a prototype by 24 March 1942, it had a pair of Ronson projectors one on either side of the front of the hull, they could not be aimed except by moving the entire vehicle. Fuel was held in a pair of containers projecting from the rear of the vehicle. Major J. M", ". Fuel was held in a pair of containers projecting from the rear of the vehicle. Major J. M. Oke contributed to the design, including a suggestion that the fuel be held in the reserve fuel tank – a lightly armoured standard fitting available for the Churchill tank. The design was reduced to a single flame projector and became known as the Churchill Oke. Three Churchill Okes were included as part of the tank support for the Dieppe Raid but did not get to use the flamethrowers in combat.", "From the Canadians, the Ronson came to the attention of the United States who later developed it use as a replacement for the main gun on obsolete M3A1 tank, a weapon that was called Satan. Later, other models of the M3 Stuart were fitted with similar flamethrowers alongside the main armament. Satan and others would see action in the Pacific War and during Operation Overlord.\n\nWasp", "By 1942 the PWD had developed the Ronson flamethrowers so that a range of was achieved. In September 1942, this improved appliance was put into production as the Wasp Mk I. An order for 1,000 was placed and all had been delivered by November 1943. The Wasp Mk I had two fuel tanks located inside the carrier's hull and used a large projector gun that was mounted over the top of the carrier", ". The Mk I was immediately outdated by the development of the Wasp Mk II which had a much handier flame projector mounted at the front on the machine-gun mounting. Although there was no improvement in range, this version performed much better being easier to aim and much safer to use.", "The Wasp Mk II went into action during the Invasion of Normandy in July 1944. The Wasps were used mainly in support of infantry operations, whereas the Crocodile was used with armoured formations. They were extremely effective weapons, dreaded by the Germans who had to bear their effects; because of the fear of these flamethrowers, infantry opposition often ceased when they arrived", ". It was not long before the Wasp Mk IIs were joined by yet another Wasp variant, this one having been developed by the Canadians and denoted Mk IIC. The Canadians had determined that devoting a Universal Carrier exclusively to the flamethrower role was inefficient and they redesigned the Wasp so that the carrier could also function in its normal manner. This was achieved by removing the internal fuel tanks and replacing them with a single tank externally mounted at the back of the vehicle", ". This allowed room inside for a third crew member who could carry a light machine gun. The Mk IIC was much more tactically flexible and it gradually became the favoured type. In June 1944 all Wasp production was changed to the Mk IIC and existing MK IIs were also adapted to this standard. Experience demonstrated the need for more frontal armour and many Wasp Mk IICs were fitted with plastic armour over the front plates.", "Valentine", "George John Rackham, an ex-Tank Corps officer and tank designer who was a bus designer at Associated Equipment Company (AEC), developed a flamethrower that became known as the Heavy Pump Unit. One version consisted of a Worthington Simpson Pump driven by a Rolls-Royce Kestrel engine and another used a Mather and Platt pump powered by a Napier Lion engine. Projecting liquid at per minute it produced an awe-inspiring jet of flame", ". Projecting liquid at per minute it produced an awe-inspiring jet of flame. The Heavy Pump Unit was mounted on an AEC 6×6 chassis and there was also a small projector on a two-wheeled carriage that could be towed and then manhandled by the crew as far as the hose would stretch. A demonstration of the Heavy Pump Unit on the lawns around Leeds Castle in Kent were witnessed by the Secretary of State for War, Lord Margesson", ". Shortly afterwards General Alec Richardson, Director of Armoured Fighting Vehicles and the War Office, saw a similar demonstration and the PWD were soon asked for a similar weapon mounted on a tank.", "Work began on two prototypes based on the Valentine tank, both had fuel stored in a trailer but each employed a different system for generating the gas pressure required for the flame projector. One system produced by the Ministry of Supply (MoS) used gas from slow burning cordite charges that produced a pressure of and achieved a range of . This system had a projector mounted in a small sub-turret that allowed the projector to be aimed", ". This system had a projector mounted in a small sub-turret that allowed the projector to be aimed. The other prototype, produced by PWD used compressed hydrogen to supply of pressure giving a range of . This version seems to have been relatively crude, requiring the entire vehicle to be moved to aim the projector. Even so, the PWD system won out in a competitive trial", ". Even so, the PWD system won out in a competitive trial. Its main advantage was that gas pressure was maintained allowing, if required, continuous discharge; whereas, the MoS prototype had to wait between bursts while the cordite built up more gas pressure. The two development teams merged under PWD.", "Churchill Crocodile", "The PWD worked on a flamethrower for the Churchill infantry tank. Work was initially slow because priority was given to the Wasp and there is a suggestion that early work on the Crocodile was unofficial. The first prototype was completed early in 1942 and a report by the Royal Armoured Corps stated that the Crocodile was not a requirement of the General Staff but that PWD was hoping that a demonstration in the near future would change minds", ". The design drew upon experience with the Valentine tank prototypes. Fuel and pressure for the flamethower was carried in a trailer with of armour and as a result weighing about . The trailer held two fuel tanks with a capacity of and five compressed-air cylinders plus some ancillary piping and a hand pump for filling. The trailer had two wheels fitted with run-flat tyres but no shock absorbers or brakes.", "The connection between the trailer and the tank was a substantial piece of engineering, three large joints allowed the tank to move in a wide range of angles relative to the trailer. A micro-switch would activate a warning light in the driver's compartment if the angle of the connection became too large. Flamethrower fuel passed through an armoured hose to a projector mounted instead of the hull machine gun, meaning that the gunner could use the same sight for either weapon", ". A key requirement was that the normal operation of the tank was not restricted. In the event the original tank design required only very minor changes and it retained its original main armament. The tank's manoeuvrability was inevitably hampered by having a trailer, though this could be detached by a quick-release mechanism triggered by a Bowden cable.", "The Crocodile flamethrower had a range of up to . The pressure required had to be primed on the trailer by the crew as close to use as feasible, because pressure could not be maintained for very long. The fuel was used at 4 gallons per second; refuelling took at least 90 minutes and pressurisation around 15 minutes. The fuel burned on water and could be used to set fire to woods and houses", ". The fuel burned on water and could be used to set fire to woods and houses. The flamethrower could project a 'wet' burst of unlit fuel which would splash into trenches and though gaps in buildings, bunkers and other strong points, to be ignited with a second 'hot' burst.", "In 1943, Percy Hobart saw a Crocodile at Orford; Hobart was in command of the 79th Armoured Division and he was responsible for many of the specialised armoured vehicles (\"Hobart's Funnies\"), that were to be used in the invasion of Normandy. Hobart buttonholed Sir Graham Cunningham at the Ministry of Supply and agreed a development plan. Alan Brooke (Chief of the Imperial General Staff) added the Crocodile to Hobart's brief", ". Alan Brooke (Chief of the Imperial General Staff) added the Crocodile to Hobart's brief. One of Hobart's assistants, Brigadier Yeo put pressure on for the final production and sixty Crocodiles were ready just in time for D–Day.", "Pipeline Under the Ocean\n\nOperation Pluto (Pipe-Lines Under The Ocean) was an operation to construct oil pipelines under the English Channel between England and France in support of Operation Overlord – the allied invasion of France.", "In April 1942, plans were being drawn up for an allied invasion of France. The proposed landing force would include thousands of vehicles needing a tremendous amount of fuel which would have to be supplied somehow and maintaining a sufficient supply was potentially a serious problem. Geoffrey William Lloyd, the Minister for Petroleum, asked Lord Louis Mountbatten, Chief of Combined Operations, whose area this was, whether there was anything PWD could do to help", ". Mountbatten replied \"Yes, you can lay an oil pipeline across the English Channel\". Pipelines were considered necessary to relieve dependence on oil tankers which could be slowed by bad weather, were susceptible to German submarines, and were needed in the Pacific War.", "However, laying a pipeline as a part of an invasion presented significant difficulties. The pipe would have to withstand huge pressures from of sea water and even higher internal pressures as oil was pumped; yet the pipe would have to be flexible enough to lie on the seabed and strong enough to resist the effects of being moved by currents possibly while resting on rocks", ". The pipe and everything else needed would have to be prepared in great secrecy; pipe laying could not start until the invasion actually took place and would have to be completed quickly enough to be useful. Another reason to work quickly was to avoid bad weather and the worst of the channel's currents.", "HAIS \n\nOn 15 April 1942, Arthur Hartley, chief engineer with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, attended a meeting of the Overseas Development Committee of the Oil Control Board in place of Sir William Fraser who was unable to attend. Here Hartley saw a chart of the English Channel which piqued his curiosity. Inquiring, Hartley learned about PLUTO and its many difficulties.", "Hartley proposed a scheme using adapted underwater power cable developed by Siemens Brothers, (in conjunction with the National Physical Laboratory) was adopted and it became known as the HAIS pipeline. HAIS pipeline consisted of an inner lead tube surrounded by layers of bitumen impregnated paper, cotton and jute yarn and protected by layers of steel tape and galvanised steel wires", ". The design of HAIS was refined as a result of a series of tests, the main changes being to increase the layers of steel tape armouring from two to four and to manufacture the inner lead pipe using extrusion thereby avoiding a longitudinal seam. In March 1943, in a full-scale feasibility test, HMS Holdfast laid a pipeline between Swansea and Ilfracombe, a distance of about ; the pipe supplied North Devon and Cornwall with petrol for over a year", ". The feasibility test used a pipe with an internal diameter of , the same as the original power cable had had, the specification was increased to to allow three times as much petrol to be pumped through.", "In May 1943, Callenders, a company based in Erith, was engaged to produce HAIS pipeline sections. The lead pipe was produced in long sections which were then tested for twenty four hours under pressure, the pressure was then reduced to support the pipe as the armouring layers were applied. Production required new machinery and the construction of gantries to transfer the pipe from factory to storage and to load it onto ships.", "The HAIS sections had to be joined; the jointing process was a form of welding known as lead burning; the projected length of pipeline required 75 joints and it was vital that the joints did not fail during the handling and laying or during normal operation. Brothers Frank and Albert Stone were engaged to make the critical joins.", "HAIS sections were joined by first trimming the section ends and then positioning them on wooden jigs. The main sealing lead-burn was blended with the metal of the pipe with the brothers using their skills to ensure that there was a complete seal and a smooth exterior surface to ensure that nothing interfered with the armouring process. a slight ridge on the inside of the pipe was inevitable and would not significantly interfere with fuel flow", ". Each join took about two and half hours to complete after which the pipe would be re-pressurised and armouring would resume.", "The Stone brothers worked 18- to 20-hour shifts to keep the armouring machines running. To ensure secrecy, they were instructed not to tell anybody what work they were doing and to remove the Stone company name and Ship and Chemical Plumbers signs from their two-ton Ford truck. The need for secrecy got the brothers into difficulty one night when, returning home, they ran over and killed a dog", ". They dutifully reported the accident at a nearby police station where a police man became suspicious of their activities because their name was not on their van and because they were very evasive when questioned.", "Having lost hours of valuable sleeping time while they were detained, they were released when it was noticed that their petrol ration book had been issued by the PWD.", "As the pipeline came out of the machine it was taken out of the factory and hauled up to the top of a gantry from where it was laid down as a continuous length in huge coil about in diameter and high. About of HAIS pipe were produced in the UK and another were produced by American companies.", "Four ships were converted from their role as merchants to carry and lay HAIS pipeline. These were HMS Latimer and HMS Sancroft at 7,000 tons; and HMS Holdfast and HMS Algerian at 1,500 tons. The larger two of the flotilla could each carry two lengths of HAIS pipeline; sufficient for the distance to Normandy. The smaller ships could only carry a single length of pipeline and were used to lay the pipes from Kent to the Pas de Calais", ". A number of Thames barges were equipped to lay pipes in shallow water from the ships to the shore terminals. These same barges also laid short lengths of the relatively flexible HAIS pipe at the landfall ends of the steel HAMEL pipes.", "Coupling devices were designed so that lengths of pipe could be joined while at sea, an operation that could be completed in about 20 minutes. The couplings incorporated thin copper disks that would maintain the pressure of water kept in the pipes in order to prevent distortion during handling and laying; the disks were designed to burst when the fuel pumps brought pipes up to the operating pressure.\n\nHAMEL", "An all-steel pipe was also developed; this became known as HAMEL after Henry Alexander Hammick and B.J. Ellis of the Iraq Petroleum Company and Burmah Oil Company respectively. This design was an alternative in case HAIS failed or not enough lead could be obtained for its continued production. HAMEL was a steel tube in diameter and was similar to onshore pipelines", ". HAMEL was a steel tube in diameter and was similar to onshore pipelines. Hammick and Ellis had noticed the flexibility of long lengths of steel pipe used for onshore pipelines and thought that sections of pipe could be welded together to make a pipe of any desired length. Special welding machines were obtained to make the thousands of strong and reliable joints needed to cross the channel.", "Although the steel pipe was flexible, it could not easily be twisted. This meant that it could not be stored as a coil in the hold of a cable laying ship where each turn of the coil would require a 360° twist in the pipe as it was laid. Admiralty Hopper Barge No 24 was fitted out with a large wheel allowing pipe to be wound and unwound without twisting", ". Renamed HMS Persephone, this ship laid pipes from the British mainland to the Isle of Wight, this served as a trial run and pipes laid provided a vital link in the oil pipeline network.", "Persephone, however, could only lay a relatively short length of pipe. Ellis solved this problem with the design of a floating drum onto which a great length of pipe could be coiled in the manner of thread on a bobbin. This drum could be towed across the channel and the pipe unwound onto the seabed. The mysterious-looking, conical-ended drum was aptly dubbed", ". The mysterious-looking, conical-ended drum was aptly dubbed . The proportions of the conundrums were impressive: the winding cylinder was in diameter and wide; including the conical ends, the overall width was . Short lengths of pipe were welded together into sections, as these long sections were welded together the finished pipe was wound onto the floating conundrum. The conundrum's height in the water could be adjusted by varying the amount of ballast water in the drum", ". One conundrum could carry up to of pipeline and six conundrums, numbered I to VI, were built.", "Tests using a powerful tug to tow a conundrum were disappointing even when a second tug was added. Banks, a man with no seamanship skills, suggested that the wake of the tugs engines was pushing the conundrum backwards and impeding movement; separating the two tugs greatly improved performance, and a third small tug was added behind the conundrum to help with steering.", "An onshore pipeline system had been established during the war that fed petroleum from tankers berthed at London, Bristol and Merseyside to airfields in Southern England. PLUTO was fed via a spur established to Lepe, a hamlet on the shore of The Solent. From there, a length of HAMEL pipe took fuel under the Solent to a bay near Cowes on the Isle of Wight, through an overland pipe across the island to Shanklin.\n\nPluto Minor", "Pluto Minor \n\nThe invasion of Normandy began on 6 June 1944. Troops, equipment and vehicles were landed on the beaches and they were soon followed by thousands of jerrycans of fuel. 13,400 tons of fuel were landed this way on Dday itself.", "Operation Pluto was scheduled to lay its first pipeline across the channel just 18 days after DDay, but this did not happen. Troops continued to be supported by transporting jerrycans of fuel. As daily fuel consumption rose, ship-to-shore pipelines codenamed TOMBOLA were laid.\n\nPipe to Cherbourg", "The British planned to establish an undersea pipeline from the Isle of Wight to the French port of Cherbourg as soon as it had been liberated by Allied forces. Pumping stations were established at Shanklin and at Sandown and collectively known by the codename BAMBI. Shanklin was, as it is today, a popular seaside resort at Sandown Bay on the Isle of Wight. Many of its Victorian houses and hotels had been bombed by the , providing excellent cover for PLUTO's pump houses", ". At Sandown, the pumps were installed in the old fortifications of the Yaverland Battery. At each location, great care was taken to hide what was going on from the enemy; lorry loads of building materials were hidden as soon as they arrived on site. At Shanklin a tank was built on a hill and hidden by trees and camouflage netting", ". At Shanklin a tank was built on a hill and hidden by trees and camouflage netting. Near the shore the pumps were installed in the remains of the Royal Spa Hotel \"simulating on a new elevation – twelve feet higher up the debris and wrecked dwelling-rooms – even the contents of the bathrooms, that strewed the ground, and hiding our mechanisms beneath this false floor.\" From the hotel pump room, pipes ran to the town's pier, along it and down into the sea", ".\" From the hotel pump room, pipes ran to the town's pier, along it and down into the sea. At Sandown the activity was hidden by newly seeded grass that had to be watered every day and by carefully brushing out lorry tyre tracks. With everything prepared, there was nothing to do but to wait for Dday.", "It had been planned that the first full-length Pluto pipe would be laid on D+18 (that is 18 days after D-day). The plans were delayed because it took longer than expected to capture Cherbourg and when the port was finally taken it was heavily damaged and extensively mined. The first cross channel pipe, a HAIS, was laid on 12 August by HMS Latimer. All went well until, in the final stages, she caught the pipe with her own anchor and wrecked it", ". All went well until, in the final stages, she caught the pipe with her own anchor and wrecked it. Two days later Sancroft laid a pipe: again all went well until the final stage of bringing the pipe ashore when a mishap caused the pipe to be abandoned. The first attempt to lay a HAMEL pipeline was made on 27 August (D+) but had to be abandoned because tons of barnacles had accumulated on one side of the Conundrum", ". Problems continued with the final stage of connecting HAIS and HAMEL pipes to the shore; the resulting leaks and other difficulties causing the pipes to be abandoned. On 18 September (D+) a HAIS pipe was finally connected and successfully tested; four days later fuel pumping started delivering every day. On 29 September (D+) a HAMEL pipeline was also successfully connected.", "Although sources vary, it seems likely that only one HAIS and one HAMEL pipeline were successfully laid. While their contribution to the war effort was no-doubt welcome, with so many delays Operation Pluto had failed to deliver when it was most needed and with so few successful pipes being connected what it did deliver was a relative trickle compared with the bulk of supplies that were being landed at captured ports", ". Even partial success did not last long: on 3 October it was decided to increase the pressure of the HAIS pipeline, causing it to fail after a few hours and that same night the HAMEL pipeline also failed", ". By this time, the allies' circumstances had changed dramatically, the deep water port of Le Havre had been captured and the armies had penetrated deep into France; rather than attempt a repair or replacement of the existing pipelines, attention shifted to the much shorter route across the channel to Calais. Contrary to the upbeat tone of Bank's memoir, this stage of Operation Pluto was little short of failure.", "Pipe to Pas de Calais", "A pumping station named DUMBO was established at Dungeness in Kent. This pumping station received oil from west coast ports and from the Isle of Grain oil terminal. The route of the pipeline was chosen to give the enemy the impression that the oil was being sent to the area between Hythe and Folkestone, consistent with an allied invasion at the Pas-de-Calais", ". Pumps were installed into some of the many seaside homes at Dungeness and the pipes were covered in the shingle of which the headland is largely composed.", "The first connection attempted was a HAIS pipe which was laid on 10 October. Vital lessons had been learned from earlier experience and the difficulties in making the shore connections were overcome. However, worsening weather and waning official enthusiasm dampened progress. Fuel pumping was delayed until 27 October and by December only four HAIS pipe were working and these had to run at a relatively low pressure resulting in daily delivery of just 700 tons of fuel", ". Despite official doubts, PLUTO continued. HAMEL pipe was more difficult to bring ashore and especially so in poor weather; the problem was solved by adding lengths of HAIS pipe onto the ends of a HAMEL pipeline as it was wound onto a conundrum greatly simplifying shore connection.", "Seventeen pipelines were laid from Dungeness to Boulogne of which up to 11 were working until the end of the war. This route had a capacity of per day and regularly delivered more than daily Although this delivery rate was impressive, it actually represented little more than 10% of fuel transported across the Channel and this was achieved too late to have any impact on the campaign", ". The pipelines were not designed to last long, the steel HAMEL pipes generally succumbed to friction with the sea bed within a few weeks and the HAIS pipes lasted only a little longer.", "Pluto was blighted by the bad luck such as the delays capturing Cherbourg and an inability to translate the results of trials into reality quickly enough to keep up with the fighting. Things could have turned out differently and nothing should be allowed to subtract from the impressive technical achievement under very difficult circumstances.", "\"In retrospect, it seems clear that PLUTO's advocates had been far too sanguine. They had assumed that it would be possible for the naval laying units to achieve immediately the degree of technical proficiency attained by the technically expert laying parties in the trials conducted in 1943 under the supervision of those who had designed the equipment; and that what could be done in the Bristol Channel and the Solent could be done in wartime operational conditions on the much longer lay across the Channel\"", "Recovery \n\nPLUTO ceased operation in July 1945, just a few months after the end of fighting in Europe. Because the pipes were a hazard to shipping, the Royal Navy cut the pipe and removed sections that were just a few miles offshore. Starting in August 1946, the former HMS Latimer was used in a private salvage operation. The first part of the operation used a grapple to find a pipeline and haul it up and onto the ship's bow.", "HAIS was found to be in good condition and its high lead content made salvage particularly valuable; each pipe could be cut just once and then coiled in the ship's hold. Lengths of HAIS pipes were cleared of petrol and cut into lengths suitable for transportation by rail", ". These short lengths were sent to Swansea where the recovered lead was melted and cast into ingots; the wires were straightened and used as rebars; the steel tapes were flatted and used to make corner reinforcements for heavy duty cardboard boxes; and the jute was made into blocks that could be burned as fuel in a furnace.", "The HAMEL pipes were also valuable, but being less flexible, needed to be cut into lengths on the deck of the recovery ship. Cutting either type of pipeline was very dangerous because the pipes still contained petrol. The contaminated petrol from both types of pipe was recovered and cleaned up, yielding some of useful fuel.\n\nThe salvage operation lasted three years. Of the 25,000 tons of lead and steel originally used, 22,000 tons were recovered.\n\nFog Investigation and Dispersal Operation", "From the beginning of the war it became evident that many aircraft were being lost in accidents during landing in unfavourable weather. Fog was a particularly serious hazard, settling unpredictably over airfields where tired, possibly injured, pilots in aeroplanes short of fuel and in some cases damaged, had to land. The night of 16/17 October 1940 was particularly unfortunate. In raids by 73 bombers three aircraft were shot down but ten crashed on landing", ". In raids by 73 bombers three aircraft were shot down but ten crashed on landing. When this was brought to the attention of Prime Minister Churchill he demanded that something be done: \"... It ought to be possible to guide them down quite safely as commercial craft were before the war in spite of fog. Let me have full particulars. The accidents last night are very serious\"", "Previously Professor David Brunt of Imperial College London had calculated that if the temperature of a volume of fog were raised by about it would evaporate. Some preliminary experiments had been conducted between 1936 and 1939 using burners based on agricultural sprayers and a fuel that was a mixture of petrol and alcohol. Although the heat generated was not sufficient to clear a substantial volume of fog, the feasibility of the method was established. However, no further development took place.", "As the bomber offensive grew in scale, more aircraft flew ever greater distances and more accidents followed. Despite Churchill's injunction, no measures being taken to reduce the losses caused by bad weather. Eventually, in September 1941 Charles Portal, Chief of the Air Staff and Lord Cherwell, Churchill's scientific advisor, recommended that the pre-war fog dispersal work should be resumed. However, the idea met with resistance and Cherwell later reluctantly recommended postponement.", "By September 1942 it was realised that not only were many aircraft being unnecessarily lost but that sustained operations were being limited by considerations of the weather. Secretary of State for Air, Archibald Sinclair recommended that PWD undertake fog dispersal trials. Within 24 hours, a personal minute was on Geoffrey Lloyd's desk: \"It is of the greatest importance to find a means to dissipate fog at aerodromes so that aircraft can land safely", ". Let full experiments to this end be put in hand by the Petroleum Warfare Department with all expedition. They should be given every possible support. W.S.C.\"", "Lloyd, Banks, Hartley (chief engineer of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), and Edward George Walker a civil and aeronautical engineer, and others, met. Lloyd visited fruit farmers who used Smudge pot heaters to protect their crops; Hartley arranged for a part of the King George VI Reservoir that had been left empty for the duration of the war to be used for experiments; and Walker took to long walks on foggy nights wearing a government issue donkey jacket – much to the puzzlement of his family", ". Experiments were quickly put in hand with large scale tests taking place in the reservoir and smaller scale tests in a disused indoor ice rink at Earls Court where a wind tunnel was set up so that a wide range of weather conditions could be simulated.", "In some of the earliest experiments, Wasp flame throwers were used. A Cockatrice in thick fog fired six second busts which cleared the air in its immediate vicinity.", "The first purpose designed burner was known as Four-Oaks used a mixture of petrol and alcohol, but it was not possible to obtain a smokeless flame. On 4 November 1942 a test was performed with two rows of Four-Oaks burners long and apart. A fireman went up an escape ladder borrowed for the experiments and he disappeared into the gloom after climbing just a few rungs. As the burners got going he reappeared at the top of the ladder only to disappear again when the burners were turned off", ". Unfortunately, the Four-Oaks burner produced as much smoke as it cleared fog and did not produce a really satisfactory degree of heating. Experiments with coke burners worked better, at least initially, but they could not be controlled and caused smoke and other problems.", "A new burner called Haigas (later known as the Mark I) was developed. Haigas used petrol which was preheated to form a vapour before it was burnt, thereby significantly increasing efficiency and reducing smoke. An experimental system was installed at Graveley, Cambridgeshire and was tested for the first time on 18 February 1943 in poor visibility, although not thick fog", ". The pilot, Air commodore Don Bennett, commander of the RAF Pathfinder Force, said \"I had vague thoughts of seeing lions jumping through a hoop of flames at the circus. The glare was certainly considerable and there was some runway turbulence, but it was nothing to worry about.\" Graveley became the first operational FIDO site and the system was rapidly expanded.", "The Haigas (or Mark I) burner was long and comprised four connected lengths of pipe held just above ground level. The pipes ran back and forth in close proximity along the burner's length. After traversing the length of the burner three times, the petrol flowed into the fourth length of pipe: a burner pipe that was pierced with holes", ". The circuitous route of the fuel allowed it to be heated and vaporised by the heat of burners, this was done so that it would burn efficiently and without producing significant amounts of smoke.", "Later burner designs called the Haigill system and designated Mark II to Mark VI were simpler and more efficient, requiring only three lengths of pipe. Earlier versions of Haigill used two runs of evaporator pipe and one burner pipe, later versions used one run of evaporator pipe and two burner pipes.", "Later still, the Hairpin burner was developed, it had one length of evaporator pipe immediately above one length of burner pipe. Hairpin was set in a specially shaped cast-iron trough in a heat-resistant concrete trench that was then covered in a grid of steel bars at ground level. This design did not generate any more heat than the earlier versions, but was much less intrusive upon air operations. Yet more sophisticated designs followed along similar lines.", "The value of FIDO is difficult to estimate. Approximately 700 aircraft landed with FIDO operating in foggy conditions and about 2,000 landed with FIDO being used allowing the runway to be identified in conditions of limited visibility. Some 3,500 aircrew owe their lives to FIDO and for perhaps 10,000 others a serious situation made easier. The FIDO system was briefly used commercially. It was intended to be used at London Heathrow Airport and small sections were put in place", ". It was intended to be used at London Heathrow Airport and small sections were put in place. However, advances in various landing systems made FIDO redundant.", "Legacy \n\nWhen the war in Europe was nearly won, the activities of the Petroleum Warfare Department were widely publicised as being demonstrative of British ingenuity. Newsreels told the British public how flamethrower weapons had been developed to defend the country against invasion and how the PLUTO and FIDO projects had helped win the war.", "The Petroleum Warfare Department planned a travelling exhibition of its achievements; the end of hostilities caused a change of plan: a temporary exhibition at the otherwise closed Imperial War Museum. From October 1945 to January 1946 the general public was invited to view details of flame throwing weapons, the FIDO system and PLUTO. The exhibition was viewed by more than 20,000 people. Donald Banks published his account of the activities of the PWD in Flame Over Britain.", "Engineer-turned-author Nevil Shute joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve as a sub-lieutenant and soon ended up in what would become the Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development. Drawing on his experience, he wrote Most Secret, a novel about a converted fishing vessel equipped with a cockatrice-like weapon. The book was written in 1942, but its publication was held back by the censor until 1945.", "There is a PLUTO pump on display at the Bembridge Heritage Centre and at the Isle of Wight Zoo at Sandown. There is a book Where PLUTO Crossed the Path that describes where the public can trace markers on the pipeline route on the Isle of Wight.\n\nSee also \n British anti-invasion preparations of World War II\n British hardened field defences of World War II\n\nNotes\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography", "Notes\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography\n\nBooks\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n – walks on the Isle of Wight near PLUTO pipes.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nHansard\n \n\nUnattributed sources\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nWar Office documents\n \n \n\nPathé News\n \n – Burning seas (from start), flame barrage (from 2:10), hedge hopper (from 3:28), fougasse (from 3:59), Cockatrice (from 4:32). Note that the narrator gives an exaggerated account and repeats some propaganda as fact.", "Imperial War Museum documents\n – a manuscript detailing Captain Newton's work, written by his nephew.\n – blueprint.\n \n \n \n\nNational Archive documents\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Facsimile of: CAB 101/131, The National Archives.</ref>\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links", "Further reading\n\nExternal links \n \n \n \n \n\nDefunct departments of the Government of the United Kingdom\nHistory of the petroleum industry in the United Kingdom\nMilitary history of the United Kingdom during World War II\nPetroleum organizations\nWorld War II weapons of the United Kingdom\n1940 establishments in the United Kingdom\n1940 in the United Kingdom" ]

[ "Major General Sir Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend, (21 February 1861 – 18 May 1924) was a British soldier who during the First World War led an overreaching military campaign in Mesopotamia. His troops were besieged and captured at the Siege of Kut (December 1915 - April 1916), which was possibly the worst defeat suffered by the Allies.", "Controversially and in contrast to the miserable captivity endured by his men, Townshend was held on Prinkipo, where he was treated like an esteemed guest until his release in October 1918. He was briefly a Conservative Member of Parliament from 1920 to 1922.\n\nEarly life", "Early life\n\nBorn in Great Union Street, Southwark, London, Townshend grew up in a prominent family, the son of a railway clerk, Charles Thornton Townshend (1840–1889), and Louise Graham, a Melbourne native who brought no dowry. He was the great-great-grandson of Field Marshal George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend. His paternal grandfather, Rev. George Osborne Townshend (1801–1876), was the son of politician Lord John Townshend, the second son of the first marquess.", "He was very ambitious and nourished high hopes of inheriting the family title and the family estate at Raynham Hall in Norfolk, as his cousin Viscount Raynham, the heir to the title, had no children until later in life. He was educated at Cranleigh School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. On graduation from Sandhurst, he was granted a commission with the Royal Marine Light Infantry in 1881.", "Townshend was a well-known \"playboy\" officer in his youth, famous for his womanizing, drinking, for playing the banjo while singing very bawdy songs and for spending an excessive amount of his time in the music halls. He was often described by those who knew him as a \"ladies' man\" who was very popular with the opposite sex owing to his dashing personality and good looks. He was also known for his theatrical style, and he liked to associate with actors.", "In 1884, Townshend was part of the relief expedition to rescue the besieged army of General Charles Gordon, better known to the British public as \"Chinese Gordon\", at Khartoum. As a Royal Marine officer, he strictly speaking should not have been part of an Army expedition, but he wrote to General Garnet Wolseley asking if he could go, and his request was granted", ". The way that Gordon had defied the orders of the government to leave Khartoum, knowing full well that the government could not abandon a national hero like himself and would have to send out a relief expedition to save him made a great impression on Townshend, as did the power of the press and its ability to rouse public opinion in favour of heroic generals besieged by Islamic fanatics.", "A passionate Francophile who spoke fluent French, Townshend preferred to be addressed as \"Alphonse\" – something which often annoyed his colleagues, who regarded his \"Frenchified\" manners as extremely snobbish and off-putting. An intensely ambitious man, he was constantly writing letters to friends, relatives and anyone who might be able to help him achieve promotion, saying that he desperately needed one and asking them to \"pull some strings\" to help him. Townshend's biographer, the British historian A. J", ". Townshend's biographer, the British historian A. J. Barker noted, \"Anybody who could further his career was invariably called up to help, often in the most pleading of terms\".", "Imperial soldier\nHe served in the Sudan Expedition of 1884, then on 12 December 1885 he was appointed on probation to the Indian Staff Corps and was permanently appointed on 15 January 1886. He went on to serve on the Hunza Naga expedition in 1891.", "In 1894, while commanding the newly built fort at Gupis, he entertained the visiting George Curzon, \"through a long evening with French songs to the accompaniment of a banjo.\" At Fort Gupis, the Francophile Townshend decorated the interior walls of the fort with illustrations advertising the latest plays popular in Paris", ". In January 1895, he was sent to north of Chitral, a remote town in the extreme north of India almost on the borders with the Russian Empire in what is now Pakistan in an area known as \"the Roof of the World\" owing to its extreme height.", "Townshend made his name in England as a British Imperial hero with the assistance of London's Fleet Street's coverage of his conduct as the besieged garrison commander during the Siege of Chitral Fort on the North West Frontier in 1895, for which he was invested as a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB)", ". The British never fully controlled the North-West Frontier, and from 2 March – 20 April 1895 an Indian force under the command of Captain Townshend sent to maintain a friendly ruler in remote Chitral was besieged instead by the local tribesmen. After being defeated by the tribesmen following an attempt to storm the village, despite being outnumbered, Townshend ordered a retreat into the fort, writing:", "We had a long way to go; and from all the hamlets as we approached Chitral we were fired into from orchards and houses right and left, front and rear! It was now very dark. I saw there was nothing for it but to double or else none of us would reach the fort alive, and this we did.", "On 24 March 1895, Townshend wrote in his diary: \"Incessant rain. There is nothing for the horses to eat, so we eat the horses.\" After a siege of forty-six days by Muslim Hunza tribesmen, the fortress was relieved by Captain Fenton Aylmer, and Townshend returned to Britain a national hero. The fact that he and his four hundred Indian troops were vastly outnumbered by the Hunza tribesmen during the siege further added to his heroic lustre.", "Upon his return to London, Townshend had dinner at Buckingham Palace with Queen Victoria, who publicly thanked him as a hero of the recent campaign, an experience that helped to increase the size of his already ample ego. Afterwards, he was personally invested by the Queen with the Order of the Bath, a rare honour for a captain in the Indian Army", ". His fame allowed him to develop friendships with the two social groups whose approval he most craved—the aristocracy and actors, especially the stars of the West End theatre scene. He visited the family that rented Balls Park from the Townshend family, leading him to write in his diary:", "The Phillips were very kind to me, and I spent all Sunday going about the house and grounds. It is most awfully sad to think of it all. A splendid old family like ours, and Lord Townshend cannot now afford to live at Raynham Hall in Norfolk, which is let to Sir Edmund Lacon, or at Balls Park, let to Mr Phillips; and from what I heard from Lord St. Levan the other day, Balls Park will have to be sold and most of the land at Raynham as well", ". Levan the other day, Balls Park will have to be sold and most of the land at Raynham as well. To think of it all, and the last century there was no family more powerful than ours. … I wonder if ever I shall be the means of restoring some of the old prestige to the family.", "A keen amateur military historian who took the study of military history very seriously, Townshend had developed a set of ideas about the \"principle of economy of force\", the \"principle of mass\" and the \"adoption of the Napoleonic principles by Moltke\", which he believed would guarantee victory to any general who followed them", ". He was one of the few British officers who before 1914 had studied the writings of Ferdinand Foch, regarded at the time as France's premier military intellectual and via Foch, he discovered the writings of General Carl von Clausewitz. The British historian Hew Strachan described him:", "Townshend was a cultured man. He married a French wife, he was very fond of all things French, and he saw that as part of his character; in many ways therefore not a typical Army officer of the day, another reason for his being seen to be slightly out of the mainstream professionally. In fact, he was not a comfortable man from the point of view of others in the Mess.", "Many officers found the proudly intellectual, Francophile \"Alphonse\" Townshend a difficult man to deal with, but the charismatic Townshend was very popular with the soldiers he commanded, both British and Indian. He made himself popular with his men by playing on his banjo and singing obscene, sexually explicit French songs in both French and English.", "He was attached to the British Egyptian army and, as commanding officer of the 12th Sudanese Battalion, he fought in the Sudan at the Battles of Atbara and Omdurman in 1898, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order", ". In January 1896, he received a letter from Herbert Kitchener, who wrote that he wanted him to serve under his command in Egypt, which served as a measure of Townshend's fame that a general would ask a mere captain not even under his command to take charge of one of his battalions", ". During battles with the Islamic fundamentalist Ansar of the Sudan from 1896 to 1899, culminating in Omdurman, he was promoted by Kitchener to major and was mentioned in dispatches for outstanding bravery for the fourth and fifth time", ". Townshend's attitude towards non-white soldiers has been noted as \"puzzling\", as \"like most officers of the day he assumed a natural British superiority over other races, but in Hunza, the Sudan, Burma, India, and later in Mesopotamia he was proud of his men and took good care of them, yet when the opportunity for advancement presented itself he abandoned them without a second thought\"", ". On 5 June 1896, he first encountered the Ansar, whom the British incorrectly called the \"Dervishes\" at the Battle of Ferkeh. Kitchener defeated the Ansar. Besides battling the Ansar, Townshend spent his time perfecting his French, reading books of military history and French novels, learning Arabic and training his Sudanese soldiers when not entertaining them with his banjo.", "The years from 1896 to 1898 were some of the busiest for Townshend, as he spent half of his time fighting the Ansar in the Sudan and the other half romancing the French aristocrat Alice Cahan d'Anvers whom he first met in Luxor when visiting Egyptian ruins on 19 February 1897, and whom he followed back to Cairo. On 22 June 1897, Townshend wrote in his diary in his post in the Sudan:", "The letter of the Comtesse D’Anvers is the sweetest I have ever had in my life. She writes as a mother to me. Never have I been touched like this. She and her daughter Alice are the best friends I have, and I look forward only to the time when I can get home and see them again.", "Thoughts of Cahen D'Anvers only took up part of his time as Townshend often found engaged in fierce fighting with the Ansar as he wrote about the Battle of Atbara on 8 April 1898 that:", "Alternately firing and rushing forward, I rapidly approached the Dervish position. The men were dropping fairly fast. … I led each rush myself, sounding the \"cease fire\" on my whistle, which the men obeyed very well. Then I dashed through the ranks, leading the Battalion about thirty yards ahead, the men following excellently. … A lot of men were firing as I called on the 12th to charge, waving them on. They broke into a rush with cheers we swept into the zareeba. How I wasn't hit I don't know.", "Kitchener was determined to have a railroad rather the boats on the Nile supply his army as he advanced into the Sudan, and assigned its construction to a Canadian railroad builder, Sir Percy Girouard. As Girouard built the railroad from Cairo to supply Kitchener's army as it advanced on Khartoum, Townshend often had time for leave. On 8 May 1898 during a visit to Paris, Townshend wrote about his latest encounter with Cahen D'Anvers:", "At last we were together. I had long loved Alice Cahen D’Anvers and she loves me. Before luncheon, while we stood looking at the log fire in the library, I told her that whether I left the Sudan directly after Khartoum depended on her. If she would marry me I would leave it directly after we had taken Khartoum. Then she said: \"If it depends on me you will not stay in the Sudan very long\". I drew her to me and kissed her, putting my arms around her dear neck", ". I drew her to me and kissed her, putting my arms around her dear neck. It was worth waiting for, and all I had suffered last year, to be rewarded like this. Shortly afterwards, he returned to the Sudan to resume his battles with the Ansar.", "At the Battle of Omdurman, Townshend wrote:", "The masses of the enemy began rushing and cheering, the Emirs leading them with flags just as one sees with the Pathans on the North-West Frontier of India. I now began to think that it would not do to wait until this mass got much closer, so I sang out for sights to be put at 600 yards, and then opened with heavy independent fire, and in a short while our line was all smoke and a ceaseless rattle of Martini rifles. The enemy came on till they reached 400 yards, and they seemed to enter a rain of bullets", ". The enemy came on till they reached 400 yards, and they seemed to enter a rain of bullets. Struck by a leaden tempest, they bundled over in heaps, and soon they stood huddled over in groups under the retaining power of the Martini Henry. I saw a brave man leading them with a large flag (I have his flag), I have never seen a braver. Alone he came on and on, until about 150 yards from us, and then he and his flag fell like a piece of crumpled white paper on the ground, and lay motionless.", "After the annihilating defeat of the Ansar, as Townshend looked over the battlefield full of thousands of dead Ansar, he wrote in his diary, \"I think Gordon has been avenged now\". Townshend's \"playboy\" life-style finally came to an end when he married at the age of thirty-seven, which was late by the standards of the time. After Omdurman, he went to France and on 22 November 1898 married Alice Cahen D'Anvers in a Church of England ceremony at the Château de Champs-sur-Marne, despite the fact she was Jewish", ". C", "At this time, Townshend began to overplay his hand and alienate his superiors. When Winston Churchill, who had got to know him well in the Sudan, asked him to read over an early draft of his 1899 book The River War, Townshend in his notes attacked allies such as Sir Herbert Kitchener, Sir Archibald Hunter and Hector MacDonald, aka \"Fighting Mac\", as all having \"got a reputation – perhaps greater than they can uphold", ".\" After Omdurman, Townshend resigned from the Egyptian Army to take up a staff position in the Punjab, but then refused the job, as he wanted a command in South Africa, writing to both Redvers Buller and Sir Evelyn Wood, asking to be sent to South Africa, where relations with the Transvaal were declining and war was thought likely", ". After learning that neither Buller and Wood were able or willing to do so, Townshend arrived in India to take the staff command in the Punjab, only to learn the position had already been filled, as he had refused it. He then went to meet the Viceroy Lord Curzon, who then gave him the staff job after all.", "The Second Boer War began in October 1899, and Townshend left England to go to South Africa, which was a violation of the rules, as he held a commission in the Indian Army at the time and should have returned to India. Even through he was not supposed to be in South Africa at all, he was able to secure himself a command in the war", ". Townshend left Southampton on board the SS Armenian in early February 1900, and it was announced a couple of days later that he had been \"selected for employment on special service in South Africa\". He was appointed Assistant Adjutant General on the staff of the Military Governor for the Orange Free State in 1900 and then transferred to the Royal Fusiliers later that year.", "After lobbying the War Office for a promotion and a command in the British Army, he was given a staff job in the Bedfordshire Regiment, which led to him to write that the regiment was not prestigious enough for him, and what he wanted was a position in the newly raised Irish Guards. After much lobbying on his part, the War Office gave him a posting with the Royal Fusiliers instead", ". His time with that regiment was not a happy one as Townshend constantly fought with his commanding officer, and he wrote a long series of letters to the War Office asking them for a promotion and a transfer to a more prestigious regiment, who replied that he had already received enough.", "In early 1903, Townshend was sent to Burma to join the 1st battalion of his regiment. After arriving in Rangoon on 6 April 1903, Townshend wrote:", "We were at anchor in the stream at Rangoon at 9 a.m., and after two hours of monkey tricks and chinoiserie about plague inspections by the port doctor, the steamer was allowed to go in alongside the quay. … Alice of course dragged me out to see the great Pagoda of Shive Dagon and other pagodas; and the Burmese, Chinese, Indian and Portuguese bazaars and quarters of the city. I like the look of the Burmans, pretty well-built girls, many of them decidedly handsome and beautifully made, with glossy black hair", ".", "In 1904, Townshend returned to India, where he annoyed Kitchener by repeated requests that he be given command of a regiment. Promoted to colonel in 1904, he became military attaché in Paris in 1905 and then transferred to the King's Shropshire Light Infantry in 1906. He went on to be Assistant Adjutant General for 9th Division in India in 1907 and commander of the Orange River Colony District in South Africa in 1908.", "As the commanding officer in the Orange River Colony, Townshend lived in Bloemfontein, where his wife caused a sensation by bringing French glamour and style to a place where the Afrikaans women dressed in a plain, modest style as befitting good Calvinists", ". Townshend's task in Blomfontein was much political as military as the British planned to unite the Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Natal and the Cape Colony into a new dominion to be called the Union of South Africa, and he had to help ensure that the defeated Boers accepted being part of the British Empire", ". Promoted to brigadier general in 1909, and major-general in 1911, Townshend was appointed General Officer Commanding of the Home Counties Division (April–October 1912) and the East Anglian Division (October 1912–June 1913), Commander of 9th Jhansi Brigade in India (June 1913–April 1914), and Commander of the 4th Rawalpindi Brigade in India (April 1914–April 1915).", "On 4 May 1911 during a visit to Paris, Townshend met Ferdinand Foch, who was quite critical of British policy towards Europe, warning that Germany was out to dominate the world and was Britain prepared to take a stand or not? Townshend wrote in his diary:", "General Foch asked me if I knew how many army corps the Germans will put into line....Did England contemplate the annexation of Belgium and the sea-board with equanimity? It was a case where England, France and Belgium must fight together for existence. He said, \"we do not want to conquer: we want to live and it is time everyone understood this\".", "Townshend's habit of ceaselessly lobbying his superiors for promotion and his frequent transfers from various units as he sought to climb the career ladder tried the patience of many, and ironically actually hindered his career, as he earned the reputation of being something of a whiner and someone who never stayed in a regiment for very long.\n\nFirst World War", "After the First World War began, the Germans tried very hard to stir up a revolt in India. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the war, and the Sultan-Caliph issued a declaration of jihad urging upon Muslims everywhere to fight against Britain, France and Russia. In this context, the Raj was greatly concerned about the prospect of a mutiny by the Indian soldiers and that the tribes on the North-West Frontier might all rise up", ". Townshend was a man who had proven he could command Indians successfully and who knew the North-West Frontier well. For these two reasons, he was being kept in India in case of trouble, much to his own fury as he desperately wanted to go join the British Expeditionary Force in France. Townshend asked to be given a command on the Western Front but was refused.", "In April 1915, Townshend was appointed to the command of the 6th (Poona) Division in Mesopotamia, tasked with protecting the British Empire's oil production assets in Persia from Ottoman Imperial attack. He arrived in Basra from India in April to take up his post.\n\nMesopotamian Campaign 1915–1916", "Mesopotamian Campaign 1915–1916\n\nGeneral Townshend was ordered by his commanding officer, General John Nixon, to advance the 6th Division from Basra along the north-westerly course of the Tigris, with the strategic objective of capturing the town of Amarah. Relations between the two men were poor, and within days of their meeting Townshend was writing letters to Nixon's superiors in India proposing himself as a better man to lead Force D.", "In late 1914, by occupying the Ottoman vilayet (province) of Basra (now in southern Iraq), the British had achieved their strategic purpose of preventing the Ottomans from launching any offensive into the Khuzestan Province where all of the British-owned Persian oil fields were located. There was hence no real strategic need for the British to advance up the Tigris to take Baghdad, but both Nixon and Townshend were all for it for reasons of prestige.", "Of the troops under his command, Townshend most favoured the Dorset Regiment, the Oxford and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry and above all the Sikh Twenty-second Punjabi Regiment, which he believed to be superior to any of the Ottoman forces operating in Mesopotamia", ". Whatever the excellence of its troops, Force D possessed no heavy guns and was deficient in supplies, including clean drinking water, wire-cutters, telephones, lights, tents, signal rockets, mosquito nets, telescopic sights, flares, helmets, hand grenades, periscopes and blankets. Most seriously, in light of events to follow, they lacked medical supplies and personnel. Townshend was well aware of these problems, but apparently never discussed them with Nixon.", "Despite his constant complaining, Townshend never suggested that the advance up the Tigris be cancelled and Force D remain on the defensive. He conceived the idea of the \"Regatta up the Tigris\" by using some 328 local boats known as bellums to stealthily advance his men across the marshes at night to outflank the Ottoman positions.", "March to Baghdad", "The opening phase of the advance went spectacularly well against numerically superior opposition in difficult and hostile terrain and climate, most of the Ottoman forces fleeing or surrendering with comparatively little fighting. Townshend began his advance on 31 May 1915 when he had his 18-pounder artillery guns open fire on the Ottoman trenches while his men in the bellums outflanked the Ottoman positions", ". He called his advance on Amarah \"Regatta Week\" as his fleet began what he called a \"vigorous and rapid pursuit by the naval flotilla on Amarah\". He had a very low opinion of the Marsh Arabs whom he regarded as \"great scoundrels and even murderers\" good only for looting, dismissively referring to them as the \"Salvation Army\".", "In the Ottoman Empire, the state religion was Sunni Islam and the Marsh Arabs, being Shia Muslims, were oppressed by the Ottoman state; Townshend could have won the Marsh Arabs over to the Allied cause had he been willing to take the time to cultivate them", ". A moment in the campaign that captured much attention occurred when Townshend sailed into Bahran on the Espiegle at about 2:00 am to promptly capture the town without a shot being fired, a dramatic action that in the minds of the public sealed his heroic aura. To move faster, he transferred his headquarters to the armed steamer Comet, which he personally led into the town of Kila Salih, where its one 12-pounder gun cut down the Ottoman cavalrymen guarding the town", ". Townshend wrote that \"Kila Salih seemed a town as large as Kurna. There was a great display of white flags on all the houses ...\".", "He met with a local sheik to tell him that 15,000 Anglo-Indian troops were advancing on Amarah, misinformation which, as intended, was promptly reported to the Ottoman commanders at Amarah. Amarah was taken on 3 June 1915, largely by bluff, with 2,000 Ottoman soldiers captured as prisoners of war. After taking Amarah, Townshend issued a press release-which completely ignored the role of his Indian soldiers, claiming that a mere 25 British soldiers and sailors commanded by himself had taken Amarah", ". At Amarah, he took as one of the prizes of war a gigantic Persian carpet, which he had shipped back to England. He was popular with his men. McKnight of Sandhurst stated in an interview:", "Occasionally his quirky sense of humour plays quite well with the men. There was an occasion early on in the siege where he does a snap inspection twenty-four hours earlier than was expected and discovers the officer in command of the particular redoubt desperately trying to change into something a little bit more formal with no clothes on", ". Townshend insists the guy accompanies him on the inspection then and there with no clothes on, which obviously the officer hated, but would have been loved by the men in the trenches!", "An extremely aggressive commander whose natural inclinations were for the offensive, Townshend was all for taking Baghdad, and his successes encouraged him. In a letter to his wife, he described his advance: \n...such a rapid, hard-hitting pursuit after a victory has hardly a parallel. Eighty miles without stopping, and I was so excited and never going to sleep and so determined to destroy the Turks that I ate nothing! My constant watchword was 'Smite hip and thigh-the sword of the Lord and Gideon!'", "A very capable tactician with all the natural aggression of a cavalryman and highly ambitious for a promotion, Townshend was quite prepared to take risks, and he was rewarded by his successful advance up the Tigris.", "After taking Amarah, he, like his many of his men, fell ill after drinking dirty water, and suffering from severe diarrhoea and vomiting, he left his command for a modern hospital in Bombay to recover. The ordinary soldiers who fell ill were not so privileged and had to manage as best they could with a ramshackle medical system", ". The American journalist James Perry wrote despite the overwhelming need for hospital ships to provide better medical care that \"The idiotic Nixon still hadn't provided hospital ships or ambulances or nurses or ice and electric fans\".", "Townshend wrote bitterly that Kurna was the supposed location of the Garden of Eden, while Amarah was said to have been the Garden of Tears where Adam and Eve had been banished from the Garden of Eden, saying that the latter description was quite correct, as Amarah was a \"thief-ridden incubator of dysentery, sunstroke, malaria and paratyphoid\"", ". The intense heat (the average daily temperature ranged from 100 to 123 Fahrenheit) imposed immense strain on his men, who were always very thirsty and drank from the river Tigris despite warnings that the water was unsafe to drink, causing them to contract dysentery", ". The ships that took wounded men down the Tigris for the hospitals in Basra appeared to have ropes hanging from the deck, which were actually stalactites of human faeces, as the ships lacked proper facilities for treating care of the men, who were so closely packed together that they were unable to defecate clear of the deck.", "It was not until later in the summer of 1915 that Townshend returned to his command. He reported that if he could defeat the Ottomans at Kurna, he could take Baghdad at once, which led Nixon to reply that he was looking forward to riding into Baghdad in triumph on a white horse. On 23 August 1915, Townshend reported to London that if he defeated the Ottomans \"and stampeded them, as at Kurna, he was willing to take the responsibility of entering Baghdad\"", ". He noted that it was about 500 miles from where he was to Baghdad and that he was \"undermanned as regards land and water transport\", lacking enough ships and wagons to supply a drive to Baghdad, but reflecting the optimistic mood, wrote \"Sir John Nixon told me to send him a wire if I intended a rush into Baghdad, as he might be able to come on in time to enter Baghdad with me", ".\" As long as the outcome of the Battle of Gallipoli was in doubt, the Ottomans exerted all of their efforts there and largely ignored Townshend's \"Regatta up the Tigris\". However, by August 1915 it was clear that Gallipoli was a stalemate following the failure of the British to break out after their landings at Suvla Bay, which ended the last British chance of victory there. The deadlock was strategically an Ottoman victory, as it prevented the Allies from taking Constantinople", ". With the Allies contained at Gallipoli, the Three Pashas who now ruled the Ottoman Empire sent a substantial force of Turkish infantrymen under General Nureddin Pasha to stop Townshend. Before the arrival of Nureddin, Townshend had been facing Ottoman Arab units which were of lesser quality as compared to the ethnic Turkish Ottoman units. The core of the Ottoman Army had always been Turkish peasant conscripts from Anatolia, well known for their toughness and tenacity in combat", ". As he was soon to learn, the ethnic Turkish units in the Ottoman Army were far tougher opponents than the ethnic Arab ones.", "Townshend had learned from aerial reconnaissance that Nureddin Pasha had dug in with about 8,000 Turkish infantrymen from Anatolia and about 3,000 Arabs recruited locally. Townshend's plans called for the Minimum Force (Column B) to attack the strongest Ottoman position, while the Principle Mass (Column A) was to encircle the Ottoman position and attack from the rear", ". At Kut, he sent his \"Principle Mass\" at a weak point in the Ottoman lines, only for General Hoghton, who was commanding the \"Principle Mass\", to get lost in the desert during a night advance. Townshend's diversionary force of the Dorset Regiment and the 117th Mahrattas, which was supposed to distract the Ottoman forces, instead ended up taking the entire weight of the Ottoman counter-attack, which at times came close to crushing the Anglo-Indian force", ". Townshend later wrote that \"The whole point of the Mass on the enemy's weakest point was thus lost and it went near to costing us the battle\".", "Facing disaster, the \"luck of the Townshends\" then came into play; General Hoghton finally found the Ottoman camp and attacked from the rear, leading to a collapse of the Ottoman forces. The Sikh soldiers of the 22nd Punjab went about enthusiastically killing as many Muslims as they could during that attack. The Anglo-Indian forces had taken such heavy losses at Kut that Townshend was unable to order a pursuit of the retreating Ottoman Army", ". He lost 1,229 killed and wounded, and owing to the poor medical care, most of the wounded were to die in the following days. The smell of the wounded flesh and human excrement, together with the lack of tents for sheltering the wounded (who were left to lie out in the open), attracted vast hordes of flies which mercilessly tormented the wounded, dying soldiers", ". There was such a shortage of splints to treat smashed limbs that the medical officers had to break apart the wooden cases of Johnny Walker whisky to provide makeshift splints.", "After his victory, Townshend issued a bombastic press release which claimed that \"The Battle of Kut-al-Amara can be said to have been one of the most important in the history of the British Army in India!\". After this, the campaign's objectives were extended to encompass the town of Kut-al-Amara, further up the river, which was captured after a set-piece battle on 28 September 1915", ". The victorious passage of the campaign received much coverage in the British Empire's press, which was encouraged by a British Government anxious for good war news for the public to counteract the military difficulties it was experiencing in Europe on the Western Front and at Gallipoli. Strachan in a 2000 interview stated:", "Townshend in the first three months in Mesopotamia achieves a stunning series of successes. He was expected to break through Turkish defences and capture the town of Amara, but he was not expected to do this with a motley fleet of steamers pursuing the Turks in his own personal steamer and actually taking Amara with something like 70 men holding 1,000 prisoners", ". It was a spectacular advance, very bold, very imaginative and, of course, in 1915 nowhere else in the First World War was there any similar spectacular success, so Townshend overnight becomes a British sensation. He's a success story and that's something that he can build on to make his career go further.", "Townshend was impressed with the news that the German field marshal Baron Colmar von der Goltz had been sent to stop him, not the least because Goltz was a very respected military historian whom he regarded as his equal, unlike the Ottoman officers whom he held in contempt. Enver Pasha had sent Goltz primarily not to retake Basra, but rather \"to prepare for the independent war against India\" as Enver had plans to invade Persia and Afghanistan with the aim of taking India", ". The ambitious Townshend desperately wanted to be promoted to lieutenant general and have the command of a corps, and he believed that taking Baghdad was the best means of achieving both. The Francophile's hero was Napoleon, and some of his colleagues reported he developed \"some of the quirks and mannerisms of the First Consul\". By this stage in the campaign, he believed that he could win enough bold \"Napoleonic\" victories to ultimately make him commander-in-chief of the entire British Army", ". One officer who knew him commented that he was \"excellent company when one could get him off the subject of Napoleon\" and that he \"discoursed at great length\" about the victories of his ancestor, Charles Townshend.", "At this point, Townshend suggested halting at Kut-al-Amara to gather strength in men and material before attempting an advance upon the city of Baghdad, but General Nixon was convinced by this time that the Ottoman Army was of a sufficiently inferior quality that there was no need, and dash was what was required rather than a more cautious strategy. Townshend reported \"These troops of mine are tired and their tails are not up, but slightly down\"", ". Townshend reported \"These troops of mine are tired and their tails are not up, but slightly down\". The Dorset Regiment was down to only 297 men fit for combat, and he expressed worry about the quality of the Indian replacements being sent to him. He always demanded that Nixon supply him with two divisions to take Baghdad, but never asked that Nixon do something to improve his logistics, which become more and more tenuous as he advanced farther and farther away from Basra", ". Given his supply problems, his demands for another division or two would have increased his logistical difficulties, requiring landing additional supplies at Basra, which was already a hopelessly clogged bottleneck. Townshend told Nixon that he needed at least another division to take Baghdad and hence a promotion to command the newly created corps, which Nixon refused for reasons of spite rather than because of logistics.", "The Ottoman caliphate had proclaimed a jihad against the British Empire in November 1914, and by 1915, there was serious discontent among the Indian Muslim soldiers who were extremely unhappy about fighting Ottoman Muslims on behalf of the British. By contrast, the Hindu and Sikh soldiers stayed loyal to the British", ". By contrast, the Hindu and Sikh soldiers stayed loyal to the British. By the autumn of 1915, Townshend, faced with increasing desertions by his Indian Muslim troops, sent all of his Muslim soldiers, numbering about 1,000, back to Basra, saying that Indian Muslims would rather desert than fight other Muslims (however, Townshend retained the Muslims to serve as support troops)", ". The Indian Muslims complained that it was blasphemous that they should be expected to fight near the tomb of Suliman Pak, the barber of the Prophet Mohammed and preferred to desert to the enemy (though the Ottomans were not troubled by the prospect of fighting near the tomb of Suliman Pak).", "Townshend asked that Nixon send all of the British soldiers working as policemen, clerks and batmen in Basra up to the front to replace the Indian Muslims Townshend had sent away, a request that Nixon refused. Relations between Nixon and Townshend were extremely poor and Nixon went out of his way to make things difficult for Townshend", ". By this time, Townshend had advanced over 500 miles up the Tigris and he was at the end of a long and tenuous supply line that was stretched more and more as he continued his way up the river. Supplies from Basra were brought up in mahelas, a type of Arab sailing boat with enormous sails that moved very slowly at the best of times", ". A further problem for the Anglo-Indian forces was the lack of hospital ships for the treatment of the wounded and sick and by the autumn of 1915, illness had incapacitated much of the Anglo-Indian forces.", "In a letter to his friend in the War Office, Townshend wrote \"We have certainly not good enough troops to make certain of taking Baghdad, which I fear is being fortified...\" and went on to warn that a retreat from Baghdad would mean \"an instant rising of the Arabs of the whole country behind us\", adding that the Persians and the Afghans would likely be swept up by the Pan-Islamic propaganda of the Ottomans to join the jihad against the Allies", ". Townshend wrote that \"We ought to hold what we have got and not advance anymore... All these offensive operations in secondary theatres are dreadful errors in strategy: the Dardanelles, Egypt, Mesopotamia, East Africa!\"", ". Townshend believed the main theatre of the war that would decide its outcome were the operations in France and Flanders, and believed that Britain should be concentrating its strength in Europe, observing that if Germany were defeated, the war would be won, but if the Ottoman Empire were defeated, Germany would still have to be defeated", ". However, the egomaniac Townshend wrote in a letter to his wife Alice seventeen days later \"I told you, darling, that I only wanted my chance! You should have seen the British and Indian soldiers cheering me as I stood on the Comet. I must have the gift of making men (I mean the soldier men) love me and follow me. I have only known the 6th Division for six months and they'd storm the gates of hell if I told them to\".", "Having argued for another extension of the mission, and obtained approval for it from the British Government, Townshend's counsel was over-ridden by Nixon and he was ordered to continue with an advance upon Baghdad without reinforcement. Furthermore, the Tigris had become too shallow for the Royal Navy boats that had provided such useful fire support and Townshend would have to do without their services as he set out for Baghdad", ". Even through Townshend had advised against a further advance, his aggression and ambitions soon started to press him otherwise, especially as he had nothing but contempt for the enemy. Townshend claimed in My Campaign in Mesopotamia to have been opposed to advancing on Baghdad after receiving the orders from Nixon, but at the time he expressed no opposition and was all for advancing onto Baghdad.", "At the time, Townshend reported meeting some stiff resistance from the Ottomans, but predicted that his men would advance rapidly once they had broken into the open country, which he stated would happen soon, further adding that a KCB was the greatest military honour that would please both himself and his family", ". Townshend was encouraged in his optimism as he had seriously underestimated the Ottoman numbers, believing he was faced with less than 10,000 Ottomans when in fact he was going up against more than 20,000. After Neuve Chapelle, Loos and Gallipoli, the British Government was desperately seeking a success and after seeing Townshend's advance, Prime Minister H. H", ". H. Asquith was more than inclined to believe the reports of Nixon and Townshend that they would soon take Baghdad, giving his approval out of the hope that taking Baghdad would at long last give his government a victory", ". As the general in charge of the only victorious campaign for the Allies in the autumn of 1915, the campaign in Mesopotamia had acquired a massive degree of media attention that tended to overrate the importance of taking Baghdad, and with journalists writing articles predicting the coming fall of Baghdad, Townshend found himself \"riding a wave\" that he \"could not get off\".", "On 1 November 1915, Townshend led the 6th (Poona) Division from Kut-al-Amara and marched up the course of the River Tigris. Ctesiphon, some south of Baghdad was reached on 20 November 1915. Here they met an Ottoman force of more than 20,000 troops that had issued from Baghdad to oppose their approach to the city, giving them a numerical advantage of 2 to 1 over the 6th Division, sited within well-prepared defensive trench fortifications", ". General Nureddin Pasha had the command of four divisions, namely the 35th, the 38th, the 45th and 51st, which he had dug in at trenches built over the ruins of Ctesiphon. At Ctesiphon, Townshend was obsessed with the Arch of Ctesiphon. Strachan stated:\"The centre of the battlefield of Ctesiphon is the Arch, and it figures in all of the photographs of the Army when they reached this high point of the advance", ". And it’s immensely powerful for Townshend, the student of military history, because this marks the extremity of the Roman Empire, this marks the point where Belisarius, the famous Roman commander, had got to, coming in the other direction, of course. But for those with a classical education, as of course just about every British officer had received before the First World War, then this is a very powerful image indeed\". Townshend had divided his division into four columns", ". Townshend had divided his division into four columns. To Column A, he assigned the Dorset Regiment, the 104th Rifles and the 30th Composite Brigade to which he attached two Gurkha companies. To Column B, Townshend assigned the Norfolk regiment, the 7th Rajputs and the 110th Mahrattas", ". To Column B, Townshend assigned the Norfolk regiment, the 7th Rajputs and the 110th Mahrattas. To Column C went the Oxfordshire Light Infantry, the 22nd Punjabi regiment, the 103rd Mahrattas and 119th Infantry and finally to Column D went the 7th Lancers, the 16th Cavalry, the 33rd Cavalry and S battery of the Royal Horse Artillery.", "Townshend's plans called the Principle Mass \"either to throw the Turks into the Tigris or compel them to a disastrous flight across the Diala river, some six miles behind them\". Column C was to attack Nureddin Pasha's right flank to distract him while the \"Principle Mass\" of Columns A and B were to attack the left flank of the Ottoman lines while Column D was to race around the Ottoman positions to attack from the rear", ". Townshend was in a notably bad mood before the battle and much to the shock of his servant Boggis, savagely beat his dog Spot when he found Spot cuddled up next to Boggis asleep. When Boggis asked \"What are you doing that for sir?\", he received the reply \"He was sleeping with you! He's my dog and he's got to learn.\" Boggis later recalled that Townshend was a \"harsh bastard\" who treated his men no better than he treated Spot.", "Setback at Ctesiphon", "The Battle of Ctesiphon that followed was hard-fought over two days starting on 22 November 1915, with Generals Townshend and Nixon both being personally involved in the fighting. The Ottoman force consisted of about 25,000 men, but British intelligence had estimated the Ottoman force as only about 9,500", ". The battle began with Hoghton leading Column C in an attack in the early morning mist with the men of Column C using the outline of the Arch of Ctesiphon as their guide, which quickly brought down murderous Ottoman fire on his men. In the meantime, General Delamain led Column A under heavy Ottoman fire to capture the Vital Point (V.P.) later that morning.", "After the capture of the V.P, Townshend believed that the battle was won, only to discover much to his shock that the Ottoman Army was much larger than he had thought and his forces were at the receiving end of a vigorous Ottoman counter-attack. During the fighting at Ctesiphon, Townshend suddenly demanded a change of uniform, which required his manservant Boggis to run across a mile of battlefield in order to bring Townshend his new uniform", ". Once Boggis returned, Townshend stripped himself naked in full view of his men before putting on \"a silk vest, silk underpants, a khaki shirt, his breeches, boots and sunhelmet and, picking up his binoculars, eating a piece of plum cake passed to him by a junior officer, resumed his inspection of the battle\"", ". Amid much heavy fighting, Column D which was to strike the Ottoman lines from the rear was intercepted by an Ottoman cavalry force under Halil Kut, leading to a swirling cavalry action in the desert that ended in a draw, but strategically was a defeat for the British as it ended Townshend's hope of having his cavalry smash into the rear of the Ottoman forces .", "As the Ottoman forces counter-attacked, Townshend was forced to pull back as his forces were outnumbered. He claimed that the withdrawal was due to the Indian troops under his command pulling back without orders, something which Townshend ascribed to significant numbers of their British officers being killed or wounded", ". After a hard day's fighting, he ordered what was left of his division to dig in while Nureddin Pasha ordered his troops to pull back; Townshend quickly began reorganising his men to defend against another Ottoman attack. On the next day, Nureddin Pasha ordered a general attack with the aim of destroying Townshend's force.", "Amid the ruins of Ctesiphon, Ottoman forces attacked the British and Indian defenders, with the fiercest fighting occurring at the Water Redoubt where about 100 men of the 22nd Punjabi Regiment and about 300 Gurkhas stood their ground and beat off successive attacks by the 35th Ottoman Division", ". One of Nureddin Pasha's staff officers, Muhammad Amin, later wrote that it was amazing that this \"brave and determined little force\" had stopped an entire Ottoman division and finally pushed them back to their second line of defence. Townshend, \"quick enough to criticize the performance of his Indian troops\", made no mention in his post-war writings of the action at the Water Redoubt. After the second day of fighting, Nureddin Pasha ordered his men to withdraw", ". After the second day of fighting, Nureddin Pasha ordered his men to withdraw. The Ottomans had suffered more dead and wounded at Ctesiphon, but Nureddin's greater size of forces could sustain his losses, continue to fight while the smaller size of Townshend's division meant that his losses at Ctesiphon were proportionally more costly.", "The result of the battle was indecisive, both sides having sustained heavy losses. Townshend had defeated Nureddin Pasha at Ctesiphon, but the losses taken by the 6th Division were such that a further advance towards Baghdad was impossible", ". At this point Townshend, finding himself almost 400 miles deep into hostile country leading a lone division that had lost one-third of its men in casualties, with inadequate facilities for their medical evacuation, a tenuously over-stretched line of supply, and facing multiple hostile divisions issuing from Baghdad towards his force with no other substantive British Empire forces within reach to call upon for assistance, resolved to retire back to Kut-al-Amara seeking shelter for the 6th Division", ", resolved to retire back to Kut-al-Amara seeking shelter for the 6th Division, and await reinforcements in accordance with his original intentions", ". As Townshend retreated, Nureddin Pasha was in hot pursuit with the aim of destroying the 6th Division.", "On 1 December 1915 Nureddin caught up with Townshend at the village of Umm al-Tubul (the \"Mother of Tombs\") where a sharp action occurred that ended with the Ottomans being driven off with heavy losses. The Ottoman setback at Umm al-Tubul gave Townshend and his men several days lead over the pursuing Ottoman forces as their losses had disorganised them, and it took Nureddin some time to reorganise his men", ". Townshend arrived back in Kut on 3 December 1915 after a retreat harassed by pursuing fresh Ottoman troops that had appeared on the scene post-battle. On 7 December the pursuing Ottoman force surrounded and besieged Kut, trapping the 6th Division within its walls. The British historian Russell Braddon wrote “After Ctesiphon, in his telegrams, communiques, diaries and autobiography, he [Townshend] reveals himself as a man whose mind was governed almost entirely by wishful thinking\".", "Siege of Kut-al-Amara 1916", "The siege of Kut-al-Amara was a drawn out affair for the British Empire, and a bitter one for the men of the 6th Division, surrounded for five months under fire from all sides, and having to fight off several attempts to storm the town by the Ottomans, with dwindling resources in conditions of increasing desperation and deprivation. Townshend began to fall to pieces when he realised that he would not take Baghdad after all, a blow that was psychologically shattering for him. Strachan commented that: \"..", ". Strachan commented that: \"...retreating from Ctesiphon for Townshend shatters his dreams of a glorious entry into Baghdad, and that clearly has a profound impact on his decision-making. From Townshend's point of view it could lead to the preference of one of his fellow generals: for example, Major-General Gorringe might get the coveted promotion to lieutenant-general", ". Even worse, it could lead to the Mesopotamian campaign doing what Townshend's strategic brain told him it ought to do, which is becoming a backwater, any hope of seizing Baghdad being abandoned, and of course any hope of anyone making their military reputation and getting their promotions also being abandoned: the dire possibility of yet again being in another military backwater while the action is elsewhere and the limelight is elsewhere..", "... The ability to sustain a siege was one way of guaranteeing a high profile. The Siege of Mafeking had made Baden-Powell's reputation, had made Baden-Powell into a household name and had prompted enormous jubilation when the siege had been lifted. So he knew full well that conducting a siege was a more satisfactory way to, or more likely to be a successful way to achieve public adulation than simply conducting a very successful fighting retreat down the Tigris back towards Basra\"", ". Townshend could have retreated back to Basra if he had wanted to do so, but instead he chose to make his stand at Kut and fortify it in the hope of repeating his earlier success at Chitral, knowing that if the Ottomans besieged him at Kut, then the British Army would have to send out a relief force to break the siege", ". Townshend's decision to allow the Ottomans to besiege his force at Kut was taken to allow him to come out of the campaign as a hero just as he had at Chitral rather than for any compelling military reasons.", "Townshend claimed that his men were exhausted and could not march anymore, hence his decision to stop at Kut. Townshend (who had been part of the relief expedition to save Charles Gordon at Khartoum) had been greatly influenced by how the British press had lionised Gordon, and wished to be lionised by Fleet Street in the same way", ". However, Perry noted the difference between \"Chinese Gordon\" and Townshend as \"Needless to say, Townshend had no death wish, simply an obsessive ambition to be promoted and to be recognized as the great warrior he thought himself to be. What he wanted, and no-one seems to have thought about this, was to be a live Gordon, to endure a heroic siege, be rescued by Nixon (or somebody else), and go home to England in triumph\"", ". Townshend arrived in Kut on 3 December 1915 and it was not until 9 December 1915 that the Ottomans finally surrounded Kut, in the interim Townshend had blown up the bridges over the Tigris that could have allowed his men to continue to march south.", "On 10 December 1915, General Nureddin Pasha ordered his men to storm Kut. Townshend repelled the Ottoman assaulting force with heavy losses, though the Ottomans seized enough ground to build another line closer to the walls of Kut. On Christmas Day 1915 the Ottomans attacked again, breaking through at one point and seizing part of the old fort there before fierce British counter-attacks drove them out", ". Afterwards, Prussian Field Marshal Colmar von der Goltz arrived and forbade any more attempts to storm Kut, preferring to keep the town under regular artillery bombardment while waiting for Townshend's men to be starved into surrender. Germany supplied the Ottomans with 30 of the latest Krupp artillery guns, whose devastating fire destroyed much of Kut", ". Townshend complained in his memoirs “The fire from our guns went from the centre to the circumference and so was divergent and disseminated, while that of the enemy was directed from the circumference to the centre and his converged and concentrated\". To escape the bombardments Townshend and his men dug in beneath the ruins of Kut, leading a largely subterranean existence thereafter", ". Major Charles Barber, the chief medical officer at Kut recalled how the Anglo-Indian soldiers were tortured by \"myriads\" of lice, stating \"Our wretched patients would sit for hours picking them off their blankets and shirts\". Fleas were also abundant, \"and if not fleas, then mosquitoes, failing mosquitoes, or in addition to, the sand fly is provided\". In the absence of these small parasites, Major Barber remarked \"there is always the snake, the centipede or the scorpion to fall back upon\".", "General Townshend's reports to his commander General Nixon (now back in Basra) spoke of a shortage of supplies, in language exaggerated to the point of being misleading. These supplies, purportedly enough for a month at full ration, only ran out in April 1916, almost five months later", ". The dire reports fed the London press's portrayal of Townshend as a hero surrounded by Oriental hordes and in desperate circumstances, as he had been during the Siege of Chitral 21 years before; they also induced the British government to hastily dispatch a military relief force from Basra, under the command of Sir Fenton Aylmer", ". Aylmer found Kut surrounded by unexpectedly strong Ottoman defences under the direction of the newly arrived Goltz, and badly stretched supply lines left the British with a shortage of artillery shells. All attempts to break the siege ended in failure. Heavy rains added to the discomfort of both armies, turning the ground to mud.", "Nixon might have been able to relieve Kut had he done a better job of managing logistics. Sir George Buchanan, the engineer who managed the port of Rangoon in Burma, visited Basra in late 1915 and described a scene of utter chaos. Buchanan reported to London \"I had never before in my life seen such a hopeless mess and muddle and I wondered whether this was the usual accompaniment of war", ". It seemed incredible that we should have been in operation of Basra for over a year, yet so little had been done in the intervening time\". Basra was not a modern port, but rather an anchorage besides the banks of the Shatt-al-Arab river beyond which was a vast swamp. At any given moment, there was a line of fourteen ships waiting to unload their cargos at Basra and in 1915 it took an average of six weeks for a ship to unload there", ". Buchanan further reported that Nixon was such an utterly inept general that he did not see the inefficient way in which the port of Basra was being run as a problem, and told Buchanan that his expertise at managing the port of Rangoon was not needed in Basra. It was largely the logistical problems posed by the mismanagement of Basra that doomed the relief expeditions sent out to save Townshend and his men at Kut", ". In February–March 1916 a number of new divisions arrived at Basra, but the supply bottlenecks at there meant the British were unable to deploy them to relieve Kut. Nixon's efforts to hinder any attempt to build modern port facilities such as cranes for unloading goods off ships were a major reason why he was sacked in early 1916. Furthermore, Nixon was told that the steamers that he needed to transport men and supplies up the Tigris would be available in March 1916 at the earliest.", "Subsequent increasingly desperate relief expeditions dispatched from Basra to attempt to rescue the 6th Division fared equally badly against the defences erected against their passage by Goltz (who would not himself see the military victory of the siege, dying of typhoid in Baghdad before its end)", ". When Townshend reported that his men were running out of food, London ordered him to break out to link up with the relief force commanded by Sir Fenton Aylmer (who had also saved Townshend at Chitral), Townshend suddenly \"discovered\" that he had enough food to hold out longer and a break-out was unnecessary; from Townshend's viewpoint it was better from a public relations standpoint if Aylmer should break the siege rather him breaking out to link up with Aylmer", ". One attempt reached a point just from Kut, but repeated assaults against Ottoman positions trying to break through them to reach the town failed. The last effort, after three weeks of attacks, took place on 22 April 1916, but also ended in failure. The British were to lose 26,000 men killed in the attempts to break the siege of Kut while Townshend refused to make any effort to break out of Kut, saying it was up to General Aylmer to break in", ". During the siege, Townshend displayed in the words of Regan a \"profound egotism and a disgraceful neglect for his men\".", "Much of Townshend's time was spent sending radio messages back to London asking for a promotion and inquiring about his friends in London such as \"actors and gaiety girls\" while he spent an inordinate amount of his time making certain that his dog Spot did not suffer from the siege, a tender concern that did not extend to the ordinary soldiers under his command; despite the fact that by the end of the siege, much of the Anglo-Indian garrison were slowly starving to death and/or dying of diseases", ", much of the Anglo-Indian garrison were slowly starving to death and/or dying of diseases, Townshend never visited the hospital, although he found time to take Spot out for a daily walk and to spend his afternoon reading works of military history in French", ". A 1923 report by the British Army about Kut concluded that \"visits by the commander and his staff to the troops would have been even more effective\" at sustaining morale rather than the \"barrage of communiqués\" that Townshend unleashed. Townshend spent almost all of his time either in his headquarters, a two-storey mud house, writing up messages or \"gazing out across the Turkish lines from his observation post on the roof\"", ". He was violently disturbed by the news that Gorringe had replaced Aylmer as commander of the relief force, since this offered the undignified prospect of being rescued by an officer of inferior rank. In a long radio message, Townshend described Gorringe's assignment as \"a slight on my record of service..", "... I am deeply concerned to have brought up the question of promotion at so inopportune a time, but my active-service record is a honourable one and like my family before me for the past 300 years, I have served the state well\". The British psychologist Norman F. Dixon wrote that Townshend's often irrational behaviour at Kut was due to \"cognitive dissonance\", writing: \"No better example [of cognitive dissonance] is afforded than that of Townshend's occupation of Kut", ". Since his advance up the Tigris was totally unjustified by facts of which he was fully aware, his dissonance, when disaster struck, must have been extreme and, to a man of his egotistical nature, demanding of instant resolution. So, again, in the face of much contrary evidence, he withdrew into Kut. The wiser and possible course of retreating to Basra would have been a greater admission of the lack of justification for his previous decision", ". By the same token, once inside Kut nothing would budge him, because to break out, even to assist those who had been sent to release him, would have emphasised his lack of justification for being there in the first place", ". When a British artillery officer almost killed Goltz with a well-aimed shot (Goltz stood out by dressing in the full uniform of a Prussian Field Marshal and because of his weight), Townshend was extremely angry, saying that he did not want Goltz killed because if he had to surrender Kut, it was much better to surrender to a German officer rather an Ottoman officer. By the end of the siege, Townshend's men were living on five ounces of bread per day and a slice of mule meat", ". Townshend grew increasingly desperate as the siege went on, at one time sending off a message claiming that if Kut fell, it would be a worse defeat than Yorktown, maintaining that the entire Islamic world would rally for the Ottomans if he had to surrender and this would be the beginning of the end of the British Empire. In March 1916, the Ottomans began particular heavy bombardments of Kut, and they were seen unloading mysterious canisters from a barge, which everyone assumed was poison gas from Germany", ". Morale began to collapse among the Indians as more and more Indians began to desert, there were several cases of Indian soldiers killing their NCOs and many Indians began to engage in self-mutilation to get themselves into the presumed safety of the hospital", ". Whenever news of German advances at the Battle of Verdun reached the Ottoman lines, the Turks would give a giant three cheers for Germany while Townshend was comforted when he received a message over the radio that the Russians had taken by storm the allegedly impregnable Ottoman city-fortress of Erzerum, which he believed meant the Russians would soon relieve him.", "In late April 1916, Townshend came up with a desperate plan to bribe the Ottomans into letting him and his men leave Kut, an offer that Halil Pasha took up, engaging in talks with Captain Thomas Edward Lawrence of the Cairo Intelligence Staff, before publicising the British offer to humiliate them. Halil Pasha knew the Anglo-Indian garrison was starving to death, and he had the upper hand", ". Halil Pasha knew the Anglo-Indian garrison was starving to death, and he had the upper hand. Having run out of food for the Garrison, General Townshend yielded Kut-al-Amara to the besieging Turks on 29 April 1916, the 6th Division surrendering en masse; during the siege, the Division had lost 1,746 men between 9 December 1915 – 29 April 1916. The Division ceased to exist at this point and was removed from the British Empire's Order of Battle for the remainder of the war.", "When negotiating the surrender of Kut to General Halil Pasha, Townshend's main concern was to make certain that the Ottomans would not mistreat Spot (who they promised they would send back to Britain, a promise that Halil Pasha kept). Townshend found it deeply humiliating to surrender to a Turkish Muslim like Halil Pasha rather than the German Lutheran Goltz as he would have preferred. Major Barber described the victors: \"Their uniforms were ragged and patched in all directions", ". Major Barber described the victors: \"Their uniforms were ragged and patched in all directions. Their boots were worn beyond hope of repair, and they were generally the most disreputable-looking specimens of a modern army. But they were good-natured fellows, broad, strong as oxen, with plenty of bone, ruddy complexions and in many cases blue eyes and ginger whiskers. They looked like what they were, I suppose, just easy-going, illiterate Anatolian peasantry\"", ". They looked like what they were, I suppose, just easy-going, illiterate Anatolian peasantry\". The news of the fall of Kut was received with enormous sadness all over the British Empire while prompting jubilation all over the Ottoman Empire with Enver Pasha telling a vast cheering crowd in Istanbul that Allah was truly with the Ottomans as He had humbled the British first at Gallipoli and now at Kut", ". The German Emperor Wilhlem II praised Townshend's defeat in a press statement as a \"shining monument to German-Turkish brotherhood in arms\", claiming that it was Goltz who had done most of the work at Kut, a statement which offended his Ottoman allies who disliked the implication of the Kaiser's press statement that they would have failed at Kut on their own, and needed German officers to lead them to victory", ". All of the people of Kut who were deemed to have collaborated with the British during the siege were publicly hanged as an example to those who would betray the Ottoman Empire.", "Townshend claimed that the siege of Kut had \"saved us from simply being kicked out of Mesopotamia\". However, the Ottoman forces at Kut were at the end of a long supply line in the form of camel convoys and, even if they had wanted to march on the Persian Gulf, would have had to face British and Indian divisions well dug in further south, making the siege unnecessary to stop the Ottomans from trying to take Basra.", "Prisoner of war\nOn 2 May 1916, Townshend was taken in an Ottoman motor boat up the Tigris to Baghdad and was run past by his men, who cheered him as he saluted in return. Despite the whips of the guards who tried to keep their charges marching down the road, the POWs rushed to the bank of the Tigris to cheer their general on as he sped past them, shouting \"Three cheers for our brave general! Hip-hip-hurrah!\". It was the last time that most of Townshend's men were to see him.", "The Ottomans provided their POWs with a few hardened biscuits for food. Braddon wrote that after eating the biscuits \"The following morning, they began to die. Frothing at the mouth, their bowels and stomachs disintegrating into a greenish slime, dehydrated and moaning, they died one after the other\". British and Indian POWs were afflicted by enteritis from contaminated biscuits.", "After the surrender, the Ottomans forced the British and Indian POWs to embark upon a brutal \"death march\" to POW camps in Anatolia, during which the prisoners were forced to march under the scorching hot sun while being deprived of water, food and medical care while constantly being whipped by the Kurdish and Arab tribesmen the Ottoman state had hired to guard them; those who faltered on the \"death march\" were shot on the spot", ". In the evening, the men on the death march were given biscuits to eat and water to drink. McKnight stated in an interview that “Once they arrived in the prisoner-of-war camps, conditions were little better and hundreds died every month from starvation or being beaten to death by the odd casually brutal Turkish guard\"", ". The Indian Muslims serving as support troops at Kut were the only POWs (other than the officers) who were well treated by the Ottomans and many promptly joined the Ottoman Army to fight against the British. When the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, only 30% of the British and Indian soldiers taken prisoner at Kut in 1916 were still alive with the rest having died either on the death march or in the POW camps.", "By contrast, Townshend and his officers were well treated. Only one of the officers who surrendered at Kut, the commander of a Gurkha company, chose to go on the death march with his men while the rest of the officers accepted the Ottoman offer to be held separately from the other ranks", ". After reaching Baghdad, where he was given a guided tour of various cultural sites, Townshend was taken to the capital of Constantinople, where he was greeted with a formal guard of honour at the railroad station led by the Ottoman Minister of War, General Enver Pasha. During his trip to Constantinople, Townshend saw on at least one occasion the battered, starving, thirsty and broken-down remnants of his division travelling north on the death march", ". Townshend raised the subject once with Enver (who already knew about the death march as he had had the POWs marched past him during a victory parade he had attended in Baghdad), who assured him that he knew nothing about the death march, but he would look into it. This was the first and only time that Townshend expressed concern about how his men were being treated as POWs.", "He was transported to Constantinople where he was quartered in comfort for the remainder of the war on the island of Heybeliada in the Sea of Marmara before being transferred over to the island of Prinkipo (now Büyükada, Turkey). During his time in Istanbul, Townshend became friends with Enver Pasha, who treated him as an honoured guest. They conversed in French, in which both men were fluent, as Enver spoke no English while Townshend spoke no Turkish", ". Townshend was quoted in Ottoman newspapers as saying he was pleased to be \"the honored guest of Enver Pasha's nation\" (a statement that he did not deny making after the war). Townshend was given use of a Turkish naval yacht, and took part in receptions held in his honour at the Sultan's palace. Whilst still in captivity in 1917, he was invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB)", ". The German newspaper editor Friedrich Schrader reported that Townshend appeared personally in the Istanbul offices of his newspaper Osmanischer Lloyd to receive the cable from London announcing the award. About Townshend's behaviour in Constantinople, Dixon commented: Underneath the agreeable veneer lay a fatal flaw that showed itself in a ravenous, self-destructive hunger for popular acclaim", ". Though its origins remain obscure, Townshend gave the impression of a man who at some time had suffered traumatic damage to his self-esteem, which resulted in an everlasting need to be loved ... Townshend tried very hard to get his wife Alice to join him in his captivity, writing that he was being allowed to live in an English-style country house, the Villa Hampson on the island of Prinkipo, telling her how happy he would be if she did", ". Alice refused her husband's invitations, and presciently warned him that the impression that he was enjoying his captivity too much would not help his image in Britain", ". In contrast to the fate of his men dying in POW camps in Anatolia, the most damaging event to Townshend that occurred during his captivity was in 1917 when he learned that his first cousin had fathered a son (who had been born in May 1916 as he went into captivity) which meant that Townshend, to his dismay, would not inherit the title of Marquess Townshend after all.", "During the war, the Ottoman state waged genocidal campaigns against the Armenian and Assyrian minorities, which attracted much unfavorable publicity around the world. The favourable treatment of Townshend was largely because he served the public relations needs of the Ottoman state as Enver cannily manipulated Townshend's obsessive need to have the great and mighty pay attention to him for his own advantage", ". Townshend's willingness to praise Enver Pasha in public for his generous hospitality and to issue press statements attacking the British for alleged mistreatment of Ottoman POWs in Egypt served to distract attention from what the Ottomans were doing to the Armenians and Assyrians", ". At the war's end, Townshend, as the most senior British imperial official in Constantinople, was involved in the negotiations for the Ottoman Empire's surrender to the British Empire's advancing Egyptian Expeditionary Force in October 1918. Townshend's claim made on his return to Britain that the entire Armistice of Mudros was his work led to an annoyed Field Marshal Allenby issuing a corrective statement saying that Townshend had greatly exaggerated his role in the negotiations.", "Post-war", "Townshend returned to England in 1919. Much to Townshend's fury, only his wife and daughter together with his beloved dog Spot showed up to greet him as he arrived back in London, as he was expecting to receive a hero's welcome. Townshend asked for a major promotion on the account of his war work and he was refused; likewise the Army made it clear that no assignments were open to him anywhere in the Empire", ". He resigned from the British Army in 1920 after it became clear that his career was finished, and published his war memoir, My Campaign in Mesopotamia (1920).", "On 24 May 1915, after learning of the \"Great Crime\" as Armenians call the Armenian genocide, the British, French and Russian governments issued a joint statement accusing the Ottoman government of \"crimes against humanity\", the first time in history that this term had been used. The three Allied governments further promised that once the war was won, they would put the Ottoman leaders responsible for the Armenian genocide on trial", ". After the war, the British government made a serious effort between 1919 and 1922 to organise trials for the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress for crimes against humanity and war crimes. In particular, the British wanted to arrest General Enver Pasha, Talaat Pasha and General Djemal Pasha in order to bring them to trial", ". The main focus on the planned trials was the Armenian genocide, but the British also wanted to try those responsible for the death march and mistreatment of the POWs captured at Kut. During his captivity, Townshend had become very friendly with Enver Pasha, and made it clear that he would testify for the defence if Enver were brought to trial, denying that the death march had even occurred", ". As it was, politics prevented the trials from happening, but Townshend's willingness to testify for the accused did not help his image in Britain.", "Townshend entered politics, standing as an Independent Conservative candidate (i.e. not supporting Lloyd George's Coalition Government), and was elected in a by-election in 1920 as the Member of Parliament for The Wrekin. In the House of Commons, he spoke occasionally on matters of Middle East affairs and ex-servicemen", ". In the House of Commons, he spoke occasionally on matters of Middle East affairs and ex-servicemen. However, post-war reports surfaced regarding how badly the troops under his command had suffered at the hands of the Ottoman Army as POWs after their capture at the fall of Kut, thousands of them having died in Ottoman captivity, many having been brutalised and murdered. Townshend's daring Imperial hero reputation lost much of its lustre", ". Townshend's daring Imperial hero reputation lost much of its lustre. Post-war military commentators and historians were increasingly critical of his failure to defeat the Ottoman Empire's force at Ctesiphon, and his apparent passivity during the siege of Kut. He stood down at the 1922 general election.", "He offered to mediate between the UK and Turkey in the post-war settlement but the British government declined his services, although on his own initiative he visited Kemal Atatürk at Ankara in 1922 and 1923. After wintering in the south of France, he died of cancer at the Hotel d'Iena in Paris in 1924 and was buried, with military honours, in the churchyard of St Mary's, East Raynham.\n\nPersonal life and family", "Personal life and family\n\nOn 22 November 1898, Townshend married Alice Cahen d'Anvers, daughter of Louis Cahen d'Anvers. She famously appears as a child alongside her sister in Renoir's 1881 portrait Pink and Blue, one of many commissioned by her father. They had one daughter, Audrey Dorothy Louise Townshend (born 1900) who married Count Baudouin de Borchgrave d'Altena. Belgian-American journalist Arnaud de Borchgrave (1926–2015) was Sir Charles Townshend's grandson.", "His niece, Tiria Vere Ferrers Townshend (daughter of his brother Ernest Edwin Townshend), then aged 17, was a survivor of the 29 May 1914 sinking of the ocean liner RMS Empress of Ireland in the Saint Lawrence River which took the lives of 1,012 passengers and crew. She was one of only 41 women to survive (out of 310 on board). Her aunt, who accompanied her, was lost.\n\nSir Charles died in Paris, age 63. Lady Townshend died more than four decades later, aged 89.\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "References\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n \n \n \n\n|-\n\n|-", "1861 births\n1924 deaths\nBritish Army major generals\nBurials in Norfolk\nRoyal Marines officers\nBritish Indian Army officers\nBritish military personnel of the Chitral Expedition\nBritish military personnel of the Mahdist War\nBritish Army generals of World War I\nGraduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst\nWorld War I prisoners of war held by the Ottoman Empire\nKnights Commander of the Order of the Bath\nCompanions of the Distinguished Service Order", "Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath\nCompanions of the Distinguished Service Order\nMembers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for constituencies in Shropshire\nIndependent members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom\nUK MPs 1918–1922\nBritish World War I prisoners of war\nPeople educated at Cranleigh School\nPeople from Southwark\nBritish military personnel of the Hunza-Naga Campaign\nCharles Townshend\nRoyal Fusiliers officers\nKing's Shropshire Light Infantry officers", "Charles Townshend\nRoyal Fusiliers officers\nKing's Shropshire Light Infantry officers\nMilitary personnel from London" ]

[ "School corporal punishment is the deliberate infliction of physical pain as a response to undesired behavior by students. The term corporal punishment derives from the Latin word for the \"body\", . In schools it may involve striking the student on the buttocks or on the palms of their hands with an implement such as a rattan cane, wooden paddle, slipper, leather strap or wooden yardstick", ". Less commonly, it could also include spanking or smacking the student with an open hand, especially at the kindergarten, primary school, or other more junior levels.", "Much of the traditional culture that surrounds corporal punishment in school, at any rate in the English-speaking world, derives largely from British practice in the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly as regards the caning of teenage boys. There is a vast amount of literature on this, in both popular and serious culture.", "In the English-speaking world, the use of corporal punishment in schools has historically been justified by the common-law doctrine in loco parentis, whereby teachers are considered authority figures granted the same rights as parents to discipline and punish children in their care if they do not adhere to the set rules. A similar justification exists in Chinese-speaking countries. It lets school officials stand in for parents as comparable authority figures", ". It lets school officials stand in for parents as comparable authority figures. The doctrine has its origins in an English common-law precedent of 1770.", "Advocates of school corporal punishment argue that it provides an immediate response to indiscipline so that the student is quickly back in the classroom learning, unlike suspension from school", ". Opponents, including many medical and psychological societies, along with human-rights groups, argue that physical punishment is ineffective in the long term, interferes with learning, leads to antisocial behavior as well as causing low self-esteem and other forms of mental distress, and is a form of violence that breaches the rights of children.", "Poland was the first nation to outlaw corporal punishment in schools in 1783. School corporal punishment is no longer legal in European countries except for Belarus, Vatican City (however there are no primary or secondary schools in Vatican) and unrecognized Transnistria. By 2016, an estimated 128 countries had prohibited corporal punishment in schools, including nearly all of Europe, and most of South America and East Asia", ". Approximately 69 countries still allow for corporal punishment in schools, including parts of the United States and many countries in Africa and Asia.", "Definitions", "Corporal punishment in the context of schools in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has been variously defined as: causing deliberate pain to a child in response to the child's undesired behavior and/or language, \"purposeful infliction of bodily pain or discomfort by an official in the educational system upon a student as a penalty for unacceptable behavior\"", ", and \"intentional application of physical pain as a means of changing behavior\" (not the occasional use of physical restraint to protect student or others from immediate harm)", ".", "Prevalence\nCorporal punishment used to be prevalent in schools in many parts of the world, but in recent decades it has been outlawed in 128 countries including all of Europe, most of South America, as well as in Canada, Japan, South Africa, New Zealand and several other countries. It remains commonplace in a number of countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East (see list of countries, below).", "While most U.S. states have outlawed corporal punishment in state schools, it continues to be allowed mostly in the Southern states. According to the United States Department of Education, more than 216,000 students were subjected to corporal punishment during the 200809 school year.\n\nBritain itself outlawed the practice in 1987 for state schools and more recently, in 1998, for all private schools.", "In most of continental Europe, school corporal punishment has been banned for several decades or longer, depending on the country (see the list of countries below).", "From the 1917 Russian revolution onwards, corporal punishment was outlawed in the Soviet Union, because it was deemed contrary to communist ideology. Communists in other countries such as Britain took the lead in campaigning against school corporal punishment, which they viewed as a symptom of the decadence of capitalist education systems. In the 1960s, Soviet visitors to western schools expressed shock at the canings witnessed there", ". In the 1960s, Soviet visitors to western schools expressed shock at the canings witnessed there. Other communist regimes followed suit: for instance, corporal punishment was \"unknown\" by students in North Korea in 2007. In mainland China, corporal punishment in schools was outlawed in 1986, although the practice remains common, especially in rural areas.", "Many schools in Singapore and Malaysia use caning for boys as a routine official punishment for misconduct, as also some African countries. In some Middle Eastern countries whipping is used. (See list of countries, below.)\n\nIn many countries, like Thailand, where the corporal punishment of students is technically illegal, it remains widespread and accepted in practice (for both boys and girls).", "Effects on students", "According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), there are three broad rationales for the use of corporal punishment in schools: beliefs, based in traditional religion, that adults have a right, if not a duty, to physically punish misbehaving children; a disciplinary philosophy that corporal punishment builds character, being necessary for the development of a child's conscience and their respect for adult authority figures; and beliefs concerning the needs and rights of teachers", ", specifically that corporal punishment is essential for maintaining order and control in the classroom", ".", "School teachers and policymakers often rely on personal anecdotes to argue that school corporal punishment improves students' behavior and achievements. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence showing that corporal punishment leads to better control in the classrooms. In particular, evidence does not suggest that it enhances moral character development, increases students' respect for teachers or other authority figures, or offers greater security for teachers.", "A number of medical, pediatric or psychological societies have issued statements opposing all forms of corporal punishment in schools, citing such outcomes as poorer academic achievements, increases in antisocial behaviours, injuries to students, and an unwelcoming learning environment", ". They include the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the AAP, the Society for Adolescent Medicine, the American Psychological Association, the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, the Royal College of Psychiatrists, the Canadian Paediatric Society and the Australian Psychological Society, as well as the United States' National Association of Secondary School Principals.", "According to the AAP, research shows that corporal punishment is less effective than other methods of behaviour management in schools, and \"praise, discussions regarding values, and positive role models do more to develop character, respect, and values than does corporal punishment\"", ". They say that evidence links corporal punishment of students to a number of adverse outcomes, including: \"increased aggressive and destructive behaviour, increased disruptive classroom behaviour, vandalism, poor school achievement, poor attention span, increased drop-out rate, school avoidance and school phobia, low self-esteem, anxiety, somatic complaints, depression, suicide and retaliation against teachers\"", ". The AAP recommends a number of alternatives to corporal punishment including various nonviolent behaviour-management strategies, modifications to the school environment, and increased support for teachers.", "Injuries to students\nAn estimated 1 to 2 percent of physically punished students in the United States are seriously injured, to the point of needing medical attention. According to the AAP and the Society for Adolescent Medicine, these injuries have included bruises, abrasions, broken bones, whiplash injury, muscle damage, brain injury, and even death. Other reported injuries to students include \"sciatic nerve damage\", \"extensive hematomas\", and \"life-threatening fat hemorrhage\".", "Promotion of violence", "The AAP cautions that there is a risk of corporal punishment in schools fostering the impression among students that violence is an appropriate means for managing others' behaviour. According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, \"Corporal punishment signals to the child that a way to settle interpersonal conflicts is to use physical force and inflict pain\"", ". And according to the Society for Adolescent Medicine, \"The use of corporal punishment in schools promotes a very precarious message: that violence is an acceptable phenomenon in our society. It sanctions the notion that it is meritorious to be violent toward our children, thereby devaluing them in society's eyes. It encourages children to resort to violence because they see their authority figures or substitute parents doing it ..", "... Violence is not acceptable and we must not support it by sanctioning its use by such authority figures as school officials\".", "Alternatives", "The Society for Adolescent Medicine recommends developing \"a milieu of effective communication, in which the teacher displays an attitude of respect for the students\", as well as instruction that is stimulating and appropriate to student's abilities, various nonviolent behaviour modification techniques, and involving students and parents in making decisions about school matters such as rules and educational goals", ". They suggest that student self-governance can be an effective alternative for managing disruptive classroom behaviour, while stressing the importance of adequate training and support for teachers.", "The AAP remarks that there has been \"no reported increase in disciplinary problems in schools following the elimination of corporal punishment\" according to evidence.\n\nStudent rights\n\nA number of international human-rights organizations including the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have stated that physical punishment of any kind is a violation of children's human rights.", "According to the Committee on the Rights of the Child, \"Children do not lose their human rights by virtue of passing through the school gates ... the use of corporal punishment does not respect the inherent dignity of the child nor the strict limits on school discipline\"", ". The Committee interprets Article 19 of the Convention on the rights of the child, which obliges member states to \"take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse … while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child\", to imply a prohibition on all forms of corporal punishment.", "Other international human-rights bodies supporting prohibition of corporal punishment of children in all settings, including schools, include the European Committee of Social Rights and the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. In addition, the obligation of member states to prohibit corporal punishment in schools and elsewhere was affirmed in the 2009 Cairo Declaration on the Convention on the Rights of the Child and Islamic Jurisprudence.\n\nBy country", "By country\n\nAccording to the Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, all forms of corporal punishment in schools are outlawed in 128 countries as of 2023. (65 of these countries also prohibited corporal punishment of children in the home as of October 2023).", "Abkhazia and South Ossetia", "In Abkazia and South Ossetia, two partially recognized states that are considered by most countries the occupied territories of Georgia, corporal punishment in schools is legal and common in practice. Both countries have nearly identical school corporal punishment laws. It can be inflicted on male students only", ". It can be inflicted on male students only. Both caning and belting methods are allowed, and the practice has sometimes been described as \"cruel\", with some South Ossetian boys caned or belted for more than 15 times as a result of minor school discipline violations, such like being late to classes or not wearing full uniform.", "Argentina\nBanned in 1813, corporal punishment was re-legalised in 1815 and physical punishments lasted legally until 1884, when their usage was banned (with the exception of court ordered punishments). Punishments include hitting with rebenques and slapping in the face. Corporal punishment of children has been prohibited unilaterally within the country since 2016.", "Australia\nIn Australia, caning used to be common in schools for both boys and girls but has been effectively banned since the late 80's, with the practice gradually abandoned up to a decade earlier as cultural and social norms shifted. Laws on corporal punishment in schools are determined at individual state or territory level.", "Legislation also varies among states and territories with regard to corporal punishment meted out to children in other care settings. According to the Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, \"Prohibition is still to be achieved in the home in all states/territories and in alternative care settings, day care, schools and penal institutions in some states/territories\".\n\nAustria\nCorporal punishment in schools was banned in Austria in 1974.", "Austria\nCorporal punishment in schools was banned in Austria in 1974.\n\nBolivia\nCorporal punishment in all settings, including schools, was prohibited in Bolivia in 2014. According to the Children and Adolescents Code, \"The child and adolescent has the right to good treatment, comprising a non-violent upbringing and education... Any physical, violent and humiliating punishment is prohibited\".", "Brazil\nCorporal punishment in all settings, including schools, was prohibited in Brazil in 2014. According to an amendment to the Code on Children and Adolescents 1990, \"Children and Adolescents are entitled to be educated and cared for without the use of physical punishment or cruel or degrading treatment as forms of correction, discipline, education or any other pretext\".", "Canada\nIn many parts of Canada, 'the strap' had not been used in public schools since the 1970s or even earlier: thus, it has been claimed that it had not been used in Quebec since the 1960s, and in Toronto it was banned in 1971. However, some schools in Alberta had been using the strap up until the ban in 2004.", "In public schools, the usual implement was a rubber/canvas/leather strap applied to the hands or sometimes, legs, while private schools sometimes used a paddle or cane administered to the student's posterior. This was used on boys and girls alike.", "In 2004 (Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law v. Canada), the Supreme Court of Canada outlawed corporal punishment in all schools, public or private. The practice itself had largely been abandoned in the 1970s when parents placed greater scrutiny on the treatment of children at school. The subject received extensive media coverage, and corporal punishment became obsolete as the practice was widely seen as degrading and inhumane", ". Despite the fact that the tradition had been forgone for nearly 30 years, legislation banning the practice entirely by law was not implemented until 2004.", "Some Canadian provinces banned corporal punishment in public schools prior to the national ban in 2004. They are, in chronological order by year of provincial ban:\n\nBritish Columbia - 1973\nNova Scotia - 1989\nNew Brunswick - 1990\nYukon - 1990\nPrince Edward Island - 1993\nNorthwest Territories - 1995\nNunavut - 1995* (banned while Nunavut was still part of Northwest Territories. Remained banned in Nunavut when it became a separate Territory in 1999.)\nNewfoundland and Labrador - 1997\nQuebec - 1998", "China\n \nCorporal punishment in China was officially banned after the Communist Revolution in 1949. The Compulsory Education Law of 1986 states: \"It shall be forbidden to inflict physical punishment on students\". In practice, beatings by schoolteachers are quite common, especially in rural areas.", "Colombia \nColombian private and public schools were banned from using \"penalties involving physical or psychological abuse\" through the Children and Adolescents Code 2006, though it is not clear whether this also applies to indigenous communities.\n\nCosta Rica\nAll corporal punishment, both in school and in the home, has been banned since 2008.\n\nCzech Republic\nCorporal punishment is outlawed under Article 31 of the Education Act.", "Czech Republic\nCorporal punishment is outlawed under Article 31 of the Education Act.\n\nDenmark\nCorporal punishment was prohibited in the public schools in Copenhagen Municipality in 1951 and by law in all schools of Denmark on 14 June 1967.", "Egypt\nA 1998 study found that random physical punishment (not proper formal corporal punishment) was being used extensively by teachers in Egypt to punish behavior they regarded as unacceptable. Around 80% of the boys and 60% of the girls were punished by teachers using their hands, sticks, straps, shoes, punches, and kicks as most common methods of administration. The most common reported injuries were bumps and contusions.", "Finland\nCorporal punishment in public schools was banned in 1914, but remained de facto commonplace until 1984, when a law banning all corporal punishment of minors, whether in schools or in the home, was introduced.", "France", "Caning was not unknown for French students in the 19th century, but they were described as \"extremely sensitive\" to corporal punishment and tended to make a \"fuss\" about its imposition. The systematic use of corporal punishment has been absent from French schools since the 19th century. Corporal punishment is considered unlawful in schools under article 371-1 of the Civil Code. There was no explicit legal ban on it, but in 2008 a teacher was fined €500 for what some people describe as slapping a student", ". In 2019, the Law on the Prohibition of Ordinary Educational Violence eventually banned all corporal punishment in France, including schools and the home.", "Germany", "School corporal punishment, historically widespread, was outlawed in different states via their administrative law at different times. It was not completely abolished everywhere until 1983. Since 1993, use of corporal punishment by a teacher has been a criminal offence. In that year a sentence by the Federal Court of Justice of Germany (, case number NStZ 1993", ". In that year a sentence by the Federal Court of Justice of Germany (, case number NStZ 1993.591) was published which overruled the previous powers enshrined in unofficial customary law () and upheld by some regional appeal courts (, Superior State Court) even in the 1970s. They assumed a right of chastisement was a defense of justification against the accusation of \"causing bodily harm\" per Paragraph (=Section) 223 Strafgesetzbuch (Federal Penal Code).", "Greece\nCorporal punishment in Greek primary schools was banned in 1998, and in secondary schools in 2005.\n\nIndia", "In India, corporal punishment is banned in schools, daycare and alternative child care institutions. However, there are no prohibitions of it at home. The National Policy for Children 2013 states that in education, the state shall \"ensure no child is subjected to any physical punishment or mental harassment\" and \"promote positive engagement to impart discipline so as to provide children with a good learning experience\"", ". Corporal punishment is also prohibited by the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009 (RTE Act). Article 17 states: \"(1) No child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment. (2) Whoever contravenes the provisions of sub-section (1) shall be liable to disciplinary action under the service rules applicable to such person", ".\" The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Rules 2010 provide for implementation of the Act, including awareness raising about the rights in the Act, procedures for monitoring implementation, and complaints mechanisms when the rights are violated", ". In 2014, the Ministry of Human Resources Development issued guidance (\"Advisory for Eliminating Corporal Punishment in Schools under Section 35(1) of the RTE Act 2009\") which sets out the national law relevant to corporal punishment in schools, the international human rights standards, steps that may be taken to promote positive child", "development and not resorting to corporal punishment, and the role of national bodies in implementing the RTE Act, stating: \"This advisory should be used by the State Governments/UT Administrations to ensure that appropriate State/school level guidelines on prevention of corporate punishment and appropriate redressal of any complaints, are framed, disseminated, acted upon and monitored.\"", "However, corporal punishment is still widely prevalent in schools in Indian rural communities.", "Iran\nOn 10 August 2000 , Iran \"Supreme Council of Education\" (شورای عالی آموزش وپرورش) (under supervision of Ministry of Education (Iran)(وزارت آموزش و پرورش)) approved an executive regulations for Iranian schools that any verbal and physical punishment for students are forbidden under the article no. 77.", "Iran parliament Islamic Consultative Assembly (مجلس شورای اسلامی) approved \"Child and Adolescent Protection Law\" (قانون حمایت از کودکان و نوجوانان) on 16 December 2002 citing that any harassment for children and teenager (under 18 years old) that is causing any physical/mental/moral damages is forbidden under article no.2.", "Ireland\nIn the law of the Republic of Ireland, corporal punishment was prohibited in 1982 by an administrative decision of John Boland, the Minister for Education, which applied to national schools (most primary schools) and to secondary schools receiving public funding (practically all of them). Teachers were not liable to criminal prosecution until 1997, when the rule of law allowing \"physical chastisement\" was explicitly abolished.", "Israel\nA 1994 Supreme Court ruling in The State of Israel v Alagani declared that \"corporal punishment cannot constitute a legitimate tool in the hands of teachers or other educators\", applicable to both state and private schools.", "On 25 January 2000, the Supreme Court of Israel issued the landmark Plonit decision ruling that \"corporal punishment of children by their parents is never educational\", \"always causes serious harm to the children\" and \"is indefensible\"", ". This decision repealed section 7 of article 27 of the Civil Wrongs Ordinance 1944, which provided a defence for the use of corporal punishment in childrearing, and stated that \"the law imposes an obligation on state authorities to intervene in the family unit and to protect the child when necessary, including from his parents.\" Soon after, a new Pupils' Rights Law, 5760-2000 established (art. 10) that \"it is the right of every pupil that discipline be maintained in the", "educational institution in conformity with human dignity and, in that regard, he has the right not to be subjected to corporal or degrading disciplinary measures.\"", "Italy\nCorporal punishment in Italian schools was banned in 1928.", "Japan", "Although banned in 1947, corporal punishment is still commonly found in schools in the 2010s and particularly widespread in school sports clubs. In late 1987, about 60% of junior high school teachers felt it was necessary, with 7% believing it was necessary in all conditions, 59% believing it should be applied sometimes and 32% disapproving of it in all circumstances; while at elementary (primary) schools, 2% supported it unconditionally, 47% felt it was necessary and 49% disapproved", ". As recently as December 2012, a high school student died by suicide after having been constantly beaten by his basketball coach. An education ministry survey found that more than 10,000 students received illegal corporal punishment from more than 5,000 teachers across Japan in 2012 fiscal year alone.", "Luxembourg\nCorporal punishment in schools was banned in 1845 and became a criminal offence in 1974 (Aggravated Assault on Minors under Authority).\n\nMalaysia", "Caning, usually applied to the palm or clothed bottom, is a common form of discipline in Malaysian schools. Although it is legally permitted for boys only, in practice the illegal caning of girls is not unknown. There have been reports of students being caned in front of the class/school for lateness, poor grades, being unable to answer questions correctly or forgetting to bring a textbook", ". In November 2007, in response to a perceived increase in indiscipline among female students, the National Seminar on Education Regulations (Student Discipline) passed a resolution recommending allowing the caning of girls at school.", "Moldova\nThe Education Act of 2008 prohibits all corporal punishment in schools.", "Myanmar \nCaning is commonly used by teachers as a punishment in schools. The cane is applied on the students' buttocks, calves or palms of the hands in front of the class. Sit-ups with ears pulled and arms crossed, kneeling, and standing on the bench in the classroom are other forms of punishment used in schools. Common reasons for punishment include talking in class, not finishing homework, mistakes made with classwork, fighting, and truancy.", "Nepal\nAll corporal punishment, both in school and in the home, has been banned since 2018.\n\nNetherlands\nCaning and other forms of corporal punishment in schools was abolished in 1920.\n\nNew Zealand\nIn New Zealand's schools, corporal punishment was used commonly on both girls and boys. This was abolished in practice in 1987. However, teachers in New Zealand schools had the right to use what the law called reasonable force to discipline students, mainly with a strap, cane or ruler, on the bottom or the hand.", "This was criminalised on 23 July 1990, when Section 139A of the Education Act 1989 was inserted by the Education Amendment Act 1990. Section 139A prohibits anyone employed by a school or early childhood education (ECE) provider, or anyone supervising or controlling students on the school's behalf, from using force by way of correction or punishment towards any student at or in relation to the school or the student under their supervision or control", ". Teachers who administer corporal punishment can be found guilty of physical assault, resulting in termination and cancellation of teacher registration, and possibly criminal charges, with a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment.", "As enacted, the law had a loophole: parents, provided they were not school staff, could still discipline their children on school grounds. In early 2007, a southern Auckland Christian school was found to be using this loophole to discipline students by corporal punishment, by making the student's parents administer the punishment", ". This loophole was closed in May 2007 by the Crimes (Substituted Section 59) Amendment Act 2007, which enacted a blanket ban on parents administering corporal punishment to their children.", "Norway\nCorporal punishment in Norwegian schools was strongly restricted in 1889, and was banned outright in 1936. Nowadays, it is explicitly prohibited in sections 2.9 and 3.7 of the Education Act 1998,2 amended 2008: \"Corporal punishment or other humiliating forms of treatment must not be used.\"", "Pakistan", "Article 89 of the Pakistan Penal Code does not prohibit actions, such as corporal punishment, subject to certain conditions (that no \"grievous hurt\" be caused, that the act should be done in \"good faith\", the recipient must be under 12 etc.). In 2013, the Pakistan National Assembly unanimously passed a bill that would override article 89 and ban all corporal punishment; however the bill did not pass in the senate", ". On the provincial level, corporal punishment was partially banned in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa by two laws in 2010 and 2012, and banned by Sindh in schools in 2013. Balochistan tried to ban the practice in 2011 and Punjab tried to ban it in 2012, but neither bill passed the respective provincial assembly.", "School corporal punishment in Pakistan is not very common in modern educational institutions although it is still used in schools across the rural parts of the country as a means of enforcing student discipline. The method has been criticised by some children's rights activists who claim that many cases of corporal punishment in schools have resulted in physical and mental abuse of schoolchildren", ". According to one report, corporal punishment is a key reason for school dropouts and subsequently, street children, in Pakistan; as many as 35,000 high school pupils are said to drop out of the education system each year because they have been punished or abused in school.", "Philippines\nCorporal punishment has been prohibited in Filipino private and public schools since 1987. \nAlthough, many households in the country still use it to punish their children for misbehavior.", "Poland", "In 1783, Poland became the first country in the world to prohibit corporal punishment. Peter Newell assumes that perhaps the most influential writer on the subject was the English philosopher John Locke, whose Some Thoughts Concerning Education explicitly criticised the central role of corporal punishment in education. Locke's work was highly influential, and may have helped influence Polish legislators to ban corporal punishment from Poland's schools in 1783", ". Today, the ban of corporal punishment in all forms, whether in schools or in the home, is vested in the Constitution of Poland.", "Russia", "Corporal punishment was banned in Soviet (and hence Russian) schools immediately after the Russian Revolution. In addition, the Article 336 (since 2006) of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation states that \"the use, including a single occurrence, of educational methods involving physical and/or psychological violence against a student or pupil\" shall constitute grounds for dismissal of any teaching professional", ". Article 34 of the Law on Education 2012 states that students have the right to \"(9) respect for human dignity, protection from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury personality, the protection of life and health\"; article 43(3) states that \"discipline in educational activities is provided on the basis of respect for human dignity of students and teachers\" and \"application of physical and mental violence to students is not allowed.\"", "Serbia", "Corporal punishment was first explicitly prohibited in schools in article 67 of the Law on Public Schools 1929, passed in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, of which Serbia was then a part. Other now independent countries which belonged to Yugoslavia then and to which the 1929 Law applied are: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Slovenia", ". In Serbia, corporal punishment in schools is now unlawful under the Law on Secondary Schools 1992, the Law on Elementary Schools 1992 and the Law on the Foundations of Education and Upbringing 2003/2009.", "Sierra Leone\n\nCorporal punishment of children remains legal in schools, homes, alternative care and day-care centres. Harsh caning of girls and boys remains very common in schools.\n\nSingapore", "Corporal punishment is legal in Singapore schools, for male students only (it is illegal to inflict it on female students) and fully encouraged by the government in order to maintain discipline. Only a light rattan cane may be used. This is administered in a formal ceremony by the school management after due deliberation, not by classroom teachers. Most secondary schools (whether independent, autonomous or government-controlled), and also some primary schools, use caning to deal with misconduct by boys", ". At the secondary level, the rattan strokes are nearly always delivered to the student's clothed buttocks. The Ministry of Education has stipulated a maximum of three strokes per occasion. In some cases, the punishment is carried out in front of the rest of the school instead of in private.", "South Africa\nThe use of corporal punishment in schools was prohibited by the South African Schools Act, 1996. According to section 10 of the act:\n\nIn the case of Christian Education South Africa v Minister of Education the Constitutional Court rejected a claim that the constitutional right to religious freedom entitles private Christian schools to impose corporal punishment.", "South Korea\nLiberal regions in South Korea have completely banned all forms of caning beginning with Gyeonggi Province in 2010, followed by Seoul Metropolitan City, Gangwon Province, Gwangju Metropolitan City and North Jeolla Province in 2011. Other more conservative regions are governed by a national law enacted in 2011 which states that while caning is generally forbidden, it can be used indirectly to maintain school discipline.", "However, caning is still known to be practised indiscriminately on both boys and girls. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the caning of girls is not particularly unusual, and that they might be as likely to be caned as boys. Mass punishments in front of the class are common, and the large number of corporal punishment scenes in films suggest that caning is an accepted cultural norm in education.", "Spain\nSpain banned school corporal punishment in 1985 under article 6 of the Right to Education (Organization) Act 8/1985. Those who broke this law risked losing job and career; as a result, this historically well-entrenched practice soon disappeared. Eventually, all forms of corporal punishment were banned in Spain in 2007.", "Sweden\nCorporal punishment at school has been prohibited in folkskolestadgan (the elementary school ordinance) since 1 January 1958. Its use by ordinary teachers in grammar schools had been outlawed in 1928. All forms of corporal punishment of children have been outlawed in Sweden since 1966, and have been strongly enforced since 1979.\n\nTaiwan\n\nIn 2006, Taiwan made corporal punishment in the school system illegal.", "Tanzania", "In Tanzania, corporal punishment in schools is widely practised and has led to lasting damage, including the death of a punished pupil. The Education Act of 2002 authorizes the minister in charge of education to issue regulations concerning corporal punishment. The Education (Corporal Punishment) Regulation G.N. 294 of 2002 gives the authority to order corporal punishment to the headmaster of a school, who can delegate to any teacher on a case-by-case basis", ". The number of strikes must not be more than four for each occurrence. The school should have a register where date, reason, name of pupil and of administering teacher, together with the number of strikes, is to be recorded.", "Thailand\nCorporal punishment in schools is officially illegal under the Ministry of Education Regulation on Student Punishment 2005.", "The proverb \"If you love your cow, tie it up; if you love your child, beat him\" is still considered \"wisdom\" and is held by many Thai parents and teachers. Corporal punishment (especially caning) on students of both genders remains common and accepted in practice. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the caning of girls is not particularly unusual, and that they are just as likely to be caned as boys.", "Uganda\nIn Uganda, it is common practice for teachers to attempt to control large, overcrowded classes by corporal punishment. There is some movement of changing negative disciplining methods to positive ones (non-corporal), such as teaching students how to improve when they perform badly via verbal positive reinforcement.", "Ukraine\nCorporal punishment was banned in Soviet (and hence, Ukrainian) schools in 1917.", "In Ukraine, \"physical or mental violence\" against children is forbidden by the Constitution (Art.52.2) and the Law on Education (Art.51.1, since 1991) which states that students and other learners have the right \"to the protection from any form of exploitation, physical and psychological violence, actions of pedagogical and other employees who violate the rights or humiliate their honour and dignity\"", ". Standard instructions for teachers provided by the Ministry of Science and Education state that a teacher who has used corporal punishment to a pupil (even once), shall be dismissed.", "United Arab Emirates\nA federal law was implemented in 1998 which banned school corporal punishment. The law applied to all schools, both public and private. Any teacher who engages in the practice would not only lose their job and teaching license, but will also face criminal prosecution for engaging in violence against minors and will also face child abuse charges.\n\nUnited Kingdom", "In state-run schools, and in private schools where at least part of the funding came from government, corporal punishment was outlawed by the British Parliament on 22 July 1986, following a 1982 ruling by the European Court of Human Rights that such punishment could no longer be administered without parental consent, and that a child's \"right to education\" could not be infringed by suspending children who, with parental approval, refused to submit to corporal punishment", ". In other private schools, it was banned in 1998 (England and Wales), 2000 (Scotland) and 2003 (Northern Ireland).", "In 19th-century France, caning was dubbed \"The English Vice\", probably because of its widespread use in British schools. The regular depiction of caning in British novels about school life from the 19th century onwards, as well as movies such as If...., which includes a dramatic scene of boys caned by prefects, contributed to the French perception of caning as being central to the British educational system.", "The implement used in many state and private schools in England and Wales was often a rattan cane, struck either across the student's hands, legs, or the clothed buttocks. It had been very regularly used on both boys and girls in certain schools for centuries prior to the ban.\n\nSometimes, a long ruler was used on the bare legs or hands instead of a cane. Striking the buttocks (or sometimes hands) with a rubber-soled gym shoe, or plimsoll shoe (called slippering), was also widely used in many schools.", "In Scotland, a leather strap, the tawse (sometimes called a belt), administered to the palms of the hands, was universal in state schools, but some private schools used the cane. This was wielded in primary as well as secondary schools for both trivial and serious offences, and girls got belted as well as boys. Nearly 6 in 10 girls were strapped in school. In a few English cities, a strap was used instead of the cane.", "Schools had to keep a record of punishments inflicted, and there are occasional press reports of examples of these \"punishment books\" having survived.", "By the 1970s, in the wake of the protest about school corporal punishment by thousands of school pupils who walked out of school to protest outside the Houses Of Parliament on 17 May 1972, corporal punishment was toned down in many state-run schools, and whilst many only used it as a last resort for misbehaving pupils, some state-run schools banned corporal punishment completely, most notably, London's Primary Schools, who had already began phasing out corporal punishment in the late 1960s.", "Prior to the ban in private schools in England, the slippering of a student at an independent boarding school was challenged in 1993 before the European Court of Human Rights. The Court ruled 5–4 in that case that the punishment was not severe enough to infringe the student's \"freedom from degrading punishment\" under article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights", ". The dissenting judges argued that the ritualised nature of the punishment, given after several days and without parental consent, should qualify it as \"degrading punishment\".", "R (Williamson) v Secretary of State for Education and Employment (2005) was an unsuccessful challenge to the prohibition of corporal punishment contained in the Education Act 1996, by several headmasters of private Christian schools who argued that it was a breach of their religious freedom.", "In response to a 2008 poll of 6,162 UK teachers by the Times Educational Supplement, 22% of secondary school teachers and 16% of primary school teachers supported \"the right to use corporal punishment in extreme cases\". The National Union of Teachers said that it \"could not support the views expressed by those in favour of hitting children\".\n\nUnited States", "United States\n\nThere is no federal law addressing corporal punishment in public or private schools. In 1977, the Supreme Court ruling in Ingraham v. Wright held that the Eighth Amendment clause prohibiting \"cruel and unusual punishments\" did not apply to school students, and that teachers could punish children without parental permission.", "As of 2023, 33 states and the District of Columbia have banned corporal punishment in public schools, though in some of these there is no explicit prohibition. Corporal punishment is also unlawful in private schools in Iowa and New Jersey. In 17 U.S. states, corporal punishment is lawful in both public and private schools. It is still common in some schools in the South, and more than 167,000 students were paddled in the 2011–2012 school year in American public schools", ". Students can be physically punished from kindergarten to the end of high school, meaning that even legal adults who have reached the age of majority are sometimes spanked by school officials. Some American legal scholars have argued that school paddling is unconstitutional and can cause lasting physical, emotional, and cognitive harm.", "Venezuela\nCorporal punishment in all settings, including schools, was prohibited in Venezuela in 2007. According to the Law for the Protection of Children and Adolescents, \"All children and young people have a right to be treated well. This right includes a non-violent education and upbringing... Consequently, all forms of physical and humiliating punishment are prohibited\".", "Vietnam \nCorporal punishment is technically unlawful in schools under article 75 of the Education Law 2005, but there is no clear statement that corporal punishment is prohibited. Such punishment continues to be used, and there are frequent media reports of excessive corporal punishment in schools. The caning of girls is not particularly unusual, and girls are as likely to be caned at school as boys.", "See also\n Corporal punishment in the home\n Campaigns against corporal punishment\n Child corporal punishment laws\n Blab school\n School bullying\n School discipline\n Boot camp and WWASP\n\nFurther reading\n\n Gershoff, Elizabeth T. (2017). \"School corporal punishment in global perspective: prevalence, outcomes, and efforts at intervention\". Psychology, Health & Medicine. 22: 224–239. – Includes a dataset on the legal status of school corporal punishment across the world.\n\nReferences", "References\n\nCorporal punishments\nCorporal punishment\nSpanking\nYouth rights\nChildren's rights\nViolence against children" ]

[ "Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (Louisa Caroline Alberta; 18 March 1848 – 3 December 1939), was the sixth child and fourth daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.", "In her public life, she was a strong proponent of the arts and higher education and of the feminist cause. She was an influential supporter of the Edinburgh College of Domestic Science, the forerunner to Queen Margaret University, becoming the institution’s first Patron in 1891 until 1939. Her early life was spent moving among the various royal residences in the company of her family", ". Her early life was spent moving among the various royal residences in the company of her family. When her father died in December 1861, the court went into a long period of mourning, to which with time Louise became unsympathetic. She was an able sculptor and artist, and several of her sculptures remain today. She was also a supporter of the feminist movement, corresponding with Josephine Butler, and visiting Elizabeth Garrett.", "Before her marriage, Louise served as an unofficial secretary to the Queen from 1866 to 1871. The question of Louise's marriage was discussed in the late 1860s. Suitors from the royal houses of Prussia and Denmark were suggested, but Victoria did not want her to marry a foreign prince, and therefore suggested a high-ranking member of the British aristocracy. Despite opposition from members of the royal family, Louise fell in love with John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, the heir of the Duke of Argyll", ". Victoria consented to the marriage, which took place on 21 March 1871. After a happy beginning, the two drifted apart, possibly because of their childlessness and the Queen's constraints on their activities.", "In 1878, Lorne was appointed Governor General of Canada, a post he held 1878–1884. Louise was viceregal consort, starting a lasting interest in Canada. Her names were used to name many features in Canada, including Lake Louise and the province of Alberta. Following her mother's death in 1901, she entered the social circle established by her elder brother, the new king, Edward VII", ". Louise's marriage with Lorne survived thanks to long periods of separation; they reconciled in 1911, and Louise was devastated by Lorne's death in 1914. After the First World War she began to retire from public life, undertaking few public duties outside Kensington Palace, where she died at the age of 91.", "Early life\nLouise was born on 18 March 1848 at Buckingham Palace, London. She was the fourth daughter and sixth child of the reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria, and her husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Her birth coincided with revolutions which swept across Europe, prompting the queen to remark that Louise would turn out to be \"something peculiar\". The queen's labour with Louise was the first to be aided with chloroform.", "Albert and Victoria chose the names Louisa Caroline Alberta. She was baptized on 13 May 1848 in Buckingham Palace's private chapel by John Bird Sumner, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Though she was christened Louisa at the service, she was invariably known as Louise throughout her life", ". Her godparents were Duke Gustav of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (her paternal great-great-uncle, for whom Prince Albert stood proxy); the Duchess of Saxe-Meiningen (for whom her great-aunt Queen Adelaide stood proxy); and the Hereditary Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (her first cousin once-removed, for whom the Duchess of Cambridge stood proxy)", ". During the ceremony, the Duchess of Gloucester, one of the few children of King George III who was still alive, forgot where she was, and suddenly got up in the middle of the service and knelt at the queen's feet, much to the queen's horror.", "Like her siblings, Louise was brought up with the strict programme of education devised by her father, Prince Albert, and his friend and confidant, Baron Stockmar. The young children were taught practical tasks, such as cooking, farming, household tasks and carpentry.", "From her early years, Louise was a talented and intelligent child, and her artistic talents were quickly recognised. On his visit to Osborne House in 1863, Hallam Tennyson, the son of the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson, remarked that Louise could \"draw beautifully\". Because of her royal rank, an artistic career was not considered", ". Because of her royal rank, an artistic career was not considered. However, the queen first allowed her to attend art school under the tutelage of the sculptor Mary Thornycroft, and later (1863) allowed her to study at the National Art Training School, now The Royal College of Art. Louise also became an able dancer, and Victoria wrote, after a dance, that Louise \"danced the sword dance with more verve and accuracy than any of her sisters\"", ". Her wit and intelligence made her a favourite with her father, with her inquisitive nature earning her the nickname \"Little Miss Why\" from other members of the royal family.", "Secretary", "Louise's father, Prince Albert, died at Windsor on 14 December 1861. The queen was devastated, and ordered her household to move from Windsor to Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. The atmosphere of the royal court became gloomy and morbid in the wake of the prince's death, and entertainments became dry and dull. Louise quickly became dissatisfied with her mother's prolonged mourning", ". Louise quickly became dissatisfied with her mother's prolonged mourning. For her seventeenth birthday in 1865, Louise requested the ballroom to be opened for a debutante dance, the like of which had not been performed since Prince Albert's death. Her request was refused, and her boredom with the mundane routine of travelling between the different royal residences at set times irritated her mother, who considered Louise to be indiscreet and argumentative.", "The queen comforted herself by rigidly continuing with Prince Albert's plans for their children. Princess Alice was married to Prince Louis, the future Grand Duke of Hesse, at Osborne House on 1 July 1862. In 1863, Edward, the Prince of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark", ". In 1863, Edward, the Prince of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark. The queen made it a tradition that the eldest unmarried daughter become her unofficial secretary, a position which Louise filled in 1866 following the marriage of her elder sister Helena, despite the queen's concern that she was indiscreet.", "Louise, however, proved to be good at the job: Victoria wrote shortly afterwards: \"She is (and who would some years ago have thought it?) a clever dear girl with a fine strong character, unselfish and affectionate.\" However, when Louise fell in love with her brother Leopold's tutor, the Reverend Robinson Duckworth (14 years her senior), between 1866 and 1870, the queen reacted by dismissing Duckworth in 1870. He later became Canon of Westminster Abbey.", "Louise was bored at court, and by fulfilling her duties, which were little more than minor secretarial tasks, such as writing letters on the queen's behalf; dealing with political correspondence; and providing the queen with company, she had more responsibilities. She also undertook her share of public and philanthropic duties, for example inaugurating the new North Eastern Hospital for Children in 1867 and launching the ship HMS Druid in 1869.\n\nMarriage", "Suitors", "As a daughter of the queen, Louise was a desirable bride; more so as she is regarded as the queen's most beautiful daughter by both contemporary and modern biographers. However, she was accused by the press, without substantiation, of romantic affairs. This, coupled with her liberalism and feminism, prompted the queen to find her a husband", ". This, coupled with her liberalism and feminism, prompted the queen to find her a husband. The choice had to suit Victoria as well as Louise, and the queen insisted that her daughter's husband should live near her, a promise which had also been extracted from the husband of Helena, Louise's sister", ". Various suitors were proposed by the leading royal houses of Europe: Princess Alexandra proposed her brother, the Crown Prince of Denmark, but the queen was strongly opposed to another Danish marriage that could antagonise Prussia at a time of diplomatic tension over the Schleswig-Holstein question. Victoria, Louise's eldest sister, proposed the tall and rich Prince Albert of Prussia, but Queen Victoria disapproved of another Prussian marriage that would have been unpopular in England", ". Prince Albert was also reluctant to settle in England as required. William, Prince of Orange, was also considered a suitor, but because of his extravagant lifestyle in Paris, where he lived openly with a lover, the queen quickly vetoed the idea.", "Louise viewed marriage to any prince as undesirable, and announced that she wished to marry John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, heir to the Dukedom of Argyll. No marriage between a daughter of a monarch and a British subject had been given official recognition since 1515, when Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, married King Henry VIII's sister Mary. Louise's eldest brother, the Prince of Wales, was strongly opposed to a marriage with a non-mediatized noble", ". Furthermore, Lorne's father, George Campbell, was an ardent supporter of William Ewart Gladstone, and the Prince of Wales was worried that he would drag the royal family into political disputes. Nevertheless, the opposition was crushed by the queen, who wrote to the Prince of Wales in 1869:", "The queen averred that Louise's marriage to a subject would bring \"new blood\" into the family, while all European princes were related to each other. She was convinced that this would strengthen the royal family morally and physically.\n\nEngagement and wedding", "Louise became engaged to the Marquess of Lorne on 3 October 1870 while they were visiting Balmoral. Lorne was invited to Balmoral Castle in Scotland, and accompanied Louise, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Hatherley and Queen Victoria's lady-in-waiting Lady Ely on a drive. Later that day, Louise returned and announced to the queen that Lorne had \"spoken of his devotion\" to Louise, and she accepted his proposal in the knowledge of the queen's approval. The queen later gave Lady Ely a bracelet to mark the occasion", ". The queen later gave Lady Ely a bracelet to mark the occasion.", "The Queen found it difficult to let go of her daughter, confiding in her journal that she \"felt painfully the thought of losing her\". The new breach in royal tradition caused surprise, especially in Germany, and Queen Victoria wrote to the Queen of Prussia that princes of small impoverished German houses were \"very unpopular\" in Britain and that Lord Lorne, a \"person of distinction at home\" with \"an independent fortune\" was \"really no lower in rank than minor German Royalty\".", "Victoria settled an annuity on Louise shortly before her marriage. The ceremony was conducted at St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle on 21 March 1871, and the crowd outside was so large that, for the first time, policemen had to form chain barriers to keep control. Louise wore a wedding veil of Honiton lace that she designed herself, and was escorted into the chapel by her mother, and her two eldest brothers, the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Edinburgh", ". On this occasion, the usually severe black of the queen's mourning dress was relieved by the crimson rubies and blues of the Garter star. Following the ceremony, the queen kissed Louise, and Lorne – now a member of the royal family, but still a subject – kissed the queen's hand.", "The couple then journeyed to Claremont in Surrey for the honeymoon, but the presence of attendants on the journey, and at meal times, made it impossible for them to talk privately. The short four-day visit did not pass without an interruption from the queen, who was curious about her daughter's thoughts on married life. Among their wedding gifts was a maplewood desk from Queen Victoria, now at Inveraray Castle.", "Following her marriage, Louise continued her charitable and artistic interests. In 1871, the Ladies Work Society was founded in South Audley Street, promoting the making and sale of needlework and embroidery for poverty relief: Louise became its president, and designed some of their products.\n\nThe couple's official place of residence was Rosneath House in Dumbartonshire.\n\nViceregal consort of Canada", "In 1878, British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli nominated Lorne to be Canada's Governor General, and he was duly appointed by Queen Victoria. Louise thus became his viceregal consort.", "As viceregal consort, she used her position to support the arts and higher education and the cause of female equality, although she said \"the subject of Domestic Economy lies at the root of the – highest life of every true woman.\" But her stay in Canada was unhappy as a result of homesickness, dislike of Ottawa and a bad sleighing accident.", "Inauspicious arrival\n\nOn 15 November 1878, the couple left Liverpool and arrived in Canada for the inauguration at Halifax on 25 November.", "Louise became the first royal to take up residence in Rideau Hall, officially the queen's royal residence in Ottawa. However, the hall was far from the splendour of British royal residences, and, as each viceregal couple decorated the hall with their own furnishings, and thus took them when they departed, the Lornes found the palace sparse in décor upon their arrival", ". Louise put her artistic talents to work and hung many of her watercolour and oil paintings around the hall, also installing her sculpted works", ". Though the news that a daughter of the queen would be viceregal consort of Canada first saw a \"thrill of joy burst upon the Dominion\", it being felt that the princess would be a strong link between Canadians and their sovereign, the arrival of the new governor general and his wife was not initially welcomed by the Canadian press, which complained about the imposition of royalty on the country's hitherto un-regal society.", "Relations with the press further deteriorated when Lorne's private secretary, Francis de Winton, threw four journalists off the royal train. Although the Lornes had no knowledge of de Winton's action, it was assumed by the press that they did, and they earned an early reputation for haughtiness", ". Louise was horrified by the negative press, and when she heard about reports of \"a nation of flunkies\" at the viceregal court, taking lessons in \"the backward walk,\" Louise declared that she \"wouldn't care if they came in blanket coats!\" (A reference to the ubiquitous capote.) Eventually the worries of a rigid court at Rideau Hall and the \"feeble undercurrent of criticism\" turned out to be unfounded as the royal couple proved to be more relaxed than their predecessors.", "Canadian entertainments", "Louise's first few months in Canada were tinged with sadness as her favourite sister Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine, died on 14 December 1878. Although homesick over that first Christmas, Louise soon grew accustomed to the winter climate. Sleighing and skating were two of her favourite pastimes", ". Sleighing and skating were two of her favourite pastimes. In Canada, as the monarch's direct representative, Lorne always took precedence over his wife, so that at the Opening of the Parliament of Canada on 13 February 1879, Louise was ranked no differently from others in attendance. She had to remain standing with the MPs, until Lorne asked them to be seated. In order for Lorne to meet every Canadian member of Parliament, he held bi-weekly dinners for 50 people", ". However, some of the Canadian ladies responded negatively to the British party. One of her ladies-in-waiting reported that some had an I'm as good as you' sort of manner when one begins a conversation.\" Court entertainments were open; anyone who could afford the clothing to attend functions was simply asked to sign the visitor's book", ". Louise's first state ball was given on 19 February 1879, and she made a good impression on her guests when she ordered the silk cordon, separating the viceregal party from the guests, be removed. However, the ball was marred by various mishaps, including a drunken bandsman nearly starting a fire by pulling a curtain over a gas lamp. The open house practice was criticized by guests who complained about the low social status of other guests", ". One attendee was horrified to find the attendee's grocer dancing in the same set.", "One of her works as a sculptor is the statue of Queen Victoria, which now stands in front of the Royal Victoria College, Montreal, now the Strathcona Music Building of McGill University. Lorne's father, The Duke of Argyll, arrived with two of his daughters in June, and in the presence of the family, Louise caught a salmon. The women's success at fishing prompted the Duke to remark that fishing in Canada required no skill.\n\nSleigh accident and Bermuda visit", "Louise, Lorne, and two attendants, were hurt in a sleigh accident on 14 February 1880. The winter was particularly severe, and the carriage in which they were traveling overturned, throwing the coachman and footman from the sleigh. The horses then panicked, and dragged the overturned carriage over more than of ground", ". The horses then panicked, and dragged the overturned carriage over more than of ground. Louise was knocked unconscious when she hit her head on the iron bar supporting the roof, and Lorne was trapped underneath her, expecting \"the sides of the carriage to give way at any moment\". Eventually, as they overtook the sleigh ahead, the horses calmed, and the occupant of that sleigh, Princess Louise's aide-de-camp, ordered an empty carriage to convey the injured party back to Rideau Hall.", "The doctors who attended Louise reported she was severely concussed and in shock, and that \"it was a wonder her skull was not fractured\". Louise's ear had been injured when her earring caught on the side of the sleigh, tearing her ear lobe in two. The press played down the story on instructions from Lorne's private secretary, an act that was described by contemporaries as \"stupid and ill advised\"", ". For example, one New Zealand newspaper reported, \"Excepting immediately after the blow, the princess was perfectly sensible during the whole time...\" Knowledge of Louise's true condition might have elicited sympathy from the Canadian people. As it was, one Member of Parliament wrote: \"Except the cut in the lower part of the ear I think there was no injury done worth mentioning.\" Therefore, when Louise cancelled her immediate engagements, people thought she was malingering", ".\" Therefore, when Louise cancelled her immediate engagements, people thought she was malingering. News of the accident was also played down in Britain and in letters home to the anxious Queen Victoria. Princess Louise left Canada for England in 1881 while her husband remained in Canada until 1883.", "She played a major role in the development of the nascent tourism industry of the colony of Bermuda, south-east of Nova Scotia. In 1883, because of her fragile health, she spent the winter in Bermuda (arriving on 29 January 1883 from Charleston, South Carolina, aboard , popularising a trend for wealthy North Americans to escape to Bermuda's relatively mild climate during the winter months", ". Her visit brought such attention to Bermuda that a palatial hotel, which opened in 1885, intended to cater to these new visitors, was named after her; the Princess Hotel was built on the shore of Hamilton Harbour, in the parish of Pembroke (the Princess herself having occupied Inglewood, the home of JH Timingham, in Paget Parish, during her visit).", "Continued interest in Canada", "After returning to Britain in 1883, Louise continued to take an interest in Canada. During the North-West Rebellion of 1885 she sent a certain Dr. Boyd medical supplies and a large fund of money for distribution. Her express instructions were that assistance was to be rendered to friend and foe indiscriminately. To fulfill her wishes, Boyd accompanied the Militia Medical Staff under Dr", ". To fulfill her wishes, Boyd accompanied the Militia Medical Staff under Dr. Thomas Roddick to the sites of the Battle of Fish Creek and the Battle of Batoche to help give medical treatment to the wounded, including the Métis opposition.", "In 1905, the province of Alberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta. In the province, there is Lake Louise, and Mount Alberta is named in her honour.\n\nQueen Victoria's last years\n\nFamily conflict\n\nLouise returned to Britain with her husband on 27 October 1883. Queen Victoria had allocated them apartments at Kensington Palace, and the couple took up official residence in the suite that was to remain Louise's home for the rest of her life.", "Louise resumed public duties in Britain, for example, opening St George's Gardens, Bloomsbury on 1 July 1884. and Lorne his political career, campaigning unsuccessfully for the Hampstead seat in 1885. In 1896, he won the South Manchester seat, entering parliament as a Liberal. Louise, unlike Lorne and his father, was in favour of Irish Home Rule, and disappointed when he defected from Gladstonian Liberalism to the Liberal Unionists", ". Relations between Louise and Lorne were strained, and, despite the queen's attempts to keep them under one roof, they often went their separate ways. Even when he accompanied Louise, he was not always received with favour at court, and the Prince of Wales did not take to him. Out of all the royal family, Lorne was the only one to be identified closely with a political party, having been a Gladstonian liberal in the House of Commons.", "Louise's relationship with the two sisters closest to the queen, Beatrice and Helena, was strained at best. Beatrice had married the tall and handsome Prince Henry of Battenberg in a love match in 1885, and they had four children. Louise, who had a jealous nature, had grown accustomed to treating Beatrice with pity on account of the queen's constant need for her. Beatrice's biographer, Matthew Dennison, claims that in contrast to Beatrice, Louise remained strikingly good looking throughout her forties", ". Louise and her husband were no longer close, and rumours spread about Lorne's alleged homosexuality. Thus, Beatrice was enjoying a satisfying sexual relationship with her popular husband, which Louise was not. Louise may have considered Prince Henry a more appropriate husband for herself. Certainly, following Prince Henry's death in 1896, Louise wrote that: \"he [Henry] was almost the greatest friend I had—I, too, miss him more than I can say\"", ". In addition, Louise attempted to champion her late brother-in-law by announcing that she was his confidante and that Beatrice, a mere cipher, meant nothing to him.", "Rumours regarding Louise", "From late 1865 to mid 1866, the royal family was guarded by 150 Scots Fusiliers. Officially, this was to protect the family from Fenian threats, but it was whispered by members of high society that Louise had fallen pregnant by Walter Stirling, the tutor of her brother Leopold. According to Louise's biographer, Lucinda Hawksley, her son Henry was born in 1866 and shortly after the Queen's lawyers were summoned to her residence", ". The Queen's obstetrician Frederick Locock and his wife adopted a son named Henry, immediately after the meeting. The boy supposedly grew up with other royal children and claimed to have been Louise's child. DNA testing has been sanctioned by Henry's descendants, but courts ruled the claims unfounded.", "Further rumours spread that Louise was having an affair with Arthur Bigge, later Lord Stamfordham, the queen's assistant private secretary. Beatrice mentioned the rumours to the queen's physician, calling it a \"scandal\", and Prince Henry claimed to have seen Bigge drinking Louise's health at dinner. Louise denied the rumour, claiming that it was started by Beatrice and Helena to undermine her position at court", ". However, on Henry's death, relations between the sisters sporadically improved, and it was Louise, rather than the queen, who was the first to arrive at Cimiez to be with the widowed Beatrice. Nevertheless, Louise's jealousy did not evaporate completely. James Reid, the queen's physician, wrote to his wife a few years later: \"Louise is as usual much down on her sisters. Hope she won't stay long or she will do mischief!\"", "Rumours of affairs did not concern only Bigge. In 1890, the sculptor Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm died in Louise's presence at his studio in London, leading to rumours that the two were having an affair. According to historian Lucinda Hawksley, the two had a long-lasting love affair. Boehm's assistant, Alfred Gilbert, who played a central role in comforting Louise after Boehm's death, and supervised the destruction of Boehm's private papers, was rapidly promoted as a royal sculptor", ". Louise was also romantically linked to fellow artist Edwin Lutyens; her equerry, Colonel William Probert; and an unnamed music master. However, Jehanne Wake, Louise's biographer, argues that there is no substantial evidence to suggest that Louise had sexual relationships with anyone other than her husband.", "During Victoria's last years, Louise carried out a range of public duties, such as opening public buildings, laying foundation stones, and officiating at special programmes. Louise, like her eldest sister Victoria, was more liberally minded, and supported the suffragist movement, completely contrary to the queen's views. Louise privately visited Elizabeth Garrett, the first British woman openly to qualify as a physician", ". Queen Victoria deplored the idea of women joining professions, especially medicine, and described the training of female physicians as a \"repulsive subject\".", "Louise as unconventional royal", "Louise was determined to be seen as an ordinary person and not as a member of the court. When travelling abroad, she often used the alias \"Mrs Campbell\". Louise was known for her charity towards servants. On one occasion, the butler approached her and requested permission to dismiss the second footman, who was late getting out of bed. When she advised that the footman be given an alarm clock, the butler informed her that he already had one", ". She then went so far as to suggest a bed that would throw him out at a specified time, but she was told this was not feasible. Finally, she suggested that he might be ill, and when checked, he was found to have tuberculosis. The footman was therefore sent to New Zealand to recover.", "On another occasion, when she visited Bermuda, she was invited to a reception and chose to walk rather than be driven. She became thirsty along the way and stopped at a house, where she asked a Black woman named Mrs McCarthy for a glass of water. Owing to the scarcity of water, the woman had to go some distance to obtain it, but was reluctant because she had to finish her ironing", ". When Louise offered to continue the ironing, the woman refused, adding that she was in a great hurry to finish so that she could go and see Princess Louise. Realising that she had not been recognised, Louise enquired whether McCarthy would recognise her again. When the woman said that she would have thought so, but was admittedly unsure, Louise replied: \"Well take a good look at me now, so you can be sure to know me tomorrow at St. Georges", ". Georges.\" The princess clung to her privacy, and enjoyed not being recognised.", "Louise and her sisters had another disagreement after the death of the queen's close friend, Jane Spencer, Baroness Churchill. Determined not to put her mother through more misery, Louise wanted the news to be broken to the queen gradually. When this was not done, Louise voiced sharp criticism of Helena and Beatrice. One month later, on 22 January 1901, Queen Victoria died at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight", ". One month later, on 22 January 1901, Queen Victoria died at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. In her will, the queen bequeathed Kent House, on the Osborne Estate, to Louise as a country residence, and gave Osborne Cottage to Louise's youngest sister, Beatrice. Louise and Beatrice were now neighbours both at Kensington Palace and Osborne.", "Later life\n\nEdwardian period", "Upon Queen Victoria's death, Louise entered the social circle of her brother, the new King Edward VII, with whom she had much in common, including smoking. She had an obsession with physical fitness, and if she was sneered at for this, she would retort by saying: \"Never mind, I'll outlive you all.\" Meanwhile, Louise's husband, 9th Duke of Argyll since 1900, took his seat in the House of Lords", ".\" Meanwhile, Louise's husband, 9th Duke of Argyll since 1900, took his seat in the House of Lords. The Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, offered him the office of Governor-General of Australia that year, but the offer was declined. Louise continued her sculpture, and in 1902, designed a memorial to the colonial soldiers who died in the Boer War. In the same year, she began a nude study of a married woman suggested by the English painter Sir William Blake Richmond.", "Louise spent much of her time at Kent House, and she frequently visited Scotland with her husband. Financial pressures did not disappear when Lorne became Duke, and Louise avoided inviting the King to Inveraray, Argyll's ancestral home, because the couple were economising. When Queen Victoria had visited the house before Lorne became Duke of Argyll, there were seventy servants and seventy-four dogs. By the time of Edward VII's accession, there were four servants and two dogs.", "The Duke of Argyll's health continued to deteriorate. He became increasingly senile, and Louise nursed him devotedly from 1911. In these years Louise and her husband were closer than they had been before. In spring 1914 Louise stayed at Kensington Palace while her husband remained on the Isle of Wight. He developed bronchial problems followed by double pneumonia. Louise was summoned on 28 April 1914, and he died on 2 May", ". Louise was summoned on 28 April 1914, and he died on 2 May. Following his death, Louise had a nervous breakdown and suffered from intense loneliness, writing to a friend shortly afterwards: \"My loneliness without the Duke is quite terrible. I wonder what he does now!\"", "Last years", "Louise spent her last years at Kensington Palace, occupying rooms next to her sister Princess Beatrice. She made occasional public appearances with the royal family, such as at the Cenotaph at Whitehall on 11 November 1925. However, her health deteriorated. In 1935, she greeted her nephew, King George V, and his wife, Queen Mary, at Kensington Town Hall during their Silver Jubilee celebrations, and was made an Honorary Freeman of the Borough of Kensington", ". Her last public appearance occurred in 1937, at the Home Arts and Industries Exhibition. Between these occasions, her great nephew, King Edward VIII, abdicated on 11 December 1936. In December 1936, Louise wrote to the British prime minister, Stanley Baldwin, sympathising with him about the crisis.", "Following the accession of Edward's brother King George VI, she became too ill to move around, and was confined to Kensington Palace, affectionately called the \"Auntie Palace\" by Princess Elizabeth and Princess Margaret. She developed neuritis in her arm, inflammation of the nerves between the ribs, fainting fits, and sciatica. Louise occupied herself by drafting prayers, one of which was sent to Neville Chamberlain, reading \"Guide our Ministers of State and all who are in authority over us ... \"\n\nDeath", "Princess Louise died at Kensington Palace on the morning of 3 December 1939 at the age of 91, wearing the wedding veil she had worn almost 70 years earlier. Following a simple funeral, owing to the war, her remains were cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 8 December 1939. Her ashes were quietly placed in the Royal Vault at St. George's Chapel on 12 December 1939, with many members of the British royal family and Argyll family present", ". Her ashes were moved to the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore near Windsor, on 13 March 1940. Louise's will stated that if she died in Scotland she should be buried at the Campbell mausoleum in Kilmun next to her husband; if in England, at Frogmore near her parents. Her coffin was borne by eight NCOs of her own regiment, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Her estate was probated as £239,260, 18 shillings and sixpence, with her debts including 15 shillings for cigarettes.", "Legacy\nLouise bestowed her name on four Canadian regiments: The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada (Princess Louise's) in Hamilton, Ontario; the Princess Louise Dragoon Guards in Ottawa, Ontario (later the 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards – inactive since 1965); the 8th Canadian Hussars (Princess Louise's) in Moncton, New Brunswick; and the Princess Louise Fusiliers in Halifax, Nova Scotia.", "Queen Elizabeth II later recalled that Louise and her sister Beatrice would talk until they stunned their audience with their output of words.", "The province of Alberta in Canada is named after her. Although the name \"Louise\" was originally planned, the princess wished to honour her dead father, so the last of her given names was chosen. Lake Louise in Alberta is also named after her, as is Mount Alberta. Although her time in Canada was not always happy, she liked the Canadian people and retained close links with her Canadian regiments", ". Back at home, she gained a reputation for paying unscheduled visits to hospitals, especially during her later years. Her relationship with her family was generally close. Although at times she bickered with the queen, and her sisters Helena and Beatrice, the relations did not remain strained for long. She retained a lifelong correspondence with her brother Arthur and was one of King Edward VII's favourite sisters", ". Of all her siblings, she was closest to Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, and Princess Alice, and she was devastated by their deaths in 1884 and 1878 respectively.", "Among the younger generations of the family, Louise's favourite relatives were the Duke and Duchess of Kent, her grandnephew and his wife. At the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1937, Louise lent the Duchess the train that she designed and wore for the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra in 1902.", "A war hospital in Erskine, Scotland, is named after Louise. It took her name as she was the first patron of the unit. It was originally called Princess Louise Scottish Hospital for Limbless Sailors and Soldiers. The name changed over the years to Erskine Hospital and then just Erskine. The charity has grown to become the biggest ex-service establishment in the country.\n\nArt practice", "Art practice \n\nLouise had artistic training from childhood, first with Susan Durant from 1864, then Mary Thornycroft from 1867, and further lessons with Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm. She also then attended National Art Training School. Like many women artists in the nineteenth century, Louise had to make do with training intended for industrial designers and art teachers rather than fine artists. There was no training from the nude model, as there was for male art students.", "Louise was the most artistically talented of Queen Victoria's daughters and was a prolific artist and sculptor. When Louise sculpted a statue of the queen, portraying her in Coronation robes, the press claimed that her tutor, Sir Edgar Boehm, was the true creator of the work. The claim was denied by Louise's friends, who asserted her effort and independence. The work was intended to be exhibited in 1887, but production was delayed until 1893", ". The work was intended to be exhibited in 1887, but production was delayed until 1893. A memorial to her brother-in-law, Prince Henry of Battenberg, and a memorial to the colonial soldiers who fell during the Second Boer War, reside at Whippingham Church on the Isle of Wight, and another statue of Queen Victoria remains at McGill University in Montreal, as well as the statue of Queen Victoria on the north side of Lichfield Cathedral.", "Selected works of art\n\nWorks on paper \n Queen Victoria, 1881. Pencil on paper, 36.9 x 24.0 cm (sheet of paper). Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 980422.", "Sculpture \n Princess Beatrice, 1864. Marble, 55.0 x 29.0 x 23.0 cm. Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 53351.\n Prince Arthur, 1869. Marble, 61.5 x 33.0 x 26.0 cm. Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 31662.\n Prince Leopold,1869. Marble, 43.4 x 29.0 x 19.0 cm. Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 34511. \n Queen Victoria, 1887. Bronze, 61.5 x 46 x 41 cm. Leeds Museums and Galleries, Temple Newsam House.\n Self Portrait, n.d. Terracotta, 63.5 cm. National Portrait Gallery, London.", "Self Portrait, n.d. Terracotta, 63.5 cm. National Portrait Gallery, London.\n Memorial to Mary Ann Thurston Grade II listed monument in Kensal Green Cemetery. Thurston was nanny to Queen Victoria's children 1845–67.\n Memorial to the Colonial Forces of the Second Boer War, erected 1905, St Paul's Cathedral, London", "Titles, styles, honours and arms\n\nTitles and styles\n 18 March 1848 – 21 March 1871: Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise\n 21 March 1871 – 24 April 1900: Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne\n 24 April 1900 – 3 December 1939: Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll", "Honours\nBritish honours\n 21 January 1865: Lady of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert (first class)\n 1 January 1878: Companion of the Order of the Crown of India\n 7 August 1885: Member of the Royal Red Cross\n 10 February 1904: Royal Family Order of King Edward VII\n 3 June 1911: Royal Family Order of King George V\n 3 June 1918: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire\n 12 June 1926: Dame Grand Cross of the Venerable Order of St John\n 11 May 1937: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order", "Foreign honours\n 8 January 1866: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel", "Honorary military appointments\n 3 July 1911: Honorary Colonel, 5th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards (which became 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards in 1936)\n 1913: Colonel-in-Chief, Kensington Regiment (Princess Louise's)\n 22 June 1914: Colonel-in-Chief, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's)\n 15 April 1930: Colonel-in-Chief, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada (Princess Louise's)\n 14 August 1936: Colonel-in-Chief, The Princess Louise Fusiliers", "Honorary roles\n President of the Women's Education Union from 1871\n Patron of the Girls' Day School Trust, 1872–1939\n Patron of the Ladies Lifeboat Guild, Royal National Lifeboat Institution, 1923–39", "Arms\nIn 1858, Louise and the three younger of her sisters were granted use of the royal arms, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced by a label of three points argent. On Louise's arms, the outer points bore cantons gules, and the centre a rose gules. In 1917, the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant from George V.\n\nAncestry\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n \n \n \n \n\n Hawksley, Lucinda (2013). The Mystery of Princess Louise: Queen Victoria's Rebellious Daughter. London: Chatto and Windus.", "External links", "1848 births\n1939 deaths\nAlumni of the Royal College of Art\nBritish feminists\nBritish princesses\nBurials at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore\nCanadian viceregal consorts\nCompanions of the Order of the Crown of India\nDames Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order\nDames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire\nDames Grand Cross of the Order of St John\nLouise\nEnglish women painters\nEnglish women sculptors\nHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)\nMembers of the Royal Red Cross", "House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)\nMembers of the Royal Red Cross\nLadies of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert\nPeople associated with the Royal National College for the Blind\nWomen of the Victorian era\n19th-century English painters\n20th-century English painters\n19th-century English women artists\n20th-century English women artists\nChildren of Queen Victoria\n4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards\n8th Canadian Hussars (Princess Louise's)\nPrincess Louise Fusiliers", "8th Canadian Hussars (Princess Louise's)\nPrincess Louise Fusiliers\nArgyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada (Princess Louise's)\nRoyal reburials\nWives of knights\nDaughters of monarchs" ]

[ "Highlander: The Series is a Canadian-French science fantasy action-adventure television series featuring Duncan MacLeod (Adrian Paul) of the Scottish Clan MacLeod, as the eponymous \"Highlander\". It was co-produced by Rysher Distribution in the United States, Gaumont Television in France, Reteitalia in Italy, RTL Plus in Germany, and Amuse Video in Japan", ". An alternate sequel to the 1986 feature film Highlander, it features a storyline in which the protagonist of that film (Connor MacLeod, a member of a race of \"Immortals\") has not won \"the Prize\" sought by all Immortals, who still exist post-1985. Christopher Lambert reprised his role as Connor in the pilot episode, which introduced series protagonist Duncan MacLeod, an Immortal who was taken in by the same clan of Scottish Highlanders who had found and raised Connor generations before.", "The series was an international hit and was nominated twice for the Motion Picture Sound Editors' Golden Reel Award (Foley Artist (\"The Gathering\"): 1992; Foley Artist (\"The Darkness\"): 1993), three times for the Gemini Award (Best Dramatic Series: 1996; Best Performance by an Actor in a Guest Role in a Dramatic Series: 1997 (John Pyper-Ferguson), 1996 (Bruce A", ". Young)), once for a Saturn Award (Best Genre Syndicated TV Series: 1997), and eight times for the Online Film & Television Association Award (Best Guest Actress in a Syndicated Series (Sandra Bernhard), Best Direction in a Syndicated Series, Best Writing in a Syndicated Series, Best Syndicated Series, Best Ensemble in a Syndicated Series: 1997; Best Actor in a Syndicated Series (Peter Wingfield), Best Syndicated Series, Best Ensemble in a Syndicated Series: 1998).", "Series overview\n\nHistory\nThe pilot episode established the main character, Duncan MacLeod, and his girlfriend Tessa Noël (played by Alexandra Vandernoot), initially living quietly together as co-proprietors of the antique shop MacLeod & Noël Antiques. Richie Ryan (Stan Kirsch) was introduced as a thief breaking into their shop and witnessing the confrontation between Duncan, the evil Immortal Slan Quince (Richard Moll), and Duncan's fellow clansman Connor MacLeod, the hero from the movies.", "Also revealed was that Duncan had lived nearly 400 years, and was one of many such Immortals in the world. Connor had come to ask Duncan to return to the Game, to fight on the side of good against evil. \"The Game\" was the term used by the Immortals to describe their hunting of one another, seeking \"Quickenings\" by beheading their opponents. Duncan had been hiding from other Immortals for some time, removing himself from the Game", ". Duncan had been hiding from other Immortals for some time, removing himself from the Game. Now hunted by Quince, he had to face him, and by the end of the first episode, Slan was defeated and Duncan clearly caught up in The Game again.", "Storylines revolved around Duncan MacLeod and his relationships with mortals and other Immortals. Relationships formed a theme in the series, especially Duncan MacLeod's relationships with his friends, family, lovers, and foes (). As the series progressed, changes in concept become apparent, as well as normal growth in the characters and their relationships", ". Recurring Immortal characters such as Amanda and Methos made guest appearances in season one, and the Watchers, including Joe Dawson, were introduced in season two.", "In the final episode of season 5, \"Archangel\", the character of Richie Ryan was killed off and the supernatural demon Ahriman introduced into the storyline. Of the 13 episodes of season six, two did not feature MacLeod, while in some he appeared in cameos: the producers were experimenting with introducing a new female Immortal character for a spin-off series. None of the introduced characters were chosen, and what came to be Highlander: The Raven featured the recurring character Amanda in a starring role", ". The spin-off series lasted for one season, consisting of 22 episodes.", "Cast and characters\n\nNarration\nEach episode began with an opening montage of scenes from Duncan's life, over which was a narration giving a brief overview of the series' theme. The first six episodes of the first season were narrated by Duncan himself:\n\nThis narration was slightly changed in the show's seventh episode, \"Mountain Men\" (again by Duncan):\n\nThe narration changed again in the second season, when Watcher Joe Dawson was introduced (narrative by Joe):", "The narration changed again at the beginning of the fourth season, and remained until the end of the series' run (narrative by Joe):\n\nSeason one", "Duncan MacLeod and Tessa Noel have been living in the city of Seacouver in the Pacific North West for several years, where they run an antiques store. One night, a young street punk called Richie Ryan breaks into the shop whilst they are celebrating Tessa's birthday but is caught by MacLeod, who threatens to cut off his head with a sword", ". Stunned by MacLeod's seeming over-reaction, Richie watches as another man jumps in through the skylight and challenges the antiques dealer, only to be disconcerted by the appearance of a third man with a Japanese sword, who is in turn hunting him. The intruder is Slan Quince, who is hunting Duncan, unaware that he is himself the target of Duncan's kinsman, Connor MacLeod. Intrigued, the kid follows the MacLeods, only to see first Connor, then Duncan, fight Slan", ". Intrigued, the kid follows the MacLeods, only to see first Connor, then Duncan, fight Slan. He sees Connor defeated but escape, leaving Duncan to behead Quince. Amazed, he watches Duncan caught at the center of lightning and explosions as he witnesses, for the first time, a Quickening. Before he leaves, Connor tells Duncan that he must watch Richie, which Duncan does by taking in the boy, who has no family, and employing him in the antiques store", ". MacLeod also tells Richie the truth about himself and the others – that he is 400 years old and he, like them, is Immortal (\"The Gathering\"). As the series progressed, MacLeod encountered Immortals like Howard Crowley whom he killed in revenge for killing an Immortal friend of his and framing an innocent man for it (\"Innocent Man\"), Kiem Sun (\"Road Not Taken\") and taking in an Immortal student Felice Martin (Free Fall)", ". He even saves Tessa from Immortals like survivalist Caleb Cole (for the only time in the series, Tessa sees Duncan caught in the power of a Quickening) (\"Mountain Men\") and Andrew Ballin, who wanted to kill her after she witnessed him killing his former lover (\"Eyewitness\"). Alexei Voshin, with whom he has an old score to settle (\"The Sea Witch\"), and Walter Reinhardt, another Immortal he had crossed paths with before (\"Revenge Is Sweet\").", "The idyllic life of Duncan and Tessa is shattered by the arrival of a message from one of Mac's teachers, the priest Darius. Darius' most powerful enemy, Grayson, was coming to Seacouver, to eliminate a mortal peacemaker and disciple of Darius, Victor Paulus. Grayson was a lieutenant of Darius when they led an army across Europe in the 5th century but turned against him when Darius killed the then-oldest living Immortal at the gates of Paris and became a man of peace", ". Determined to protect Tessa and Richie but uncertain of his ability to handle Grayson, he sends them to Darius for protection, then sets out to face Grayson. Grayson offers MacLeod a position at his right hand, but is refused. Grayson takes MacLeod to the limit before the Highlander prevails. MacLeod follows his friends to Paris, where he and Tessa decide to stay, living on Duncan's barge", ". MacLeod follows his friends to Paris, where he and Tessa decide to stay, living on Duncan's barge. Tessa takes up a post as a curator, Duncan takes up the role of a kept man and Richie that of a fish out of water (\"Band of Brothers\").", "Duncan does the shopping, but as he is returning to the barge one morning, he sees a man dressed as a mime kill an elderly man (\"For Evil's Sake\"). Helping the police, he tells them that he can identify the man. The police inspector, LeBrun, is convinced he has seen Duncan before. Later, mysterious men with guns stake out the barge and, when Duncan fells one, he finds that he is a policeman", ". LeBrun has remembered Duncan – when he was a young gendarme, they were chasing the assassin Kuyler and he saw Duncan then. LeBrun's assistant is in Kuyler's pay, but Duncan silences the mime forever and LeBrun arrests his assistant. Duncan hasn't finished with LeBrun, for when his old enemy Xavier St Cloud crosses his path again, Duncan throws one of Xavier's gas grenades into a cement mixer and LeBrun fishes it out (\"For Tomorrow We Die\")", ". Convinced MacLeod is the gas poisoner, LeBrun tries to run him in whilst Duncan has to stop Xavier from gassing an exhibition Tessa is organizing. Frustrated, Xavier comes for Duncan, but Duncan cuts off Xavier's hand and he disappears into the Seine. The series also introduced two old Immortal lovers of Duncan’s to test Tessa's restraint", ". The series also introduced two old Immortal lovers of Duncan’s to test Tessa's restraint. Grace Chandel, on the run both from the police, who want to arrest her for killing her mortal husband, and the Immortal ex-lover who was the real killer, the possessive Carlo Sendaro (\"Saving Grace\") was welcomed by Tessa, when Duncan and Darius help her escape, Duncan making sure that Carlo will not trouble her again. The same was not true of Amanda, described by Duncan as \"a bad habit\"", ". The same was not true of Amanda, described by Duncan as \"a bad habit\". In \"The Lady and The Tiger\" we met the unprincipled cat-burglar with a passion for circuses, robbery, and 400-year-old Scotsmen, here trying to set up MacLeod so that the Immortal thief she had double-crossed, Zachary Blaine, would not take her head. In the end, she takes Zachary's, but not before Duncan has done all the hard work. Which pretty much set the pattern for all of the Amanda stories to come.", "In the season finale, Duncan's old friend, Hugh Fitzcairn, comes to see him, with news that Immortals are disappearing. When they go to see Darius, they find him decapitated inside the church. Returning to Fitz's hotel, they are attacked and Fitz is spirited away, whilst Duncan returns to the church, finding a mysterious book hidden by Darius. It is a history of Immortals written by a secret society of mortals", ". It is a history of Immortals written by a secret society of mortals. When these mortals come for Duncan, he is ready and follows them back to their hideout, rescuing Fitz, who is about to be guillotined and confronting their leader, a wild-eyed fanatic who wants to destroy all Immortals. He gets away, leaving a shattered MacLeod to mourn his friend and teacher. The season ends with MacLeod vowing revenge on the men and pouring Darius' ashes into the Seine, to flow out to the sea (\"The Hunters\").", "Season two", "This season opened with a new title sequence and a mysterious voice over explaining who Duncan MacLeod is and giving a quick summary of the Rules of the Game. Not so mysterious a voice, as we were to find out, as it is the voice of Joe Dawson. In the first story, (\"The Watchers\"), a bitter MacLeod returns to Seacouver, determined to find Darius' killers, but with only the Chronicle left by Darius to guide him. He follows a clue to a bookstore, where the manager, Dawson, denies knowing about the book", ". He follows a clue to a bookstore, where the manager, Dawson, denies knowing about the book. When MacLeod chases down two men watching from across the street, Dawson follows and tells Duncan that he is his Watcher, one of a secret society of mortals who observe and record the history of the Immortals, but never interfere. He refuses to believe MacLeod's assertion that Darius was murdered by mortals, but is forced to when the leader of the killers is revealed to be his own brother-in-law, James Horton", ". MacLeod confronts Horton, who shoots him, but not before MacLeod extracts his vengeance for Darius and runs Horton through with his sword. Believing Horton dead, but now aware of the Watchers, MacLeod carries on with his life and tries to help two old friends, but with differing results. Gregor Powers has become a photographer but has lost touch with his humanity, pushing his feelings for others away to avoid the recurring pain of loss (\"Studies In Light\")", ". Duncan helps him to learn to value his life and the gift of his Immortality, whilst watching his own former lover, Linda Plager, who is mortal, die of old age and infirmity. Soon after, another Immortal friend, Michael Moore, appears, looking for Mac's help in hunting down Quenten Barnes, Michael's long time enemy, who has reappeared after a long absence (\"Turnabout\")", ". Also reappearing is Joe Dawson, who tries to enlist Duncan's help, as Barnes is hunting down and killing the men who tried and executed him years before (\"Turnabout\"). Barnes was buried and has only recently been disinterred. An uneasy peace is struck between Watcher and Immortal, as the terrible truth dawns – Michael is Quenten Barnes, the two sides of his personality fragmented into a schizophrenic existence", ". As Quenten slowly takes permanent control, Michael pleads with Duncan to end it and MacLeod kills his friend. During this episode, Mac takes Richie to a martial arts gym, or dojo, run by Charlie DeSalvo, where they intend to train. Thoughts of extra-curricular activities are put aside as the reopening of the antiques shop gets nearer. After a spooky encounter with a palm reader reminds Mac of the gypsies' warning that he will never marry, he tempts fate by asking Tessa to marry him", ". Overjoyed, she accepts and, as they plan the wedding, Mac is lured from the shop by a group of Watchers, whose leader, Pallin Wolf, stuns Richie and kidnaps Tessa. Using her as a lure, he entices MacLeod to his home, where he has a lightless room in which he hunts and kills Immortals, using a nightscope to see his prey (a la \"Silence Of The Lambs\"). Fate smiles on Mac by allowing him to defeat Wolf and rescue Tessa despite \"The Darkness\", but he makes a decision that will haunt him", ". Sending Tessa with Richie, he stays to rifle the man's files, but as they leave, they are mugged and shot dead. MacLeod runs out to find them both lying in the street. As he holds Tessa in his arms, Richie revives, a newborn Immortal. Grief-stricken, MacLeod sells the store. Richie arrives at the loft one night with a girl he has rescued, who was being pursued by an Immortal (\"Under Color Of Authority\"). From the description, Duncan recognizes that the hunter is Mako, an eternal lawman", ". From the description, Duncan recognizes that the hunter is Mako, an eternal lawman. The girl is evasive, but it transpires that she is on the run for murdering her husband, who abused her, but she fears that she will be killed if she goes back, as her husband's father runs the town. Mako doesn't care – he has a warrant and will take her back to stand trial", ". Mako doesn't care – he has a warrant and will take her back to stand trial. Richie refuses to stand by and helps her to flee, but when Mako accidentally kills the girl, Richie is enraged and challenges Mako, whom he kills, despite Duncan pleading with him not to. For the first time, Richie feels the power of a Quickening, but it is tinged with sadness as Mac tells him that he is now on his own and must leave.", "Season three", "Duncan takes Anne to a recital by a choir of monks, one of whom, Paul, is an Immortal. Neither man realises that the song being sung is \"The Song Of The Executioner\", as the unseen impresario who organised the concert is Kalas, an Immortal with scores to settle with both Duncan and Paul. Kalas kills Paul and then sets about destroying MacLeod, first by framing Joe for dealing drugs then by killing two of Anne's patients and fabricating hospital records to make it look like she is responsible", ". Duncan realises that Kalas is behind this and, having cleared Joe and Anne, confronts his enemy. As they fight, Anne sees Duncan fall to his death, but Richie gets her away before Duncan revives.", "In the midst of this, Richie embarks on a new career in motorcycle racing. Rather than tell Anne the truth, especially with Kalas at large, Duncan leaves Seacouver, arranging for Maurice to buy back the barge in Paris. Arriving in Paris, Duncan is greeted by Hugh Fitzcairn, who is teaching cookery at the Cordon Bleu, (\"Star Crossed\"). The normally philandering Fitz is in love but has a rival, who tries to kill him by running the two Immortals off the road", ". At the same time, Richie arrives in France, looking to build on his American successes in motorcycling. Whilst Fitz tells Duncan he should trust Anne, Kalas frames Fitz for the murder of his rival. On the run, Fitz is confronted by Kalas, who beheads him as MacLeod helplessly watches. When Duncan comes for Kalas, his nemesis escapes into a cloud of steam.", "Determined to finish Kalas, Duncan seeks Joe's help. Kalas owns a nightclub and Duncan \"persuades\" the bartender to tell him where Kalas has gone. Kalas has captured his own Watcher and is looking for information on \"Methos\", the legendary oldest Immortal. After Kalas kills one of the Watchers' historians, Donald Salzer, Dawson sends Duncan to a researcher on the Methos Chronicle, Adam Pierson. Duncan is stunned to find that Pierson is Methos", ". Duncan is stunned to find that Pierson is Methos. Kalas confronts Methos, who escapes and sets up Duncan to take his head, realising that he cannot handle Kalas, but Duncan could. Duncan refuses, but when he confronts Kalas at Methos' apartment, their fight is interrupted by the police, who arrest Kalas for Salzer's murder after Adam Pierson identifies Kalas. Before he vanishes from Paris, Methos tells Duncan that he couldn't take the chance on Kalas winning.", "In the two part season Finale, Amanda arrives at the barge, being very, very nice to Duncan, which always arouses his suspicions, (\"Finale\"). Eventually, she tells him that she broke Kalas out of jail, to kill him, but that Kalas got away. Kalas, using the thugs employed by his cellmate, wastes no time in coming for MacLeod and, as Duncan and Amanda try to find him, finds Maurice, who Duncan rescues in the nick of time and sends out of Paris", ". Kalas captures Amanda, intending to use her as bait, but she escapes. A new problem arises, when Joe Dawson and Methos arrive at the barge. Christine Salzer, the widow of Donald Salzer, the historian Kalas murdered, has found a database created for the Watchers and intends to give it to the newspapers. Dawson tries to stop her, even trying to shoot her, but MacLeod prevents him from becoming a murderer, taking the bullet himself.", "As the Immortals think that their secret will be on CNN, Kalas intercepts Christine and kills her, taking the vital disk. He uses the information to find the European head of the Watchers and kills him. He gives Duncan a choice – surrender to him or Kalas will broadcast the information on the disk. Watchers and Immortals combine to hunt Kalas down. Methos tells Duncan to fight Kalas. Amanda and Duncan, faced with the destruction of their world, finally admit their feelings for each other openly", ". Duncan faces Kalas on the top of the Eiffel Tower and takes his enemy's head. The Quickening of such a powerful Immortal surges through the steelwork of the tower and overloads the Paris power grid, plunging the city into darkness and, in the process, blowing up Kalas' computer and destroying the disk", ". After celebrating Duncan's victory over Kalas and remembering Paul and Fitzcairn, Joe and Methos leave Duncan and Amanda alone to work out how much of what they said to each other they really want to take back.", "Season four", "With Kalas dead, MacLeod is free to return to his normal life and resumes his interest in antiques, until one night he sees a bracelet in a private showing at a dealer's, a bracelet he thought long buried. Shadowed by a curious Joe Dawson, he returns to his native Scotland for the first time in two hundred years to return it to the grave of his first love, Debra Campbell", ". Once in Glenfinnan, he is greeted with hostility by Rachel MacLeod, the local innkeeper, as the village is beset once again by mysterious murders. With the villagers recounting the legend of Duncan MacLeod, who rose from the dead to claim his father's sword and kill the Viking raider, Kanwulf, Rachel slowly comes to trust Duncan as the legend plays itself out again and, this time, Duncan make sure he takes the Viking's head and Quickening before leaving Glenfinnan at peace", ". (this marked Adrian Paul’s directorial debut in the series) The episode that followed saw the final guest appearance of Phillip Akin as Charlie DeSalvo who was killed by immortal Andrew Cord in Brothers in Arms. The season also saw the friendship of Joe and Duncan temporally end. But mid season saw Duncan like never before as an evil immortal after being affected by the Dark Quickening which corrupts him leading him to turn on his friends (Richie and Joe)", ". In the episode Deliverence, Duncan with the help of Methos is able to overcome the evil inside him. The cliffhanger ending to Season Four starts with a telephone call that brings Joe Dawson to Paris, in the belief that MacLeod is dead . Standing on the Quai, he is kidnapped in front of Duncan, who finds out from Methos that Joe is on trial for his life before the Watcher tribunal", ". Watchers are being killed across Europe and the Watchers believe that Joe's revelation of their secret is the root cause, unaware that it is the consequences of their own hypocrisy and double standards that is visiting destruction upon them. Blind to their own arrogance and willingness to interfere in the Game, they ignore Duncan's pleas for clemency", ". As they prepare to execute Dawson, it is they who are judged as a mysterious Immortal guns down the Watcher hierarchy and flees past Duncan, who arrives in time to find Dawson wounded and unconscious in the final scene.", "Season five", "After the events in \"Judgment Day\", the Watchers abandon all pretense of not interfering in the Game. Believing that MacLeod is responsible for the slaughter of the Watchers, Jack Shapiro, their head, orders his death and, at the beginning of \"One Minute To Midnight\", Duncan is trying to survive their manhunt", ". Believing the only way to avoid a war between the Watchers and the Immortals is to convince Shapiro of his innocence, MacLeod goes to their battle headquarters, only to find that the Immortal who is the real killer has beaten him to the punch. The bitter irony of the situation is revealed – Jacob Galati is hunting the Watchers after Horton killed his Immortal wife, Irena, during his rampage across Europe in 1992 that ended when he killed Darius in Paris, (\"The Hunters\")", ". Jacob refuses to believe that the Watchers are not evil, but agrees to meet Joe, who has been nursed back to health by Methos. Joe won't meet Jacob though and helps the Watchers to capture him. Duncan is forced to stand by whilst the Watchers murder Jacob and is devastated to receive his friend's Quickening. Methos rejects Joe and the Watchers for what they have become, but MacLeod returns to confront Shapiro, to put an end to the killing", ". When Shapiro refuses, Joe belatedly realizes that his friend has become another Horton and helps Duncan to secure peace with the Watchers. Wanting nothing to do with Paris, Duncan returns to Seacouver. There, he finds the Immortal Cassandra waiting for him. She is being hunted by Roland Kantos, one of her students, and she tells Duncan of a \"Prophecy\" that he will defeat great evil", ". Kantos relies on the hypnotic power of his voice to defeat his opponents, but Duncan, after nearly losing his head to Kantos' tricks, defeats the mesmerist by plugging his ears. Joe comes to the dojo and gets the cold shoulder from Duncan, but before he leaves, he tells MacLeod that Richie is in town, (\"The End Of Innocence\")", ". Duncan tries to make his peace with Richie, but the young Immortal is still plagued by nightmares after Duncan almost killed him in \"Something Wicked\" and warns Duncan to stay away from him. When Richie challenges and kills Carter Wellan, his mentor Haresh Clay comes for Richie, breaking his sword. Richie is arrested trying to steal another one from a museum and is bailed out by Duncan, who warns him that Clay is as good as they come and gives him a sword", ". The two Immortals work out their differences and, now acting as equals, it is Duncan who asks Richie to stand aside as he avenges his humiliation at Clay's hands when they first met and takes his head. In \"Archangel\" Duncan accidentally kills Richie thinking he is a demon he is destined to face.", "Season six\n\nThe series dealt with the Ahriman story arc in the first two episodes. A majority of the season dealt with Duncan meeting some female Immortals. The producers were experimenting to look for a replacement to Duncan for the planned spin-off Highlander: The Raven.\n\nProduction history", "Origin", "Highlander: The Series originated in Europe. Christopher Lambert, who had then starred in the first two Highlander movies, had previously worked with French leading entertainment conglomerate Gaumont's president Christian Charret. Lambert knew that Highlander producers Peter Davis and Bill Panzer wanted to make a Highlander series and connected them with Charret. Gaumont bought the rights to the series", ". Gaumont bought the rights to the series. Highlander was one of the first projects developed by Gaumont's television branch opened in 1992 and one of its financial backers was the French bank Credit du Nord.", "The French leading production company Gaumont Television bought the rights to the series to have it produced in syndication in America with a local crew, a ground-breaking move at the time. Highlander marked the first time a French production company was creatively involved in a show intended for the American market", ". The show was co-produced in syndication by international partners including Gaumont, RTL Plus (Germany), Rysher Distribution (United States), Reteitalia Productions (Italy), Amuse Video (Japan) and TF1 (France). The budget of the first season was US$26.1 million. Keith Samples, president of Rysher, stated that \"about 75% of the guaranteed budget came from overseas sales", ".\" The remaining 25% came from United States sales and the producers retained the distribution rights, which allowed the show to produce $800,000 per episode only from international income, believed to be the top result of the 1992–1993 season", ". To secure an adequate share of European content, and as a result of the co-production agreement, each season was divided into two segments, the first segment was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (posing at the fictional location of Seacouver, Washington, United States), the second in Paris, France", ". The production of the first segment began in Vancouver on July 13, 1992, while the production of the second segment started in December 1992 in Paris and used the studios of French state production agency Société Française de Production (SFP) at Bry-sur-Marne near Paris.", "The executive producers were Bill Panzer, Peter S. Davis, Gaumont Television president Christian Charret and Gaumont co-production chief Marla Ginsburg. Steven Maier, Sheryl Hardy and Guy Collins were co-executive producers. Kevin Droney and Philip John Taylor were supervising producers at the beginning of the season; from the seventh episode onwards, David Abramowitz became supervising producer instead of Taylor", ". The producers were Barry Rosen and Gary Goodman for Season One, replaced by Ken Gord from Season Two til the end of the Season Six. Executives in charge of production were Marc du Pontavice and Denis Leroy. Scripts were contributed by both staff and freelance writers, Brian Clemens among the latter. Brent-Carl Clackson was line producer on the Vancouver segment, from episode one to thirteen", ". Brent-Carl Clackson was line producer on the Vancouver segment, from episode one to thirteen. When production moved to Paris, Clackson was succeeded by Patrick Millet (with the title of production manager) for episodes fourteen to twenty-two. The regular directors were Thomas J. Wright, Jorge Montesi and Ray Austin. The fencing coach was Bob Anderson, who coined for himself the title of Master of Swords", ". The fencing coach was Bob Anderson, who coined for himself the title of Master of Swords. Anderson choreographed the fights on the Vancouver segment then was succeeded by Peter Diamond, credited as second unit director and stunt coordinator on the Paris segment. At the beginning of Season 3, F. Braun McAsh became the Swordmaster and choreographed the remaining four seasons and the fourth movie, Endgame", ". The opening theme was \"Princes of the Universe\" from the 1986 album A Kind of Magic by Queen; incidental music was composed by Roger Bellon. The pilot episode was originally intended to be a third Highlander movie (to act as a television movie), but the low budget and Lambert agreeing to reprise his role as Connor MacLeod late into production caused the pilot to be written as a one-hour pilot.", "Location", "Although Immortals are scattered around the world, the events of the series are most notably located in Vancouver, British Columbia and Paris, France. However, flashbacks during the series often brought the show to a variety of places. The locations for the present switched just past the midway point of seasons 1–5 from Seattle/Vancouver to Paris", ". Thus it became the second international TV series about a Scottish swashbuckler in France after the series Quentin Durward which had already been shot in back in 1970 and resembles many of Duncan MacLeod's (and Connor MacLeod's) historical flashbacks", ". In Paris, Duncan lived on a barge located on the Seine River (at approximately ) while in the fictional city of \"Seacouver, WA\" (somewhere in the Pacific Northwest) Duncan moved after Tessa's death from their antiques store to an apartment above his recently acquired freestyle dojo.", "Home media", "VHS release", "Beginning in 1995, full seasons of Highlander were released on VHS. These releases were the European cuts of the episodes, with each episode having approximately four minutes of additional footage not seen on American television. The first four season sets featured 11 VHS tapes, with two episodes on each tape", ". The first four season sets featured 11 VHS tapes, with two episodes on each tape. Prior to the release of the individual seasons, in October 1993, a feature-length release titled Highlander: The Gathering was released on VHS, which combined the episodes \"The Gathering\" and \"Revenge is Sweet\".", "DVD releases", "The series has been released on home video in various collections. Anchor Bay Entertainment released all six seasons on DVD in Region 1 between 2002 and 2005. The company also released a 15-episode best-of collection, as well as a collection containing all six seasons. In addition, Anchor Bay released several two-part episodes on single DVDs and edited them together to present them as feature-length films", ". For example, \"Counterfeit\" and \"Counterfeit Part Two\" were released on a single DVD as Highlander: Counterfeit. These releases have all been discontinued and are now out of print.", "In April 2018, Visual Entertainment re-released Highlander: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 22-disc collection includes all 119 episodes of the series as well as 6 hours of bonus content and also comes with a spin-off series Highlander: The Raven.\n\nSeasons\n\nNon-season DVDs", "Seasons\n\nNon-season DVDs\n\nReception\nCritical reaction to Highlander: The Series has been generally favorable, and more favorable in general than the film sequels to the original Highlander, which have mostly received negative reviews (with the exception of the anime film Highlander: The Search for Vengeance, which has received more positive reviews).", "Rob Lineberger of DVD Verdict said: \"The direction is sometimes uncertain, but Highlander: The Series gives viewers something unique and inspiring. Each episode gives us a provocative glimpse into the trials and concerns of immortality, great swordfights, stylish flashbacks to bygone eras, and occasionally wicked immortals with awesome quickenings.\" Lineberger also added: \"These actors, writers, producers, directors, and crew delivered one of television's great successes, particularly in the fantasy genre", ". Highlander: The Series took us to places we otherwise could not have gone, and did so with intelligence, style, and wit.\" Lineberger gave the six seasons scores of 92, 93, 90, 92, 87, and 70 out of 100, respectively.", "Abbie Bernstein of Audio Video Revolution said: \"Although it would be another two years until the series fully hit its stride, it was already [in the first season] offering something out of the ordinary narratively; in terms of production value, it remains one of the best-looking quasi-period shows ever to come down the pike, holding its own and then some against much better-funded product from the major studios.\" David Oliver of CHUD", ".\" David Oliver of CHUD.com said that \"whereas the sequels ultimately strayed from the mythology of the original [film] in the pursuit of more storytelling (translation: more money), the series built upon the mythology.\"", "Carlo Cavagna of About Film criticized the series, saying that it consisted of \"pedestrian one-hour confrontations pitting Duncan MacLeod against one overacting nefarious immortal after another, each a pale imitation of Clancy Brown's delicious overarching villainy in the first film\" and felt that the series featured \"a wide array of unappealing supporting characters\" and that \"the writers didn't know what to do with the Highlander concept", ".\" Similarly, Danél Griffin of Film as Art remarked that \"the six-season Highlander: The Series has a loyal following, but let’s be honest: Adrian Paul, the lead, is not an interesting actor, and there’s not one moment in the show—not one—that comes close to matching the wit or liveliness of the first film.\"", "Critics have pointed to the middle seasons of the show as its best. Lineberger remarked: \"There was a dramatic boost in quality from season one to season two. Season two had better writing and quality control, [and] season three is better than season two.\" Bernstein claimed that \"during season five, [the show] was at the peak of its creative glory", ".\" Bernstein claimed that \"during season five, [the show] was at the peak of its creative glory.\" Kathie Huddleston of Syfy said that \"season four was arguably the best season of the series, as the show said goodbye to characters from the previous season and delved into what made the regulars and the most notable recurring characters tick.\"", "Critics have singled out the sixth and final season as the worst of the series. Lineberger remarked: \"I haven't attempted to hide my disappointment with this season. For the first time ever in my life as a Highlander enthusiast, I found myself utterly uncaptivated.\" Oliver awarded the sixth season a score of 3.9 out of 10, saying: \"Like The X-Files, Highlander: The Series simply went on too long", ".9 out of 10, saying: \"Like The X-Files, Highlander: The Series simply went on too long. If the star is wanting to get out of a show as much as Paul was ready to hang up his katana, then I say let it go.\"", "In other media\n\nReunion\nIn 2008, a reunion special was filmed starring Peter Wingfield, Elizabeth Gracen, and Jim Byrnes reprising their roles. The 17-minute special was a low budget project that takes place 10 years after the series (or between the fourth and fifth movies). Filming took place at producer Peter Davis' former beach home with the actors volunteering in their roles. The plot involved the characters discussing Methos' plans to get married and settle down with a mortal woman and her son.", "Audio plays\nIn 2009, Big Finish released a series of four officially licensed audio adventures featuring Adrian Paul as Duncan MacLeod. They are set sometime after the events of the film Highlander: Endgame. Each play in the first season is around an hour long, and contains a new music score and new Highlander audio theme by Jamie Robertson. The audio series has discontinued. The episodes are:", "The Lesson – The story introduces an immortal named Pieter Gatlan, who challenges and defeats Duncan every ten years but never beheads him. Starring Adrian Paul and Trevor Cooper. Written by Trevor Baxendale.", "Love and Hate – A roof-top duel between sword-wielding combatants becomes the talk of Seacouver, but Duncan is perplexed when both bodies are found with their heads intact. He discovers there may be a sexually transmitted infection that affects immortals. Starring Adrian Paul and Beth Chalmers. Written by Colin Harvey.", "The Secret of the Sword – A known expert on swords and old weapons, Duncan MacLeod is called in to help Seacouver police value an antique blade. Duncan recognizes the sword as belonging to Michael Kent, an immortal he killed, and recalls an encounter with a samurai. Starring Adrian Paul and Toby Longworth. Written by Jonathan Clements.", "Kurgan Rising – With an increasing number of Immortals disappearing, Duncan and Watcher Joe Dawson investigate. Events lead to an immortal dying on holy ground, seemingly upsetting a balance in nature. The dead seem to rise, including Connor MacLeod and his ancient enemy the Kurgan. Starring Adrian Paul and Toby Longworth. Written by Cavan Scott & Mark Wright.", "In 2011 Big Finish released a box set containing a linked series of four audio adventures featuring the actors who played the Four Horsemen in the TV series, pitted against a new recurring villain. These are:\nBrothers – Kronos (Valentine Pelka) recalls the formation of the Four Horsemen and the reasons they separated. Written by Scott Andrews.\nAll The King's Horses – An amnesiac man wakes with a box of documents about 'Silas' (Richard Ridings). Written by Scott Andrews. Shortlisted for a Scribe Award.", "The Pain-Eater – The secret history of Caspian (Marcus Testory) is revealed. Written by Scott Andrews.\nThe Promise – Methos (Peter Wingfield) tracks down the man who has tormented all four horsemen for thousands of years. As he does so, he recounts the story of his life and his greatest love. Written by James Moran.", "A Celtic Opera\nDuncan also appears in Highlander: A Celtic Opera, an opera jointly composed by Roger Bellon and Harlan Collins. The opera follows Duncan's banishment from his clan, his relationship with a mortal woman named Aurora who becomes his first wife, and his encounters with an immortal Visigoth named Fritagern. In the end, Duncan beheads Fritagern in the 21st century after the man murders a cloned Aurora on their wedding day.", "Books\nThe ten Highlander: The Series novels published from October 1995 to September 2000 are canon. Events from them are included in the Watcher Chronicles CD-ROM, which contains an extensive database of the events and immortals of the television series.", "1995 October Highlander: The Element of Fire, by Jason Henderson — The chronicles of Duncan's training days with Connor MacLeod; the friendship between the two Highlanders through the centuries. A bloodthirsty and immortal pirate Khordas vows to kill the Highlander, making for a fearsome enemy that haunts Duncan and Connor for hundreds of years.", "1996 February Highlander: Scimitar, by Ashley McConnell – When Joe Dawson receives an ancient sword, it triggers Duncan's remembrance of his involvement in the Arab Revolt in 1916.\n 1996 September Highlander: Scotland the Brave, by Jennifer Roberson – Annie Devlin returns to draw Duncan into a new quest to win independence for Ireland. He is reluctant, given his history with failed attempts to free his homeland, including his culpability in the fate of the Stone of Scone.", "1997 May Highlander: Measure of a Man by Nancy Holder – In Venice, Italy 1655, Duncan meets legendary manipulator – and, apparently, Immortal – Niccolò Machiavelli. Duncan only narrowly escaped Machiavelli's machinations once; he may not be so lucky when the Prince of Lies resurfaces in 20th century North America.", "1997 August Highlander: The Path by Rebecca Neason – In 1781 Duncan meets a different kind of Immortal – the Dalai Lama. Soon the Highlander embarks on the path to enlightenment and peace. But that peace may be short-lived when the Immortal Nasiradeen invades Tibet.", "1997 November Highlander: Zealot by Donna Lettow – Duncan MacLeod was there when Avram Mordecai fought the enemies of his Jewish people in World War II, as he has for two thousand years. Now he finds himself trapped between his honor and his loyalties when he protects a Palestinian diplomat from his old friend.", "1998 June Highlander: Shadow of Obsession by Rebecca Neason – Once Darius was a man of war, laying siege to Rome. Centuries later, as a man of God, Darius touched the life of Duncan MacLeod. Now a spurned lover from Darius' warrior days returns for revenge against all he called friend.", "1998 August Highlander: The Captive Soul by Josepha Sherman – Three millennia past, Methos aided the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs when the Hyksos invaded. He reluctantly becomes a spy inside the Hyksos royal house, when he meets the Immortal – and thoroughly insane – Prince Khyan. Methos misses his chance to take the madman's head, a mistake that returns to haunt him as the Oldest Immortal returns to find his sword, killing all in his path.", "1999 February Highlander: White Silence by Ginjer Buchanan – MacLeod, Hugh Fitzcairn and his young apprentice get trapped in the frozen Yukon. There they face their deaths... over and over and over again.\n 2000 September Highlander: An Evening at Joe's – An anthology written by the cast and crew of Highlander: The Series:\n \"Letters From Viet Nam\" by Jim Byrnes\n \"Train From Bordeaux\" by Gillian Horvath\n \"The Star of Athena\" by Laura Brennan\n \"Words to the Highlander\" by Peter Hudson", "\"The Star of Athena\" by Laura Brennan\n \"Words to the Highlander\" by Peter Hudson\n \"Pants\" by Donna Lettow\n \"Consone's Diary\" by Anthony De Longis\n \"Down Towards the Outflow\" by Roger Bellon\n \"The Methos Chronicles: Part I\" by Don Anderson\n \"From the Grave\" by Stan Kirsch\n \"Postcards From Alexa\" by Gillian Horvath and Donna Lettow\n \"World Enough and Time\" (Horvath)\n \"World Enough and Time II\" (Lettow)\n \"World Enough and Time III\" (Horvath)\n \"Natural Wonders\" (Lettow)\n \"Holy Ground\" (both)", "\"World Enough and Time III\" (Horvath)\n \"Natural Wonders\" (Lettow)\n \"Holy Ground\" (both)\n \"The Man With No Name\" (Lettow)\n \"Postcards From Athens\" (Horvath)\n \"Night in Geneva\" (Lettow)\n \"He Scores!\" by Ken Gord\n \"The Staircase\" by Valentine Pelka\n \"Death Shall Have No Dominion\" by F. Braun McAsh\n \"A Time of Innocents\" by Peter Wingfield\n \"The Other Side of the Mirror\" by Dennis Berry and Darla Kershner", "A German-language novel entitled Highlander: Die Rückkehr des Unsterblichen (Highlander: The Return of the Immortal) was also published in 1994. Co-written by Martin Eisele and Hans Sommer, it details Duncan wanting to leave \"The Game\" after he beheads a female Immortal. The book is not considered canonical.\n\nComics\n\nSpin-offs\n\nHighlander: The Raven", "Plans for a spin-off series led to four episodes of Highlander: The Series to focus on four new women immortals, each seen as a possible spin-off lead. The candidates introduced were Alex Raven (Dara Tomanovich), Kyra (Alice Evans), Katya (Justina Vail), and Reagan Cole (Sandra Hess). According to behind the scene interviews and Highlander: The Complete Watcher's Guide, fan reaction was largely negative or apathetic concerning these original characters", ". The lead role for Highlander: The Raven went to Elizabeth Gracen's popular recurring character Amanda. The spin-off only lasted one season due to low ratings and changes in how syndicated shows are marketed.", "The Methos Chronicles", "In 2001, The Methos Chronicles was an animated Flash web-series (or web-cast) based on Methos (Peter Wingfield), a 5000 year-old immortal introduced in Highlander: The Series. Wingfield voiced the character for the series, which lasted only one eight-episode season. There were talks about developing a live-action series in the early 2000s with Wingfield but the series never went into production. Eight more episodes of The Methos Chronicles were produced by fans and released on Youtube.", "Highlander: Endgame (2000)", "Highlander: Endgame was a theatrical film released to theaters on September 1, 2000. Rather than a direct sequel in the Highlander film franchise, it followed the continuity of the recently ended Highlander: The Series, acting as a franchise bridge by reuniting TV series protagonist Duncan MacLeod with his mentor and kinsman Connor MacLeod, the protagonist of the original film and its two sequels. The film's antagonist is Jacob Kell (Bruce Payne), an evil immortal who ignores the rules of the Game", ". Although the TV series had made a point to say Duncan had never been married, Endgame introduces Kate Devaney, retroactively revealed to be a pre-immortal Irish woman whom Duncan married in 1715 and then stabbed, activating her immortality. Resenting her ageless life and Duncan, Kate becomes a warrior for Kell in the modern day, calling herself Faith.", "Highlander: The Source (2007)", "Highlander: The Source was a made-for-TV movie that premiered on the Sci Fi Channel on September 15, 2007 and continued the canon of Highlander: The Series, set several years after Endgame. The film takes place in a future version of Earth where human society has descended into violence and chaos", ". Duncan MacLeod, his new mortal wife Anna Teshemka, and a group of allies seek an energy well in Eastern Europe that may be the legendary Source of immortality, all while fighting the Guardian (Cristian Solimeno), an immortal empowered with superhuman abilities.", "The story and the mythology of the Source were meant to be expanded on with future films, but reception to The Source was largely negative and plans for follow-up stories were canceled. A 2008 short film called \"Reunion\", written by TV series producer David Abramowitz and directed by Don Paonessa, featured the series characters but did not acknowledge the events of Highlander: The Source", ". At the Highlander Worldwide Convention the next year, Abramowitz and others from the TV series referred to Highlander: The Source as a \"bad dream\" Duncan had. The Big Finish audio plays released in 2009 likewise do not reference the events of Highlander: The Source nor indicate that the story and its version of Earth are in Duncan's near future.", "In popular culture\nIn the TV series, Reaper, season 1, episode 15 (\"Coming to Grips\"), Bert \"Sock\" Wysocki pretends to be Duncan MacLeod as he wields the scythe \"vessel\" they are going to use to capture the escaped soul; presumably because — like swords in the Highlander series — it could be used to behead someone.\n\nSee also", "See also\n\nOutlander (TV series), a Scottish science fantasy themed show.\nWar of the Worlds: Goliath: a 2012 animated film for which many cast members of Highlander reunited to record voice acting work.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Parisian and Scottish locations\n Reunion special on Hulu", "1990s Canadian science fiction television series\nFirst-run syndicated television programs in the United States\nHighlander (franchise) television series\nTelevision series by CBS Studios\nAlternative sequel television series\n1992 Canadian television series debuts\n1998 Canadian television series endings\n1992 French television series debuts\n1998 French television series endings\nTelevision shows set in Paris\nTelevision shows set in Washington (state)\nTelevision shows filmed in France", "Television shows set in Washington (state)\nTelevision shows filmed in France\nLive action television shows based on films\nTelevision shows filmed in Vancouver\nScience fantasy television series" ]

[ "Buses are the most widespread and most commonly used form of public transport in the United Kingdom. In Great Britain, bus transportation is owned and governed by private sector companies (subject to government regulation), except in Greater London. If a socially desirable service cannot be economically operated without a subsidy, then local councils can support bus companies to provide the service, often after an open competitive tendering exercise", ". In Northern Ireland, bus services are publicly owned, governed and delivered, as is the case in the Republic of Ireland.", "Passengers board at the front door, and unless fares are automated, they should tell the driver their destination or which ticket is required. Unless there is a separate exit door, alighting passengers should be given space to get off the bus before attempting to enter the bus. Bus passengers typically form a queue at bus stops; which may not always be apparent or obvious. Barging to board a bus, or forcing one's way to the front is not considered acceptable behaviour", ". Barging to board a bus, or forcing one's way to the front is not considered acceptable behaviour. Cash is accepted on buses outside Greater London, but urban bus services often do not provide change, and the exact fare should be tendered if possible. Many users are elderly people with bus passes; otherwise, regular users can often purchase a weekly or monthly pass directly from the operator. Some local authorities also offer multi-operator passes", ". Some local authorities also offer multi-operator passes. Long distance rural bus services often provide change due to having more fare stages. Contactless fare payment is available on many urban bus services.", "Potentially badly-behaved passengers should consult the operator's conditions of carriage for information on unacceptable conduct on board buses; all passengers agree to these terms by using the service. Many bus companies have a lost property office for items forgotten or lost onboard buses; passengers finding lost items should hand them over to the driver, not the police, particularly as many police forces do not return lost property to their owner", ". A small fee may be charged by the lost property office before releasing lost items to their rightful owner. CCTV is commonplace onboard buses in the UK. Complaints about bus services should be addressed to the bus operator in the first instance, or to the Traffic Commissioner – the regulator of bus services. Complaints about withdrawal of bus services should be addressed to the relevant local authority.", "Service types\nMost bus services are \"stage-carriage\" services according to a published timetable, operating a fixed, numbered route which has been registered with the Traffic Commissioner with an aim to profit. Historically, and in many cases still today, routes were split into \"fare-stages\" and the fare was calculated depending on how many of these stages the passenger's journey passed.", "Other types of bus transport in the UK include:\nshort-stage bus services (a.k.a. urban buses)\n Long-stage bus (a.k.a. coach) services\n Hail and Ride services\n Demand Responsive Transport services\n Zero-fare services\n Tour buses\n Community transport services\n Private hire contract (weddings, package holidays, pilgrimages, sports team transport, rail replacement services, home-to-school pupil transport services)", "The UK does not have any specific vehicle regulations for school buses. School buses in the UK are often high-floor coaches or end of life low-floor buses being used for home-to-school pupil transport. Some school services, while mainly intended for school journeys, are open to the fare-paying public and accept other passengers", ". These services will have a route number and the destination blind will state the name of the school at the end of the route; the service will also appear on publicly available timetables just like any other bus service; whereas \"closed\" school services are not open to the public, and will not have a route number or any destination listed, or will display \"Schools\" with no further details.", "Bus vehicles\n\nHistorically, full size single and double-decker buses formed the mainstay of the UK bus fleet. Double-decker buses remain common across the country, often running into rural areas. The United Kingdom is unique in the western world as bus companies are generally free to choose whatever vehicle meets their needs from the supplier of their choice, rather than by public sector procurement.", "The first dropped-chassis buses were produced in 1924 by Guy Arab Motors. This greatly improved stability by lowering the centre of gravity and also improved loading times by reducing the number of steps to climb aboard the bus.", "Outside London, there are now very few cases of rear exit doors (often referred to as \"middle doors\") on buses to speed up passenger loadings. This is to deter fare-dodging, and to avoid personal injury claims from accidental or deliberate injury by passengers exiting via the rear door while they are closing.", "In the 1980s, minibuses were developed from so-called \"van-derived\" minibus chassis, such as the Ford Transit and the Freight Rover Sherpa. As their popularity increased, designs have become more bus focused, with the numerous Mercedes-Benz models.", "Following abortive purpose-built designs such as the Bedford JJL, and the limited use of shortened chassis such as the Seddon Pennine and Dennis Domino, the Dennis Dart introduced the concept of the midibus to the UK operating market in large numbers in the 1990s. Beginning as a short wheelbase bus, some midibus designs have become as long as full size buses.\n\nDevelopments such as the Optare Solo have further blurred the distinctions between mini and midi buses.", "Since the mid-1990s, all bus types must comply with Easy Access regulations, with the most notable change being the introduction of low-floor technology. As of 2022, 99% of the UK's bus fleet are low floor and 95% have onboard CCTV.", "Apart from a brief experiment in the 1980s in Sheffield, with the Leyland-DAB, articulated buses (artics; \"bendy buses\") had not gained a foothold in the UK market. In the new millennium, artics were introduced in various parts of the UK, following a controversial initial introduction in London. However, the London artics had all been withdrawn by 2011.\n\nHistory", "History\n\nThe horse bus era \nThe first omnibus service in the United Kingdom was started by John Greenwood between Pendleton and Manchester in 1824. Stagecoach services, sometimes over short distances, had existed for many years. Greenwood's innovation was to offer a service which did not require booking in advance, and which picked up and set down passengers en-route. Greenwood did not use the term omnibus, which was first used in France in 1826.", "In 1829 George Shillibeer started the first omnibus service in London, re-using a carriage design he developed in Paris. Over the next few decades, horse bus services developed in London, Manchester and other cities. Double deck omnibuses were introduced in the 1850s, with the upper deck accessed by a ladder, and with \"knifeboard seating\" where passengers faced outwards with their backs to each other on top of one large combined bench in the centre of the upper deck the \"knifeboard\"", ". At the Great Exhibition of 1851 which was originally situated in Hyde Park, omnibuses were overwhelmed by demand to the point that a carriage collapsed under the weight of extra passengers. The growth of suburban railways, horse trams (from 1860) and electric trams (from 1885) changed the patterns of horse bus services, but horse buses continued to flourish, particularly where other modes of transport were prohibited by law as was the case with tramways and surface railways in some areas", ". Carriages improved, with the ladder giving way to an (unsheltered) spiral staircase - which meant women wearing very long skirts could access the upper deck - and seating on the upper deck changing from the knifeboard to \"garden-style\" seating i.e. forward-facing bench seats. By 1900 there were 3,676 horse buses in London.", "Motorisation \nThere were experiments with steam buses in the 1830s, but the Locomotive Act 1861 virtually eliminated mechanically propelled road transport from Britain until the law was changed in 1896.", "Motor buses grew quickly, and soon eclipsed the horse buses. Early operators were the tramway companies, e.g. the British Electric Traction Company, and the railway companies. In London, the horse bus companies, the London General Omnibus Company, and Thomas Tilling introduced motor buses in 1902 and 1904, and the National Steam Car Company started steam bus services in 1909. By the time of the First World War, BET had begun to emerge as a national force.", "From 1897 various experimental motor buses were developed with petrol-engined vehicles, petrol-electrics and even electrobuses, until diesel emerged as the dominant power source. This was assisted by the end of the First World War, in which many mechanics and drivers were trained to work on diesel vehicles", ". Early motorbuses were very uncomfortable: although the pneumatic tyre had been invented in the 19th century, buses and other heavy vehicles still had solid-rubber tyres, as pneumatic tyres could not cope with the weight of buses at that time; however improvements continued to be made. Once tyres could withstand the weight of buses, travel by bus became much more comfortable, to the detriment of the trams of the time", ". With the advent of motor buses, many other improvements became standard, such as enclosing the upper deck in a saloon, and enclosing the spiral staircase, as motor buses could cope with the increased weight of these improvements.", "Interwar Regulation and Consolidation", "Other than meeting vehicle safety standards; bus transport was unregulated. Anyone with the vehicles and trained staff could enter the market and provide a bus service, with no requirements for a fixed route, route number, or timetable although in practice, this information was provided in some form to attract patronage", ". Following the Great War, there was a significant increase in the number of motorbuses due to the Armed Forces' preference for diesel vehicles and man drivers and mechanics being demobilised. The first so-called \"pirate bus\" was the Chocolate Express which began in August 1922. This market disruptor was followed by many other small companies entering the market which depressed revenues for bus companies, railways and tramways, leading to the so-called \"pirate bus crisis\" of 1924.", "In London, where competition was fiercest, the Tramways appeared to incur the biggest losses from the vastly increased competition, due to being slower, and as-comfortable as motorbuses at the time. The County Council, and the Cheap Trains Act 1883 required the Tramways to provide workmens' services with commuted fares - a burden not imposed on buses - in order to enable the working class to move out of central London and relieve overcrowding", ". The Tramways attempted to cut pay to remain viable in the absence of subsidy from the London County Council but the Transport and General Workers Union countered the pay cut with a claim for increased pay for all Tramway workers. This was not accepted and a strike was immediately called. The Tramway workforce were soon joined by workers from the larger bus companies, and three days later, the underground railways which left London with little to no public transport for the duration of the strike.", "The London Traffic Act 1924 was passed rapidly after the pirate bus crisis of that year. The Act enabled the Minister of Transport to declare any street in the City of London or Metropolitan Police district a restricted street, preventing any new services or entrants running buses in that area. The Act also required all routes to be numbered and registered with the Police Commissioner", ". The Act also required all routes to be numbered and registered with the Police Commissioner. In addition to introducing route service standards, this Act was protectionist and it enabled the sector to consolidate into monopolies, as it gave certainty to investors that any bought-out competitors would not be immediately replaced by another. Independent bus companies managed to raise a petition with almost a million signatures in 1926 to repeal the Act but were unsuccessful", ". The Cheap Fares Act was repealed in 1929.", "The Road Traffic Act 1930 introduced Road Service Licensing across Great Britain. These Licences introduce route standards (a timetable, route number and destination) and imposed a barrier to entry for new bus companies and services, which had deterred consolidation outside the London traffic area. In 1931, Tilling acquired control of the National. In England outside London and towns where municipalities ran their own buses, the industry was dominated by Tilling, BET and their joint company TBAT", ". In Scotland, Scottish Motor Traction came to be the dominant operator.", "The London General Omnibus Company had achieved dominance in the County of London before the First World War, and its two major competitors, Tilling and National (in 1919 renamed National Omnibus and Transport Company) looked elsewhere for expansion. After the Road Traffic Act; BET, Tilling and National gradually acquired independent bus operators, ending the intense competition of the 1920s outside London", ". Tilling had shares in BET as well as competing with BET, and in 1928 the two companies formed Tilling & British Automobile Traction Co., which continued its acquisitions. At the end of the 1920s the railways mostly ceased direct bus operation, but acquired interests in many bus companies. The National transferred its operations to three companies jointly owned with the railways, Eastern National, Southern National and Western National.", "In 1933, the London Passenger Transport Board was established for the surrounding area of up to 30 miles from London, where bus services were compulsorily transferred to the Board which was neither fully private nor publicly accountable.\n\nIn 1942, TBAT was wound up, and its companies transferred to Tilling.\n\nNationalisation and Decline", "Nationalisation and Decline \n\nThe post-war Labour government embarked on a programme of nationalisation of transport. Under the Transport Act 1947, the British Transport Commission acquired the bus services of Thomas Tilling, Scottish Motor Traction and the large independent Red & White. By the nationalisation of the railways, the BTC also acquired interests in many of BET's bus companies, but BET was not forced to sell its companies and they were not nationalised.", "In 1962 the BTC's bus companies were transferred to the Transport Holding Company. Then in 1968 BET sold its UK bus companies to the Transport Holding Company. Almost all of the UK bus industry was by then owned by the government under the National Bus Company or by local governments.", "Bus passenger numbers continued to decline in the 1960s. The Transport Act 1968 was an attempt to rationalise publicly owned bus services and provide a framework for the subsidy of uneconomic but socially necessary services. The Act:\n transferred the English and Welsh bus companies of the Transport Holding Company to the new National Bus Company\n transferred the country services of London Transport to the NBC.\n transferred the Scottish bus companies of the THC to the Scottish Transport Group", "transferred the Scottish bus companies of the THC to the Scottish Transport Group\n transferred municipal bus operations in the 5 large metropolitan areas outside London to new Passenger Transport Executives, together with some operations of THC companies in those areas.\n granted powers to local governments to provide subsidies to cover NBC subsidiaries' operating defecits incurred when delivering the regulated networks.\n introduced the New Bus Grant which promoted driver-only buses.", "The National Bus Company underwent a corporate restructure in 1972, consolidating the former companies into a more uniform design and brand, with intercity services coming under one brand - National Travel - which would eventually evolve into National Express.", "Phasing out of crewed (conductor) buses", "Crewed buses, with a driver and a conductor (colloquially known as a clippie) were very common in the United Kingdom until the mid-1960s, when labour shortages made recruitment and retention of conductors and drivers more difficult. Conductors allowed faster boarding and handled collection of fares which varied by distance – the fare stages – which meant shorter journeys were cheaper covering only one fare stage, and longer journeys were more expensive as they covered more stages.", "The Ministry of Transport incentivised bus companies to purchase driver-only buses with the New Bus Grant, which was only available for one-man-operation buses. Crewed buses began to decline during the 1970s: rear-door buses were gradually phased out at the end of their useful lives; they were mostly phased out by 1980.", "Crewed buses enjoyed a brief reprieve in 1986 as London Transport disposed of its Routemaster buses. Many of these were bought by bus companies in the provinces to help them gain market share from competitors. Crewed buses were then phased out again as on-road competition died off to reduce costs. Many urban bus companies simplified their fare stages to speed up passenger loadings, and to make it easier to respond to competitors' price changes", ". Many urban bus companies also began implementing exact fare policies, both to reduce risk of theft or robbery, and to deter passengers from seeking change for bank notes on buses. Many rural or inter-urban bus services still provide change as they have maintained a higher number of fare stages, and passenger loading times are less significant.", "Contrary to popular belief, the last crewed bus service in Great Britain was not a Routemaster bus in London, but the Tayway bus service operated by Stagecoach. These buses were conventional Driver-Only Operation buses, with a conductor on board to collect fares. This service lasted until 2020 when the conductor was removed due to the coronavirus pandemic.\n\nPrivatisation and deregulation", "In 1980 the new Thatcher government began on a programme of deregulation and privatisation of bus services. This began when road service licensing - permission to operate a stage-carriage road passenger transport service - was abolished for long-distance or intercity bus and coach travel. The National Express network was privatised. The National Bus Company and Scottish Transport Group divided some of their larger subsidiaries into more saleable units", ". In 1986, under the Transport Act 1985, all bus services apart from those in London and Northern Ireland were deregulated. The NBC's and STG's subsidiaries were then sold, in most cases to their management or employees.", "Some district councils had bus departments which remained entirely under local ownership and were directly run by elected officials - sometimes referred to as a municipal operator. The Transport Act 1985 required that these public service departments (analogous to other council functions such as schools and library departments) were reconstituted as limited companies, and were kept at arms'-length from councils", ". Elected officials have little or no say in directly running their respective bus companies with the exception of Newport Bus who have a minority of serving Councillors on their governing board. Councils with municipal bus companies may set a strategy for the operator, but decision-making about fares, routes and frequencies are taken by the board members, rather than councillors.", "Post-deregulation, the intended model had been for competition between private companies to increase services. Regulations prevented neighbouring state owned companies being sold to the same concern, to create a 'patch-work' distribution of the operating areas. Competition law prevented private companies acquiring more than a certain percentage of geographical market share.", "There were few cases of long-term sustained on-street competition. As competition often occurs on frequency, resulting in a period of loss-making competition, where both operators operate a high frequency loss-making service, ending with one operator leaving the market.\n\nAdministrative or political disputes over bus service provision are rare in the UK, except for the longest subsidised bus routes crossing multiple local authority areas.", "Subsidy reform", "The Transport Act 1985 stripped local government powers to subsidise bus companies as had been established in 1968. Previously, local governments could provide a general grant to the operating company - an NBC subsidiary or their own municipal transport department to cover losses incurred for maintaining the network, or improving pay and conditions for the workforce", ". This had the effect of all the public sector operators' losses being transferred to the local authority with poor accountability mechanisms in place.", "This power was replaced by empowering local councils to create contracts for individual routes, which were awarded following competitive bidding. This allowed all supported services to be evaluated in their own right by the local authority. This had the effect of splitting the market into two parts, one paid for mostly by the local government, and one which was paid for by passengers using the service, either through them paying directly through fares, or via operator reimbursement for concessionary travel", ".", "The Fuel Duty Rebate was unaffected, as this was paid to all bus companies running registered bus routes according to their fuel consumption and was considered not sufficiently distortionary to the bus service market to require reform.", "Greater London\nThe Conservative government moved to abolish the Greater London Council in 1984, in response to Ken Livingston's leadership of the GLC which featured many disputes with Westminster, including the Fares Fair policy. The functions of London Transport were transferred to the Secretary of State for Transport through London Regional Transport. Bus services in London were transferred to a new company, London Buses in 1984, which was split into smaller companies in 1989 which were then privatised.", "With the exception of South Yorkshire PTE, who also operated a low-fares policy before 1985, London transport's operating deficit was too large for London's transport to be privatised in the same way as other companies in Great Britain, due to continued use of conductors, routemaster buses, and its pre-war predecessor. Bus fares in London are paid to TfL directly, rather than to the operator as happens elsewhere in Great Britain. This allows bus fares to be lower than the cost of running services.", "Consolidation", "Many municipal and former NBC companies struggled to adjust to on-road competition and were sold to their management, employees, or other operators, which were in turn bought by one of the now-dominant bus operator groups - sometimes referred to as 'private', or 'group' operators. PTEs were also required to split and sell their bus departments", ". PTEs were also required to split and sell their bus departments. The largest of the group operators - FirstGroup began as the Aberdeen municipal transport department - then renamed as Grampian Regional Transport - which was willingly sold by their local authority and grew by acquisition.", "After an initial burst of new entrants into the bus market, causing bus wars many of these new companies went bust, were acquired by other operators, or otherwise exited the market. Companies began merging and growing in the 1980s and 1990s, some growing in the pursuit of listing on the stock exchange", ". Five major bus groups emerged - two (FirstGroup and Go-Ahead Group) were formed from NBC bus companies sold to their management, two (Stagecoach and Arriva) were independent companies which pursued aggressive acquisition policies, and National Express was the privatised coach operator which diversified into bus operation.", "Recent trends have seen the disposal of relatively large companies where revenues do not meet shareholder expectations. The Stagecoach Group went so far as to dispose of its two large London operations, citing the inability to grow the business within the London regulated structure. They later repurchased their London operations in 2010, after it entered administration.", "Some large overseas groups have also entered the UK bus market, such as Transit Systems, who purchased First's London operations, under the Tower Transit name, and ComfortDelGro, who own Metroline, and recently purchased New Adventure Travel", "Disability Access\nAlmost all buses were not accessible to wheelchair users until the Disability Discrimination Act 2005 forced bus companies to acquire low-floor accessible buses. This followed an extensive campaign of direct action by disabled people's groups - often blocking or chaining themselves to inaccessible buses. Low-floor accessible buses were gradually phased in with a negligible number of non-accessible vehicles running in 2017-18.", "Concessionary Travel Expansion", "In 2006, the Scottish Executive introduced the first national concessionary bus travel scheme for all persons aged 60 or over, replacing various local concessionary travel schemes. In England, a similar scheme was introduced at the national level, but has since raised the eligibility age to state pension age. Neither of these concessionary travel schemes made a noticable impact on bus patronage. The Scottish Government introduced another concessionary travel scheme for people aged 11–21 in 2022", ". The young persons' scheme has appears to have been more successful at increasing patronage than the previous schemes.", "Coronavirus Pandemic, lockdown and recovery\nBus patronage decreased sharply following the lockdown in response to the covid pandemic. The UK government established the Covid Bus Service Support Grant (CBSSG) which was paid to local governments outside Greater London to maintain bus services through the pandemic. Greater London had a separate programme of support for its services, with frequent disputes between the UK government and Sadiq Khan, the Mayor of London at the time.", "Scotland provided funding direct to bus operators through its equivalent scheme, Covid Support Grant. The Welsh Government supported its bus services through its Bus Emergency Scheme\n\nBetween January 2022 and January 2023, registered bus routes fell by 9.5%.\n\nAs was the case in many other countries, many bus drivers contracted coronavirus with higher death rates than the general population.", "Following lifting of restrictions, many bus services struggled to restore previous levels of service due to the loss of bus drivers to the haulage sector who offer better pay, retirement, ill-health, or premature death. Travel patterns have been altered, with the decline in city-centre working in many areas, which significantly impacts on bus companies' income", ". Governments have intervened to support bus services in a variety of ways, including a £2 cap on single fares in England which was launched on 1 January 2023.", "Decarbonisation", "The UK Government and devolved administrations have worked to transition buses away from diesel to hydrogen fuel cell or battery-electric powertrains. The Zero Emission Bus Regional Area scheme provided funding to local governments in England to work with bus companies to deliver zero emission buses and supporting infrastructure in their area. The Scottish Ultra Low Emission Bus Schemes provided funding to bus companies directly to acquire battery electric buses and supporting infrastructure", ". London and Northern Ireland have acquired zero emission buses directly due to these markets being regulated in their respective areas.", "Hydrogen \nHydrogen buses were introduced as a trial in 2015 in Aberdeen, and ran until 2020. The following year, the world's first hydrogen powered double-deckers began service in the city. Later in 2021, Transport for London introduced 20 hydrogen double-deckers.\n\nRegulation", "Regulation\n\nToday, bus service provision for public transport in the UK is regulated in a variety of ways. Bus transport in London is regulated by Transport for London. Bus transport in some large conurbations is regulated by Passenger Transport Executives. Bus transport elsewhere in the country must meet the requirements of the local Traffic Commissioner, and run to their registered service. Under the free market, the barriers to entry into public bus service operation is aimed to be as low as possible.", "Operators of service buses and coaches (PSVs) must hold an operating licence (an 'O' licence). Under an O licence, operators are registered with the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency (VOSA) under a company name, and if applicable, any trading names, and are allocated a maximum fleet size allowed to be stored at nominated operating centres. An O licence is required for each of the 8 national Traffic Areas in which an operator has an operating centre", ". Reducing the vehicle allocation on, or revoking, an O licence can occur if an operator is found to be operating in contravention of any laws or regulations.", "In Northern Ireland, coach, bus (and rail) services remain state-owned and are provided by Translink.\n\nUsing the example of bus passenger growth seen in London under the changes made by Transport for London, several parties have advocated a return to increased regulation of bus services along the London model.", "The Transport Act 2000 made certain provisions for increased cooperation between local authorities and bus operators to take measures to improve services, such cooperation was previously barred under competition law. Under the act, Quality Bus Partnerships were enabled, although this had limited success", ". Under the act, Quality Bus Partnerships were enabled, although this had limited success. In Sheffield the first Statutory Quality Partnership was introduced along the Barnsley Road corridor, shortly followed in Barnsley with a Partnership introduced covering the A61 (north) and the new Barnsley Interchange. In Cardiff, the Statutory Quality Bus Partnership has also been used, with the introduction of new buses on Cardiff Bus routes", ". The Act also included measures allowing the registration of variable route services, as demand responsive transport.", "In 2004, regulations were amended to further allow fully flexible demand responsive transport bus services.\n\nChanges to regulations regarding bus operation are proposed in the 2007 Local Transport Bill.\n\nBus Industry Composition", "Bus Industry Composition\n\nAlmost all bus operating companies are owned in the private sector. Some are operated as community-based or not for profit entities, or as local authority arms length companies, as municipal bus companies. There are thousands of independent bus companies; some are still family-owned. These companies often deliver contract work such as private hire, or deliver council-supported bus services.", "The largest bus operator groups in Great Britain are: \nFirstGroup\nStagecoach\nArriva\nNational Express\nGo-Ahead\nComfortDelGro\n\nThere are nine municipal bus operators in the UK:\nLothian Buses\nCardiff Bus\nNewport Bus\nReading Buses\nNottingham City Transport\nWarrington's Own Buses\nIpswich Buses\nBlackpool Transport\nTranslink", "Of the major bus groups, only Stagecoach began as a bus operator which had not previously been in the public sector, although it later acquired many former public sector companies. Arriva was acquired by Deutsche Bahn in 2010.\n\nThe majority of bus services in both urban and rural areas are now run by subsidiaries of a few major bus groups, some of which also hold the franchises to many train operating companies and light rail systems.\n\nSubsidies", "It is disputed whether bus transport is intensively subsidised or not; Concessionary travel reimbursement accounts for around 45 per cent of operator revenue, especially in London. However, this is reimbursement for fare revenue foregone from charging these passengers fares, and is locally negotiated in England with the operator receiving a fraction of the adult single fare, which is periodically re-negotiated - often depending on local authority budget constraints", ". BSOG and local authority supported services (awarded after competitive open tendering) account for a far smaller fraction of operators' income.", "In 2014/15, there were 5.20 billion bus journeys in the UK, 2.4 billion of which were in London. The UK bus network has shrunk by 8% over the past decade due to government subsidy cuts and a reduction in commercial operations in the north of England.", "The Concessionary Travel Schemes in Great Britain are schemes which reimburse bus operators for revenue foregone in exchange for providing free passage to the cardholder on their services. Operator reimbursement is calculated according to a set percentage of the single fare for the journey, the percentage of the single fare varies by transport authority. The Scheme is designed in order that operators be no better or worse off than if the scheme had not existed", ". It is therefore debatable whether this counts as a subsidy to the operator, or even as an incentive to operators to grow patronage when it is the passenger who benefits from no longer paying bus fares.", "For 2014/15, subsidies (including the cost of concessionary fares) in England were £2.3 billion, made up of £826 million for London, £516 million for metropolitan areas outside London and £951 million for non-metropolitan areas. In Scotland, they were £291 million for 2013/14.", "Infrastructure\n\nBus Priority\nMany local government have installed bus priority measures as a way of promoting bus travel in their areas, such as bus lanes, however enforcement of bus lanes varies significantly. Some local authorities also install bus gates or bus priority signals to improve service reliability and councils are gradually replacing bus bays with bus bulbs to reduce delays for buses needing to pull into the stream of traffic.\n\nPark and ride", "Buses play an integral role in park and ride schemes in the UK, with operations across the country, having been implemented in volume since the 1980s and 1990s. Schemes now range in size from small standard liveried buses, to large dedicated route branded fleets. The majority are permanent, government-supported public transport schemes, although operating contracts must be competitively tendered. Some schemes branded park and ride are for private use, such as airport buses", ". Some schemes branded park and ride are for private use, such as airport buses. Others cater for specific events or segments of passengers, such as National Health Service staff.", "Bus rapid transit systems", "Following the failure of some light rail proposals in some UK towns to gain national funding on the Department of Transport's value for money assessment, several towns have turned to enhanced bus services as a cheaper alternative. Following limited historical use, such as in Runcorn and Birmingham, the use of guided bus technology and bus rapid transit schemes has increased in the UK", ". Among these are the longest guided busway in the world, the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway which opened in 2011, and the Luton to Dunstable Busway, the second-longest guided busway, which opened in 2013.", "Other busways in operation include Ipswich Rapid Transit, Crawley Fastway, South East Hampshire Bus Rapid Transit, Leigh-Salford-Manchester Bus Rapid Transit, and Bus Rapid Transit North, using a variety of technologies.\n\nVehicle Preservation", "Vehicle Preservation\n\nInterest in preservation of historical buses is maintained in the UK by various museums and heritage/preservation groups, ranging from attempts to restore a single bus, to whole collections. While many preserved buses are vintage, increasingly, 'modern' types, such as the Leyland National, and the Optare Spectra are being preserved. With the fleet replacement of the major groups, it is not uncommon for many preserved buses to still have contemporary models still in service.", "Manufacturers\nEarly UK bus manufacturers included private companies such as Guy Motors, Leyland Motors and AEC. Some bus operating companies, such as the London General Omnibus Company and Midland Red, also manufactured buses.\n\nCurrent British bus manufacturers include Alexander Dennis, Plaxton, Switch (Formerly Optare) and Wrightbus.", "During nationalisation, two UK manufacturers fell under government ownership, Bristol Commercial Vehicles and Eastern Coach Works. Later, Leyland Bus was also effectively nationalised.\n\nBefore, and increasingly after privatisation, foreign manufacturers such as Scania entered the UK market, followed by the likes of Mercedes-Benz.\n\nSee also\n\n Transport in the United Kingdom\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Bus Service Registration at www.transportoffice.gov.uk\n Bus passenger numbers 1950-1998" ]

[ "James David Graham Niven (; 1 March 1910 – 29 July 1983) was a British actor, soldier, memoirist, and novelist. Niven was known as a handsome and debonair leading man in Classic Hollywood films. He received an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award.", "Born in central London to an upper-middle-class family, Niven attended Heatherdown Preparatory School and Stowe School before gaining a place at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. After Sandhurst, he joined the British Army and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Highland Light Infantry. Upon developing an interest in acting, he found a role as an extra in the British film There Goes the Bride (1932)", ". Bored with the peacetime army, he resigned his commission in 1933, relocated to New York, then travelled to Hollywood. There, he hired an agent and had several small parts in films through 1935, including a non-speaking role in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's Mutiny on the Bounty (1935). This helped him gain a contract with Samuel Goldwyn.", "Parts, initially small, in major motion pictures followed, including Dodsworth (1936), The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936), and The Prisoner of Zenda (1937). By 1938, he was starring as a leading man in films such as Wuthering Heights (1939). Upon the outbreak of the Second World War, Niven returned to Britain and rejoined the army, being recommissioned as a lieutenant", ". In 1942, he co-starred in the morale-building film about the development of the renowned Supermarine Spitfire fighter plane, The First of the Few (1942).", "He went on to receive the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in Separate Tables (1958). Other notable films during this time period include A Matter of Life and Death (1946), The Bishop's Wife (1947), Enchantment (1948), The Elusive Pimpernel (1950), The Moon Is Blue (1953), Around the World in 80 Days (1956), My Man Godfrey (1957), The Guns of Navarone (1961), Murder by Death (1976), and Death on the Nile (1978)", ". He also earned acclaim and notoriety playing Sir Charles Lytton in The Pink Panther (1963) and James Bond in Casino Royale (1967).", "Early life and family", "James David Graham Niven was born on 1 March 1910 at Belgrave Mansions, Grosvenor Gardens, London, to William Edward Graham Niven (1878–1915) and his wife, Henrietta Julia (née Degacher) Niven (1878–1932). He was named David after his birth on St David's Day. Niven later claimed he was born in Kirriemuir, in the Scottish county of Angus in 1909, but his birth certificate disproves this", ". He had two older sisters and a brother: Margaret Joyce Niven (1900–1981), Henry Degacher Niven (1902–1953), and the sculptor Grizel Rosemary Graham (1906–2007), who created the bronze sculpture Bessie that is presented to the annual winners of the Women's Prize for Fiction.", "Niven's father, William Niven, was of Scottish descent; he was killed in the First World War serving with the Berkshire Yeomanry during the Gallipoli campaign on 21 August 1915. He is buried in Green Hill Cemetery, Turkey, in the Special Memorial Section in Plot F. 10. Niven's paternal great-grandfather and namesake, David Graham Niven, (1811–1884) was from St Martin's, a village in Perthshire. A physician, he married in Worcestershire, and lived in Pershore.", "Niven's mother, Henriette, was born in Brecon, Wales. Her father was Captain (brevet Major) William Degacher (1841–1879) of the 1st Battalion, 24th Regiment of Foot, who was killed at the Battle of Isandlwana during the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879. Although born William Hitchcock, in 1874, he and his older brother Lieutenant Colonel Henry Degacher (1835–1902), both followed their father, Walter Henry Hitchcock, in taking their mother's maiden name of Degacher", ". Henriette's mother was Julia Caroline Smith, the daughter of Lieutenant General James Webber Smith CB.", "After her husband's death in Turkey in 1915, Henrietta Niven remarried in London in 1917 to Conservative politician Sir Thomas Comyn-Platt (1869–1961). The family moved to Rose Cottage in Bembridge on the Isle of Wight after selling their London home. In his 1971 biography, The Moon's a Balloon, Niven wrote fondly of his childhood home:", "It became necessary for the house in London to be sold and our permanent address was now as advertised — a cottage which had a reputation for unreliability. When the East wind blew, the front door got stuck and when the West wind blew, the back door could not be opened – only the combined weight of the family seemed to keep it anchored to the ground", ". I adored it and was happier there than I had ever been, especially because, with a rare flash of genius, my mother decided that during the holidays she would be alone with her children. Uncle Tommy was barred – I don't know where he went – to the Carlton Club I suppose.", "Literary editor and biographer, Graham Lord, wrote in Niv: The Authorised Biography of David Niven, that Comyn-Platt and Niven's mother may have been in an affair well before her husband's death in 1915 and that Comyn-Platt was actually Niven's biological father, a supposition that had some support among Niven's siblings", ". In a review of Lord's book, Hugh Massingberd from The Spectator stated photographic evidence did show a strong physical resemblance between Niven and Comyn-Platt that \"would appear to confirm these theories, though photographs can often be misleading.\" Niven is said to have revealed that he knew Comyn-Platt was his real father a year before his own death in 1983.", "After his mother remarried, Niven's stepfather had him sent away to boarding school. In The Moon's a Balloon, Niven described the bullying, isolation, and abuse he endured as a six-year-old. He said that older pupils would regularly assault younger boys, while the schoolmasters were not much better. Niven wrote of one sadistic teacher:", "Mr Croome, when he tired of pulling ears halfway out of our heads (I still have one that sticks out almost at right-angles thanks to this son of a bitch) and delivering, for the smallest mistake in Latin declension, backhanded slaps that knocked one off one's bench, delighted in saying, 'Show me the hand that wrote this' — then bringing down the sharp edge of a heavy ruler across the offending wrist.", "Years later, after joining the British Army, a vengeful Niven decided to return to the boarding school to pay a call on Mr Croome but he found the place abandoned and empty.", "While attending schoolas was customary for the timeNiven received many instances of corporal punishment owing to his inclination for pranks. It was this behaviour that finally led to his expulsion from his next school, Heatherdown Preparatory School, at the age of 10½. This ended his chances for Eton College, a significant blow to his family. After failing to pass the naval entrance exam because of his difficulty with maths, Niven attended Stowe School, a newly created public school led by headmaster J. F", ". F. Roxburgh, who was unlike any of Niven's previous headmasters. Thoughtful and kind, he addressed the boys by their first names, allowed them bicycles, and encouraged and nurtured their personal interests. Niven later wrote, \"How he did this, I shall never know, but he made every single boy at that school feel that what he said and what he did were of real importance to the headmaster.\"", "In 1928, an 18-year-old Niven had sex with 15-year-old Margaret Whigham (the future socialite and Duchess of Argyll) while she was on holiday in Bembridge. To the fury of her father, Niven got Whigham pregnant. She was rushed into a London nursing home for a secret termination. \"All hell broke loose,\" remembered Elizabeth Duckworth, the family cook. Whigham adored Niven until the day he died. She was among the VIP guests at his London memorial service.", "Military service\nIn 1928, Niven attended the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He graduated in 1930 with a commission as a second lieutenant in the British Army.", "He did well at Sandhurst, which gave him the \"officer and gentleman\" bearing that was his trademark. He requested assignment to the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders or the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment), then jokingly wrote on the form, as his third choice, \"anything but the Highland Light Infantry\" (because that regiment wore tartan trews rather than the kilt). He was assigned to the HLI, with which he served for two years in Malta and then for a few months in Dover", ". In Malta, he became friends with the maverick Mike Trubshawe, and served under Roy Urquhart, future commander of the British 1st Airborne Division. On 21 October 1956, in an episode of the game show What's My Line?, Niven, as a member of the celebrity panel, was reacquainted with one of his former enlisted men", ". Alexander McGeachin was a guest and when his turn in the questioning came up, Niven asked, \"Were you in a famous British regiment on Malta?\" After McGeachin affirmed that he was, Niven quipped, \"Did you have the misfortune to have me as your officer?\" At that point, Niven had a brief but pleasant reunion.", "Niven grew tired of the peacetime army. Though promoted to lieutenant on 1 January 1933, he saw no opportunity for further advancement. His ultimate decision to resign came after a lengthy lecture on machine guns, which was interfering with his plans for dinner with a particularly attractive young lady. At the end of the lecture, the speaker (a major general) asked if there were any questions", ". At the end of the lecture, the speaker (a major general) asked if there were any questions. Showing the typical rebelliousness of his early years, Niven asked, \"Could you tell me the time, sir? I have to catch a train.\"", "After being placed under close-arrest for this act of insubordination, Niven finished a bottle of whisky with the officer who was guarding him: Rhoddy Rose (later Colonel R. L. C. Rose, DSO, MC). With Rose's assistance, Niven was allowed to escape from a first-floor window. He then headed for the United States. While crossing the Atlantic, Niven resigned his commission by telegram on 6 September 1933", ". While crossing the Atlantic, Niven resigned his commission by telegram on 6 September 1933. In New York City, Niven began a brief and unsuccessful career in whisky sales, followed by a stint in horse rodeo promotion in Atlantic City, New Jersey. After detours to Bermuda and Cuba, he arrived in Hollywood in 1934.", "Film career", "1935–1938: Early roles", "When Niven presented himself at Central Casting, he learned that he needed a work permit to reside and work in the United States. As this required leaving the US, he went to Mexico, where he worked as a \"gun-man\", cleaning and polishing the rifles of visiting American hunters. He received his resident alien visa from the American consulate when his birth certificate arrived from Britain. He returned to the US and was accepted by Central Casting as \"Anglo-Saxon Type No. 2,008", ". He returned to the US and was accepted by Central Casting as \"Anglo-Saxon Type No. 2,008.\" Among the initial films in which he can be seen are Barbary Coast (1935) and Mutiny on the Bounty (1935). He secured a small role in A Feather in Her Hat (1935) at Columbia before returning to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer for a bit role, billed as David Nivens, in Rose Marie (1936).", "Niven's role in Mutiny on the Bounty brought him to the attention of independent film producer Samuel Goldwyn, who signed him to a contract and established his career. For Goldwyn, Niven again had a small role in Splendor (1935). He was lent to MGM for a minor part in Rose Marie (1936), then a larger one in Palm Springs (1936) at Paramount. His first sizeable role for Goldwyn came in Dodsworth (1936), playing a man who flirts with Ruth Chatterton", ". In that same year he was again loaned out, to 20th Century Fox to play Bertie Wooster in Thank You, Jeeves! (1936), before finally landing a sizeable role as a soldier in The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936) at Warners, an Imperial adventure film starring his housemate at the time, Errol Flynn. Niven was fourth billed in Beloved Enemy (1936) for Goldwyn, supporting Merle Oberon with whom he became romantically involved", ". Universal used him in We Have Our Moments (1937) and he had another good supporting role in David O. Selznick's The Prisoner of Zenda (1937).", "1938–1939: Leading man", "Fox Studios gave him the lead in a B picture, Dinner at the Ritz (1938) and he again had a supporting role in Bluebeard's Eighth Wife (1938) directed by Ernst Lubitsch at Paramount. Niven was one of the four heroes in John Ford's Four Men and a Prayer (1938), also with Fox. He remained with Fox to play the part of a fake love interest in Three Blind Mice (1938)", ". He remained with Fox to play the part of a fake love interest in Three Blind Mice (1938). Niven joined what became known as the Hollywood Raj, a group of British actors in Hollywood which included Rex Harrison, Boris Karloff, Stan Laurel, Basil Rathbone, Ronald Colman, Leslie Howard, and C. Aubrey Smith. According to his autobiography, Errol Flynn and he were firm friends and rented Rosalind Russell's house at 601 North Linden Drive as a bachelor pad.", "Niven graduated to star parts in \"A\" films with The Dawn Patrol (1938) remake at Warners; although he was billed below Errol Flynn and Basil Rathbone, it was a leading role and the film did excellent business. Niven was reluctant to take a supporting part in Wuthering Heights (1939) for Goldwyn, but eventually relented and the film was a big success. RKO borrowed him to play Ginger Rogers' leading man in the romantic comedy Bachelor Mother (1939), which was another big hit", ". Goldwyn used him to support Gary Cooper in the adventure tale The Real Glory (1939), and Walter Wanger cast him opposite Loretta Young in Eternally Yours (1939). Finally, Goldwyn granted Niven a lead part, the title role as the eponymous gentleman safe-cracker in Raffles (1939).", "1939–1945: Second World War \nThe day after Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, Niven returned home and rejoined the British Army. He was alone among British stars in Hollywood in doing so; the British Embassy advised most actors to stay.", "Niven was recommissioned as a lieutenant in the Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own) on 25 February 1940, and was assigned to a motor training battalion. He wanted something more exciting, however, and transferred to the Commandos. He was assigned to a training base at Inverailort House in the Western Highlands. Niven later claimed credit for bringing future Major General Sir Robert Laycock to the Commandos. Niven commanded \"A\" Squadron GHQ Liaison Regiment, better known as \"Phantom\"", ". Niven commanded \"A\" Squadron GHQ Liaison Regiment, better known as \"Phantom\". He was promoted to war-substantive captain on 18 August 1941.", "Niven also worked with the Army Film and Photographic Unit. His work included a small part in the deception operation that used minor actor M. E. Clifton James to impersonate General Sir Bernard Montgomery. During his work with the AFPU, Peter Ustinov, one of the script-writers, had to pose as Niven's batman", ". Niven explained in his autobiography that there was no military way that he, a lieutenant-colonel, and Ustinov, who was only a private, could associate, other than as an officer and his subordinate, hence their strange \"act\". In 1978, Niven and Ustinov would star together in a film adaption of Agatha Christie's Death on the Nile.", "He acted in two wartime films not formally associated with the AFPU, but both made with a firm view to winning support for the British war effort, especially in the United States. These were The First of the Few (1942), directed by Leslie Howard, and The Way Ahead (1944), directed by Carol Reed. Ustinov also played a large supporting role as a Frenchman in The Way Ahead.", "Niven was also given a significant if largely unheralded role in the creation of SHAEF's military radio efforts conceived to provide entertainment to American, British and Canadian forces in England and Europe. In 1944 he worked extensively with the BBC and SHAEF to expand these broadcast efforts. He also worked extensively with Major Glenn Miller, whose Army Air Force big band, formed in the US, was performing and broadcasting for troops in England", ". Niven played a role in the operation to move the Miller band to France prior to Miller's December 1944 disappearance while flying over the English Channel.", "On 14 March 1944, Niven was promoted war-substantive major (temporary lieutenant-colonel). He took part in the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944, although he was sent to France several days after D-Day. He served in \"Phantom\", a secret reconnaissance and signals unit which located and reported enemy positions, and kept rear commanders informed on changing battle lines. Niven was posted at one time to Chilham in Kent", ". Niven was posted at one time to Chilham in Kent. He spoke little about his experience in the war, despite public interest in celebrities in combat and a reputation for storytelling. He once said:", "Niven had particular scorn for those newspaper columnists covering the war who typed out self-glorifying and excessively florid prose about their meagre wartime experiences", ". Niven stated, \"Anyone who says a bullet sings past, hums past, flies, pings, or whines past, has never heard onethey go crack!\" He gave a few details of his war experience in his autobiography, The Moon's a Balloon: his private conversations with Winston Churchill, the bombing of London, and what it was like entering Germany with the occupation forces. Niven first met Churchill at a dinner party in February 1940", ". Niven first met Churchill at a dinner party in February 1940. Churchill singled him out from the crowd and stated, \"Young man, you did a fine thing to give up your film career to fight for your country. Mark you, had you not done soit would have been despicable.\"", "A few stories have surfaced. About to lead his men into action, Niven eased their nervousness by telling them, \"Look, you chaps only have to do this once. But I'll have to do it all over again in Hollywood with Errol Flynn!\" Asked by suspicious American sentries during the Battle of the Bulge who had won the World Series in 1943, he answered, \"Haven't the foggiest idea, but I did co-star with Ginger Rogers in Bachelor Mother!\"", "Niven ended the war as a lieutenant-colonel. On his return to Hollywood after the war, he received the Legion of Merit, an American military decoration. It honoured Niven's work in setting up the BBC Allied Expeditionary Forces Programme, a radio news and entertainment station for the Allied forces.", "1946–1950: Postwar career", "Niven resumed his career while still in England, playing the lead in A Matter of Life and Death (1946), from the team of Powell and Pressburger. The film was critically acclaimed, popular in England and was selected as the first Royal Film Performance. Niven returned to Hollywood and encountered tragedy when his first wife died after falling down a flight of stairs at a party", ". Goldwyn lent him to play Aaron Burr in Magnificent Doll (1946) opposite Ginger Rogers, then to Paramount for The Perfect Marriage (1947) with Loretta Young and Enterprise Productions for The Other Love (1947). For Goldwyn he supported Cary Grant and Young in The Bishop's Wife (1947). He returned to England when Goldwyn lent him to Alexander Korda to play the title role in Bonnie Prince Charlie (1948), a notorious box office flop", ". Back in Hollywood Niven was in Goldwyn's Enchantment (1948) with Teresa Wright. At Warner Bros he was in a comedy A Kiss in the Dark (1948) with Jane Wyman, then he appeared opposite Shirley Temple in the comedy A Kiss for Corliss (1949). None of these films was successful at the box office and Niven's career was struggling.", "He returned to Britain to play the title role in The Elusive Pimpernel (1950) from Powell and Pressberger, which was to have been financed by Korda and Goldwyn. Goldwyn pulled out and the film did not appear in the US for three years. Niven had a long, complex relationship with Goldwyn, who gave him his first start, but the dispute over The Elusive Pimpernel and Niven's demands for more money led to a long estrangement between the two in the 1950s.\n\n1951–1964: Renewed acclaim", "Niven struggled for a while to recapture his former position. He supported Mario Lanza in a musical at MGM, The Toast of New Orleans (1950). He then went to England and appeared in a musical with Vera-Ellen, Happy Go Lovely (1951); it was little seen in the US but was a big hit in Britain. He had a support role in MGM's Soldiers Three (1951) similar to those early in his career. Niven had a far better part in the British war film Appointment with Venus (1952), which was popular in England", ". The Lady Says No (1952) was a poorly received American comedy at the time. Niven decided to try Broadway, appearing opposite Gloria Swanson in Nina (1951–52). The play ran for only 45 performances but it was seen by Otto Preminger, who decided to cast Niven in the film version of the play The Moon Is Blue (1953). As preparation Preminger, who had directed the play in New York, insisted that Niven appear on stage in the West Coast run", ". The Moon Is Blue, a sex comedy, became notorious when it was released without a Production Code Seal of Approval; it was a big hit and Niven won a Golden Globe Award for his role. Niven's next few films were made in England: The Love Lottery (1954), a comedy; Carrington V.C. (1954), a drama that earned Niven a BAFTA nomination for Best Actor; Happy Ever After (1954), a comedy with Yvonne de Carlo, which was hugely popular in Britain", ". In Hollywood, he had a thankless role as the villain in an MGM swashbuckler The King's Thief (1955). He had a better part in The Birds and the Bees (1956), portraying a conman in a remake of The Lady Eve (1941), in which Niven played a third-billed supporting role under American television comedian George Gobel and leading lady Mitzi Gaynor. Niven also appeared in the British romantic comedy The Silken Affair (1956) with Geneviève Page the same year.", "Niven's professional fortunes were completely restored when cast as Phileas Fogg in Around the World in 80 Days (1956), a huge hit at the box office. It also won the Academy Award for Best Picture. He followed it with Oh, Men! Oh, Women! (1957); The Little Hut (1957), from the writer of The Moon is Blue and a success at the box office; My Man Godfrey (1957), a screwball comedy; and Bonjour Tristesse (1958), for Preminger. Niven worked in television", ". Niven worked in television. He appeared several times on various short-drama shows and was one of the \"four stars\" of the dramatic anthology series Four Star Playhouse, appearing in 33 episodes. The show was produced by Four Star Television, which was co-owned and founded by Niven, Ida Lupino, Dick Powell and Charles Boyer. The show ended in 1955, but Four Star TV became a highly successful TV production company.", "Niven is the only person to win an Academy Award at the ceremony he was hosting. He won the 1958 Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Major Pollock in Separate Tables, his only nomination for an Oscar. Appearing on-screen for only 23 minutes in the film, this is the briefest performance ever to win a Best Actor Oscar. He was also a co-host of the 30th, 31st, and 46th Academy Awards ceremonies. After Niven had won the Academy Award, Goldwyn called with an invitation to his home", ". After Niven had won the Academy Award, Goldwyn called with an invitation to his home. In Goldwyn's drawing-room, Niven noticed a picture of himself in uniform which he had sent to Goldwyn from Britain during the Second World War. In happier times with Goldwyn, he had observed this same picture sitting on Goldwyn's piano. Now years later, the picture was still in exactly the same spot. As he was looking at the picture, Goldwyn's wife Frances said, \"Sam never took it down", ". As he was looking at the picture, Goldwyn's wife Frances said, \"Sam never took it down.\" With an Academy Award to his credit, Niven's career continued to thrive. In 1959, he became the host of his own TV drama series, The David Niven Show, which ran for 13 episodes that summer. He played the lead in some comedies: Ask Any Girl (1959), with Shirley MacLaine; Happy Anniversary (1959) with Mitzi Gaynor; and Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1960) with Doris Day, a big hit.", "Even more popular was the action film The Guns of Navarone (1961) with Gregory Peck and Anthony Quinn. This role led to him being cast in further war and/or action films: The Captive City (1962); The Best of Enemies (1962); Guns of Darkness (1962); 55 Days at Peking (1963) with Charlton Heston and Ava Gardner. Niven returned to comedy with The Pink Panther (1963) also starring Peter Sellers, another huge success at the box office. Less so was the comedy Bedtime Story (1964) with Marlon Brando", ". Less so was the comedy Bedtime Story (1964) with Marlon Brando. In 1964, Charles Boyer, Gig Young and top-billed Niven appeared in the Four Star series The Rogues. Niven played Alexander 'Alec' Fleming, one of a family of retired con-artists who now fleece villains in the interests of justice", ". This was his only recurring role on television, and the series was originally set up to more or less revolve between the three leads in various combinations (one-lead, two-lead and three-lead episodes), although the least otherwise busy Gig Young wound up carrying most of the series. The Rogues ran for only one season, but won a Golden Globe award and currently remains a cult favourite.", "1965–1982: Later films", "In 1965, he made two films for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer: the Peter Ustinov-directed Lady L, supporting Paul Newman and Sophia Loren, and Where the Spies Are, as a doctor-turned-secret agentMGM hoped it would lead to a series, but this did not happen. After the horror film Eye of the Devil (1966), Niven appeared as James Bond in Casino Royale (1967), and is, with the exception of Sean Connery in Never Say Never Again, the only other man to ever portray Bond in a non-Eon Productions film", ". Niven had been Bond creator Ian Fleming's first choice to play Bond in Dr. No. Casino Royale co-producer Charles K. Feldman said later that Fleming had written the book with Niven in mind, and therefore had sent a copy to Niven. Niven was the only actor who played James Bond mentioned by name in the text of a Fleming novel. In chapter 14 of You Only Live Twice, the pearl diver Kissy Suzuki refers to Niven as \"the only man she liked in Hollywood\", and the only person who \"treated her honourably\" there.", "Niven made some popular comedies, Prudence and the Pill (1968) and The Impossible Years (1968). Less widely seen was The Extraordinary Seaman (1969). The Brain (1969), a French comedy with Bourvil and Jean-Paul Belmondo, was the most popular film at the French box office in 1969 but was not widely seen in English-speaking countries. He did a war drama Before Winter Comes (1969) then returned to comedy in The Statue (1971)", ". Niven was in demand throughout the last decade of his life: King, Queen, Knave (1972); Vampira (1974); Paper Tiger (1975); No Deposit, No Return (1976), a Disney comedy; Candleshoe (1977), one of several stars in a popular comedy; Murder By Death (1976), Death on the Nile (1978), one of many stars and another hit; A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square (1979); Escape to Athena (1979), produced by his son; Rough Cut (1980), supporting Burt Reynolds; and The Sea Wolves (1980), a wartime adventure film.", "In 1974, while Niven was co-hosting the 46th Annual Oscars ceremony, a naked man (Robert Opel) appeared behind him, \"streaking\" across the stage. In what instantly became a live-TV classic moment, Niven responded \"Isn't it fascinating to think that probably the only laugh that man will ever get in his life is by stripping off and showing his shortcomings?\"", ". That same year, he hosted David Niven's World for London Weekend Television, which profiled contemporary adventurers such as hang gliders, motorcyclists, and mountain climbers: it ran for 21 episodes. In 1975, he narrated The Remarkable Rocket, a short animation based on a story by Oscar Wilde. Niven's last sizeable film part was in Better Late Than Never (1983)", ". Niven's last sizeable film part was in Better Late Than Never (1983). In July 1982, Blake Edwards brought Niven back for cameo appearances in two final \"Pink Panther\" films (Trail of the Pink Panther and Curse of the Pink Panther), reprising his role as Sir Charles Lytton. By this time, Niven was having serious health problems. When the raw footage was reviewed, his voice was inaudible, and his lines had to be dubbed by Rich Little. Niven only learned of it from a newspaper report", ". Niven only learned of it from a newspaper report. This was his last film appearance.", "Writing", "Niven wrote four books. The first, Round the Rugged Rocks (published simultaneously in the US under the title Once Over Lightly), was a novel that appeared in 1951 and was forgotten almost at once", ". The plot was plainly autobiographical (although not recognised as such at the time of publication), involving a young soldier, John Hamilton, who leaves the British Army, becomes a liquor salesman in New York, is involved in indoor horse racing, goes to Hollywood, becomes a deckhand on a fishing boat, and finally ends up as a highly successful film star.", "In 1971, he published his autobiography, The Moon's a Balloon, which was well received, selling over five million copies. He followed this with Bring On the Empty Horses in 1975, a collection of entertaining reminiscences from the Golden Age of Hollywood in the 1930s and 1940s. As more of a raconteur rather than an accurate memoirist, it seems that Niven recounted many incidents from a first-person perspective that actually happened to other people, among them Cary Grant", ". This liberal borrowing and embroidering of his personal history was also said to be the reason why he persistently refused to appear on This Is Your Life. Niven's penchant for exaggeration and embroidery is particularly apparent when comparing his written descriptions of his early film appearances (especially Barbary Coast and A Feather in her Hat), and his Oscar acceptance speech, with the actual filmed evidence", ". In all three examples, the reality is significantly different from Niven's heavily fictionalised accounts as presented in The Moon's a Balloon and related in various chat show appearances.", "In 1981 Niven published a second and much more successful novel, Go Slowly, Come Back Quickly, which was set during and after the Second World War, and which drew on his experiences during the war and in Hollywood. He was working on a third novel at the time of his death.\n\nPersonal life", "While on leave in 1940, Niven met Primula \"Primmie\" Susan Rollo (18 February 1918 – 21 May 1946), the daughter of London lawyer William H.C. Rollo. After a whirlwind romance, they married on 16 September 1940. A son, David, Jr., was born in December 1942 and a second son, James Graham Niven, on 6 November 1945. Primmie died at the age of 28, only six weeks after the family moved to the US", ". Primmie died at the age of 28, only six weeks after the family moved to the US. She fractured her skull in a fall in the Beverly Hills, California home of Tyrone Power, while playing a game of sardines. She had walked through a door believing it to be a closet, but instead, it led to a stone staircase to the basement.", "In 1948, Niven met and married Hjördis Paulina Tersmeden (née Genberg, 1919–1997), a divorced Swedish fashion model. He recounted their meeting:", "In 1960, Niven bought a chalet in Château-d'Œx near Gstaad in Switzerland for financial reasons, living near expatriate friends that included Deborah Kerr, Peter Ustinov, and Noël Coward. It is believed by some that Niven's choice to become a tax exile may have been one reason why he never received a British honour. However, Kerr, Ustinov, and Coward were all honoured. A 2009 biography of Niven contained assertions that he had an affair with Princess Margaret, who was 20 years his junior", ". He also became close friends with William F. Buckley and his wife Pat; Buckley wrote a memorial tribute to him in Miles Gone By (2004).", "Niven divided his time in the 1960s and 1970s between his chalet in Château-d'Œx and Cap Ferrat on the Côte d'Azur in the south of France.", "Death and legacy", "In 1980 Niven began experiencing fatigue, muscle weakness and a warble in his voice. His 1981 interviews on the talk shows of Michael Parkinson and Merv Griffin alarmed family and friends; viewers wondered if Niven had either been drinking or suffered a stroke. He blamed his slightly slurred voice on the shooting schedule of the film he had been making, Better Late Than Never. He was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) later that year", ". He was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) later that year. His final appearance in Hollywood was hosting the 1981 American Film Institute tribute to Fred Astaire.", "In February 1983, using a false name to avoid publicity, Niven was hospitalised for 10 days, ostensibly for a digestive problem. Afterwards, he returned to his chalet at Château-d'Œx. Though his condition continued to worsen he refused to return to the hospital, a decision supported by his family. He died at his chalet on 29 July, aged 73. Niven was buried on August 2 in the local cemetery of Château-d'Œx.", "A Thanksgiving service for Niven was held at St Martin-in-the-Fields, London, on 27 October 1983. The congregation of 1,200 included Prince Michael of Kent, Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll, Sir John Mills, Sir Richard Attenborough, Trevor Howard, David Frost, Joanna Lumley, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Laurence Olivier", "., and Laurence Olivier. Biographer Graham Lord wrote, \"the biggest wreath, worthy of a Mafia Godfather's funeral, was delivered from the porters at London's Heathrow Airport, along with a card that read: 'To the finest gentleman who ever walked through these halls. He made a porter feel like a king.", "In 1985, Niven was included in a series of British postage stamps, along with Sir Alfred Hitchcock, Sir Charles Chaplin, Peter Sellers and Vivien Leigh, to commemorate \"British Film Year\". Niven's appearance was used as inspiration for that of Commander Norman in the Thunderbirds franchise, as well as DC Comics villain Sinestro.", "Niven's Bonjour Tristesse co-star, Mylène Demongeot, declared about him, in a 2015 filmed interview:\"He was like a Lord, he was part of those great actors who were extraordinary like Dirk Bogarde, individuals with lots of class, elegance and humour. I only saw David get angry once. Preminger had discharged him for the day but eventually asked to get him. I said, sir, you had discharged him, he left for Deauville to gamble at the casino. So we rented a helicopter so they immediately went and grabbed him", ". So we rented a helicopter so they immediately went and grabbed him. Two hours later, he was back, full of rage. There I saw David lose his British phlegm, his politeness and class. It was royal. [Laughs].\"", "Acting credits\n\nAccolades\n\nBibliography \n Niven, David (1951). Round the Rugged Rocks. London: The Cresset Press.\n\nFurther reading\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n David Niven at the British Film Institute", "1910 births\n1983 deaths\n20th-century English male actors\n20th-century English memoirists\n20th-century English novelists\nWriters from London\nBest Actor Academy Award winners\nBest Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners\nBest Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners\nBritish Army Commandos officers\nBritish Army personnel of World War II\nBritish expatriates in Switzerland\nBritish expatriates in the United States\nBurials in Switzerland\nDeaths from motor neuron disease\nEnglish male film actors", "Burials in Switzerland\nDeaths from motor neuron disease\nEnglish male film actors\nEnglish male stage actors\nEnglish male television actors\nEnglish people of French descent\nEnglish people of Scottish descent\nEnglish people of Welsh descent\nForeign recipients of the Legion of Merit\nGraduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst\nHighland Light Infantry officers\nMale actors from London\nNeurological disease deaths in Switzerland\nPeople educated at Heatherdown School\nPeople educated at Stowe School", "People educated at Heatherdown School\nPeople educated at Stowe School\nPeople from Buckland, Oxfordshire\nPeople from Château-d'Œx\nMilitary personnel from London\nRifle Brigade officers\nEnglish autobiographers" ]